{"id": 27, "summary": [{"text": "dolichoderus ypsilon is a species of ant in the genus dolichoderus .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "described by forel in 1902 , the species is found in areas in western australia in australia . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "dolichoderus ypsilon", "paragraphs": ["the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see dolichoderus ypsilon for further details\n: 259 - worker ; type locality : albany [ 35 / 117 ] , western australia ( dolichoderus ( hypoclinea ) ypsilon rufotibialis ) .\ncombination in dolichoderus ( hypoclinea ) : emery , 1913a pdf : 13 ; in dolichoderus ( diceratoclinea ) : wheeler , 1935c pdf : 69 .\nclark , j . ( 1930 ) the australian ants of the genus dolichoderus ( formicidae ) . subgenus hypoclinea mayr . australian zoologist , 6 , 252\u2013268 .\nclark , j . 1930b . the australian ants of the genus dolichoderus ( formicidae ) . sugenus hypoclinea mayr . aust . zool . 6 : 252 - 268 ( page 258 , raised to species )\nclark , j . 1930b . 1930 293 the australian ants of the genus dolichoderus ( formicidae ) , subgenus hypoclinea mayr . australian zoologist 6 : 252 - 268 ( 20 . viii . 1930 ) .\ncavill , g . w . k . & hinterberger , h . ( 1960a ) the chemistry of ants . iv . terpenoid constituents of some dolichoderus and iridomyrmex species . australian journal of chemistry , 13 , 514\u2013519 . urltoken\nshattuck , s . o . & marsden , s . 2013 . australian species of the ant genus dolichoderus ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . zootaxa 3716 , 101\u2013143 ( doi 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 3716 . 2 . 1 ) .\ndazzini valcurone , m . & fanfani , a . ( 1982 ) nouve formazioni glandolari del gastro in dolichoderus ( hypoclinea ) doriae em . ( formicidae , dolichoderinae ) . pubblicazioni dell ' istituto di entomologia agraria dell ' universit\u00e0 di pavia , 19 , 1\u201318 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nandr\u00e9 , e . ( 1896 ) fourmis nouvelles d ' asie et d ' australie . revue d ' entomologie ( caen ) , 15 , 251\u2013265 .\nblum , m . s . & hermann , h . r . ( 1978 ) venoms and venom apparatuses of the formicidae : dolichoderinae and aneuretinae . handbuch der experimentellen pharmakologie , 48 , 871\u2013894 . urltoken\ncavill , g . w . k . & hinterberger , h . ( 1960b ) dolichoderine ant extractives . in : pavan , m . & eisner , t . ( eds . ) , xi . internationaler kongress f\u00fcr entomologie . wien 1960 . verhandlungen . band iii . symposium 3 , symposium 4 . istituto di entomologia agraria dell ' universit\u00e0 di pavia , pavia , pp . 53\u201359 .\nclark , j . ( 1934 ) new australian ants . memoirs of the national museum of victoria , 8 , 21\u201347 .\ncrawley , w . c . ( 1922 ) new ants from australia ( concluded from vol . ix . p . 449 ) . annals and magazine of natural history , ( 9 ) 10 , 16\u201336 . urltoken\ncrozier , r . h . ( 1970 ) karyotypes of twenty - one ant species ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , with reviews of the known ant karyotypes . canadian journal of genetics and cytology , 12 , 109\u2013128 . urltoken\ndon , w . ( 2007 ) ants of new zealand . otaga university press , dunedin , new zealand , 239 pp .\nemery , c . ( 1887 ) catalogo delle formiche esistenti nelle collezioni del museo civico di genova . parte terza . formiche della regione indo - malese e dell ' australia . [ part ] . annali del museo civico di storia naturale , 24 , 209\u2013240 .\nfanfani , a . & dazzini valcurone , m . ( 1991 ) metapleural glands of some dolichoderinae ants . ethology ecology and evolution special issue , 1 , 95\u201398 . urltoken\nforel , a . ( 1902 ) fourmis nouvelles d ' australie . revue suisse de zoologie , 10 , 405\u2013548 .\nforel , a . ( 1907 ) formicidae . in : michaelsen , w . & hartmeyer , r . ( eds . ) , die fauna s\u00fcdwest - australiens . vol . 1 . jena , g . fischer , pp . 263\u2013310 .\nforel , a . ( 1915 ) results of dr . e . mj\u00f6bergs swedish scientific expeditions to australia 1910 - 13 . 2 . ameisen . arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi , 9 ( 16 ) , 1\u2013119 . urltoken\nfreeland , j . , crozier , r . h . & marc , j . ( 1982 ) on the occurrence of arolia in ant feet . journal of the australian entomological society , 21 , 257\u2013262 . urltoken\nheterick , b . e . ( 2009 ) a guide to the ants of south - western australia . records of the western australian museum supplement , 76 , 1\u2013206 .\nimai , h . t . , crozier , r . h . & taylor , r . w . ( 1977 ) karyotype evolution in australian ants . chromosoma ( berlin ) , 59 , 341\u2013393 . urltoken\nlowne , b . t . ( 1865 ) contributions to the natural history of australian ants . entomologist , 2 , 331\u2013336 .\nmann , w . m . ( 1916 ) the stanford expedition to brazil , 1911 , john c . branner , director . the ants of brazil . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 60 , 399\u2013490 .\nmayr , g . ( 1876 ) die australischen formiciden . journal des museum godeffroy , 12 , 56\u2013115 .\nmcareavey , j . ( 1949 ) australian formicidae . new genera and species . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , 74 , 1\u201325 .\nroger , j . ( 1862 ) einige neue exotische ameisen - gattungen und arten . berliner entomologische zeitschrift , 6 , 233\u2013254 . urltoken santschi , f . ( 1916 ) deux nouvelles fourmis d ' australie . bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france , 1916 , 174\u2013175 .\nwheeler , g . c . & wheeler , j . ( 1951 ) the ant larvae of the subfamily dolichoderinae . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 53 , 169\u2013210 .\nwheeler , g . c . & wheeler , j . ( 1966 ) ant larva of the subfamily dolichoderinae : supplement . annals of the entomological society of america , 59 , 726\u2013732 .\nwheeler , g . c . & wheeler , j . ( 1974 ) ant larvae of the subfamily dolichoderinae : second supplement ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . pan - pacific entomologist , 49 , 396\u2013401 .\nwheeler , w . m . ( 1934 ) contributions to the fauna of rottnest island , western australia . no . ix . the ants . journal of the royal society of western australia , 20 , 137\u2013163 .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\nraised to species : forel , 1907j pdf : 284 ; clark , 1930b pdf : 258 .\nsee also : shattuck & marsden , 2013 pdf : 140 , fig . 27 .\n2 times found in native veg . , rural environ . , 0 times found in banksia / agonis woodland , white soil , 1 times found in mixed native / exotic veg . , rural environ . , 0 times found in state forest .\n2 times soil , 1 times tree - trunk , 0 times on ground .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 1\nthis species is restricted to south - west western australia . the male was described by forel ( 1907 ) .\npronotum rounded , lacking spines ; propodeum with elongate spines directed upward at angle of 45\u00b0 or less to horizontal plane , the angle between them at least 90\u00b0 ; dorsum of petiolar node angular , base of propodeal spines forming a\nv\nwith a narrowly rounded angle connecting their bases ; legs entirely light red or orange .\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\n: forel , 1915b : 76 . raised to species : forel , 1907h : 284 ; clark , 1930b : 258 .\nclark ( 1930 ) - black . legs and spines red , mandibles and coxae darker red .\nshining . head punctate , the punctures shallow , the spaces between them finely reticulate . pronotum and mesonotum with somewhat similar punctures , but more scattered . top of the node coarsely rugose . gaster microscopically punctate .\nhair yellow , long and erect , abundant throughout , shorter and suberect on the antennae and legs . pubescence very fine and adpressed on the antennae , coxae and legs , longer and more abundant on the gaster , where it forms a yellowish clothing , not hiding the sculpture .\nshattuck and marsden ( 2013 ) - generally similar but with legs more yellow ( slightly less red ) in some individuals . also , a few specimens have the sculpturing on the mesosomal dorsum reduced medially , this region being nearly smooth .\nmeasurements ( n = 5 ) . ci 92\u201396 ; ei 20\u201325 ; el 0 . 21\u20130 . 29 ; hl 1 . 14\u20131 . 29 ; hw 1 . 05\u20131 . 22 ; ml 1 . 60\u20131 . 81 ; mtl 0 . 95\u20131 . 15 ; proni 69 . 93\u201374 . 15 ; pronw 0 . 76\u20130 . 90 ; si 109\u2013118 ; sl 1 . 22\u20131 . 36 .\nclark ( 1930 ) - yellowish red , gaster darker , apical segments brown .\nopaque . scutellum , epinotum , node and gaster more or less shining . head and mesonotum very finely reticulate and with some very shallow scattered punctures .\nhair yellow , erect , abundant throughout . pubescence whitish , hardly apparent , except on the antennae and legs .\nemery , c . 1913a [ 1912 ] . hymenoptera . fam . formicidae . subfam . dolichoderinae . genera insectorum 137 : 1 - 50 ( page 13 , combination in d . ( hypoclinea ) )\nforel , a . 1902j . fourmis nouvelles d ' australie . rev . suisse zool . 10 : 405 - 548 ( page 461 , worker described )\nforel , a . 1907j . formicidae . in : michaelsen , w . , hartmeyer , r . ( eds . ) die fauna s\u00fcdwest - australiens . band i , lieferung 7 . jena : gustav fischer , pp . 263 - 310 . ( page 284 , male described )\nforel , a . 1907j . formicidae . in : michaelsen , w . , hartmeyer , r . ( eds . ) die fauna s\u00fcdwest - australiens . band i , lieferung 7 . jena : gustav fischer , pp . 263 - 310 . ( page 284 , raised to species )\nforel , a . 1915b . results of dr . e . mj\u00f6bergs swedish scientific expeditions to australia 1910 - 13 . 2 . ameisen . ark . zool . 9 ( 1 16 : 1 - 119 ( page 76 , race of scabridus )\nwheeler , w . m . 1935c . myrmecological notes . psyche ( camb . ) 42 : 68 - 72 ( page 69 , combination in d . ( diceratoclinea ) )\nthis page was last modified on 19 august 2017 , at 19 : 25 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhymenoptera name server , 10 - may - 2001 , website ( version 0 . 021 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nforel , a . 1902 ,\nfourmis nouvelles d ' australie\n, revue suisse de zoologie , vol . 10 , pp . 405 - 548\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1ec31f6d - 6f90 - 4683 - 82e0 - fdc6619c0f80\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 29cd60e2 - fcb6 - 4b84 - 8fdd - 478c3e6c9ce5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 307ce5e7 - 3076 - 419c - b378 - e057ded67912\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3442bc97 - 7c20 - 4c48 - 8777 - 366d32ae8790\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5d07e23e - 8f39 - 4e94 - 9ef5 - 7117d13891e9\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b1d7e7b7 - 83f9 - 49b7 - a957 - 6121aa65956f\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : b434c31a - d402 - 451b - 8069 - a9007b5b3f10\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : bb89d01d - 85df - 49ff - b198 - d1c8c7dd526c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ebe18303 - 4e46 - 4439 - 98d3 - ea02369b0b2c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 17381e7f - dca2 - 44f5 - a520 - aef936a38702\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nemery , c . 1912b . 1912 519 hymenoptera fam . formicidae subfam . dolichoderinae in wytsman , p . ( ed . ) genera insectorum 137 1 - 50 , 2 pls .\nforel , a . 1902b . 1902 689 fourmis nouvelles d ' australie . revue suisse de zoologie 10 : 405 - 548 .\nforel , a . 1907a . 1907 734 formicidae . in michaelsen , w . and hartmeyer , r . , ( eds . ) die fauna s _ dwest - australien . band 1 lieferung 7 : 263 - 310 . jena : gustav fischer .\nthe source code for museums victoria collections is available on github under the mit license ."]}
{"id": 59, "summary": [{"text": "midnight lute ( foaled may 13 , 2003 , in versailles , kentucky ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "he was named american champion sprint horse in 2007 . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "midnight lute", "paragraphs": ["midnight lute , midnight lucky ' s sire . | animals | pinterest | lute and animal\n. . . both govenor charlie and midnight lucky are trained by the sire of midnight lute , bob baffert .\ni doubt baffert sired midnight lute .\na chorus of midnight lute ' s progeny are drumming up wins across the country . last weekend , midnight lute ' s son\nevans described his thought process when purchasing the dam of midnight lute , the unraced dehere mare candytuft .\nmidnight lute ' s female family is filled with a mix of american speed and italian stamina . his dam candytuft\nbaffert had teamed up to campaign midnight lute ' s sire real quiet to a heartbreaking triple crown miss in 1998 .\nmidnight lute , trained by bob baffert , won the 2007 breeders & # 39 ; cup sprint at churchil downs .\nwith a sunland park double in their derby and oaks , hill \u2018n ' dale farm ' s young sire midnight lute scored successes that confound simple analysis of stallion potential and performance . the stallion ' s son govenor charlie won the sunland park derby by five lengths for owner - breeder mike pegram , and the midnight lute filly midnight lucky won the sunland park oaks by eight lengths for pegram , watson , and weitman , who also campaigned midnight lute . both are trained by bob baffert , as were midnight lute and his sire , real quiet .\nthe breeding of midnight lute is a fascinating study in what can be accomplished with modest amounts of money \u0096 and plenty of luck .\nlike the empire maker and the mare\u0092s prospective foal for 2008 , midnight lute was a may foal , but that doesn\u0092t bother evans .\nthis entry was posted in bloodlines archive , bloodstock and tagged bob baffert , candytuft , govenor charlie , horse racing , lane ' s end weekender pedigree , midnight ballet , midnight lucky , midnight lute , mike pegram , real quiet , thoroughbred by frank mitchell . bookmark the permalink .\nand the breeder has not ended his relationship with midnight lute , who has retired to stand at hill n\u0092 dale for a $ 20 , 000 fee . evans said , \u0093i really like midnight lute as a stallion prospect , although i understand he\u0092s not by the hottest sire around . \u0094\nsix weeks ago , 3 - year - olds govenor charlie and midnight lucky both broke their maidens in impressive fashion at santa anita during the same weekend shakin it up provided midnight lute with his first graded stakes winner as a sire .\nthe lute society has the rarer instruments ( lute , cittern , bandora and wooden flutes ) for hire , and can supply sheet music . the lute parts are very hard , but after a couple of years of playing the lute you might well be able to manage the bandora parts without too much difficulty\u2014ask to have a go on a bandora next time you go on a lute - based summer school !\nscored victories in the sunland derby and oaks . both of them set new track records ; govenor charlie for 1 1 / 8 miles in 1\u201d47 . 54 and midnight lucky for 1 1 / 16 miles in 1 : 41 . 06 . fittingly , both govenor charlie and midnight lucky are trained by the sire of midnight lute ,\nmidnight lute retired to stud at hill ' n ' dale farms in kentucky for a fee of $ 20k typical of a first year stallion , his fee was dropped to $ 15k after his initial season and remains steady . there was great demand for the good looking stallion and midnight lute sired 121 foals in his first crop .\nher continued development , along with that of govenor charlie , shakin it up , and several other up - and - comers , such as stakes winner midnight ballet , sharp oaklawn winner big lute , and fair grounds - based mylute , will only enhance midnight lute\u2019s stature in the coming months . mylute finished a game second to revolutionary in the louisiana derby on march 30 , and could be yet another member of midnight lute ' s first - crop brigade to resurface at churchill downs in five weeks .\nshakin it up ( midnight lute - silverbulletmoon [ vindication ] ) : won the 7f g2 - san vicente but finished a distant 4th to govenor charlie in the sunland derby .\nnorman stables\u2019 silent bird got his first graded stakes victory on saturday , holding off tough sunday by a head to win the grade 3 midnight lute . a 5 - year - old son of summer bird trained by mark glatt , silent bird donned blinkers for the first time in the midnight lute . jockey kent desormeaux moved him up the [ \u2026 ]\nlexington , ky . \u0096 with an astonishing finish to win the six - furlong breeders\u0092 cup sprint in 1 : 07 . 08 , midnight lute joined tiznow , miesque , da hoss , and lure as repeat winners of a breeders\u0092 cup event . this is a special distinction for midnight lute because he is the first two - time winner of the sprint .\nanother take on the potential of midnight lute as a stallion comes from my associate at datatrack international , pedigree commentator robert fierro . he noted that , on the results of the stallion ' s biomechanical profile , \u201cwe loved midnight lute . his profile on one of our programs was very unusual for a horse his size , in that he matches nearly 50 percent of the mares in our test book . that is very unusual for a horse as big as midnight lute , \u201d who towers over man and beast at 17 hands - plus .\nwith only two crops on the track , it ' s a bit hard to take an actual account of his runners . but so far , midnight lute has gotten four really good runners :\nmarjac farms is rich and patti burke , who lived in louisville when midnight lute was born and now live in richmond , va . rich burke manages marjac capital partners , an investment company .\nin 2008 , midnight lute raced only twice as a 5 - year - old , but did annex a second consecutive breeders\u2019 cup sprint before retiring to stud at hill \u2018n\u2019 dale in lexington , ky . baffert said upon midnight lute\u2019s retirement that the horse was the best he\u2019d ever trained , and those who follow the popular conditioner\u2019s @ midnightlute twitter account are reminded of that every time they receive a message from baffert .\na dead - heat winner of the midnight lute stakes ( g3 ) with solid wager at 6 1 / 2 furlongs new year ' s eve for trainer peter miller . the 5 - year - old gelding by\nmidnight oil taught me that citizens not only need a soundtrack for resistance , but we also need to resist .\ni guess i have no brain . the good news is , thanks to midnight oil , i\u2019ve got heart .\na final research project ( minimum 15 pages ) on the film adaptations of henry v or chimes at midnight .\nbaffert pegged midnight lute as a special horse from the start , but this is a story of \u201cwhat might have been . \u201d standing 17 hands high , the muscular colt made his debut in late july of his two year old season . in what would become his typical running style , midnight lute was away from the gate slow , made a wide move on the outside and mowed down his competition in a powerful late run , getting up to win the six furlong race by 1 \u00bc lengths . midnight lute was away from the races for a year , due to a throat issue , necessitating in surgery . this hampered the colt ' s ability to perform at longer distances .\nhis yearling average took a dip last year , which is not uncommon in this era as stallions move beyond their first crop at auction , but midnight lute was represented by a $ 230 , 000 juvenile at the recent barretts march selected two - year - olds in training sale . sikura is optimistic about the yearling auctions this summer , which may , based on recent evidence , come on the heels of several more graded stakes wins by midnight lute runners .\nmidnight lute ' s progeny are proving to be mid - season two year olds that improve with age . most carry their sire ' s looks and conformation . his offspring have won over dirt , turf , polytrack , cushion track and tapita from 5 \u00bd furlongs to 1 1 / 8 miles . we won ' t know how far midnight lute ' s babies will run until they actually prove it , however , given their two - turn conformation and the pedigree of their sire , it wouldn\u2019t be far - fetched to see a son or daughter of midnight lute wearing a wreath of roses , stargazer lilies , black - eyed susans , carnations , or yellow and purple chrysanthemums very soon .\nmidnight lucky ( midnight lute - citiview [ city dancer ] ) : the star of the sunland derby card when she set a ntr and obliterated the field in the sunland oaks . a really dynamic filly that seems to be able to get any distance she will want to . really pretty mover and definitley a factor in the 3yo filly division this year .\nas mentioned , midnight lute stands 17 hands high and is a long - bodied , muscular horse . it appears that he received his large , rangy frame from his second sire , quiet american , who himself stands 16 \u00bd hands high .\nmidnight lute stood for $ 20 , 000 in his initial season at hill \u2018n\u2019 dale , and according to farm president john g . sikura , he has been popular from the outset . baffert said in february after shakin it up\u2019s win in the san vicente that he always felt midnight lute was at his core a longer - distance horse who , due to low lung capacity , was restricted to sprint races , and sikura echoed that opinion when discussing his potential as a stallion .\nonce back in training , midnight lute began to fulfill his potential during 2006 and early 2007 , winning a grade 3 event at seven furlongs and competing well in longer - distance graded stakes in california in january and february of 2007 . he suffered another health - related delay during early summer , but when he returned midnight lute was at the top of his game . he dominated both the forego stakes and the breeders\u2019 cup sprint that fall , earning the eclipse award as champion sprinter .\nfollowing midnight lute , the breeders sent candytuft to gilded time to produce the stakes - placed tusculum road , and they caught the brass ring when selling the mare\u0092s yearling by maria\u0092s mon at the september sale this year for $ 900 , 000 .\nto date , midnight lute has sired three stakes winners and 19 winners from 64 starters lifetime . he stands at the top of the second crop sire list in terms of earnings and is tied for first with number of stakes winners . as he did on the racetrack , midnight lute is out - performing a solid group of stallions at stud , which include two - time horse of the year curlin , kentucky derby winner big brown , international sensation henrythenavigator and the two year old champion war pass .\nhill \u2018n\u2019 dale farms stallion midnight lute might have made his name on the racetrack as a top sprinter , but his first crop is swiftly remaking his reputation this spring as one of the most promising young sires of middle - distance runners in north america .\nsome of the english lute manuscripts make for satisfying self - contained musical programmes , and have attracted single - source recordings . some years ago anthony rooley made a record ( on the oiseau lyre label ) of the cozens lute book . more recently paul o\u2019dette has made a cd from lord herbert of cherbury\u2019s lute book ( harmonia mundi ) ; jacob heringman has made a cd from jane pickering\u2019s lute book ( avie ) ; oswald hebermehl has made a disc from margaret board\u2019s lute book ( amu records ) , and most recently liz kenny has made a cd flying horse , music of the ml lute book ( hyperion ) . from among the continental sources with quite a lot of english music , joachim held has made a cd of the schele ms ( hannsler ) .\none of the implications of midnight lute ' s results on his biomechanics is that it appeared he would get racers who would appreciate racing two turns , rather than simply sprinting , as many people would have expected from a racehorse who was \u201climited\u201d to sprinting himself .\nmidnight lute ' s offspring are consistently showing that they appreciate the opportunity to mature and race distances of a mile , at least , and there is plenty of reason to expect that they will continue to improve at even longer distances as opportunities come to them .\ngovenor charlie ( midnight lute - silverbulletway [ storm cat ] ) : convincing winner of the g3 - sunland derby and a horse that will be vying for the lead in the kentucky derby . he has a slightly odd way of moving , but shows good early speed .\ntwo noses shy of being unbeaten , trainer bill spawr\u2019s midnight bisou put it all together on sunday at santa anita as she rolled to an emphatic 4 \u00bd length win in the grade ii , $ 200 , 000 santa ynez stakes . piloted by \u201cbig money\u201d mike smith for the first time , the kentucky - bred daughter of midnight lute got seven furlongs in 1 : 23 . 40 while defeating [ \u2026 ]\nalthough midnight lute showed his best form by clubbing his contemporaries with come from behind finishes at sprint distances , he did race successfully at longer distances , and his natural aptitude was clearly suitable for racing at longer distances from his size , scope , balance , and physical proportions .\nlute manuscripts are as richly varied as the people who played from them . a recently discovered fragment in the westiminster abbey archive looks like a lesson of several pieces written out on a loose sheet of paper for a student ; the dallis lute book is a cambridge student\u2019s workbook , from the very beginning of his lute studies ; the giles lodge book is the musical sketch book of musically semi - literate amateur , perhaps a schoolmaster ; jane pickering\u2019s and margaret board\u2019s lute books are the collections of more competent and serious amateur players ; lord herbert of cherbury\u2019s lute book reveals a refined gentleman amateur who , by modern standards at least , would have been good enough to play professionally ; the welde lute book seems to have been written by a professional scribe , either speculatively or as a commission for a wealthy amateur lute player , while royal appendix 58 is a performing partbook and score , one of a set of partbooks in use in at court by multi - instrumentalist court musicians .\nand what happened to charles dawes , the other midnight rider ? he also rode through the countryside warning the colonists of the oncoming british regulars .\ngiven those connections , it was no surprise when pegram purchased midnight lucky for $ 220 , 000 at the fasig - tipton saratoga select yearling sale . a year and a half later , the filly has displayed a breathtaking degree of raw talent in only two races that may , in the end , make her the best of what is shaping up to be a very good , and possibly great , first crop for midnight lute .\nbut in addition to midnight lute , trackside has been co - breeder of english group 1 winner bahamian pirate , jim dandy winner strong hope , and other good racers , as well as raising and selling numerous graded or group stakes winners for foxfield , liberation farm , and other clients .\na resounding champion as a sprinter on the racetrack with victories at 4 and 5 in the grade 1 breeders ' cup sprint , midnight lute was not pedigreed to be a specialist sprinter , and his performance at stud has been in keeping with his bloodlines , more so than his racetrack performances .\npotential favorite for the grade 1 kentucky oaks , midnight bisou breezed at santa anita park at about 4 : 30 a . m . on sunday morning . according to drf . com , the 3 - year - old daughter of midnight lute covered five furlongs in 1 : 01 . 60 under jockey martin pedroza . \u201cshe\u2019s getting better , \u201d trainer bill spawr said . \u201cshe\u2019s scary . her bodyweight is right . she\u2019s confident in [ \u2026 ]\nmylute ( midnight lute - stage stop [ valid expectations ] ) : not a stakes winner , but a 2nd in the g2 - louisiana derby gets him into the kentucky derby a week from today . seems to be a nice colt , but not entirely sure he ' s absolutely top quality .\nthe dark brown , nearly black , horse was bred by a trio who have emphasized quality over quantity in their breeding decisions . tom evans , marjac farms , and macon wilmil equine bred midnight lute in kentucky , where he was foaled and raised at the trackside farm of evans and pam clark .\nmidnight lute ' s second damsire blue times ( by olden times ) won two stakes races at 1 1 / 8 miles . his male line traces directly back to man o ' war through his greatest son war relic . blue times ' damsire was a lesser son of the claiborne foundation sire princequello .\nthe empire maker colt will be in a yearling sale next year . evans said , \u0093he is more similar to midnight lute than her other foals have been . he has that length to him , and you can see a lot of potential there . it will be fun watching him grow up . \u0094\nas the ' 80s turned into the ' 90s , sincerity made way for irony and grunge and the midnight oils returned to the middle of the pack .\nthe lute society publishes five english facsimiles , with plans for many more , plus free transcriptions and / or photographs of some of the very minor sources .\npinhooked the following spring to the sales of juveniles in training in florida , midnight lute was an rna at $ 290 , 000 and sold after the auction . trainer bob baffert , who had selected real quiet at auction , was instrumental in the acquisition of the stallion ' s best racing son for pegram and partners .\nchristmas 1995 - midnight angel . a very attractive stamp with a dark blue starry background , a christmas angel , a christmas wreath , and bells . on\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nmidnight lute ( usa ) dkb / br . h , 2003 { 3 - j } dp = 4 - 5 - 5 - 2 - 0 ( 16 ) di = 2 . 56 cd = 0 . 69 - 13 starts , 6 wins , 3 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 2 , 690 , 600\nlast and greatest , robert dowland\u2019s varietie of lute lessons ( 1610 ) self - consciously presents a selection of some of the finest european lute music of its time ; it is available in facsimile from schott . in spite of the title , there is no beginner\u2019s music here ; it represents something to work towards in your studies .\nshrouded in controversy since his debut nearly four years ago , top sprinter masochistic is set to make his first start since early may as he heads a field of nine 3 - year - olds and up in saturday\u2019s grade 3 midnight lute stakes at santa anita . idle since distanced over a wet fast track going seven furlongs in the [ \u2026 ]\nin its long history the lute experienced not one , but a series of \u2018golden ages\u2019 , and elizabethan and jacobean england certainly enjoyed one of these . the chief glory and ornament of the elizabethan lute is of course the music of john dowland ( 1563\u20131626 ) which , if no other lute music at all had come down to us , would amply justify the study of the instrument . happily , a good deal more music has survived , however . the following sketch is intended to convey useful information for the beginner .\nhere ' s the kicker : govenor charlie , midnight lucky , and shakin it up are all raced by mike pegram . they were also bred by mike pegram . midnight lute was exactly the same , so the bloodline and connections are money . but that ' s the sign of a major owner showing absolute faith in his own stallion that he takes everything he owns mare - wise to him . and it takes that kind of support from your connections that really make or break a stallion ( read : kitten ' s joy ) .\nunlike u2 or r . e . m . , midnight oil were less ambiguous about kicking ass onstage , and their live shows are legendary for leaving venues in agitprop shambles . \u201cif you\u2019re singing a song about huge piles of nuclear weapons , you\u2019re unlikely to be playing a harp or plucking a lute , \u201d peter garrett told the ottawa citize n in 1985 .\nbloom racing stable and allen racing\u2019s midnight bisou continued her dominance of the west coast 3 - year - old filly division on saturday , rallying from far back to win the grade 1 santa anita oaks by 3 1 / 2 lengths under mike smith , who also won the g1 santa anita derby aboard justify . trained by bill spawr , midnight bisou , [ \u2026 ]\nas a sire , real quiet did manage to get 16 stakes winners and a champion . besides midnight lute , real quiet ' s most notable runners are the sprinter / miler pussycat doll , two - time winner of the humana distaff ( g - 1 ) and wonder lady anne l , heroine of the 1 \u00bc mile cca oaks ( g - 1 ) .\n( dehere - bolt from the blue , by blue times ) was unraced . besides midnight lute , candytuft bore his half brother multiple stakes - placed sprinter captain cherokee ( by sir cherokee ) and a stakes placed half sister tusculum rd ( by gilded time ) . in all , she has seven foals who made it to the track and six of them have won .\nfierro continued , \u201cin size , midnight lute is in a category of his own . stallions like him usually project to be modest at best , but what tipped the scale for him is that he matched a number of modest - sized mares , which is unusual but very beneficial , as the norms of the breed tend to breed toward the horses of that size . \u201d\nnot surprisingly then , the largest surviving oeuvre is that of \u2018the english orpheus\u2019 , john dowland , with 75 pieces ( plus 16 - odd possible attributions ) . his collected lute music , edited by his great scholar and apostle , diana poulton ( with basil lam ) is published by faber , and should be on every lute scholar\u2019s christmas list . more of him hereafter .\nan accredited louisiana - bred daughter of midnight lute sold for $ 77 , 000 on monday to top the equine sales company 2 - year - olds in training and horses of racing age sale in opelousas , la . named nite jean , the sale - topper went to prominent southwest owner carl moore from the consignment of pike racing , agent . the may foal worked an eighth [ \u2026 ]\nnor is evans concerned with the breathing problem that compromised part of midnight lute\u0092s career . he said , \u0093i don\u0092t believe it is a genetic issue at all . as a yearling he had a great throat , as well as when he was at the 2 - year - old sales . i guess he had something go wrong during the summer of his 2 - year - old season . \u0094\nmidnight disguise rallied from last to earn her second straight stakes win , charging home a 1 \u00be - length winner in the 39th running of the $ 200 , 000 busher for 3 - year - old fillies at a mile on saturday at aqueduct racetrack . under regular jockey trevor mccarthy , midnight disguise was unhurried through the early going , settling at the back of the pack as california invader [ \u2026 ]\nrevere wrote a letter in 1798 to the founder of the massachusetts historical society describing his midnight ride . nothing in his letter indicates that he waited and watched to see the lanterns in the church tower .\nthis is not surprising , as the stallion ' s sire is the champion and premier 10 - furlong performer real quiet , whose best races came with victories in the kentucky derby , preakness , and pimlico special . as a sire , real quiet did not reproduce himself with a classic - winning colt . his best son was midnight lute , although some of his best daughters performed at the highest level at classic distances .\nin 2008 , midnight lute came back to race twice as a five year old . he recorded the worst finish of his career in the pat o ' brian stakes ( g - 2 ) over the del mar polytrack . however , in his swan song the champ went out on a high note , winning his second consecutive breeders ' cup sprint in 1 : 07 , the fastest time in the history of the race .\nmidnight lute is the mare\u0092s fourth foal . evans said that \u0093sire selection was done based on budgetary concerns and physical compatibility . real quiet is a big , stretchy , athletic horse , who has a beautiful profile , and candytuft is a solid , correct , attractive mare . and mating her with the fappiano line , which typically puts stretch into foals like you see with the unbridleds , worked out well with this mare . \u0094\nwhen looking at real quiet ' s progeny , you see a dearth of true top end talent . midnight lute tops his list of earners and there are only two others that won more than $ 750 , 000 in sunward run and pussycat doll . he also got wonder lady ann l , winner of the g1 - cca oaks . real quiet died at 15 in 2010 following an accident in his paddock after siring 11 crops of foals . he was by no means a dominant sire , but instead was just a useful one . as a sign of his productivity , he stood in pennsylvania and shuttled to uruguay during the summer months . real quiet was campaigned by mike pegram and trained by bob baffert ( a trend we will see repeated over and over herein ) . real quiet has no sons standing at stud of any note other than midnight lute .\n\u201cthere\u2019s a lot of prospects out there , and we\u2019re excited , and we\u2019re sure that there\u2019s many more in the wings , \u201d sikura said . \u201cthe more they win , and the more important fixtures that come under midnight lute\u2019s banner , the more his yearlings will bring . . . . if he has a derby winner , or an oaks winner , or a travers winner , certainly they\u2019re more appreciated in the auction ring . \u201d\nin definitiva , midnight . swordfight . di chandler groover \u00e8 un divertissement che prende per mano l ' avventuriero esortandolo a danzare in un giardino panoramico in cui sia stata edificata una follia dal capriccio di un architetto estroso .\n\u201c [ midnight lute\u2019s reputation ] is really a misnomer because the horse is not a sprinter , he was backed up after throat surgery , \u201d sikura said . \u201che was backed up to be a sprinter ; it was an adaptation . the horse\u2019s true aptitude , i believe , is a mile and a quarter , i think that\u2019s what he would have been best at . he was just a big , freaky racehorse that could adapt and do anything .\nthe musician thomas whytehorn , in his autobiography of c . 1575 marvelled at the wide currency of printed music he had seen on his continental travels ; in england , you had to write everything out by hand . about 50 - odd english lute manuscripts with music in renaissance tuning survive in the british isles , plus maybe 15 or 16 continental manuscripts with items of english lute music , plus various odds and ends . another fragment turns up every year or two .\nmidnight lute is a peculiar case study as a stallion . he only succeeded at distances we consider sprints , but he ' s most definitely not bred to run short distances . it is well known that he had a chronic throat issue that caused him to really struggle when stretched out to a distance that forced him to take more than one big breath and just take off . in fact , we were looking to breed a mare to him last year , but decided against it precisely because of the breathing issue . his trainer , bob baffert , thought so much of him that he always has fully endorsed the idea that midnight lute was not limited to sprints due to his own ability , in fact , had his throat not been a major hindrance , he would easily have competed at route distances . bob clearly considers him one of his best horses of all time to the point that baffert ' s twitter handle is @ midnightlute .\nit\u2019s hard to understate the sincerity of ' 80s alternative rock . what midnight oil taught me and others is that citizens need a soundtrack for resistance , sure , but we also need to organize and and be politically active . like most socially conscious bands in the \u201980s , midnight oil set up tables outside their gigs for greenpeace , rock the vote , and planned parenthood . as the ' 80s turned into the ' 90s , midnight oil , for american fans at least , represented one of those bands for people who couldn\u2019t get enough u2 , couldn\u2019t get enough sincerity , and so turned to the latest offerings from the alarm or the call , or , for the more adventurous , michelle shocked or billy bragg .\ntypically , big time sires will have one , maybe two top end runners in any given year on the road to the roses . maybe they ' re lucky and have a filly that ' s gunning for the oaks . if your first crop is doing that , you ' re unbelievable . and midnight lute , with his first crop turning 3 this year , has done just that : he ' s got two derby starters and a serious contender in the kentucky oaks .\nif you get hooked on duets , the john johnson and thomas robinson editions noted in the previous instalment of this article would be worth acquiring . the lute society catalogue of tablature sheets contains a further sprinkling of duets , english and continental ; ask the secretary if you are interested . one of the charms of the lute is the opportunities it offers for social as well as solo music making and the student is commended not to be shy , but to seek out duet partners !\none exception was midnight lute ' s co - breeder trackside farm , whose owner tom evans said , \u201creal quiet had runners by the time we decided to send candytuft to him , and in addition to fitting the stud fee range we could afford for the mare , the reason to make that mating was that i loved real quiet ' s profile . he was a really beautiful horse , and we thought the match was what the mare needed to add some stretch to the foal . \u201d\nmidnight lute , a strapping son of real quiet out of the unraced dehere mare candytuft , was the first top - of - the - line horse campaigned by the partnership of pegram , watson , weitman , and baffert , and as a juvenile he won first out in the summer of 2005 at del mar . the colt did not race again for a year , however , as respiratory problems developed that would stall his career more than once and cause him to miss the triple crown season .\nmidnight lucky entered the sunland park oaks as one of the most talked - about horses in the country following her smashing debut win in february , in which she earned a 100 beyer , and the filly left new mexico with even more hype after she obliterated the competition in an eight - length romp . midnight lucky traveled 1 1 / 16 miles in 1 : 41 . 06 , good for a 94 beyer and another track record ( one of three set march 24 on sunland\u2019s speed - favoring oval ) .\nthis spring , midnight oil embarks on their first world tour in more than 15 years . the australian band that hit worldwide charts in 1987 with \u201cbeds are burning\u201d disbanded back in 2002 , when lead singer peter garrett entered politics full - time and served in a number of positions in the australian government , a second career that lasted more than 11 years . the last time midnight oil toured the us was october 2001 , weeks after september 11 and then - new president george w . bush ramping up the case for the iraq invasion . cut to 2017 , and midnight oil\u2019s six - month , 50 - date great circle tour brings garrett and bandmates to a united states under a trump administration angling to roll back environmental protections , pillage natural resources , and generally mess up the world .\nas for the really small fry , the indefatigable john robinson , has been gradually trawling them up in lute society tablature sheets over the years , and there are some \u2018one - hit wonders\u2019 there certainly . ask for our catalogue if you want to investigate further .\na survey of english music in continental prints and manuscripts , which are available in facsimile , is beyond the present writer\u2019s competence . publishers include tree , minkoff , frits knuf , and the dutch lute society . would anyone care to write a short piece on this ?\nmidnight , swordfight was an ifcomp 2015 game . this game is a one - move game like aisle or rematch , where you are in a duel with a countess and have only limited actions available . innovatively , these actions are listed in a playscript in your inventory .\nback in 1990 , at the height of midnight oils\u2019 stateside popularity , the band protested exxon\u2019s valdez oil spill by playing a lunchtime concert outside the corporation\u2019s manhattan headquarters . the guerilla action gig stopped traffic on sixth avenue for blocks around radio city music hall . a 30 - foot banner atop the band\u2019s flatbed truck read \u201cmidnight oil makes you dance , exxon oil makes us sick\u201d . one likes to think that rex tillerson , then exxon\u2019s vice president and now trump\u2019s secretary of state , could hear the band\u2019s clash - like cover of john lennon\u2019s \u201cinstant karma\u201d .\nrobert johnson , with 20 extant solos , was the son of john johnson , and evidently inherited his father\u2019s melodic gifts . a major figure in the organisation of jacobean court masques , he wrote dance music ( published in sabol\u2019s four hundred songs and dances from the stuart masque ) and songs , including some for shakespeare\u2019s company , the king\u2019s men ( published by stainer and bell ) as well as lute solos . an edition of his lute music edited by albert sunderman was formerly published in the oup lute music series ; now an edition is available from seicento notenversand . some of it is approachable for the early intermediate player . lynda sayce made a father - and - son album of the two johnsons\u2019 music , the golden age restor\u2019d , some years ago , and matthew wadsworth has recorded some solos on a album of songs and solos , away delights , on the avie label .\nhis easiest lute solos are probably \u2018mistress winter\u2019s jump\u2019 , \u2018orlando sleepeth\u2019 , \u2018fortune my foe\u2019 and \u2018mr dowland\u2019s midnight\u2019 , then the \u2018preludium\u2019 , ( p98 ) . after a year or two ( of regular practice , that is ! ) you could start to look at some of the easier song accompaniments , such as \u2018burst forth my tears\u2019 , \u2018white as lilies was her face\u2019 or \u2018faction that ever dwells\u2019 . you will be popular with sopranos at summer schools if , after two or three years of practising , you can master the accompaniments to some of the songs in the first book of songes .\nwon the kentucky derby and preakness , only to fall a heart - wrenching nose short in the belmont stakes . real quiet didn ' t prove to be commercially successful at stud , but as is often the case with broodmare sires , his quality may be evidenced years later in his daughters ' progeny . midnight lute is real quiet ' s best performing progeny and his first prominent son to stand at stud . three minor sons of real quiet are standing as regional sires . real quiet ' s sire quiet american is not noted as a sire of sires , but his daughters are recognized as superior producers .\nbut the world is upside down again , and if current pop acts can\u2019t get it together to write protest songs , then maybe it ' s time to turn to midnight oil . the other day , i found myself rocking out to \u201cread about it\u201d , one of my favorite tracks from 10 to 1 :\nin a repertoire largely preserved in manuscript sources , chances of survival are , happily , skewed in favour of quality , as the more popular a piece was , the more it would be copied , and the more likely it was to survive , so it makes some sense to consider lute composers in terms of their extant output .\na second release for midnight . swordfight . is now available through the links on its ifdb page . this version was created for display at the hand eye society ' s wordplay 2016 showcase . it fixes a few bugs and typos from the original release , smooths out some quixe formatting issues , and includes a little more dialogue for dmitri .\nbe all that as it may . . . besides the complete lute solos , mentioned above , the lachrimae ( 1604 ) collection for viols and ( very difficult ) lute has been published in facsimile by boethius , and in modern editions , most recently by fretwork editions , while his other consort music is available in a boxed set of partbooks from schott . his solo songs , first transcribed in the 1920s by edmund fellowes , are published by stainer & bell , who also publish a ( shockingly mistake - ridden ) new edition of his four - voice ayres in the musica britannica series ( the 1953 / 1976 edition has far fewer mistakes and bad page turns , but has no tab , for which the lute needs the solo song editions ) . facsimile editions of the songbooks have been published both by scolar press , latterly in association with brian jordan of cambridge , and now also by broude brothers , in their performers facsimile series . not forgetting diana poulton\u2019s fascinating biography of the man , published by faber .\nomitting song books and scottish sources ( to be discussed in future issues ) facsimile publishers and the lute books they publish are ( please correct me if i\u2019m wrong ) currently as follows : boethius / severinus / jacks pipes and hammers : willoughby , trumbull , sampson , pickeringe , board , brogyntyn , hirsch , ml , marsh , mynshall .\npegram bred and owns govenor charlie , while midnight lucky was bred in kentucky by dr . charles kidder , j . k . griggs , and linda griggs . pegram owns the filly with karl watson and paul weitman , comprising the triumvirate that has struck grade 1 gold in recent years with lookin at lucky , coil , drill , and executiveprivilege .\nfive years ago , a friend and i were flipping through vinyl shelves at a record fair , as tragically hip music nerds do , and we confessed our guilty pleasures . \u201ci own more midnight oil albums than i\u2019d like to admit , \u201d i offered . i further confessed that , in fact , i owned all the oils\u2019 releases , including australian imports .\nboth 3 - year - olds earned 50 points on the road to the derby and oaks standings . if both govenor charlie and midnight lucky make the trip to churchill downs , they will bring the longtime owner - trainer partnership of mike pegram and bob baffert back to the site of some of their most cherished memories , starting with real quiet\u2019s kentucky derby in 1998 .\nthe lute society : krakow 40641 , folger dowland , welde , osborn fb7 ; wickhambrook ; in preparation : cambridge dd . 2 . 11 ( and ultimately we hope the rest of the cambridge mss : dd . 3 . 18 , dd . 4 . 22 , dd . 5 . 78 . 3 , dd . 9 . 33 , nn . 6 . 36 ) , herbert of cherbury ; in transcription : bl stowe 389 , royal appendix 58 ; giles lodge , westminster abbey ms 105 ; fragments photographed in the lute ( 1992 ) : bl add mss 60577 , 6402 , 41498 ( 1993 ) magdalen , edmund , och 1280 , occ 254 ( 1999 ) westminster abbey ms 105 ; journal article in preparation : william skypton\u2019s ms .\noverall , i really like midnight lute . he posted the top beyer of any sprinter ever at 124 and is a two time bc sprint winner . he ' s won over $ 6 million . he ' s shown the ability to get some really high quality speed horses that have been able to run away from their competition around both one and two turns , something he himself could never manage . now i really do think he was always physically capable of getting a classic distance , but his breathing limitations kept him from getting that far . i think he ' s got an extremely bright future , and with the stout backing of his connections of mike pegram and bob baffert , he ' s in a pretty good place to succeed long term .\nmany lute players like to go to the original sources for their music . but facsimile publishing of manuscripts is a specialist business , and publishers are rather few . the pioneers in the field were boethius press ; they ran into financial difficulties and were refounded as severinus press . remaining stocks ( and the possibilities of short - run reprints ) now lie with jacks , pipes and hammers\nthen came 1987\u2019s diesel and dust , which broke midnight oil worldwide . recorded after a tour of the outback with indigenous musical groups , the oils\u2019 sixth album included \u201cbeds are burning\u201d , which people magazine accurately describes as \u201cprobably the first song about aborigine rights to go top 10 in the u . s . \u201d the band i secretly jammed out to with my cassette player now boomed from college dorm rooms everywhere .\nfast - forward to 2017 , and these debates over musical tastes seem quaint . it\u2019s punk rock time , like henry rollins says , and we\u2019ve got reagan on steroids occupying the white house . public schools , women\u2019s and minority ' s rights , and the environment are all under threat and i\u2019ve taken my lazy white privileged ass out to the streets to protest . and i find myself listening to midnight oil again .\nlast weekend at sunland park , govenor charlie and midnight lucky all but stamped their tickets to the kentucky derby and kentucky oaks , respectively , with dominant performances in two - turn races . govenor charlie drew clear at the quarter pole and powered to a five - length win in the grade 3 sunland derby , covering 1 1 / 8 miles in a track - record 1 : 47 . 54 and earning a 95 beyer speed figure .\nthere are three main currently available editions of the english lute duets . stefan lundgren has edited most of the english duets , published in four albums by lundgren edition . lundgren has chopped the treble and ground duets about , to share out treble and ground sections between the two players . this certainly makes for more challenging and stimulating playing , even if it dilutes the didactic concentration of the originals . secondly , there is tablature for two lutes published by stainer & bell , in three volumes edited by nigel north and the late robert spencer . volume 1 contains easier anonymous treble and ground duets , volume 2 has slightly harder treble and ground duets by named composers , including three by robinson and four by john johnson , and volume 3 contains ten of the finest \u2018equal\u2019 duets . thirdly and most recently , gordon gregory has edited a selection of treble and ground duets for the lute society , o happie ground , aimed specifically at the student , with fingering indications throughout .\nmidnight lucky , who may train up to the kentucky oaks on may 3 , is the fourth winning foal out of the citidancer mare citiview . citiview is a full sister to hookedonthefeelin , whom pegram purchased for $ 110 , 000 at the 1997 keeneland september yearling sale . hookedonthefeelin was the winner of five stakes , including the grade 1 la brea . as a broodmare , hookedonthefeelin has produced pussycat doll , a real quiet three - time grade 1 winner for pegram and baffert during the mid - 2000s , as well as grade 1 winner jimmy creed and stakes winner funny feeling .\ndaniel bacheler comes next in the league table with 55 extant solos . it is surprising that to date there has been no complete edition of his music\u2014the sources are considered problematic\u2014chris morongiello is working on one , and has been supplying pieces by him for our lute news music supplements . much of the music requires more than seven courses , and is not terribly easy ; paul o\u2019dette , who has made a recent recording on the harmonia mundi label , points out that it is hard to find a tempo that suits both the slow passages in his music and the fast divisions . so perhaps not a composer for the beginner to worry about unduly .\nin reading ( to use the chinese term ) a chinese landscape painting , we are often moved by the pleasure of recognition , even of identification , occasioned by the one or more tiny human figures , almost imperceptible among the rocks and pines . these figures , executed with a few minute strokes of the brush , represent a solitary man , leaning on his staff along a mountain path , or on the back of a donkey , crossing a bridge and followed by a boy who carries his lute , or among a group of similar figures lingering by the waterside , immersed in the landscape , insignificant and unobtrusive . ( li chi , 1962 )\nin reading ( to use the chinese term ) a chinese landscape painting , we are often moved by the pleasure of recognition , even of identification , occasioned by the one or more tiny human figures , almost imperceptible among the rocks and pines . these figures , executed with a few minute strokes of the brush , represent a solitary man , leaning on his staff along a mountain path , or on the back of a donkey , crossing a bridge and followed by a boy who carries his lute , or among a group of similar figures lingering by the waterside , immersed in the landscape , insignificant and unobtrusive .\n( li chi , 1962 )\nin reading ( to use the chinese term ) a chinese landscape painting , we are often moved by the pleasure of recognition , even of identification , occasioned by the one or more tiny human figures , almost imperceptible among the rocks and pines . these figures , executed with a few minute strokes of the brush , represent a solitary man , leaning on his staff along a mountain path , or on the back of a donkey , crossing a bridge and followed by a boy who carries his lute , or among a group of similar figures lingering by the waterside , immersed in the landscape , insignificant and unobtrusive\n( li chi , 1962 ) .\nnext , john johnson with 31 solos , \u2018the queen\u2019s luter\u2019 first really great english lute composer . there have been two complete editions of his works , one published by orphee editions , the other by tree . there is some debate about attributions and the boundaries of his repertoire , and the contents of the two editions differ . he wrote many pavans , galliards , and ground - based pieces , but also some very tuneful variation sets on popular tunes . his duets are notable ; a hallmark of his treble - and - ground writing is that they run the whole gamut of the instrument\u2014good student material ! christopher wilson and shirley rumsey have recorded a selection of his works on naxos .\nnext comes anthony holborne , with 52 extant solos , mostly pavans and galliards . he was also a noted composer for metal - strung instruments , the cittern and bandora . his solo music was edited first by masakata kanazawa some years ago , and published by harvard , and more recently has been edited by rainer aus dem spring , for the lute society ( this edition is out of print at the moment , but should be reprinted later this year . ) his works include a sprinkling of pieces , especially some of the galliards and almains , which the early intermediate player could begin to tackle . there have been attractive recent recordings by jacob heringman , on the asv label , and christopher wilson and shirley rumsey , on naxos ."]}
{"id": 68, "summary": [{"text": "the lipspot moray ( gymnothorax chilospilus ) , also known as the textile moray , white-lipped moray , or white-lipped reef eel , is a moray eel found in coral reefs in the pacific and indian oceans .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it was first named by pieter bleeker in 1864 .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is named for a distinct white spot on the lower lip near the corner of the mouth . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "lipspot moray eel", "paragraphs": ["the snowflake eel is found in the pacific and indian oceans . it is also known as the starry eel .\nlipspot moray - gymnothorax chilospilus the lipspot moray is found in the indian ocean and in the pacific ocean . it is also found in the waters around hawaii . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe leopard moray eel is found in the indian and pacific oceans . in north america , it is found around the hawaiian islands . it is also known as the dragon moray eel .\nfreckleface reef - eel - uropterygius xanthopterus the freckleface reef - eel is found in the indian and pacific oceans . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmoray eels can range in size from snyder ' s eel which is around 4 . 5 inches in length to the slender giant moray , which can grow to be 13 feet in length .\na lipspot moray , gymnothorax chilospilus , from north solitary island , new south wales - showing the diagnostic white blotch on the lower lip near the corner of the mouth . . source : ian v . shaw / reef life survey . license : cc by attribution\ntiger reef eel - scuticaria tigrina the tiger reef eel is found in the indian and pacific oceans from east africa to the to the philippines , taiwan and the hawaiian islands east to mexico , costa rica , panama , and columbia . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmany species of moray eel are brightly patterned . they have large eyes , large mouths and sharp , fang - like teeth . some species will bite if they are provoked . moray eels also secrete a mucus through their skin . in some species this mucus is a toxin .\nredface eel - monopenchelys acuta the redface eel is found in scattered locations around the globe . it is found in the western atlantic from the bahamas to the lesser antilles , it has been recorded around ascension island in southern atlantic . in the indian ocean , it has been recorded in comoros , seychelles , and mauritius and in the pacific ocean it is found from fiji to hawaii . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nyellow - spotted moray - echidna xanthospilos the yellow - spotted moray is found in waters off of taiwan , sri lanka , indonesia , papua new guinea and samoa . it is also known as the skeletor eel . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nlaced moray - gymnothorax favagineus the laced moray is also known as the tessellate moray , the honeycomb moray , and the leopard moray . source : australian museum intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nyellowmouth moray - gymnothorax nudivomer the yellowmouth moray is found in indian and pacific oceans . it is also known as the starry moray . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe seychelles moray is found in coral reefs in the pacific and indian oceans .\nchain moray - echidna catenata the chain moray is found from the atlantic and gulf coasts of florida south through the caribbean to central america and the coast of uruguay .\nthe yellow moray is found in the waters off of new zealand and southern australia .\ncalifornia moray - gymnothorax mordax the california moray preys on octopuses and small fish . source : monterey bay aquarium intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\npeppered moray - gymnothorax pictus the peppered moray is found in indian and pacific oceans . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nfimbriate moray - gymnothorax fimbriatus the fimbriate moray can be 2 . 5 feet in length . source : australian museum intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngiant moray - gymnothorax javanicus the giant moray is found in the indian and pacific oceans . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nundulated moray - gymnothorax undulatus the undulated moray has a brown body and a bright yellow head . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe brown moray is found on rocky coasts in the eastern atlantic and throughout the mediterranean .\ngreen moray - gymnothorax funebris the green moray can be close to 6 feet in length . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\npolygon moray - gymnothorax polygonius the polygon moray is found in the western and eastern atlantic ocean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe australian mottled moray is found in the western pacific ocean from southern japan to the south china sea south to australia and new zealand . it is also known as the sawtooth moray .\nhoneycomb moray - gymnothorax saxicola the honeycomb moray is found from new jersey south to florida and in the gulf of mexico . it is also found in the mississippi river delta . it is also known as the ocellated moray and the blackedge moray and is often used in home aquariums . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe barred moray is found from the east coast of africa to the hawaiian islands and australia .\ngreen moray - gymnothorax funebris the green moray spends the day hidden in rocky crevices . source : florida museum of natural history intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\ncalifornia moray - gymnothorax mordax red rock shrimp clean dead skin for the body of the california moray . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ngrayface moray - gymnothorax thyrsoideus the grayface moray is found in the indian ocean and in the pacific ocean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nbarred fin moray - gymnothorax zonipectis the barred fin moray is found from eastern africa east to the philippines . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe dark moray is found in the eastern atlantic off the coast of africa from mauritania to namibia .\nthe canary moray is found in the eastern atlantic around the canary islands off the coast of africa .\ngeometric moray - gymnothorax griseus the geometric moray is found in the western indian ocean and in the red sea . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmoray eels are carnivorous and eat crustaceans , cuttlefish , mollusks , small fish , octopus , and squid .\nsaddled moray - gymnothorax conspersus the saddled moray is found from north carolina south through the caribbean and gulf coast to brazil . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nfimbriate moray - gymnothorax fimbriatus the fimbriate moray is found in the indian and pacific oceans from madagascar to japan and australia . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nwhite - spotted moray - muraena argus the white - edged moray is found along the pacific coast from southern california to peru . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nkidako moray - gymnothorax kidako the kidako moray is found in the western pacific ocean from china , japan and australia east to hawaii . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nchain moray - echidna catenata the chain moray is brightly patterned in black and yellow . source : florent ' s guide to the florida , bahamas & caribbean reefs intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nlaced moray - gymnothorax favagineus the laced moray is found from the red sea and east africa to japan , australia and papua new guinea . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ngreen moray - gymnothorax funebris the green moray is really brown . it looks greenish - yellow because of the mucus that covers its body . source : national aquarium intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\njewel moray - muraena lentiginosa the jewel moray is found in the eastern pacific from the gulf of california to peru and the galapagos islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nindo - pacific spotted moray - gymnothorax isingteena the indo - pacific spotted moray is found in coral reefs in the indian and western pacific oceans . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ngray moray - gymnothorax nubilus the gray moray is found in the southwest pacific around lord howe island , norfolk island , and the kermadec islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ncaribbean ocellated moray - gymnothorax ocellatus the caribbean ocellated moray is found in the caribbean and along the atlantic coast of central america south to uruguay . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nwhite - edged moray - gymnothorax verrilli the white - edged moray is found along the pacific coast of costa rica , mexico , and panama . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ncalifornia moray - gymnothorax mordax the california moray is found in crevices in shallow rocky reefs from point conception in southern california to baja califonia in mexico . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nyellow - edged moray - gymnothorax flavimarginatus the yellow - edged moray is known as the puhi paka and it ' s bite can be dangerous to humans . source : waikiki aquarium intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nblack moray - muraena augusti the black moray is found in the eastern atlantic ocean around cape verde , the canary and madeira islands , and the azores . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe wide - mouth moray is found in the pacific ocean off the coasts of el salvador , guatemala , and mexico .\nyellow - edged moray - gymnothorax flavimarginatus the yellow - edged moray is found in the indian and pacific oceans from the red sea and east africa to hawaii . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nbanded moray - gymnothorax rueppelliae the banded moray is found in the indian and pacific oceans . in the u . s . , it is found in hawaii . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\npygmy moray - anarchias similis the pygmy moray is found from the coast of south carolina south to venezuela and along the gulf coast of florida south to nicaragua . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe turkey moray is found in reefs in shallow water the indian and pacific oceans from the coast of eastern africa to hawaii .\nbrown snake moray - uropterygius fuscoguttatus the brown snake moray is found in australia and the south pacific islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no two - holes moray - uropterygius versutus the two - holes moray is found in colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , and panama . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no jigsaw moray - uropterygius wheeleri the jigsaw moray is found in the eastern atlantic off the coast of africa in the waters around cape verde , equatorial guinea , sao tom\u00e9 and principe , and senegal . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nreticulate hookjaw moray - enchelycore lichenosa the reticulate hookjaw moray is found in northwest pacific ocean near taiwan and southern japan and in the southeast pacific ocean around the galapagos islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ngreen moray - gymnothorax funebris the green moray is found in the western atlantic from new jersey south to brazil as well as in the gulf of mexico and the caribbean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nlichen moray - gymnothorax hubbsi the lichen moray is found in the gulf of mexico from alabama south to cuba and north up the eastern coast of florida to southern georgia . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nreticulate moray - muraena retifera the reticulate moray is found from north carolina south to florida and along the gulf coast from florida north to mississippi . it is also found off the coast of venezuela . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no stout moray - muraena robusta the stout moray is found from north carolina to florida in the western atlantic as well as off the coast of panama and columbia . it is found along the african coast from morocco to angola in the eastern atlantic . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no marbled moray - uropterygius macularius the marbled moray is found from north carolina south to brazil as well as in the caribbean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no many - spotted moray - uropterygius polystictus the many - spotted moray is found along the pacific coasts of ecuador and mexico source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nbroadbanded moray - channomuraena vittata the broadbanded moray is found in tropical waters around the globe . in the u . s . it is found in the waters off southern florida . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nviper moray - enchelycore nigricans the viper moray is found on both sides of the atlantic ocean . in the u . s . it is found off the coast of florida . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\ny - patterned moray - gymnothorax berndti the y - patterned moray is found in the western indian ocean and in the pacific ocean from taiwan to new zealand and east to hawaii . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\npanamic green moray - gymnothorax castaneus the panamic green moray is found in the eastern pacific ocean from southern baja california and the gulf of california south to ecuador and the galapagos islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nwhitespot moray - muraena pavonina in the western atlantic ocean , the whitespot moray is found off of northeastern brazil and the mid - atlantic and around ascension island in the eastern atlantic ocean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nribbon moray - rhinomuraena quaesita the ribbon moray is found from east africa to french polynesia , north to southern japan , and south to the northwest and east coast australia and new caledonia . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\npalenose moray - echidna nocturna the palenose moray is found along the pacific coasts of colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , and peru . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nblacktail moray - gymnothorax kolpos the blacktail moray is found in along the atlantic coast of the eastern u . s . from north carolina south to florida and along the gulf coast from florida to texas . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nhardtail moray - anarchias galapagensis the hardtail moray is found in the pacific ocean off the coasts of colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , and panama . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nslenderjaw moray - enchelycore octaviana the slenderjaw moray is found in the pacific ocean off the coasts of colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , and peru . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nfinespotted moray - gymnothorax dovii the finespotted moray is found in the pacific ocean off the coasts of colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , and panama . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmasked moray - gymnothorax panamensis the masked moray is found along the pacific coast of colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , and panama . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no small - spotted moray - gymnothorax phalarus the small - spotted moray is found along the pacific coast of colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , and peru . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nmediterranean moray - muraena helena the mediterranean moray is found from south of british isles to senegal , in the waters around the azores , madeira , the canary islands , and cape verde and in the waters of the mediterranean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nfreshwater moray - gymnothorax polyuranodon the freshwater moray is found in australia , brunei darussalam , fiji , indonesia , malaysia , micronesia , new caledonia , palau , papua new guinea , the philippines , sri lanka , and taiwan . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe stout moray is found in shallow water in inland reefs in the indian and pacific oceans . in north america , it is found in the hawaiian islands .\nblackedge moray - gymnothorax nigromarginatus the blackedge moray is found rom the coast of north carolina south to cuba and puerto rico . it is also found in the gulf of mexico west to texas and south through central america to columbia . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nuse the table to access images and fact sheets of the muraenid fishes on the site . these include the knot - eels , moray eels and reef eels .\nundulated moray - gymnothorax undulatus the undulated moray is found in the indian ocean and in the western , central and eastern pacific ocean . it is found in hawaii and along the pacific coast of mexico , panama , and costa rica . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe zebra moray is found in the pacific and indian oceans . in north america it is found from baja california , mexico south to columbia and the galapagos islands .\nthe whitemargin moray is found in the indian and pacific oceans from japan south to indonesia . in north america , it is found in waters around the hawaiian islands .\nspotted - tail moray - gymnothorax equatorialis the spotted - tail moray is found in the pacific ocean off the coasts of chile , colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , and peru . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nlow fin moray - gymnothorax porphyreus the low - fin moray is found in sub - tropical waters in the south pacific to south america . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no sawtooth moray - gymnothorax serratidens the sawtooth moray is found in waters off of ecuador and peru . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no brown conger - gymnothorax vicinus the brown conger is found on both sides of the atlantic . in the u . s . it is found from the eastern coast of florida through the gulf coast states . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nspotted moray - gymnothorax moringa the spotted moray is found from north carolina south along the u . s . coast through the caribbean and the gulf of mexico south to southern brazil . it is also found in the eastern atlantic ocean on ascension and st . helena islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no\nsharktooth moray - gymnothorax maderensis the sharktooth moray is found in the eastern and western atlantic ocean . in the eastern atlantic it is found in madeira , the canary islands , and the cape verde islands . in the western atlantic it is found in bermuda , cuba , and in the caribbean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nb\u00f6hlke , e . b . & mccosker , j . e . 2001 . the moray eels of australia and new zealand , with the description of two new species ( anguilliformes : muraenidae ) .\ngoldentail moray - gymnothorax miliaris the goldentail moray is found in the western atlantic from florida , bermuda , and the bahamas through the gulf of mexico and the caribbean to southern brazil . in the eastern atlantic it is found in the waters around the cape verde islands and ascension and st . helena islands . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no\nthe fangtooth moray is found on both sides of the atlantic . in north america it is found off the coast of northern florida and in the waters of bermuda . it is also found in the mediterranean and black sea .\nthe caribbean chestnut moray is found in the western atlantic from the atlantic coast and gulf coast of southern florida south through the caribbean and central america to brazil . it is also found off the coast of the bahamas and off the gulf coast of mexico .\norder : anguilliformes , family : muraenidae ( morays ) pusi or morays moray eels are called pusi in samoa . small eels are sometimes called to ' e , large eels are called maoa ' e , and very large ones may be called atapanoa . small brown eels may be called u ' aulu and small pale eels may be called apeape .\nvariable in colour from pale yellowish to brownish , with irregular darker brownish bars and pale markings , a white spot surrounding each pore along the upper and lower jaws , and a large white blotch on the lower lip near the corner of the mouth .\noffshore reefs of western australia , ashmore reef and the great barrieer reef , queensland , to at least julian rocks , new south wales , also elizabeth reef and lord howe island in the tasman sea . elsewhere the species os widespread in the indo - west - central pacific from south africa to hawaii , north to taiwan and the ryukyu islands , japan , and south to northern australia .\ngymnothorax chilospilus bleeker , 1864 , nederland . tijdschr . dierk 2 : 52 . type locality : east indies .\nbleeker , p . 1864 . poissons in\u00e9dits indo - archip\u00e9lagiques de l ' ordre des mur\u00e8nes .\nb\u00f6hlke , e . b . , mccosker , j . e . & smith , d . g . 1999 . family muraenidae . pp . 1643 - 1657 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds ) .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes\nthe early stages of fishes in the california current region . california cooperative oceanic fisheries investigations ( calcofi ) atlas no . 33\nfrancis , m . 1993 . checklist of the coastal fishes of lord howe , norfolk , and kermadec islands , southwest pacific ocean .\nfrancis , m . p . & randall , j . e . 1993 . further additions to the fish faunas of lord howe and norfolk islands , southwest pacific ocean .\nreef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands\ngreek , gymnos = naked + greek , thorax , - akos = breast ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 1 - 45 m ( ref . 11441 ) , usually ? - 5 m . tropical\nindo - pacific : south africa and oman to the hawaiian and society islands , north to the ryukyu and ogasawara islands , south to northern australia and the loyalty islands .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 50 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2334 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 ; vertebrae : 121 - 133 . body light brown , with dendritic pattern . corner of mouth with a dark brown spot , preceded on lower lip by a large white blotch ( often followed by another above and behind corner of mouth ) ; upper and lower jaw pores usually in prominent white spots . vertebrae 121 - 133 .\noccurs in shallow coastal reef flats , usually found in less than 5 m water depth , but ranges to deep water rubble reefs ( ref . 48635 ) . benthic ( ref . 58302 ) .\nchen , h . - m . , k . - t . shao and c . t . chen , 1994 . a review of the muraenid eels ( family muraenidae ) from taiwan with descriptions of twelve new records . zool . stud . 33 ( 1 ) : 44 - 64 . ( ref . 6934 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00095 ( 0 . 00046 - 0 . 00197 ) , b = 3 . 10 ( 2 . 93 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 38 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nthere are close to 200 species in this family of eels . most species are found in shallow water among rocks and coral . and many species are active at night and spend the day hidden in the rock or coral crevices . most species are found in tropical and sub - tropical marine environments , a few species can be found in brackish water , and a a handful of species are found in fresh water .\nstatus and range is taken from icun redlist . you can click on the iucn status icon to go to the iucn page about a species .\nthreatened in us endangered in us introduced status taken from us fish and wildlife . click on u . s . status icon to go to the u . s . fish and wildlife species profile .\nindo - pacific : south africa and oman to the hawaiian and society islands , north to the ryukyu and ogasawara islands , south to northern australia and the loyalty islands . ;\nit is named for a distinct white spot on the lower lip near the corner of the mouth .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 83, "summary": [{"text": "dancer 's image ( april 10 , 1965 \u2013 december 26 , 1992 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse who is the only winner in the history of the kentucky derby to have been disqualified . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "dancer ' s image", "paragraphs": ["according to thoroughbred times , dancer ' s image was the leading freshman sire in japan in 1983 . according to jockey club records , dancer ' s image\nto ask other readers questions about dancer ' s image , please sign up .\ndancer ' s image was initially named \u201calvan t . \u201d in honor of peter fuller ' s late father . the name was changed when dancer ' s image was a yearling .\n, dancer ' s image died of colic in japan on december 25 , 1992 .\ndancer ' s image did get to wear the roses of a kentucky derby champion .\ndancer ' s verde ( dancer ' s image ) . 8 wins , 2d pimlico city of baltimore h . , l . sire .\ndancer ' s image ' s derby disqualification was named the top sports story of 1968 by sports illustrated .\npeter fuller and wife joan with dancer\u2019s image and richard mitchell ( rider ) in 1968 .\nas a youngster dancer ' s image used to roam a pasture at old runnymeade farm .\nnoors image , the dam of dancer ' s image , was claimed by fuller for just us $ 5 , 000 in 1958 .\ndancer ' s image : the forgotten story of the 1968 kentucky derby by milton c . toby\nwe\u2019d love your help . let us know what\u2019s wrong with this preview of dancer ' s image by milton c . toby .\nthe first and second favorites in the 1968 kentucky derby were calumet farm\u2019s forward pass and peter fuller\u2019s dancer\u2019s image , the latter being by the acclaimed racehorse and sire native dancer . like his sire , dancer\u2019s image was a grey . the colt was trained by lou cavalaris and ridden by bobby ussery .\ndancer\u2019s image had sore ankles and a veterinarian had given him the drug , commonly used to relieve inflammation of the joints . it was legal at many u . s . racetrack s , but not at churchill downs . why the drug appeared on dancer\u2019s image\u2019s test results remains a mystery .\ndancer ' s image had inherited tender ankles from his famous sire native dancer . they were especially sore after the colt ' s victory in his final derby prep , the wood memorial .\ndancer ' s image : the forgotten story of the 1968 kentucky derby by milton c . toby | the history press books\ndancer ' s image : the forgotten story of the 1968 kentucky derby by milton c . toby , paperback | barnes & noble\u00ae\npeter fuller was jaunting to the winner ' s circle 40 years ago , a harvard man who now had a kentucky derby winner in dancer ' s image .\nwon wood memorial s . , governor ' s gold cup s . , e . palmer heagerty s .\na month later dancer ' s image faced his toughest competition in the wood memorial , where he rallied from far back to score an impressive three - quarter - length victory . dancer ' s image would be the first starter in the kentucky derby for both fuller and cavalaris .\npeter fuller believed he was set up . either someone sneaked into the stall and gave dancer\u2019s image the drug or someone altered the test results .\nthe stewards passed the buck to the state racing commission , leaving behind a stream of unanswered questions about the disqualification of dancer ' s image .\ndancer ' s image was retired after the preakness with 12\nofficial\nvictories in 24 starts with career earnings of $ 236 , 636 . in the aftermath of the controversy a multimillion - dollar syndication fell apart . dancer ' s image entered stud in maryland in 1969 and later stood in ireland , france and japan . one of the leading stallions in japan , dancer ' s image died of colic in december 1992 , at age 27 .\nfuller bought noor\u2019s image in 1958 and bred her to native dancer , a celebrated stallion . he named the horse after his father but then changed his name to dancer\u2019s image when he decided to sell him . his wife joan begged him to keep the beautiful horse and he bought him back at auction .\ndancing on , by dancer ' s image . 2 wins in u . s . a . sister to dancer ' s verde , half - sister to raisela , joe frazier , unchallenged . dam of 12 foals , 10 to race , 6 winners , inc : -\nbute disappears from a horse\u2019s system six days after it\u2019s administered . it had been given to dancer\u2019s image more than six days before the kentucky derby . after the race , churchill downs followed its usual practice of testing the winner and one horse chosen at random . that\u2019s when the test results showed bute in dancer\u2019s image\u2019s system . the second place finisher , forward pass , was declared the winner , though he was not tested .\nthe kentucky state racing commission was aware of dancer\u2019s image\u2019s inherited leg problems , and swelling in the horse\u2019s front left ankle almost sidelined him for the 1968 derby altogether . history shows that fuller and his trainers were public about the horse\u2019s ankle problems .\ndancer\u2019s image stood at stud in the united states , ireland , france , and japan , with moderate success , and died in 1992 at age 27 .\nthree days later , churchill downs president walter knebelkamp announced dancer ' s image had traces of phenylbutazone , an anti - inflammatory drug , in his bloodstream during the race . runner - up forward pass was declared the winner . dancer ' s image was placed last - - the only disqualification in derby history .\nthe frisky colt was the spitting image of native dancer . he also inherited his troublesome ankles . when fuller ' s trainer , lou cavalaris , spotted the colt ' s weak ankles he recommended fuller put him in the yearling sale at hialeah . fuller reluctantly entered the colt . he also petitioned the jockey club to change the colt ' s name to dancer ' s image .\ndancer ' s image was disqualified by the stewards and placed 14th and last ; forward pass was declared the winner . the scandal raised all sorts of theories .\nlouisville , ky . - - peter fuller was jaunting to the winner ' s circle 40 years ago , a harvard man who now had a kentucky derby winner in dancer ' s image .\njockey bob ussery celebrates aboard dancer\u2019s image on his way to the winner\u2019s circle flanked by owner peter fuller , left , and trainer louis c . cavalaris jr . , right , at churchill downs .\ntoby starts off with a brief narrative about the career of native dancer , who would go on to sire dancer ' s image . peter fuller sent unproven broodmare noors image to native dancer , an outcross which he hoped would get him to the kentucky derby . the foal was originally named a . t . ' s image , to honor peter ' s father alvan tufts fuller . however , the colt inherited his sire ' s bad ankles and , as fuller was planning to sell him , he requested the name be changed to dancer ' s image , so that his father ' s namesake horse wouldn ' t be running for someone else , and likely losing . ironically , at auction fuller ' s wife convinced him to buy the colt back .\ndespite a slow start , dancer\u2019s image crossed the finish line first at the 1968 derby . but in the end , he would not be recognized as the champion .\nstill not knowing that the sample belonged to dancer ' s image , smith phoned lewis finley , one of the churchill downs stewards , and told him what they had .\nthere are no records of dancer ' s image getting bute since the sunday before the race . have you drawn any conclusions on how he tested positive for the drug ?\npeter fuller may have lost the battle , but he won the war and brought about change by standing up for dancer ' s image through years of costly legal wrangling .\nthis entry was posted in the breeders ' cup forum and tagged breeders ' cup forum , dancer ' s image , kentucky derby by ray paulick . bookmark the permalink .\nthe new hampshire thoroughbred dancer\u2019s image won , then lost , the kentucky derby in 1968 because his owner made a kind gesture to the widow of martin luther king , jr .\nthis entry was posted in racing and tagged abby fuller , dancer ' s image , horse racing , hrtv , peter fuller , thoroughbred by press release . bookmark the permalink .\nas a practical matter , though , it ' s difficult to imagine a crank letter writer being clever enough to obtain some bute , slip onto the backstretch , locate dancer ' s image , and administer the drug to a fractious , 1 , 000 - pound thoroughbred . what are some of the most surprising things you learned about the dancer ' s image case in doing your research ?\na billboard with dancer ' s image picture still stands at fuller ' s farm in new hampton , n . h . , proclaiming the colt as the derby winner , even though the record book says otherwise .\n\u201cmr . fuller received death threats , dancer\u2019s image was derided with a racial epithet around louisville , and one of the fuller stables was set on fire , \u201d the new york times wrote in fuller\u2019s 2012 obituary .\nat 2 : won maryland futurity s . , grey h . , clarendon s . , vandal s .\nwas the urine sample tainted ? did someone sprinkle crushed - up tablets of bute into the horse ' s feed ? was there pressure to crown forward pass yet another derby champion for calumet farm , a racing giant in those days ? was dancer ' s image set up as retribution for fuller ' s support of dr . king ? why was there limited security around dancer image ' s barn ? was it a gambling fix ?\nsent off as the 7 - 2 second choice , dancer ' s image rallied from last to win by 1\u00bd lengths over forward pass even though jockey bobby ussery lost his whip .\ntraces of phenylbutazone , known as bute , were found in dancer ' s image ' s post - race urinalysis . then it was legal at some tracks , but churchill downs wasn ' t yet one of them .\nin 1958 , fuller claimed noor ' s image , a former stakes runner , for $ 5 , 000 .\ntoby recently authored a book on that subject : \u201cdancer ' s image : the forgotten story of the 1968 kentucky derby ( published by the history press ; for more information click here ) .\non may 4 , 1968 , dancer ' s image crossed the finish line at churchill downs to win the 94th kentucky derby . yet the jubilation ended three days later for the owner , the jockey and the trainers who propelled the celebrated thoroughbred to victory . amid a firestorm of controversy , dancer ' s image was disqualified after blood tests revealed the presence of a widely used anti - inf\ni just want to thank jose for his support and friendship over these 32 + years that i have known him . dancer\u2019s image and i were fortunate to have him in our sphere . bravissimo !\nsome of the changes in procedure at churchill downs were immediate . horsesshipping in for the derby were put in one barn with enhanced security . prior to the dancer ' s image controversy , derby horses were scattered around the backstretch . dr . harthill was the only race track veterinarian allowed to maintain an office on the backstretch , and dancer ' s image was stabled in the \u201charthill barn . \u201d\nof course , this is a primary topic of mine but i have never seen it from a professional dancer\u2019s perspective .\nfuller thought he was targeted because of his support for martin luther king , jr . two days after the civil rights leader ' s assassination in memphis that year , fuller gave a purse of $ 62 , 000 won by dancer\u2019s image to king\u2019s widow , coretta scott king .\non a brilliant spring afternoon at churchill downs , fuller ' s strapping grey colt dancer ' s image was weaving his way through 13 rivals when jockey bobby ussery lost his stick at the three - sixteenths pole . it didn ' t matter . with a vigorous hand ride dancer ' s image surged to the lead in the final furlong and drew clear , winning by a length and a half in the 94th running of the kentucky derby .\ntoday , horses still graze contentedly , but visitors also find a timeworn billboard there saluting fuller ' s racing stars with a huge picture of mom ' s command ( his 1985 filly champion ) and dancer ' s image , proclaiming :\nwinner of the 1968 kentucky derby .\neight belles was buried at the kentucky derby museum . image by flickr user windsurfgirl .\nharthill later said he gave dancer ' s image a single dose of bute . he was a controversial figure in his own right , having twice been implicated in drugging scandals . he died nearly three years ago .\nhe died at age 89 on may 14 , 2012 in portsmouth , n . h . to this day , a weathered billboard at runnymede farm proclaims dancer ' s image the winner of the 1968 kentucky derby .\ntwo weeks later in the preakness , dancer\u2019s image was again disqualified after running third for bumping another horse and placed eighth in the ten - entry field . plagued by sore ankles , his racing career was over .\nit was legal before dancer ' s image , too ,\nussery said .\nvenetian way had it when he won the derby in ' 60 . i was second on bally ache that year .\nalex harthill , nicknamed the\nderby doc\nfor treating past winners , gave dancer ' s image a dose of bute six days before , seemingly enough time for it to clear the colt ' s bloodstream . trainer lou cavalaris agreed with the tactic .\nby current racing medication standards in the united states , dancer\u2019s image won the kentucky derby fair and square . but that was not the case in 1968 and the name inscribed as the winner will forever be forward pass .\npositive tests for any banned substances are extremely rare in the premier races . the most commonly cited example is dancer\u2019s image , whose victory in the 1968 kentucky derby was nullified when tests turned up traces of a painkiller .\nthe disqualification of dancer ' s image from winning the 1968 kentucky derby remains the only disqualification of a winner in the storied history of the triple crown . it was unquestionably one of the sport ' s most controversial decisions and still leaves unanswered questions 45 years later .\nprominent veterinarian alex harthill , whose long career included several other implications of improprieties , had given dancer ' s image a dose of \u201cbute\u201d almost a week prior to the derby , which normally would not trigger the positive test .\ndancer ' s image wove through 13 rivals from last place to win the kentucky derby by a length and a half . three days later , churchill downs ruled fuller had to return the $ 122 , 600 winner\u2019s purse . track officials discovered the painkiller phenylbutazone , also known as bute , in the horse\u2019s system .\nthat decision obviously rankled many at that time , including dancer ' s image ' s owner , peter fuller . in its wake it left a host of non - definitive speculation about the circumstances and any concrete explanations remain a mystery . inside information ' s thorough documentary serves to outline many of the unproven theories .\n\u201cthe reason for dancer\u2019s image\u2019s derby tragedy never would be exactly known , \u201d michael madden wrote in the globe in 1982 . \u201cfuller could have been the victim of a ) the thoroughbred establishment in kentucky or b ) even the flaming racial rhetoric of the spring of 1968 . \u201d\na picture on the card is about the size of two postage stamps , but it clearly shows ussery aboard dancer ' s image in the winner ' s circle after the 1968 derby , with peter fuller , the horse ' s owner , holding the reins and motioning to people in front of him to join the celebration .\nhere , in this close - up , you can see the the gas plumes painted along the highlight on the dancer ' s body .\nanother irony of dancer ' s image ' s derby disqualification is that forward pass , declared the winner after the disqualification , was not himself tested for drugs following the race ; in fact , the only other horse to be tested was the fifth - place finisher , kentucky sherry .\nfuller said he spent $ 250 , 000 and four years unsuccessfully fighting the dq in court . the derby media guide includes the official chart showing dancer ' s image as the winner , but in other sections forward pass gets the credit .\nin 1969 , the first five finishers in the derby were tested for prohibited medications . in 1968 , only dancer ' s image and one other horse selected at random , kentucky sherry , were drug tested . one of the claims made by peter fuller ' s attorneys was that forward pass was declared the winner without having been subjected to a drug test after the race . the results of the expanded drug tests also were announced immediately . the positive test for dancer ' s image was not announced until three days after the derby .\npeter fuller fought for years to have dancer\u2019s image declared the rightful winner of the kentucky derby . he appealed the racetrack\u2019s ruling to the kentucky state racing commission , which sided with churchill downs . he took his case to court and , in 1970 , won . but then he lost on appeal .\ni did not have an opportunity to discuss dancer ' s image in any detail with dr . harthill before his death a few years ago . i relied , instead , on sworn testimony he gave during the investigation and hearings . everyone agreed that dr . harthill was a brilliant veterinarian , and his record confirms that reputation . he also was a lightning rod for controversy throughout his career , and the circumstances surrounding the dancer ' s image case led to questions about his role \u2014 if he had one .\nthe late veterinarian , alex harthill , was a central figure in this drama . did you ever have a chance to interview him on dancer ' s image ? if not , what role did he play , based on his sworn statements in the case ?\nlong associated with fine thoroughbred horses , kentucky\u2019s bluegrass region is also home to america\u2019s oldest . . .\nthe day before the 1968 kentucky derby , peter fuller had such confidence in dancer ' s image that he practiced the walk from his box to the winner ' s circle at churchill downs in louisville . he even composed an acceptance speech . he demanded 50 tickets rather than the usual four allotted to owners .\nthere ' s no way to know for sure . the stewards accepted the racing chemist ' s positive test result without question and concentrated on how dancer ' s image received the bute . cavalaris and assistant trainer robert barnard were suspended because of the trainer responsibility rule , but there was never any evidence that linked them ( or anyone else ) to the bute .\na touch of derby in the orient ,\nwhich followed up on the japanese stud careers of dancer ' s image , forward pass and sunday silence , is the ninth chapter in jim bolus ' kentucky derby stories ( 1993 , pelican publishing company ) .\ndancer ' s image won the governor ' s gold cup at bowie a few days after rev . king was assassinated , and peter fuller ' s gift of the winner ' s share of the purse to mrs . king must have ruffled some feathers . fuller received a batch ofcrack , racist letters and he was worried enough to ask for additional security for the horse at churchill downs . that request was denied .\ni know they took the derby away from dancer ' s image ,\nsays a puffy , bright - eyed ussery , now a 53 - year - old jockey ' s agent and bloodstock salesman .\nbut we were first across the finish line , they paid off the people that bet on him , and that ' s good enough for me .\ndancer ' s image next ran third behind forward pass in the preakness , but was disqualified for bumping another horse and placed eighth . he was retired after that . fuller eventually sold him and the colt had a successful stud career overseas . he died in 1992 .\ndancer\u2019s image won the race , which was just weeks before the derby , and fuller made good on the promise , giving his winnings of more than $ 60 , 000 to the recently widowed coretta scott king . but the act of goodwill wouldn\u2019t come without consequences .\nhe had donated the earnings from one of dancer ' s image ' s pre - derby victories to coretta scott king , widow of the civil rights leader whom he had briefly met that year . he did so without fanfare , but the gift became public knowledge at the wood memorial after a tv announcer mentioned it .\nbrannigan , erin . dancefilm : choreography and the moving image . new york : oxford university press , 2011 .\nwhen a client comes into your office and says \u201cit ' s not about the money , it ' s about the principle of the thing , \u201d it ' s usually really about the money . there was a lot of money at stake in the dancer ' s image case \u2014 the winner ' s purse of $ 122 , 600 , a likely multi - million - dollar syndication that fell apart , a goldtrophy , and a quarter - million in legal bills \u2014 but peter fuller always maintained that he was most interested in righting a wrong and getting dancer ' s image the credit the horse deserved for finishing first in the kentucky derby . i never came across anything to suggest that fuller was not being completely honest about that . even now , when he reads something derogatory in the press about dancer ' s image , fuller usually writes a polite note to the author , or to the magazine or newspaper , and points out the errors . he was , and still is , a sportsman in the truest sense of the word .\nway out where you would never expect to see it is a large , open paddock owned by the longtime north hampton resident peter fuller . horses graze contentedly in the distance , but what catches the eye is a billboard proudly proclaiming the virtues of the farm\u2019s most famous equine residents from decades ago\u2014the filly champion mom\u2019s command , and dancer\u2019s image , touted as \u201cwinner 1968 kentucky derby . \u201d\nprior to the derby , fuller contributed some of dancer ' s image ' s winnings to coretta scott king , the widow of civil rights leader martin luther king , which was not well - received by many people in the south . that led some to surmise that the positive test may have been a backlash to the donation and fuller ' s general support of the civil rights movement .\ntrainer cavalaris and his assistant robert barnard were suspended for 30 days following the derby disqualification . forward pass won the preakness by six lengths . dancer ' s image did run in the preakness and finished third , but amazingly was disqualified again for bumping in the stretch and placed eighth .\nbid ' s image ( spectacular bid ) . 5 wins , 2d fair grounds dr ab leggio memorial h . , l , 3d fair grounds truly bound s . , l , furl sail h . , l . producer .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\none last thought : humans of the world untie\u2014free yourself from the bonds that hold you to an unrealistic body image .\nrosenberg , douglas . screendance : inscribing the ephemeral image . oxford and new york : oxford university press , 2012 .\nthe 1968 race changed that forever . after testing a sample of dancer ' s image ' s saliva and urine , the racing chemist ruled a positive test . the stewards accepted it without question . fuller unleashed his attorneys . they argued repeatedly that the chemist was not credible and the testing procedures were so flawed that the test results were unreliable .\nracing for a questionable triple crown , forward pass led until the eighth pole in the belmont stakes , eventually giving way to stage door johnny , who won by more than a length . forward pass wound up as a stallion in japan , where he died in 1980 . he could not match dancer ' s image ' s success in the breeding shed .\ndancer ' s image , ridden by bobby ussery , rallied from last to win the derby , besting calumet farms ' forward pass , but was later disqualified , and placed 14th and last , when traces of the illegal substance phenylbutazone , known commonly as \u201cbute , \u201d were found in his system .\nmilt toby attended his first kentucky derby in 1968 , the year peter fuller ' s dancer ' s image finished first but later became the race ' s only winner to be disqualified when a post - race test detected the prohibited anti - inflammatory phenylbutazone in his system . five years later , when toby joined the editorial staff of the blood - horse magazine , the controversy surrounding the race still had not been resolved .\nthe next edition of hrtv ' s award - winning inside information : dancer ' s image , on sunday , july 14 at 8 : 30 p . m . et , will be expanded to a special one - hour format to present an in - depth retrospective on one of thoroughbred racing ' s landmark cases , which will recount the machinations of the decision , along with revealing interviews with key people directly involved .\ntangled stories on both sides continue to make this case a curious one , but a lack of evidence from fuller\u2019s team ultimately led to the decision to disqualify dancer\u2019s image . three days after the 1968 derby , the kentucky state racing commission\u2019s chemist reported that he had detected traces of bute , or some derivative of the drug . bute wasn\u2019t illegal in most racetracks at the time , but at churchill downs , it was banned .\nbut on the night of may 4 , 1968 , in a mobile laboratory on the churchill downs grounds , an assistant racing chemist for the commonwealth of kentucky ran a $ 9 . 50 test by acidifying with sulfuric acid a urine sample taken from dancer ' s image after the race . he called kenny smith , kentucky ' s head racing chemist , who was attending a post - derby party at louisville ' s audubon country club .\nyes , especially my mommy friends after pregnancy . it\u2019s like a race to see who can get thin the fastest after their baby . it\u2019s a pressure all in its own . every person\u2019s\n\u201caccording to local and national sports writer billy reed , thoroughbred owner paul mellon once told mr . fuller he \u2018\u2026shouldn\u2019t have mixed politics and racing\u2019 in regards to the donation . \u2019\u201d goodlet said . \u201cthe implication being that some in the racing industry may have had issues with fuller\u2019s actions . however , any statement that state racing officials disqualified dancer\u2019s image as an act of retribution toward fuller and / or dr . king\u2019s protest is pure speculation . \u201d\nas the race approached , the biggest worry in fuller ' s mind was his horse ' s health . when dancer ' s image tweaked his right front ankle in a workout , dr . alex harthill , the famous\nderby vet ,\nadministered a therapeutic dose of four grams of phenylbutazone six days before the race . universally known as\nbute ,\nit is classified as a pain killer effective in alleviating inflammation of the joints .\nfor the first time in the 36 - year history of new york state\u2019s iconic \u201ci love ny\u201d tourism campaign , a thrilling action image of horse racing is featured on the cover of the state\u2019s annual summer travel guide \u2013 its signature promotional publication . read more\u2026\ndancer ' s image ( usa ) gr . h , 1965 { 4 - r } dp = 5 - 16 - 13 - 4 - 0 ( 38 ) di = 2 . 62 cd = 0 . 58 - 24 starts , 12 wins , 5 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 236 , 636\nafter snapping a few photos of the dancer\u2019s image shrine , i drove away wondering what mr . fuller , 85 , thinks of the current drug problems plaguing racing . steroid abuse and blood doping are rampant . bute , however , is now legal all across the country\u2014to the point where 40 years after the infamous derby disqualification , it\u2019s difficult to find a thoroughbred not running on it .\nthere have been suggestions by peter fuller , the owner of dancer ' s image , that the civil rights movement played a part in his horse being disqualified . he donated money to coretta scott king just days after her husband , martin luther king , was assassinated in memphis . do you give any credence to this angle ?\ndancer\u2019s image came in third behind forward pass in the preakness stakes , the second leg of the triple crown . he was disqualified again for bumping another horse . fuller decided to retire him after that race because of his sore ankles . he was sent to stud and died in japan at age 27 on december 26 , 1992 .\ndancer ' s image was disqualified from his victory in the derby for after post - race tests detected the prohibited anti - inflammatory phenylbutazone in his system . kentucky rules in 1968 called for zero tolerance for bute . was that because there was no quantitative testing available at that time or were the medication rules that strict by design ?\ndancer\u2019s image won the derby , circling the field from last to first . but two days later , the kentucky racing commission reported the post - race urine test had returned positive for butazolidin , a then - illegal drug likened to equine aspirin and commonly known as \u201cbute . \u201d runner - up forward pass was declared the official winner .\nthe news was big enough to land on the cover of sports illustrated , but several loose ends have left it open to much speculation through the years . who drugged dancer\u2019s image ? was he even drugged at all ? and did an act of kindness in the heat of the american civil rights movement have some effect on the decision ?\nphotographer barbara morgan discussing her first meeting with dancer martha graham , from the documentary barbara morgan : everything is dancing ( 1980 ) .\nthe scandal rocked the industry . conspiracy theories erupted . reputations were sullied . a tortuous court battle would drag on for more than five years . thirty - one months after his original run for the roses , a kentucky court declared dancer ' s image the rightful winner , only to see that decision overturned on appeal in april 1972 . fuller never collected the winner ' s purse of $ 122 , 600 .\nloved it . what a story . i ' m horse crazy so it was right up my alley . never knew about this . i ' ve met the jockey who rode dancer ' s image . he won the derby two years in a row . seems there was some skullduggery going on there . there ' s politics in everything . what a shame . of course now the rules have been changed .\ni have no idea ,\nfuller replied .\nas far as dr . harthill was concerned the horse was in his barn and he wanted him to win - - in my opinion . as far as we ' re concerned the only time dancer ' s image had bute [ that week ] was the [ sunday ] before the race .\non may 4 , 1968 , dancer ' s image crossed the finish line at churchill downs to win the 94th kentucky derby . yet the jubilation ended three days later for the owner , the jockey and the trainers who propelled the celebrated thoroughbred to victory . amid a firestorm of controversy , dancer ' s image was disqualified after blood tests revealed the presence of a widely used anti - inflammatory drug with a dubious legal status . over forty years later , questions still linger over the origins of the substance and the turmoil it created . veteran turfwriter and noted equine law expert milt toby gives the first in - depth look at the only disqualification in derby history and how the run for the roses was changed forever .\nnative dancer was sire to dancer ' s image , and was named horse of the year in 1952 and 1954 . they called him the gray ghost . going into the 1953 kentucky derby , he was far and away the favorite , with the shortest odds in derby history . but he was bumped twice during the race , and came in second to long shot dark star by a nose . it was the only race native dance ever lost . you can relive the 1953 derby in this video .\non may 4 , 1968 , dancer ' s image crossed the finish line at churchill downs to win the ninety - fourth kentucky derby . yet the jubilation ended three days later for the owner the jockey and the trainers who propelled the celebrated thoroughbred to victory . amid a firestorm of controversy , dancer ' s image was disqualified after blood tests revealed the presence of a widely used anti - inflammatory drug with a dubious legal status . over forty years later , questions still linger over the origins of the substance and the turmoil it created . veteran turfwriter and noted equine law expert milt toby gives the first in - depth look at the only disqualification in derby history and how the run for the roses was changed forever .\npeter fuller said he wouldn\u2019t take another horse to the kentucky derby unless he thought it could win . he never found that horse , but if he had he had a name for it : \u2018dancer\u2019s revenge . \u2019\nfuller hired five separate chemists who conducted private tests and didn\u2019t find any traces of bute , according to a 1981 globe story . the dagger in fuller\u2019s case was testimony from a veterinarian , who said he gave dancer\u2019s image a single tablet of the drug six days and seven hours before the derby , which fuller said he didn\u2019t know about . fuller defended his integrity in the years following , and remained skeptical of the entire incident .\nthe colt broke his maiden at woodbine racecourse and in a tough six - month juvenile campaign dancer ' s image started 15 times , closing out his season winning by a nose in the maryland futurity stakes . each morning cavalaris ' sad brown eyes inspected the colt ' s tender ankles , while his hands rubbed and then treated them with a variety of paints and liniment braces as well as bandages and tubs and tubs of ice .\n( 1981 ) . in 1970 she announced her retirement as a dancer , but she continued to create dances and to teach . her autobiography ,\ni recently sat down with an amazing woman , alexandra weber , and had the most interesting conversation about body image that i just had to share .\nat the start of the colt ' s 3 - year - old season cavalaris eliminated the blinkers , which allowed the colt to relax and rally from far off the pace to make a dramatic dash down the stretch . in early march , with bobby ussery in the irons , dancer ' s image nearly set a track record in the $ 100 , 000 governor ' s gold cup derby prep race at bowie racetrack . after the race , fuller turned down a $ 1 million cash offer for the horse .\ndespite the disqualification and the subsequent court decision , the kentucky derby media guide still includes the official chart showing dancer ' s image as the winner of the 1968 kentucky derby . their position is supported by sports illustrated , which pointed out in a 1968 article that kentucky rules provided for disqualification from purse money but not from a placing in the event of a drug positive .\npeter fuller ' s attorneys , on the other hand , argued from the start that the chemist was not credible and the testing procedures were so flawed that thetest results were unreliable . if dancer ' s image won the derby with bute in his system , and experts on fuller ' s side of the argument raised serious questions about that conclusion , how it happened remains a mystery . i ' d like to be able to answer that question , but 40 years after the fact it will take a confession to solve the riddle .\nthe 94th running of the kentucky derby is one that will forever be marked by an asterisk . dancer ' s image crossed the line first , but was later found to have had bute , then an illegal drug , in his urine and was disqualified , handing the victory to runner - up forward pass . some four decades later , details about dancer ' s image and his kentucky derby have mostly been forgotten . in his latest book , kentucky attorney and equine author milton toby retells this amazing story , the result of hours of digging through news archives and legal files , so that contemporary followers of horse racing history can fully understand what happened , including some irregularities in the testing methods , which to this day may draw into question the validity of the disqualification .\nthe post - race urinalysis came back the week after the derby with the finding that dancer\u2019s image\u2019s urine had traces of the anti - inflammatory phenylbutazone , or bute , which was a legal medication in some racing jurisdictions in 1968 but not in kentucky . dr . alex harthill , a noted racetrack veterinarian , said that he had administered bute to the colt six days before the derby , supposedly enough time for the medication to clear the bloodstream . skeptics did not buy harthill\u2019s timeline because of some previous similar episodes the vet was involved in .\ncourteous , by affirmed . raced twice . three - quarter - sister to lady affirmed , half - sister to festivity , bid ' s image . dam of 11 named foals , 9 to race , 6 winners , inc : -\nas for dancer ' s image , he faced formidable foes in calumet farm ' s forward pass and his puffy right front ankle that was especially sore following the wood victory . the clear favorite heading into the derby , forward pass , trained by henry forrest , had triumphed in the hibiscus stakes , the everglades stakes , the florida derby and the blue grass stakes , the premier derby prep race . calumet farm was confident of picking up its eighth derby trophy .\non may 4 , 1968 , dancer\u2019s image , a maryland - bred colt owned by boston boxer - turned - auto - businessman peter fuller , took the starting line at the 93rd running of the kentucky derby . fuller , the son of former massachusetts gov . alvan t . fuller , won with the same horse just a few weeks earlier at the wood memorial stakes in new york .\n\u201cfuller spent $ 250 , 000 over the next four years fighting dancer\u2019s disqualification , \u201d the globe reported in 2008 . \u201che won an early round in 1970 when a state circuit judge overruled the kentucky racing commission and declared dancer the winner . but fuller lost the final round two years later when the state\u2019s highest court found \u2018an abundance of substantial evidence\u2019 for the disqualification , despite acknowledging numerous contradictions in the voluminous trial record , which topped 4 , 000 pages . \u201d\ni have been learning ballroom dancing for about 4 years and have shopped at other stores . nothing made the difference as much as going to dancer ' s image and meeting nicole . she helped me get the right fit in shoes , took time to explain things to me , gave me insider tips on dancing and what to wear . it was a fabulous shopping and learning experience . highly recommended .\ndr . harthill stated on numerous occasions that he treated dancer ' s image with bute on the sunday before the race . that event never was in question . dr . harthill billed peter fuller for the treatment and fuller paid the charge . dr . harthill always denied giving the horse bute at any other time , however , and there was no evidence to suggest that he had any other involvement .\nthat tuesday , while bobby ussery played golf in new york , and ismael ( milo ) valenzuela , the jockey who rode forward pass to a second - place finish , was on a golf course in louisville , wathen knebelkamp , the president of churchill downs , announced that because of the test , dancer ' s image had been dropped to last place and the derby victory was given to forward pass .\nsteph\u2019s first real experience of a dancer\u2019s london left her in tears . until that moment , she had been , by everyone\u2019s consent , the greatest dancer in skegness . her parents had moved to the northern coastal town from hong kong when she was young . she was scouted from the local school and driven to the capital where she danced on the biggest stage she\u2019d ever seen , under coloured lights and before rows and rows of enchanted , sparkling eyes . when her standing ovation came , she knew it : this was what she wanted to do for ever .\n3rd prince george ' s stakes ( usa , 8 . 5fd , bowie )\nking was murdered on april 4 , 1968 . fuller didn\u2019t announce his gift to coretta scott king , but it made the news in louisville in the run - up to the derby . fuller feared reprisal . he received death threats , one of his stables was set on fire and dancer\u2019s image was given a racial slur as a nickname . fuller asked churchill downs for extra security . he didn\u2019t get it .\nmy daughter has been using dancer ' s image for three years now and finds them very reliable . she ' s always treated with value even in the store ' s busiest hours ( which are often ) . she mostly uses them to get fitted for pointe shoes and has always been shown attention to detail in fittings - not just focusing on what looks good , but what feels good for her . the employees are almost almost always attentive to their customers and looking to fill their needs . nice to have such a reliable dance supply and shoe fitting store in boston !\nbute was commonly used for training , but not for racing in 1968 . in 1962 , kentucky and illinois became the last two states to ban bute on race day . a decade later , bute was legal again in most states and emphasis shifted from zero tolerance to testing for acceptable levels of the medication . how to regulate bute remains a serious issue for racing today . lou cavalaris jr . , who trained dancer ' s image for owner peter fuller , said that the horse received his first dose of bute on the sunday before the derby , which everyone thought would be sufficient lead time for the drug to clear his system and not show up on a post - race test . cavalaris and fuller knew not to take any chances , and dancer ' s image was scratched from the derby trial because of the treatment .\nt . d . thornton writes from massachusetts . he is the author of not by a long shot\u2014a season at a hard - luck horse track , which was recently named the winner of the castleton - lyons - thoroughbred times best book of the year about horse racing . during the summer , he calls races as the track announcer at suffolk downs in boston . he looks back on dancer\u2019s image and the 1968 kentucky derby .\n\u201cdancer\u2019s image , void of speed through the early stages after being bumped at start , commenced a rally after three - quarters to advance between horses on the second turn , cut back to the inside when clear entering the stretch at which point his rider dropped his whip . responding to a vigorous hand ride the colt continued to save ground to take command nearing the furlong marker and was hard pressed to edge forward pass . \u201c\nin a mandatory urinalysis two days after the race , the thoroughbred tested positive for phenylbutazone , an anti - inflammatory tablet used for joint pain , which is better known in the racing community as \u201cbute . \u201d at the time , the substance was banned at churchill downs . despite a lengthy appeals process , dancer\u2019s image would be disqualified , and forward pass\u2014the second horse to cross the finish line that day\u2014would be declared the winner .\nwon governor ' s gold cup stakes ( usa , 8 . 5fd , bowie )\none of fuller ' s attorneys was ned bonnie , who still practices in louisville .\nget news as it happens . sign up for urltoken ' s email news alerts .\npack your beach blanket for a bittersweet tale of love and summer ' s magic .\nchoose the plan that\u2019s right for you . digital access or digital and print delivery .\nthere goes michelle queen , the commercial dancer , on her way to rehearse for a forthcoming video shoot ; there goes karl bowe , to join his castmates at dirty dancing at the aldwych ; there goes stephanie sit , the underground dancer , to practise freestyling with friends in an abandoned , graffiti - strewn corridor in the basement of the trocadero .\ndancer\u2019s image was a precocious gray whose career peaked in the spring of 1968 just as the country was becoming embroiled in political and civil unrest . after he won a prestigious derby prep race , fuller quietly donated the purse to the widow of dr . martin luther king jr . , but the gift sparked a backlash that included violent racist threats . fuller headed to louisville with a fast horse and a reputation as an anti - establishment northerner .\nthe highlighting is completed throughout the dancer ' s body . the blurred\nglow\neffect is intensified along her neck , arms , and upper thighs to give the illusion of ' illumination from within ' . on a separate layer , i do the secondary highlights for the ' fabric ' streaming around the dancer . her costume is what gives the feeling of weightlessness and indicate the flow of the movement in this image . soft , light pink is applied in\nsoft charcoal\nwith low opacity on broad area , while the same color in higher opacity with sharper tip is added along the edges of the fabric . the ' bubbles ' get their highlights in lines and spots on the same layer . the total number of layers utilized in this image was 7 : canvas , background wash , stars , dancer ' s outline highlights , gas plumes , costume details , and fabric details . i am a minimalist when it comes to the number of layers used . there are many digital artists who regularly utilize dozens or over a hundred layers in their works .\nrey alfredo ( show up ) . 4 wins at 1100m , 1400m in venezuela , la rinconada copa jib dancer , l , 4th la rinconada copa gran abuelo , l .\nit ' s important to remember what the court of appeals decision did , and what it did not do . in affirming the racing commission , the court of appeals did not make a ruling that the commission ' s conclusion that dancer ' s image won the derby with bute in his system was correct . what the court of appeals did do was to remind everyone that the racing commission ( and other state administrative agencies ) required only \u201csubstantial evidence\u201d to take action . this is much less than the \u201cbeyond a reasonable doubt\u201d standard in criminal trials and can be less than the \u201cmore likely than not\u201d standard in civil trials .\nthe second surprise was the amount of blind faith that just about everyone put into state racing chemists and their testing procedures . the dancer ' s image case was the first time that a chemist has been asked to prove that the testing procedures in use at the time actually were reliable . and although the racing commission ultimately determined that the tests could be trusted , the challenges raised by peter fuller and his attorneys were a wake - up call foreveryone .\nthe author seems biased in his account and fails to provide proof in many instances when he alleges incompetence etc . i am also astonished that he does not follow up more on the suspicious behavior by the veterinarian that treated dancer ' s image . in the end , i was not sure what the point of the book was . was it to say that phenylbutazone was actually not in the horse ' s urine sample ? or was it to say that maybe the drug was there , but the owner and trainer should not have been held accountable ?"]}
{"id": 114, "summary": [{"text": "gulella streptostelopsis is a species of minute air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family streptaxidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "gulella streptostelopsis was described by adolph cornelis van bruggen in 2007 based on material ( except for one specimen ) obtained for the national museum of natural history in leiden ( nationaal natuurhistorisch museum , formerly rijksmuseum van natuurlijke historie ) by ms h.m. meredith ( newquay , u.k. ; formerly malawi ) and her co-workers in the period 1975-1988 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the minute , almost smooth , shell ( length 2.0-2.4 mm ) resembles that of the genus streptostele , but is characterized by three-fold apertural dentition and just under six whorls .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this taxon may represent a new genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "gulella streptostelopsis", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for streptostelopsis definition . you find here streptostelopsis meaning , synonyms of streptostelopsis and images for streptostelopsis copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nstreptaxidae from pemba . 57\u201358 \u201cgulella\u201d ( aenigmigulella ) aenigmatica 59 \u201cgulella\u201d ( aenigmigulella ) aenigmatica , juvenile 60 \u201cgulella\u201d radius 61 \u201cgulella\u201d radius , juvenile 62 gulella gwendolinae ( resembling var . scissidens ) 63 gulella planidens .\nstudies on the streptaxidae of mala\u0175i 9 . description of gulella streptostelopsis , a new streptostele - like species of gulella .\nhave a fact about gulella streptostelopsis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for gulella streptostelopsis ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nstudies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of mala\u0175i 9 . description of gulella streptostelopsis , a new streptostele - like species of gulella [ 1 ]\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word streptostelopsis . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word streptostelopsis and , of course , streptostelopsis synonyms and on the right images related to the word streptostelopsis .\nac ( 2007 ) studies on the streptaxidae of mala\u0175i 9 . description of gulella streptostelopsis , a new streptostele - like species of gulella . zoologische mededelingen leiden 81 - bruggen\na . c . van bruggen : studies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of mala\u0175i 9 . description of gulella streptostelopsis , a new streptostele - like species of gulella 1\nfig . 6 . map of mala\u0175i showing the distribution of gulella streptostelopsis spec . nov . for numbers refer to \u2018material examined\u2019 . the arrow indicates the type locality .\nbruggen a . c . van , 2007 : studies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of malawi 9 . description of gulella streptostelopsis , a new streptostele - like species of gulella . 9 pp . zoologische mededelingen leiden 81 : 1 - 9 .\nhow can i put and write and define gulella unidentata in a sentence and how is the word gulella unidentata used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528gulella unidentata\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gulella unidentata\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528gulella unidentata\u9020\u53e5 , gulella unidentata meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nkeywords : gastropoda ; pulmonata ; streptaxidae ; gulella ; streptostele ; taxonomy ; malawi ; east africa .\ntwo new species of gulella ( mollusca : pulmonata : streptaxidae ) from the taita hills , kenya .\nnew taxa of gulella l . pfr . and ptychotrema m\u00f6rch ( mollusca , streptaxidae ) from eastern africa .\ngulella is a genus of very small air - breathing land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family streptaxidae .\ntable 1 . measurements in mm of 38 shells of gulella streptostelopsis spec . nov . from throughout its range . the holotype is no . 36 ; figured paratypes are nos . 23 and 38 . the numbers in the seventh column refer to the localities enumerated under \u2018material examined\u2019 .\ndr . william adam\u2019s iconography of central and west african gulella species ( gastropoda pulmonata : streptaxidae ) . part 1 : nominal taxa .\nland molluscs of zanzibar island ( unguja ) , tanzania with the description of a new species of gulella ( pulmonata : streptaxidae ) .\n\n' gulella systemanaturae\n' is a species of minute air - breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family streptaxidae .\n\n' gulella unidentata\n' is a species of very small air - breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family streptaxidae .\nthis may be an overlooked character as this has not been checked or noticed in other taxa with similar types of shell until the type description of\ngulella systemanaturae\n.\nthe next question to be discussed is whether g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . might be classified with one of the known subgenera of gulella sensu lato . these have been discussed in some detail by zilch ( 1960 : 569 - 573 ) . vaught ( 1989 ) and millard ( 1997 ) , simply enumerating generic / subgeneric names , give slightly differing versions , both incorporating sphincterocochlion verdcourt , 1985 . schileyko ( 2000 : 808 - 820 ) treats all subgenera including anatomical data where available . such data will eventually lead to a division of what is now called gulella and it is confidently expected that many subgenera will be elevated to genus rank . a few of the subgenera of gulella are seemingly well defined and these usually encompass only a limited number of species . on the other hand , many of the other subgenera are very broadly characterized and contain large numbers of nominal taxa . it appears that the present new species cannot be classified with any of the extant subgeneric units in gulella so that the matter must be left in abeyance . some alcohol material of the new taxon is available and should be properly evaluated , but this would involve micro - anatomy which is outside the competence of the present author . g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . might well represent an as yet unknown genus in the streptaxidae .\ngulella systemanaturae\nwas described by adolph cornelis van bruggen in 2008 based on collections from 1975 in royal museum for central africa , tervuren , belgium and 1985 collection in nationaal natuurhistorisch museum , leiden .\nverdcourt , b . , 1985 . new taxa of gulella l . pfr . and ptychotrema m\u00f6rch ( mollusca , streptaxidae ) from eastern africa . \u2014 j . conch . london 32 : 109 - 121 .\nderivatio nominis . \u2014 the epithet streptostelopsis ( latinized greek for streptostele - like ) refers to the likeness to shells of the streptaxid genus streptostele . the kindred epithet streptosteloides already exists in the family under discussion . the original combination was opeas streptosteloides von martens , 1897 , but this taxon appears to be a streptaxid , now named streptostele streptosteloides ( von martens , 1897 ) ( vide verdcourt , 2006 ; richardson , 1988 ; kabat & boss , 1997 ) . in view of the similarity of the names and probable causes for confusion in possibly closely allied genera the epithet streptostelopsis is proposed here .\nrecently verdcourt ( 2004 : 311 - 312 , figs 14 - 17 ) described gulella eoryi from mt . meru in northern tanzania . the shell of this taxon looks somewhat like that of g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . however , the shell of g . eoryi shows more ribbing , a deep umbilicus and \u201cat the back of the aperture a sloping arcuate lamella well away from the peristome corresponds to a deep furrow on the outside of the shell\u201d . this immediately makes the similarity of the two taxa entirely superficial .\ngulella streptostelopsis spec . nov . is described from a series of localities of mainly between 1000 and 1500 m a . s . l . in mala\u0175i south of about 11\u00b0s . the minute , almost smooth , shell ( length 2 . 0 - 2 . 4 mm ) resembles that of the genus streptostele ( hence the name ) , but is characterized by three - fold apertural dentition and just under six whorls . this taxon may represent a new genus ; pending studies on the anatomy no new generic name is proposed .\nbruggen a . c . van , 2008 : studies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of malawi 10 . description of gulella systemanaturae , a new species from dedza mountain . 6 pp . zoologische mededelingen 82 : 9 - 14 .\ndiagnosis . \u2014 a minute species of gulella s . l . , with more or less tapering , almost smooth , shell about three times as long as wide and with three - fold apertural dentition consisting of single angular , labral and columellar processes .\nbruggen a . c . van , 2011 : studies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of malawi 12 . four new species of gulella s . l . 16 pp . ( in english ) . zoologische mededelingen 85 ( 13 ) : 849 - 864 .\na search of the literature for possibly related taxa has so far proved in vain . pilsbry ( 1919 ) , the main text on congo land molluscs , provides no lead . the subgenus silvigulella pilsbry , 1919 , characterized by a clavate shell with the greatest width well below the middle , has a costulate shell . subsequent publications on congo streptaxids ( mainly van bruggen & van goethem , 1997 , 1999 ) are of no assistance either . a scrutiny of verd\u00adcourt\u2019s east african gulella key ( 1962 ) and subsequent papers ( covered in his 2006 checklist of east africa , but see next paragraph ) comes no nearer in supplying possible candidates for relationship to or at least similarity with g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . finally , connolly ( 1939 ) , particularly the overview of the southern african species on pp . 19 - 23 , also does not lead anywhere . the same applies to southern african species of gulella described since .\naccording to chapman & white ( 1970 ) all localities where the\ngulella systemanaturae\nhas been found are above the\nbrachystegia\nwoodland belt . gives a good impression of the area , depicting low - canopy montane forest near the summit of dedza mountain ( 2150 m ) . .\nfigs 1 - 5 . s . e . m . photographs of two paratypes ( nos . 23 and 38 of table 1 , both loc . no . 6 ; rmnh ) of gulella streptostelopsis spec . nov . 1 , shell , length 2 . 37 mm ( no . 38 ) ; 2 , aperture of do . ; 3 , apex of do . ; 4 , shell , length 2 . 21 mm ( no . 23 ) ; 5 , side view of aperture of do . scale bars 1 mm for figs 1 and 4 , 100 \u03bcm for figs 2 , 3 and 5 . s . e . m . photographs by j . goud ( rmnh ) .\nverdcourt , b . , 1962 . preliminary keys for the identification of the genus gulella pfr . occurring in east africa excluding the sections primigulella pilsbry and plicigulella pilsbry . \u2014 ann . mus . roy . afr . centr . ( 8\u00b0 ) sci . zool . 106 : 1 - 39 .\nliving animals of selected species from pemba ( not to scale ) . 2 \u201cassiminea\u201d aurifera 3 tropidophora zanguebarica 4 subulona ordinaria 5 gonaxis denticulatus 6 gulella planidens 7 tayloria shimbiensis 8 edentulina obesa 9 trochonanina mozambicensis 10 pembatoxon insulare 11 \u201cdendrolimax\u201d vangoethemi ( paratype 2 ) 12 dendrolimax vangoethemi ( paratype 1 ) .\nbruggen , a . c . van & j . l . van goethem , 1997 . dr william adam\u2019s iconography of central and west african gulella species ( gastropoda pulmonata : streptaxidae . ) . part 1 : nominal taxa . \u2014 bull . inst . roy sci . nat . belg . biol . 67 : 5 - 30 .\nbruggen a . c . van , 2006 : gulella johannae spec . nov . ( gastropoda , pulmonata , streptaxidae ) , a new land snail from the drakensberg range in limpopo province , south africa , with notes on g . johannesburgensis ( m . & p . ) . 10 pp . zoologische mededelingen leiden 80 ( 1 ) : 63 - 72 .\nsix of the seven adults from misali island have an additional palatal tooth , recalling var . scissidens connolly , 1922 , described from dar - es - salaam . the additional tooth is not present on either of the two adults from ras kiuyu . this is a very widespread species and several such forms have been named . neubert ( 1998 ) points out a discrepancy between paladilhe\u2019s ( 1872 ) description and figure of ennea isseli paladilhe , 1872 from yemen , and figures an additional specimen which strongly resembles gulella gwendolinae . this raises the possibility that ennea isseli is a senior synonym of gulella gwendolinae and , if so , also the question of whether it is truly native to arabia . a direct comparison of types is advised .\nbruggen , a . c . van & j . l . van goethem , 1999 . dr william adam\u2019s iconography of central and west african gulella species ( gastropoda pulmonata : streptaxidae . ) . part 3 : nine new species from the d . r . congo . \u2014 bull . inst . roy sci . nat . belg . biol . 69 : 31 - 45 .\nfinally attention should be drawn to the distribution of g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . it is so far only known from mala\u0175i , scattered throughout the country south of 11\u00bas between 800 and 1600 m , but mainly between 1000 and 1300 m a . s . l . first of all , this almost certainly is not a mala\u0175i endemic . as shown on the map ( fig . 6 ) many localities are sufficiently close to the borders of at least zambia and mozambique to predict occurrence in those countries , particularly as suitable habitat is available there .\nthe new species is generally easily recognized because of its small size and streptostele - like shell . zilch ( 1960 : 567 - 568 ) has summarized the knowledge of streptostele on the generic / subgeneric level ; in 1959 venmans had added the subgenus textostele , which is not covered in zilch\u2019s overview . schileyko ( 2000 : 802 - 807 ) has included anatomical data where available . it is difficult to find characters to reliably separate streptostele and gulella . repeatedly attention has been drawn to the poor delimitation of the genera in the streptaxidae ( e . g . , van bruggen & van goethem , 1997 : 6 - 7 , for gulella ) ; regrettably anatomical data are still very scarce and do not materially assist here . generally streptostele species appear to have costulate shells with no , or very poorly developed , apertural dentition . also , the number of whorls at times may be quite high ( i . e . , 7 - 10 ) , although a few nominal species may have numbers of whorls as low as in the above - described new species ( e . g . , streptostele jaeckeli venmans , 1959 ) . for the time being the new taxon has been classified with gulella , which genus in itself may be a polyphyletic unit .\n. . . forest reserves apart from a juvenile at msitu mkuu fr ( table 2 ) . on pemba , juvenile shells have complex dentition at a variety of stages . the living animal is creamcoloured . recent systematic work ( = - = rowson , 2010 - = - ) indicates \u201cg . \u201d aenigmatica does not belong in the genus gulella l . pfeiffer and a genus - level revision is in progress . 28 b . rowson et al . / zookeys 70 : 1\u201339 ( 2010 ) figures 57\u201363 . streptaxidae from . . .\nthe following three species ( 6 % of the total of 49 ) are known only from pemba and we consider them endemic : cyathopoma pembense , dendrolimax vangoethemi , and elisolimax roebucki . there are no endemic genera or subgenera and all three endemics have close relatives both on the mainland and elsewhere in the western indian ocean . dendrolimax vangoethemi probably occurs in the usambaras ( see below ) while elisolimax roebucki has had doubts raised over its species status ( see rowson 2007 p . 447 ) . the populations of \u201cgulella\u201d radius on pemba may be considered a separate species ( see notes , 28 ) . thus the rate of species endemism could be as low as 2 % ( considering only cyathopoma pembense endemic ) or as high as 8 % if ( considering cyathopoma pembense , both slugs , and the pemba \u201cgulella\u201d radius to be endemic ) . accepting a 6 % rate , a total of 36 ( 73 % ) of pemba\u2019s species are also found on unguja . of these , 33 also occur on the mainland , sometimes in small areas . the remaining two species ( 4 % of pemba\u2019s total ) are known only from pemba and unguja : pembatoxon insulare and gittenedouardia conulina . there are doubts about the species status of the latter ( see notes , 7 ) .\nall frs and habitat types contained at least one species not recorded elsewhere on pemba . importantly for conservation , 21 species ( approximately 45 % of the 47 species found ) were found only in frs , including the 10 rarest species ( those represented by the fewest individuals ) and all the slugs found . for example , curvella disparilis and thapsia curvatula were found only at ngezi fr ( sand / soil ) ; microcystina minima was found only at ras kiuyu fr ; and nesopupa minutalis was found only at msitu mkuu fr . another 21 species ( 45 % ) were found in both frs and non - forest habitat types , including the 10 most abundant species . these include several taxa treated by verdcourt ( 2000 ) as forest specialists ( tayloria shimbiensis , opeas delicatum , subulona ordinaria ) and at least one previously unrecorded from forest habitats ( assiminea aurifera ) . both the pemba - endemic cyathopoma pembense and the eastern arc species \u201cgulella\u201d aenigmatica occurred only in msitu mkuu fr and in non - forest sites . the remaining five species ( approximately 10 % ) were found only in non - forest habitats . these include the only certainly introduced species ( striosubulina striatella ) as well as two further taxa treated by verdcourt ( 2000 ) as forest specialists ( thapsia insulsa and gulella sexdentata ) .\nconversely , 92\u201398 % of pemba\u2019s land - snail species occur elsewhere . to date about 8 of these ( 16 % ) are known only from small areas of adjacent tanzania or kenya ( cyathopoma azaniense , \u201cgulella\u201d aenigmatica , tayloria shimbiensis etc . ) and could comprise a vicariant fauna whose ranges were split only by the pemba channel graben . alternatively , these and the remainder that occur more widely ( gulella planidens , streptostele acicula , etc . ) could have arrived by post - isolation dispersal , with species occurring nearby most likely to arrive soonest . successful dispersal to pemba argues against an especially strong isolation , since gene exchange with the mainland would remain possible . this contrasts with pemba\u2019s volant species for which winds are thought to have strongly limited westward passage from the mainland ( moreau and pakenham 1940 ; baker and baker 2002 ) . although accidental introduction by man has played a largely unknown but probably greater part in the land - snail fauna , subfossils on aldabra ( e . g . gerlach and griffiths 2002 ) indicate natural , overseas dispersal by land - snails in the region . rivers outflowing eastwards from the mainland ( e . g . the pangani , wami and ruvu ) could aid the dispersal of rafting taxa such as land - snails to the islands , even against seasonally prevailing currents . this could explain the discrepancy with the endemism in volant taxa .\nthe shell of g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . is subject to some variation in dimensions as shown by table 1 . the abundant material allowed for a check on clinal variation . however , it appears that there is no discernible geographical pattern in the measurements of the shell of the new species . both small and large shells derive from southern populations and to a slightly lesser degree this also applies to northern populations . as regards size it is not always easy to decide what shells are really adult , vide loc . 5 in table 1 ( shells nos . 20 and 25 ) . this sample consists of three shells , ( a ) a juvenile , 2 . 0 mm long and with 5 \u00bc whorls , but with developed apertural teeth and reflected labrum ; ( b ) a subadult , 2 . 21 mm long and with < 5\u00be whorls ( no . 20 in table 1 ) with poorly developed dentition and labrum ; ( c ) an adult , 2 . 25 mm long and with 5\u00be whorls ( no . 25 in table 1 ) with properly developed dentition and labrum .\nis there a pattern to be discerned in the distribution of the species under discussion ? there is an indication for this because so far g . streptostelopsis spec . nov . was not found in the mt . mulanje complex in the south of mala\u0175i , and also not on the nyika plateau and in the misuku hills in the north , all areas well searched for micro - molluscs . ms h . m . meredith and her co - workers throughout the years 1975 - 1988 have extensively worked these areas by sampling the leaf litter of many forests in and around mt . mulanje , the nyika national park ( including the chowo forest just over the border with zambia ) , and the misuku hills . dr r . jocqu\u00e9 ( mrac ) has also worked on leaf litter on the nyika plateau and the present author and his wife have done the same on the nyika plateau and in the misuku hills in 1990 . all this leads to the albeit preliminary conclusion that absence here might reflect a genuine distribution pattern . such a conclusion would generate two questions . would the new species reach its northern limits here , and , if so , what does delimit its distribution ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnational museum of natural history , p . o . box 9517 , 2300 ra leiden , the netherlands\nthe following abbreviations have been used : alc . for material in alcohol ; l / d for the ratio length / major diameter of shells ( this ratio is calculated from micrometer readings and may therefore differ from that calculated when these measurements are first converted into mm ) ; lw for length of last whorl in front view ; leg . m for leg . ms h . m . meredith ; bmnh for the natural history museum , london [ british museum ( natural history ) ] ; irsnb for institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , brussels ; mrac for mus\u00e9e royal de l\u2019afrique centrale , tervuren , belgium ; rmnh for national museum of natural history , leiden ( nationaal natuurhistorisch museum ; formerly rijksmuseum van natuurlijke historie ) .\nmaterial examined . all material has been derived from leaf litter samples ; damaged , subadult and juvenile shells have been expressly excluded from the type material . localities have been enumerated from south to north (\n) . \u2014 mala\u0175i : ( 1 ) thyolo dist . , thyolo , mwalantungi estate , litter streamhead forest , c . 1100 m , 31 . viii . 1982 , leg . j . chapman ( rmnh 92683 , 2 paratypes ) ; ( 2 ) thyolo , namingombo river , riverine forest litter , c . 1200 m , 8 . vi . 1980 , leg . m ( rmnh 92684 , 2 paratypes , 2 juv . ) ; ( 3 ) thyolo mountain forest on satemwa tea estates , submontane forest remnant , leaf litter , 1300 m , 17 . i . 2002 , leg . k . - d . b . dijkstra ( rmnh 92685 , 1 paratype ) ; ( 4 ) blantyre dist . , blantyre , soche mt . , submontane litter ne . side , 1400 m , 27 . viii . 1982 , leg . j . chapman ( rmnh 92686 , 1 paratype ) ; ( 5 ) blantyre , soche mt . , leaf litter sites nos . 3 - 5 , 1300 - 1450 m , 12 . iii . 1983 , leg . m ( rmnh 92687 , 2 paratypes , 1 juv . ) ; ( 6 ) chiradzulu dist . , lisau evergreen forest litter , c . 1300 m , ii . 1981 , leg . j . chapman [ rmnh 92688 , 9 paratypes ( among which shells shown in figs 1 - 5 ; 2 paratypes deposited in irsnb ) , 1 subad . , 1 juv . ; also alc . ] ; ( 7 ) chiradzulu dist . , lisau evergreen forest litter , c . 1300 m , 3 . i . 1982 , leg . h . patel ( rmnh 92689 , 2 paratypes , 1 damaged shell , 1 subad . ) ; ( 8 ) mulanje dist . , chigwankhalu hill , near mala\u0175i - mozambique border just s . of lake chilwa ,\nlitter , 800 - 900 m , early may 1983 , leg . h . patel ( rmnh , 1 juv . ) ; ( 9 ) zomba dist . , mpita forest near thondwe , leaf litter , c . 1100 m , 10 . ii . 1982 , leg . m ( rmnh , 1 damaged adult ) ; ( 10 ) zomba dist . , zomba , mulunguzi bridge ,\nriverine forest litter , c . 1000 m , 22 . iii . 1986 , leg . m ( rmnh 92690 , 2 paratypes , 3 subad . , 1 damaged subad . ) ; ( 11 ) zomba , mulunguzi bridge , riverine forest litter , c . 1000 m , 15 . xi . 1986 - 25 . iii . 1987 , leg . p . kamkodo ( rmnh 92691 , 5 paratypes , of which 1 deposited in mrac ) ; ( 12 ) zomba - namitembo road , namitembo river riverine forest litter , c . 1000 m , 24 . iv . 1984 , leg . m ( rmnh 92692 , 4 paratypes , 1 juv . ) ; ( 13 ) zomba , forest road ,\ndescription . \u2014 shell ( figs 1 - 5 ) small to minute , clavate , more or less tapering , greatest width well below the middle , always more than two - and - a - half times as long as wide , transparent when fresh to whitish when worn . umbilicus completely closed . spire produced , slightly tapering or sides at most subparallel , not convex , apex flattened , obtusely conical to mamillate . whorls five - and - a - half to just under six , hardly convex , superficially smooth but under high magnification with faint spiral sculpture and growth lines , growth lines turning to weak costulation behind the labrum ( fig . 5 ) . sutures somewhat impressed , fairly shallow , simple and filiform . aperture ( fig . 2 ) subovate , sometimes distinctly squarish at base , peristome slightly incrassate and reflected , aperture not or hardly obstructed by three - fold dentition : a small angular process ( usually a mere swelling ) , somewhat distant from and therefore not connected with apex of labrum so that there is no sinus ; opposite the angular denticle there is an upper labral process in the form of a thickening of the labrum , which process does not correspond to a depression behind the labrum ; finally , a very faint thickening of the lower columella may be interpreted as a columellar process .\nmeasurements of shell : 2 . 00 - 2 . 37 \u00d7 0 . 75 - 0 . 81 mm , l / d 2 . 62 - 3 . 17 , lw 0 . 87 - 1 . 00 mm , aperture height \u00d7 major diameter 0 . 56 - 0 . 62 \u00d7 0 . 44 - 0 . 50 mm , 5\u00bd - > 5\u00be whorls . holotype shell 2 . 31 \u00d7 0 . 78 mm , l / d 2 . 96 , lw 1 . 00 mm , aperture 0 . 69 \u00d7 0 . 44 mm , > 5\u00be whorls . mean values 2 . 18 \u00d7 0 . 78 mm , l / d 2 . 89 , lw 0 . 93 , aperture 0 . 59 \u00d7 0 . 47 mm , average values 2 . 19 \u00d7 0 . 75 mm , l / d 2 . 92 , lw 0 . 94 , aperture 0 . 59 \u00d7 0 . 44 mm ( n = 38 ) .\ndistribution ( fig . 6 ) . \u2014 so far only known from mala\u0175i , scattered throughout the country south of 11\u00bas and mainly between 1000 and 1500 m a . s . l .\ncorrespondence with ms meredith on this subject leads to an interesting observation . she writes : \u201cwhat does stand out , though , is that it is a species of riverine / lowland forest / submontane forest distribution . it is interesting to see chapman\u2019s ( i . e . chapman & white , 1970 ) descriptions on pages 141 , 153 and 161 / 2 . this does not , however , explain why we have not found it on some of the lower slopes of mulanje , or the misukus . the submontane forests on the nyika are on the slopes that haven\u2019t been properly studied \u2013 we have all looked in the more easily accessible montane forests of the plateau . \u201d ( meredith , in litt . , 28 october 2001 ) .\nacknowledgements are due in first instance to ms h . m . meredith for supplying the material , contributing data on the localities , and carefully criticizing the manuscript . mr j . goud of the mollusca section ( rmnh ) deserves credit for the s . e . m . illustrations ( figs 1 - 5 ) , expertly enhanced by p . a . van mulken ( biology section , leiden university ) . numerous visits to the mollusc departments of the natural history museum ( london ) , the institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique ( brussels ) , and the mus\u00e9e royal de l\u2019afrique centrale ( tervuren , belgium ) have always been of great value \u2013 the cooperation of our colleagues drs p . b . mordan ( bmnh ) , j . l . van goethem ( irsnb ) and f . puylaert & r . jocqu\u00e9 ( both mrac ) has been invaluable . dr c . o . dudley ( university of mala\u0175i , zomba ) is acknowledged for assistance with geographical problems .\nfield work in mala\u0175i of the present author ( 1988 , 1990 , 1993 ) has been mainly financed by leiden university , the koninklijke nederlandse akademie van wetenschappen ( royal netherlands academy of arts and sciences , amsterdam ) , wotro / nwo ( wetenschappelijk onderzoek in de tropen , the hague ) , and the stichting tot internationale natuurbescherming ( foundation for international conservation , van tienhoven stichting , amsterdam ) .\n1 . for no . 8 in this series vide bruggen , a . c . van & a . j . de winter , 2003 . studies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of mala\u0175i 8 . a revision of \u2018marconia\u2019 hamiltoni ( smith ) , the largest local streptaxid , with the description of a new genus . \u2014 zool . verh . leiden 345 : 59 - 78 , figs . 1 - 21 .\nbruggen , a . c . van & h . m . meredith , 1984 . a preliminary analysis of the land molluscs of mala\u0175i . in : a . solem & a . c . van bruggen , eds . , world - wide snails . biogeographical studies on non - marine mollusca : 156 - 171 . \u2014 e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden .\nbruggen , a . c . van & a . j . de winter , 2003 . studies on the streptaxidae ( mollusca : gastropoda pulmonata ) of mala\u0175i 8 . a revision of \u2018marconia\u2019 hamilton i ( smith ) , the largest local streptaxid , with the description of a new genus . \u2014 zool . verh . leiden 345 : 59 - 78 .\nchapman , j . d . & f . white , 1970 . the evergreen forests of malawi : 1 - 190 . commonwealth forestry institute , university of oxford , oxford .\nconnolly , m . , 1939 . a monographic survey of south african non - marine mollusca . \u2014 ann . s . afr . mus . 33 : i - iii , 1 - 660 .\nkabat , a . r . & k . j . boss , 1997 . karl eduard von martens ( 1831 - 1904 ) : his life and works : 1 - 417 . department of mollusks , museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cambridge mass .\nmillard , v . , 1997 . classification of mollusca . a classification of world wide mollusca : 1 - 544 . rhine road , south africa .\npilsbry , h . a . , 1919 . a review of the land mollusks of the belgian congo chiefly based on the collections of the american museum congo expedition , 1909 - 1915 . \u2014 bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 40 : i - x , 1 - 370 .\nrichardson , c . l . , 1988 . streptaxacea : catalog of species . part 1 streptaxidae . \u2014 tryonia 16 : i , 1 - 326 .\nschileyko , a . a . , 2000 . treatise on recent terrestrial pulmonate molluscs . part 6 . rhytididae , chlamydephoridae , systrophiidae , haplotrematidae , streptaxidae , spiraxidae , oleacinidae , testacellidae . \u2014 ruthenica suppl . 2 : 731 - 880 ( streptaxidae pp . 771 - 835 ) .\nvaught , k . c . [ eds r . t . abbott & k . j . boss ] , 1989 . a classification of the living mollusca : i - xii , 1 - 195 . melbourne , fla . , u . s . a .\nvenmans , l . a . w . c . , 1959 . notes on molluscs from the belgian congo 1 . genus streptostele h . dohrn , 1866 . \u2014 rev . zool . bot . afr . 60 : 31 - 48 .\nverdcourt , b . , 2004 . new and little known species of terrestrial mollusca from east africa and congo ( kinshasa ) . \u2014 ann . hist . - nat . mus . natn . hung . 96 : 299 - 315 .\nverdcourt , b . , 2006 . a revised list of the non - marine mollusca of east africa ( kenya , uganda and tanzania , excluding lake malawi ) : 1 - 75 . published by the author , maidenhead .\nzilch , a . , 1959 - 1960 . gastropoda euthyneura . \u2014 handb . pal\u00e4ozool . ( 6 ) 2 : i - xii , 1 - 834 . berlin - nikolassee ( streptaxidae pp . 555 - 578 , 1960 ) .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nuntil recently , species which are now in the genus costigulella were included here .\nadolph cornelis ' dolf ' van bruggen ( 9 july 1929 \u2013 3 june 2016 ) was a dutch malacologist , entomologist and botanist . his works were about the tropics and tropical africa . his career lasted over 50 years . he was an expert especially in the land snail families streptaxidae , achatinidae and maizaniidae . as of 2008 , he had written some 655 scientific publications .\nall content from kiddle encyclopedia articles ( including the article images and facts ) can be freely used under attribution - sharealike license , unless stated otherwise . cite this article :\ncontent is available under cc by - sa 3 . 0 unless otherwise noted . kiddle encyclopedia articles are based on selected content and facts from wikipedia , rewritten for children . powered by mediawiki .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\n. . . y colour forms . voeltzkow\u2019s ( 1923 ) record of \u201crachis brauensis mart . \u201d ( sic ) probably refers to r . braunsi from fundu i . ( haas , 1929 ) . the genus is here given as rhachistia rather than rhachidina ( see = - = solem 1959 - = - , mordan 1992 , herbert and kilburn 2004 ) . there is a hypothesis that bulimus histrio l . pfeiffer , 1854 , described from the new hebrides , is a synonym of r . braunsi . solem ( 1964 ) cited verdcourt ( 1961 ) . . .\nimportant bird areas in tanzania : a first inventory . wildlife conservation society of tanzania , dar es - baker , baker - 2002\nannoted checklist of the terrestrial and freshwater molluscs of the arabian peninsula with description of new species . fauna of arabia\n. . . as ( 1929 ) gives the record from chake chake . fischer - piette and vukadinovic ( 1974 ) consider bulimus johanninus morelet , 1877 , described from the comoros , a synonym of a . gracile . recent authors ( e . g . = - = neubert 1998 - = - , gerlach 2006b , griffiths and florens 2006 ) rather than verdcourt ( 2006 ) and rowson ( 2007 ) are followed here in treating this species in allopeas as distinct from lamellaxis . 1 8 . curvella subviresc . . .\n. . . s familiar with a . clavulinum in botanic gardens in the uk , which in turn have been said to come from east africa ( kerney and cameron 1979 ) yet never included a . clavulinum in his east african lists ( = - = verdcourt 1983 - = - , 2000 , 2006 ) . this should be further investigated . 20 . opeas lamoense melvill & ponsonby , 1892 buliminus lamoense melvill and ponsonby 1892 : 90 ; pl . v , fig . 12 notes . pemba specimens reach 11 . 0 \u00d7 4 . 0 . . .\nprys - jones r . p . , the\u0301baud c . 2003 . molecular phylogeography reveals island colonization history and diversification of western indian ocean sunbirds ( nectarinia - warren , bermingham , et al .\ncoastal forests of eastern africa : status , endemism patterns and their potential causes - nd , gp , et al . - 1998\n. . . arion ) . the monophyly of these major groups is questionable while the systematics of tropi - 16 b . rowson et al . / zookeys 70 : 1\u201339 ( 2010 ) cal limacoidea is still far from resolved ( e . g . tillier 1979 , = - = hausdorf 1998 - = - , schileyko 2002 ) , but it remains possible that this species is related to one of them rather than other dendrolimax . distribution : pemba island ; probably also east usambara mts . etymology : vangoethem . . .\nthe geology and geophysics of coastal tanzania - pe , ja , et al . - 1971\nergebnisse der osterreichischen neu kaledonien - expedition 1965 , terrestrische gastropoda i ( exkl . veronicellidae und athoracophoridae\n. . . that histrio was an early anthropogenic introduction from east africa . though not quite correct ( the name braunsi did not appear in solem 1959 ) this was followed by other workers in the region ( e . g . = - = starm\u00fchlner 1970 - = - ) and there is now a consensus that the australasian populations originated in east africa ( e . g . stanisic 1998 , herbert and kilburn 2004 ) . however , verdcourt ( 1961 , 1983 , 2006 ) remained ambiguous abou . . .\n. . . dispersal to islands ( e . g . gittenberger 2007 ) . in east africa , the lowland land - snail fauna is poorlyknown but now documented in a few coastal forest fragments in which endemism to fragments is high ( = - = tattersfield 1998 - = - , lange and mwinzi 2003 , rowson 2007 ) . these coastal forests form a region of endemism scattered through the zanzibar - inhambane vegetation mosaic of white ( 1983 ) and support the majority of the region . . .\nprys - jones rp , thebaud c ( 2006 ) immigration , species radiation and extinction in a highly diverse songbird lineage : white - eyes on indian ocean islands . molecular ecology 15 - bh , bermingham\ntropical african platycnemis damselflies ( odonata : platycnemididae ) and the biogeographical significance of a new species from pemba island - dijkstra , clausnitzer , et al . - 2007\ngeology of east africa . beitr\u00e4ge zur regionalen geologie der erde - schl\u00fcter - 1997\ndescriptions of new species of shells collected by geoffrey nevill esq . , at - adams\nhabitat selection by terrestrial birds on pemba island ( tanzania ) , with particular reference to six endemic taxa . biological conservation 95\n. . . ation and moist climate might permit locally - adapted species to persist in a broader range of habitats than their mainland counterparts . a similar observation has been made for pemba\u2019s endemic birds ( = - = catry et al . 2000 - = - ) . b ) imbalance across land - snail families , species were recorded in the same rank order and approximately the same proportions as on unguja ( rowson 2007 ) and the coastal region as a whole ( verdcourt . . .\nnotes on african non - marine mollusca , with descriptions of many new species . annals and magazine of natural history series 9\n. . . latus pro tem . rather than the more restricted g . gibbonsi taylor , 1877 . a revision of the east african taxa attributed to \u201cgonaxis\u201d is currently under way ( rowson in prep . ) . 26 . tayloria shimbiensis = - = connolly , 1922 - = - figs 7 , 33\u201335 tayloria shimbiensis connolly 1922 : 487 notes . this species has not previously been recorded beyond the type locality ( shimba hills ) ( verdcourt 2006 ) . according to verdcourt ( 1958 ) , its . . .\n. . . vaginulus alte f\u00e9russac 1821\u20131822 : 14 notes . voeltzkow ( 1923 , p . 179 ) recorded this species from pemba as \u201cvaginula brevis\u201d v . brevis fischer , 1872 is considered a synonym of the widespread l . alte ( = - = forcart 1953 - = - , verdcourt 2006 ) . we tentatively refer two small juveniles from ngezi fr to this species . 7 . gittenedouardia conulina ( von martens , 1869 ) fig . 29 buliminus ( pachnodus ) von martens 1869 : 153 notes . t . . .\n. . . less than 200m ; pemba effectively lies off the continental shelf ( fig . 1a ) . while the presence of a terrestrial fauna in pemban rocks supports the presence of land since at least the middle miocene ( = - = pickford 2008 - = - ) , this land is believed to have been part of the mainland until the formation of the pemba channel by a graben fault approximately 6 ma ( early pliocene ; kent et al . 1971 , clarke and burgess 2000 ) . ot . . .\n1831 description des coquilles terrestres recueilles pendant un voyage \u00e0 c\u00f4te occidentale d\u2019afrique , et au br\u00e9sil . annales des sciences naturelles 24 - rang\n. . . 07 ) . in east africa , the lowland land - snail fauna is poorlyknown but now documented in a few coastal forest fragments in which endemism to fragments is high ( tattersfield 1998 , lange and mwinzi 2003 , = - = rowson 2007 - = - ) . these coastal forests form a region of endemism scattered through the zanzibar - inhambane vegetation mosaic of white ( 1983 ) and support the majority of the region\u2019s narrowrange endemics ( burgess et . . .\nnotes on east african land and freshwater snails 11 . miscellaneous records from kenya and tanzania including the description of two new species . \u2014 basteria 42\n. . . rag ) ras kiuyu fr msitu mkuu fr non - fr sites 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 assimineidae \u201cassiminea\u201d aurifera preston , 1912 3 2 429 / 18 + + + + + + + + + + 10 cyclophoridae cyathopoma azaniense = - = verdcourt , 1978 - = - 4 13\u201315 + 1 cyathopoma pembense sp . n . 1 16\u201327 + + + + 4 pomatiidae tropidophora zanguebarica ( petit , 1850 ) 5 3 432 / 3 + + + + + + + + + + + 11 veronicellidae laevicaulis alte ( f\u00e9russac , 1821 ) 6 432 . . .\n. . . nguja ( lange and mwinzi 2003 , verdcourt 2006 , rowson 2007 ) . however , maizania is absent from the pliocene - pleistocene central highlands of kenya , a montane forest area of apparently suitable habitat ( = - = verdcourt 1984 - = - ) . its absence from pemba could suggest pemba , unlike unguja , was isolated before maizania could reach it . alternatively , maizania may have reached unguja only after it became an island , in which case . . .\na preliminary note on the african element among the streptaxids ( mollusca ) of the western indian ocean islands . in : van zinderen bakker snr em , coetzee ja ( eds ) paleoecology of africa and the surrounding islands . vol . 10\u201311 . balkema - ac - 1978\nac ( 2008 ) new studies on the land molluscs of malawi , a second interim progress report . prolegomena for a new checklist - bruggen\nmadagascan georissa , cyclotus , omphalotropis and so - called chondrocyclus . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde 133 - kc - 2004\n. . . nt consideration since slugs may change in appearance as they grow . however , neither verdcourt and polhill , van goethem with his experience of growth series of many taxa , nor other slug workers ( e . g . = - = forcart 1967 - = - ) could attribute these forms to any known species or genus . verdcourt and polhill ( 1961 ) noted that there was no absolute criterion , e . g . concerning the size of the albumen gland , for recognising adu . . .\n2006b ) terrestrial and freshwater mollusca of the seychelles islands . backhuys , leiden , the netherlands , 141 pp . b . rowson et al - gerlach\ndescription of pembatoxon insulare gen . n . , sp . n - jl - 1975\nr\u00e9vision syst\u00e9matique des urocyclinae ( mollusca , pulmonata , urocyclidae ) . annales mus\u00e9e royal de l\u2019afrique centrale tervuren , sciences zoologiques 218 : 1\u2013355 - jl - 1977\ndie binnenmollusken der voeltzkow\u2019schen reisen in ostafrika und den ostafrikanischen inseln . zoologische jahrb\u00fccher 57 : 387\u2013430 , pls\n. . . the pemba material is here referred to braunsi , whose varieties we consider only colour forms . voeltzkow\u2019s ( 1923 ) record of \u201crachis brauensis mart . \u201d ( sic ) probably refers to r . braunsi from fundu i . ( = - = haas , 1929 - = - ) . the genus is here given as rhachistia rather than rhachidina ( see solem 1959 , mordan 1992 , herbert and kilburn 2004 ) . there is a hypothesis that bulimus histrio l . pfeiffer , 1854 , described from th . . .\nke ( 1869 ) conchylien aus zanzibar zwischen sesamsaamen . nachrichtsblatt der deutschen malakozoologischen gesellschaft 1 - martens\n1892 ) ueber die von dr . stuhlmann in nordost - afrika gesammelten landund s\u00fcsswasser - mollusken . sitzungs - berichte der gesellschaft naturforschender freunde zu - ke - 1892\nr\u00e9vision des urocyclidae ( mollusca , gastropoda , pulmonata ) . anatomiesyst\u00e9matique - zoogeographie . annales mus\u00e9e royal de l\u2019afrique centrale tervuren , sciences zoologiques 180 - jj - 1970\notopoma gray 1850 - a few words to add to a 150 years old debate . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde 132\n. . . er recent decades . note : verdcourt treats all east african tropidophora in subgenus otopoma gray , 1850 , but the asian type species of this belongs in cyclophoridae not pomatiidae ( = pomatiasidae ) ( see = - = neubert 2003 - = - ) . 6 . laevicaulis alte ( f\u00e9russac , 1821 ) vaginulus alte f\u00e9russac 1821\u20131822 : 14 notes . voeltzkow ( 1923 , p . 179 ) recorded this species from pemba as \u201cvaginula brevis\u201d v . brevis fischer , 1872 is consider . . .\nde la saussaye m ( 1859 ) description d\u2019une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle . journal de conchyliologie 7 : 384\u2013385 , pl - petit\ncontaining the monographs of the genera bulimus , achatina , dolium , b . rowson et al - volume\nharzhauser m , berning b , kroh a ( 2010 ) sedimentary evolution of a late pleistocene wetland indicating extreme coastal uplift in southern tanzania . quaternary research 73 : 136\u2013142 - reuter , we\nea ( 1890 ) list of land - and freshwater - shells collected by dr . emin pasha in central africa , with descriptions of new species - smith\n. . . i did not appear in solem 1959 ) this was followed by other workers in the region ( e . g . starm\u00fchlner 1970 ) and there is now a consensus that the australasian populations originated in east africa ( e . g . = - = stanisic 1998 - = - , herbert and kilburn 2004 ) . however , verdcourt ( 1961 , 1983 , 2006 ) remained ambiguous about placing the two in synonymy and objected that the colour pattern in solem\u2019s ( 1959 ) black and white picture o . . .\ndescriptions of two new taxa of tayloria bgt . together with a synopsis of the genus . revue de zoologie et de botanique africaines 58 : 3\u20134 - verdcourt - 1958\neast african slugs of the family urocyclidae , iii & iv . the genus trichotoxon - verdcourt , rm - 1961\n. . . through the zanzibar - inhambane vegetation mosaic of white ( 1983 ) and support the majority of the region\u2019s narrowrange endemics ( burgess et al . 1998 , burgess and clarke 2000 ) which include landsnails ( = - = verdcourt 2000 - = - , rowson 2007 ) . emberton et al . ( 1997 ) found that within tanzania , both diversity and endemism peaked in the northern coastal forests , those nearest pemba . the forest on pemba is greatly depleted outs . . .\n. . . differ from the few other east african cyclophoridae in being larger and more depressed than c . azaniense verdcourt , 1978 ( figs 13\u201315 ) , an undescribed azaniense - like species from the east usambaras ( = - = verdcourt 2006 - = - ; nmw material examined ) , and the malawian c . tres van bruggen , 2008 ( van bruggen 2008 ) . they are also larger than the central african c . papillaris ( von martens , 1892 ) and have fewer spiral keels ( se . . .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nb rowson , 1 b . h . warren , 2 and c . f . ngereza 3\numr c53 pvbmt , universit\u00e9 de la r\u00e9union - cirad , 7 chemin de l\u2019irat , ligne paradis , 97410 st . pierre , r\u00e9union , france\nnational museums of tanzania , shabaan robert street , po box . 511 , dar es salaam , tanzania\ncorresponding author : xue - xin chen ( nc . ude . ujz @ nehcxx ) .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\npemba is thought to have had a longer and / or stronger history of isolation than its better - known counterpart , unguja . the extent to which the biota support this hypothesis of greater oceanicity have been debated . here , pemba\u2019s terrestrial mollusc ( \u201cland - snail\u201d ) fauna is surveyed and reviewed for the first time . we find at best equivocal evidence for the following hallmarks of greater oceanicity : impoverishment , imbalance , and a high rate of endemism . at least 49 species are present , families are represented in typical proportions , and there are only between two and four island - endemic species - i . e . a 4 % to 8 % rate of endemism . for land - snails , isolation thus seems to have been short ( pleistocene ) or , if longer , weak . nevertheless , pemba does host endemic and globally rare species . forty - five percent of the species found , including most of these , is restricted to forest reserves , with ngezi forest reserve particularly rich . a further 45 % are able to tolerate the island\u2019s woody cultivated habitats . one new snail species ( cyclophoridae : cyathopoma ) and one new slug species ( urocyclidae : dendrolimax pro tem . ) are described . new data and illustrations are provided for other taxa .\npemba is one of the two main indian ocean islands of zanzibar , tanzania , the other being unguja ( itself commonly referred to as \u201czanzibar\u201d ) . it has long been recognised that although the two are of comparable size , topography , distance from the mainland , as well as climate and climatic history ( e . g .\n) , they differ in their geological and biotic history . geologically , both islands consist of miocene rocks of continental origin fringed by uplifted pleistocene coral rag limestone platforms (\n) . sea level lowstands of up to 145m below present since pemba\u2019s separation , while critical for the evolution of other western indian ocean island faunas ( e . g .\n) , would therefore not have sufficed to reconnect pemba to the mainland or unguja . unguja , in contrast , was most recently isolated from the mainland in the pleistocene (\n) probably as little as 10\u201318 thousand years ago . thus even if pemba\u2019s isolation was as recent as the latest pliocene ( 1 ma ) , it would have remained an island for up to 100 times longer than unguja .\na pemba and the surrounding area . contours : 200m and 1000m ( above sea level ) ; 200m ( below sea level ) . the land below 400m , including the islands , roughly corresponds to the zanzibar - inhambane vegetation mosaic of white ( 1983 ) in which coastal forest fragments are scattered . b sites surveyed on pemba in 2009 , numbered as in table 1 , with forest reserves ( shaded areas ) and large towns marked .\nto examine how the land - snail fauna reflects the strength and duration of pemba\u2019s isolation we sought evidence of a ) impoverishment ; b ) imbalance in composition ; and c ) increased endemism , each relative to unguja and to mainland coastal forests . this required that as many species as possible were documented . we also aimed to clarify patterns of species presence or absence between habitat types and between frs , data on which are currently absent for most pemban taxa and limited for other tanzanian coastal taxa .\nsurvey work was carried out in february 2009 . survey sites were selected in each fr and in additional sites covering most of the island ( plus misali i . , a small island nature reserve to the west ;\n; collecting effort was quantified although it varied across sites . while no survey can guarantee to find all species , these are two of the most important considerations in surveys of this type (\n) . land - snails were identified with reference to collections and the literature and are deposited at the national museum of wales , uk ( nmw ) and national museums of tanzania ( nmt ) . as in\n, informal morphospecies names ( \u201csp . a\u201d etc . ) are avoided , one advantage being more accurate comparison with other studies .\n) and grouped into habitat types . ngezi fr sites are grouped into two habitat types according to underlying geology . \u201cperson - hours\u201d is the total time spent on direct search and \u201clitter\u201d is the approximate volume of litter sieved ( litres ) . codes in square brackets are original site names and dates of collection .\nhigh moist forest on sandy alluvial soil within reserve less than 1km from entrance [ n1 , 7 . 2 . 09 ]\nhigh moist forest on sandy alluvial soil in centre of reserve [ n3 , 8 . 2 . 09 ]\nhigh forest and swamp forest on dark alluvial soil in north of reserve [ n6 , 11 . 2 . 09 ]"]}
{"id": 117, "summary": [{"text": "flat-backed spider tortoise ( pyxis planicauda ) , more commonly known as the flat-tailed tortoise , is a turtle that belongs to the testudinidae family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the various common names for this small tortoise usually refer to the noticeably flattened nature of its oblong upper-shell or its tail .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the flat-backed spider tortoise is endemic to the west coast of madagascar , between the monrondava and tsiribihina rivers .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "due to the specifications of its habitat , the flat-backed spider tortoise is classified as critically endangered on the iucn red list . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "flat - backed spider tortoise", "paragraphs": ["flat - backed spider tortoise , kapidolo , madagascar flat - shelled tortoise , malagasy flat - tailed tortoise .\nflat - backed spider tortoise at philadelphia zoo . mark pellegrini | turtles | pinterest | tortoise , zoos and reptiles\nthe avenue of the baobabs , with a flat - backed spider tortoise ( pyxis planicauda ) in the foreground , near morondava , madagascar .\nthe avenue of the baobabs , with a flat - backed spider tortoise ( pyxis planicauda ) in the foreground , nera morondava , madagascar .\nintro photo of a flat - backed spider tortoise by antony stanley on flickr ( creative commons attribution - sharealike 2 . 0 generic ) .\nthe spider tortoise ( pyxis arachnoides ) is a species of tortoise in the testudinidae family .\nthe diet of the flat - shelled spider tortoise consists of fallen fruits from trees , and the shoots and leaves of bushes ( 4 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - flat - shelled spider tortoise ( pyxis planicauda )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - flat - shelled spider tortoise ( pyxis planicauda )\ntitle =\narkive species - flat - shelled spider tortoise ( pyxis planicauda )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe pancake tortoise ( malacochersus tornieri ) is a flat - shelled tortoise native to tanzania and kenya . its name is derived from the flat shape of its shell . it is the only member of the genus malacochersus .\nthe madigascar flat shelled spider tortoise , pyxis planicauda , is only found in the deciduous forests and woodlands of the south western coast of madigascar , and is one of the world ' s rarest tortoise species . it inhabits these same areas with it ' s only close relative , the malagasy spider tortoise , ( pyxis arachnoides ) . the climate in these tortoise ' s range can vary greatly from below 45 degrees f , to over 100 degrees f . at the extreme ends of these temperature ranges the tortoises become very inactive .\nthe flat - shelled spider tortoise has proven difficult to breed in captivity ( 2 ) . thus , creating an effective and sustainable captive - breeding programme to supply demand or to fuel reintroduction efforts would appear difficult . the flat - shelled spider tortoise was raised from appendix ii to appendix i of cites in 2003 , banning all international trade in wild - caught specimens ( 3 ) , which is thought to have been largely successful , although some illegal collection from the forest is still suspected to continue ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nduring my research , it became clear to me that all of the tortoises that are endemic to madagascar are at risk of becoming extinct : the ploughshare , radiated , spider ( shown below ) , and flat - tailed species .\n* remember , each tortoise order comes with a free starter sample of the same tortoise diet your tortoise has been raised on - to order larger quantities , see the lower left side of this page . *\nthis film introduces the precarious future of madagascar ' s unique turtles and tortoises and their habitats . it is a summary of the iucn red list meeting that took place in madagascar to reclassify all five of the endemic turtles and tortoises : the spider tortoise ( pyxis arachnoides ) , radiated tortoise ( astrochelys radiata ) , flat - tailed tortoise ( pyxis planicauda ) , ploughshare tortoise ( astrochelys yniphora ) , and the madagascar big - headed turtle ( erymnochelys madagascariensis ) . included are interviews with many of the world ' s leading turtle and tortoise biologists : peter pritchard , jim juvik , rick hudson , anders rhodin , and russell mittermeier , to name a few .\nwhen setting up madigascar spider tortoises , providing a humidity level above 70 % is recommended . also called the malagasy flat - tailed tortoise , pyxis planicauda , is a very shy and sensitive species . if keeping several spider tortoises together , special attention must be given to insure that enclosures provide sight line breaks as well as other opportunities to find separation , as this is an easily stressed species . a uvb basking area with temperatures in the low to upper 90s - at the opposite habitat end from a hide box containing high humidity ; and for adults , a clean water dish is important ; for juveniles , every other day soaking is the key . deeper substrate allows spider tortoises to dig in and hide easily . spider tortoises are very sensitive to exotic pathogens so keeping them separate from other species is a must .\nas stated in david shukman ' s report , a ploughshare tortoise over 30 years old was offered for $ 37 , 900 , a 10 - year - old tortoise was priced at $ 14 , 200 and an 8 - month - old baby tortoise was $ 1400 .\nthe madigascar flat shelled spider tortoise ' s diet should contain : various , fruits and vegetables , dark leafy greens , dandelions , clover , and many keepers report mushrooms are a favorite . other favorites include : melons , berries , cactus and peppers . a calcium supplement is required , and cuttlefish bone is often provided as well . our juveniles are given a mix of pellets , greens , fruits and calcium supplement .\nin 1777 , a radiated tortoise was given as a gift to to the royal family of the island nation of tonga by explorer james cook . this tortoise lived there for 188 years .\nunder law , the critically endangered spider tortoise is fairly well protected . it is a protected species in madagascar , which prohibits its consumption ( 2 ) , and its listing on appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) is supposed to prohibit any international commercial trade in this species ( 3 ) . the spider tortoise ' s occurrence in two protected areas ( lake tsimanampetsotsa national park and cap sainte - marie special reserve ) also offers its habitat some much needed protection ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . the need for a specific conservation action plan has been raised , in addition to stricter measures to protect its habitat and education programmes to try and protect this tortoise from hunting ( 1 ) . these measures , in addition to ensuring that populations of all subspecies are represented within protected areas ( 1 ) , are essential if the long - term survival of the spider tortoise is to be assured .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species states the ploughshare tortoise ( astrochelys yniphora ) , also known as madagascar tortoise , angonoka , and madagascar angulated tortoise is\ncurrently estimated to possibly be as low as 400 individuals , of which 200 adults ( g . pedrono pers . comm . , 2008 ) .\nthe greatest threats facing the pancake tortoise are habitat destruction and its over - exploitation by the pet trade .\njuvenile madigascar flat shelled spider tortoises have striped patterns of black brown and yellow stripes on the tops and sides of their shells . adults ( reaching just over 5 inches ) develop variable , yet beautiful sunburst patterns of golden yellow extending out from the center of each dorsal scute . as personable as they are attractive , captive raised madigascar spider tortoises are captivating , and very rewarding to keep . this species ' status was evaluated and judged to be critically endangered . their forest habitat is disappearing at 4 - 5 % each year . add to this , intense pressure from interaction with man on several levels , and the future of madigascar spider tortoises in the wild is very bleak . many years of hard work by a few american breeders has paid off , making a handful of these fascinating little tortoises available to keepers .\nthe pancake tortoise has been bred in captivity and is now the subject of a coordinated breeding programme in european zoos .\n. the species has a golden brown shell and skin . adults are much smaller than their relatives the asian forest tortoise (\nleuteritz , t . & walker , r . ( madagascar tortoise and freshwater turtle red list workshop ) ( 2008 ) .\nkirkpatrick , d . t . an overview of the natural history of the pancake tortoise , malacochersus tornieri ( february 2007 ) .\nthe bush pig , a swine species introduced by humans , and preys on both the eggs and young of the ploughshare tortoise .\nbanned the import of the pancake tortoise in 1988 , but trade with eu members continues , with several countries having reported importing the species .\nyoung , r . p . , toto volahy , a . , bourou , r . , lewis , r . , durbin , j . and fa , j . e . ( 2008 ) estimating the population of the endangered flat - tailed tortoise pyxis planicauda in the deciduous , dry forest of western madagascar : a monitoring baseline . oryx , 42 ( 2 ) : 252 - 258 .\nconnor , m . j . ( 1992 ) pancake tortoise , malacochersus tornieri . tortuga gazette , 28 ( 11 ) : 1 - 3 .\noriginal file name : flat - tailed _ tortoise _ pyxis _ planicanda _ 2390px . jpg resolution : 2390x1942 file size : 2483707 bytes date : 2006 : 09 : 16 11 : 15 : 01 camera : e8700 ( nikon ) f number : f / 2 . 8 exposure : 10 / 18 sec focal length : 712 / 10 upload time : 2007 : 11 : 03 11 : 58 : 38\nthe spider tortoise is found only in the arid regions of the coastal areas of south - western madagascar , where it is distributed from the coast to between 10 and 50 kilometres inland ( 1 ) . the three subspecies occupy different parts of this range , with pyxis arachnoides brygooi being the most northern subspecies , pyxis arachnoides arachnoids occupying the central part of the range , and pyxis arachnoides oblonga being the most southern subspecies ( 1 ) .\nthis article incorporates text from the arkive fact - file\npancake tortoise\nunder the creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license and the gfdl .\nwhile the shell bones of most other tortoises are solid , the pancake tortoise has shell bones with many openings , making it lighter and more agile than other tortoises .\ninfobarrel author tanocalvenoa added ,\ntortoises typically take at least ten years to reach full size , so this tortoise was most likely at least 200 years old .\nthe flat - shelled spider tortoise is active only during the hot / rainy season ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , from december until around march ( 6 ) , and is most active during and after rains ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . during the cooler dry season , this species buries itself and lies dormant in the leaf litter of the forest floor ( a period known as aestivation ) ( 4 ) . breeding occurs during the hot / rainy season , and is followed a month later by egg - laying ( 5 ) . females may produce up to three clutches a year ( 5 ) , each containing only one , relatively large egg ( 4 ) . hatching is timed with the return of the rainy season the following december ( 5 ) .\nthe majority of the flat - shelled tortoise\u2019s range now occurs within the recently designated menabe antimena protected area , which offers some hope that a significant proportion of its remaining habitat will be preserved ( 6 ) . other protected areas of forest occur within this species\u2019 range , such as the special andranomena forest reserve and private analabe reserve , but regulations are believed to have been rarely enforced and the precise status of the species in these areas is currently unknown ( 2 ) .\nespenshade , william h . ; buskirk , james . manouria impressa ( g\u00fcnther 1882 ) : a summary of known & anecdotal information . . california turtle & tortoise club .\nsince this tortoise could easily be torn apart by predators , it must rely on its speed and flexibility to escape from dangerous situations , rather than withdrawing into its shell .\nits bizarre , flattened , pancake - like profile makes this tortoise a sought - after animal in zoological and private collections , leading to its over - exploitation in the wild .\ng\u00fcnther a ( 1882 ) .\ndescription of a new species of tortoise ( geoemyda impressa ) from siam\n. proc . zool . soc . london 1882 : 343 - 346 .\nsadly , based on their population viability analysis ( pedrono et al . 2004 ) , the ploughshare tortoise is\nat extreme risk of extinction in the wild within 10 to 15 years .\naccording to the durrell wildlife conservation trust ( who has been fighting to save this critically endangered tortoise for over 26 years ) , there is high demand for ploughshare tortoises as unique and exotic pets .\nherbivorous ( plant - eating ) ; various fruits ( e . g . plums , peaches , strawberries , apples with skin , kiwi , starfruits , papayas , mangos , tomatos , etc ) , carrots , mushrooms , beans , peas , grass , veggies , lettuces , flowers , dark leafy greens ( e . g . dandelions , mustards , collards , turnips , kales ) , box turtle & tortoise food , tortoise formula\nin 1981 , kenya banned the export of the pancake tortoise unless given written permission by the minister for the environment and natural resources . tanzania protects this species under the wildlife conservation ( national game ) order , 1974 ,\ngiven the low reproductive rate of this tortoise , populations that have been harvested may take a long time to recover . commercial development diminishes the amount of suitable habitat for pancake tortoises , which already is neither common nor extensive .\naccording to the smithsonian national zoological park , radiated tortoises are not only being illegal sold as exotic pets , but are being consumed , particularly in china . it is somehow believed that eating a radiated tortoise will have an aphrodisiac effect .\nthis tortoise inhabits arid to semi - arid areas , typically in areas of sandy soil and where the vegetation is dominated by succulents and thorny shrubs ( 2 ) . it is sometimes found among sand dunes near the sea , where there is very little vegetation ( 2 ) .\naestivation period of dormancy , usually occurring in hot , dry periods , analogous to hibernation in winter . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . scute one of the large keratinous scales on the carapace ( the top shell of a turtle or tortoise ) .\nmost activity occurs during the morning hours or in the late afternoon and early evening . the diet primarily consists of dry grasses and vegetation . the pancake tortoise is a fast and agile climber , and is rarely found far from its rocky home so that , if disturbed , it can make a dash for the nearest rock crevice .\nvery little is known about the life cycle of this endangered tortoise , which is believed to live for up to 70 years . the remaining tortoises are found only in south western madagascar , where they inhabit the spiny vegetation of the sandy coastal areas . here they feed on young leaves , insect larvae , and even the droppings of larger animals .\nthe range of ploughshare tortoise ( astrochelys yniphora ) is already extremely small . i found a creative commons map ( dated 31 october 2011 ) and shown at right . according to the iucn red list , they are only found in the baly bay region ( over an area of approximately 700 km\u00b2 , but only 66 km\u00b2 of this is considered suitable habitat ) .\nthe various english common names for this small tortoise generally refer to the noticeably flattened nature of either its oblong upper shell ( carapace ) or its tail ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the carapace is distinctively patterned , with each scute having a light brown to yellow centre surrounded by a wide , dark brown to black border . in older tortoises , an additional yellow border may surround this dark border ( 4 ) . yellow rays extend outward from the centre of the scutes , across the dark border . the scutes around the perimeter of the shell ( marginals ) are dark with a yellow band ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the lower shell ( plastron ) is yellow with scattered dark spots or rays along the sides ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the limbs range from yellow to brown in colour , and large yellow scales cover the hind legs ( 2 ) . by contrast , the head ranges from dark brown to black , with some variable yellow markings ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngenes and function . ( journal , magazine , 1997 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : genes and function . publisher : oxford , ox : london : blackwell science ; portland press , \u00a91997 - isbn / issn : 1360 - 7413 oclc : 222054747\naddress for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\naddress for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthe turtle lives ' twixt plated decks which practically conceal its sex i think it clever of the turtle in such a fix to be so fertile . - ogden nash\nturtles are reptiles whose protection comes from a shell . the shell is composed of hard , bone plates covered by scutes . the scutes are made of keratin , the primary substance in hair , nails and hooves of other animals . the pigment melanin , present in the scutes , may form intricate designs and brightly colored patterns in some species .\nalthough the scutes form the familiar outer layer of the shell , it is the bony layer underneath which actually provides the shape , support and protective qualities of the turtle shell . the inner layer of bone is fused with the usual bony structures associated with all vertebrates , v the vertebral column and ribs . the vertebrae are particularly interesting for the modifications that have occurred . the vertebrae of the neck and tail are small , allowing for a high degree of flexiblility , while the vertebrae of the central portion of the vertebral column are enormously elongated and inflexible , fused with the bony layer of the shell , acting as a support for the carapace .\nthere are many health implications associated with shell anatomy . for instance , if the outer keratin is breached by infection or injury , the turtle can lose its protection and infection can proceed into the bony layer and the body cavity , threatening the turtle ' s life . another example is that the rigid shell prevents motion of the ribs . because of this , turtles lack the diaphragm that allows other animals to cough . if fluid enters the lungs ( which are located just under the carapace ) pneumonia presents deadly dangers since the turtle will not be able to easily rid itself of the fluid , and infection is likely .\nalthough the shell provides excellent protection from many predators , it can also make the turtle vulnerable to health problems if it is not given good care in captivity .\ndoctype html public\n- / / ietf / / dtd html / / en / / 2 . 0\npyxis arachnoides ssp . - these tortoises may experience temperatures ranging from a low of 43 f ( 6 c ) to a high of 108 f ( 42 c ) in their natural range . the average temperatures range from 58 f ( 14 c ) to 92 f ( 33 c ) and average relative humidity is 78 % . they seem to prefer temperatures in the low 80 ' s . ( 27 to 29 c )\npyxis planicauda - these tortoises may experience temperatures ranging from 48 f ( 9 c ) to 102 f ( 39 c ) in their natural range . the average temperatures range from 58 f ( 14 c ) to 90 f ( 32 c ) and average relative humidity is 77 % . this species seems to be active at lower temperatures than arachnoides . i have observed normal feeding behavior in temperatures as low as the upper 50 ' s ( 14 c ) . as the temperature approaches the mid 80 ' s ( 29 c ) this species becomes less active and may seek shelter .\nboth species are most active in the morning shortly after sunrise , later seeking out shade and remaining inactive until late in the afternoon or the next morning .\nthese tortoises do not seem to have very great space requirements . i successfully maintain up to 14 adult specimens in a 3 ' x 6 ' ( 0 . 9 m x 2 . 75 m ) neodesha tub .\nboth species like to dig into their substrate for security . i maintain my specimens in 3\nto 4\n( 75 mm to 100 mm ) deep cypress or eucalyptus mulch .\n\u00b7 feed any and all types of fruits and vegetables diced into \u00bc\n( 6 mm ) cubes and mixed with assorted greens . suggestions are : cucumbers , tomatoes , green and yellow squash , apples , melons of all types , peppers , carrots ( grated ) , peaches , pears , berries of any kind , sweet potatoes ( microwave to soften ) , opuntia cactus fruits , mushrooms , radicchio , kale , escarole , any types of lettuces , various types of flowers , and plant leaves ( experiment ) . make the above into a salad and mix it all together and offer it daily ( with herptevite and repcal added a couple of times weekly ) . as noted above , these tortoises are most active in the morning , so i feed them the salad mixture then . i leave large leaves of kale and escarole in the tubs constantly so they can browse on them when the salad gets eaten .\nspecial addition for planicauda - chopped or halved mushrooms are a real favorite with this species . for this reason , i recommend making the salad mix for this species with a high mushroom content . i have also observed planicauda occasionally feeding on slugs .\nendemic to the west coast of madagascar ( 5 ) , between the monrondava and tsiribihina rivers ( 4 ) .\nconfined to lowland fragments of dry , deciduous forest , found only on the west coast of madagascar ( 5 ) .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nauthenticated ( 27 / 10 / 08 ) by dr richard young , conservation biologist , durrell wildlife conservation trust . urltoken\ncites . ( 2002 ) consideration of proposals for amendment of appendices i and ii , proposal 55 . twelfth meeting of the conference of the parties , santiago , chile . available at : urltoken\nernst , c . h . , altenburg , r . g . m . and barbour , r . w . ( 1997 ) turtles of the world . eti information systems ltd , netherlands .\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\n) . date saturday , september 16 , 2006 . author photo by derek ramsey (\ncopyright ( c ) 2006 derek ramsey permission is granted to copy , distribute and / or modify this document under the terms of the gnu free documentation license , version 1 . 2 or any later version published by the free software foundation ; with no invariant sections , no front - cover texts , and no back - cover texts . a copy of the license is included in the section entitled\ngnu free documentation license\n.\nthe text in this page is based on the copyrighted wikipedia article shown in above url . it is used under the gnu free documentation license . you may redistribute it , verbatim or modified , providing that you comply with the terms of the gfdl .\nurltoken does not have the copyright for this image . this photograph or artwork is copyright by the photographer or the original artist . if you are to use this photograph , please contact the copyright owner or the poster .\ncopyleft \u00a9 since 1995 , animal pictures archive . all rights may be reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n5 . pricing : 1 or more : $ 1 , 295 . 00 / ea .\n5 . pricing : 1 or more : $ 1 , 495 . 00 / ea .\nit does not seem to have very great space requirements . cage does not need to be high since it does not climb much . ( e . g . wooden terrarium , glass terrarium )\ncypress or eucalyptus mulch , moss ( e . g . forest bed , forest moss ) , barks ( e . g . repti bark , coconut bark ) since it digs , the depth of substrate should be at least 2\n- 4\ndaytime ( diurnal ) ; 12 - 14 hours each day with direct natural sunlight or uv lamp ( e . g . reptisun 5 . 0 , uv heat bulb )\n30 - 35 \u00a2xc - - basking spot ( e . g . basking spot lamp ) 22 - 26 \u00a2xc - - cooler area ( e . g . daylight blue bulb ) 19 - 24 \u00a2xc - - at night ( e . g . nightlight red bulb , infrared heat lamp , ceramic heat emitter )\na large shallow water dish ( e . g . rock water dish ) should be available for soaking and drinking all the time .\noptional . possibllites include caves ( e . g . habba hut , heat cave ) , etc\n. its behavior is little known ; diet in the wild may consist largely of mushrooms , although bamboo shoots are also eaten . the species is known for being difficult to keep alive in captivity ; although its status in the wild is uncertain , it is eaten widely by local people and little captive breeding has occurred .\nfritz u , hava\u0161 p ( 2007 ) . checklist of chelonians of the world . website .\nphylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2012 update : annotated checklist . key : \u2020 = extinct .\nphylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2012 update : annotated checklist . extinct turtles not included .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 7 / 22 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ncontinent : indian - ocean distribution : madagascar ( along the s coast from the mahajamba river southward around cape sainte - marie almost to fort - dauphin ) type locality : unknown ; designated as\nsoalara ( baie de saint - augustin ) , sud - ouest de madagascar\nby bour 1978 : 153 .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .\nthe earliest information on populations comes from bour ( 1981 ) , who anecdotally stated that p . arachnoides was localized but not rare . raxworthy and nussbaum ( 2000 ) estimate that there were more than ten populations and that the area of distribution could cover more than 2 , 000 km . jesu and schimmenti ( 1995 ) who undertook the first quantitative estimate of population density reported approximately three individuals per ha . walker et al . ( 2008 ) report densities of 4 . 63 and 2 . 08 tortoises per ha in the wet and dry seasons respectively . both these studies were on p . a . arachnoides . a rough total estimate of 2 - 3 million animals was recorded by pedrono ( 2008 ) . hinge mobility of the three subspecies decreases from south to north ( glaw and vences 1994 , walker et al . 2008 ) : p . a . oblonga - plastron with black markings on scutes and anterior lobe will close completely to touch carapace ( mobile ) . p . a . arachnoides - plastron totally devoid of markings and anterior lobe will close partially but not touch carapace ( less mobile ) . p . a . brygooi - plastron totally devoid of markings but anterior lobe will not close fully to touch carapace ( rigid ) .\nit is endemic to madagascar and is one of only two species in the genus pyxis .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n, from 100 to 6 , 000 feet ( 30 to 1800 metres ) above sea level .\npancake tortoises live in isolated colonies , with many individuals sharing the same kopje , or even crevice .\nmales fight for access to females during the mating season , in january and february , with large males tending to get the most chances to mate .\nnesting in the wild seems to occur in july and august , although clutches are produced year - round in captivity . the female digs a nest cavity about 7 . 5 to 10\nusually only one egg is laid at a time , but a female can lay multiple eggs over the course of a single season , with eggs appearing every four to eight weeks .\ntortoises in kenya are threatened by clearance of thorn scrub for conversion to agriculture and in tanzania by over - grazing of goats and cattle .\ncites quotas also limit the number of these animals that can be exported from tanzania , although violations of these quotas are thought to occur . the\nturtles of the world ( cd - rom ) , by ernst , c . h . , altenburg , r . g . m . and barbour , r . w . ( february 2007 ) .\ncites : consideration of proposals for amendment of appendices i and ii ( pdf ) , prop . 11 . 39 ( february 2007 ) .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 1 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nhide ip address and unblock websites with lightning fast , stable , and encrypted proxies .\nyou can choose specific countries or ip addresses for automatic switching . the service is always fast and stable .\nuse encrypted connections to unblock websites . one account for multiple devices ( windows , mac , android , and linux ) .\nour product my ip hide is much faster than web proxies and it ' s compatible with all the websites . it can save your precious time .\nmoreover , my ip hide is 13 times faster than the vpn . you can read this test report for more details .\ntry my ip hide risk - free . 90 % satisfied , 100 % money back .\nwe grant a 30 - day money - back guarantee on all plans . if not completely satisfied , you will get a full refund . no questions , no fees , no hassle .\nall package plans include unlimited data transfer , ip switches , and simultaneous connections . it ' s 13 times faster than vpn .\none license for unlimited devices , including windows , mac os x , and android . we don ' t limit the simultaneous connections .\nnatively compatible with all the browsers , including chrome , firefox , internet explorer , edge , and safari , requiring no manual settings .\nwe grant a 30 - day money - back guarantee on all plans . if not 100 % satisfied , you will get a full refund . no questions , no hassle .\nall images on this website are protected by copyright . they may not be copied , downloaded or reproduced without a license from masterfile .\nimage via : antony stanley on flickr / licensed under creative commons attribution - sharealike 2 . 0 generic\ncredit : antony stanley on flickr / licensed under creative commons attribution - sharealike 2 . 0 generic\non june 24th , 2015 , bbc ' s science editor , david shukman published his investigation of the drastic measures taken to save critically endangered tortoises in madagascar .\ndefacing the shells of these gorgeous creatures who have become the target of poachers because their gold and black shells are fetching big money on the international black market .\n\u00a9 hans hillewaert / cc - by - sa - 4 . 0 , via wikimedia commons\nthe region where this illegal pet trading has been discovered is south - east asia . these precious creatures are sold predominantly in thailand , malaysia , and indonesia .\ncredit : frank vassen on flickr / licensed under creative commons attribution 2 . 0 generic\na 2005 population and habitat viability analysis predicted they would reach extinction ( at various times ) , with most estimates clustering around 45 years into the future ( randriamahazo et al . 2007 ) .\nit all reminds of my article rhino horn : the most expensive placebo . it ' s tragic that traditional doctors in asia buy the shells of baby tortoises . they use them in\nmedicinal\nconcoctions that allegedly enhances the sexual performance of men .\ncredit : nh53 on flickr / licensed under creative commons attribution 2 . 0 generic\nby jialianggao urltoken ( own work ) [ gfdl urltoken or cc by - sa 4 . 0 - 3 . 0 - 2 . 5 - 2 . 0 - 1 . 0 urltoken via wikimedia commons\ntoday , the ploughshare and radiated tortoises appear to be the most critically endangered .\nin a 2013 livescience article by douglas main titled poaching pushes 2 madagascar tortoises to brink , i learned that the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) stated ,\nmore than 1 , 000 radiated and ploughshare tortoises have been confiscated from smugglers in the first three months of 2013 alone .\naccording to interpol , only 10 percent of smuggled wildlife is actually seized , suggesting that over 2000 animals have entered the illegal trade into asia alone . if trade level persists , it will likely lead this species to extinction .\ngailhampshire ( gails _ pictures on flickr ) / cc - by - 2 . 0\never since madagascar ' s political crises began in 2009 , law enforcement and other public measures have become eroded .\nit was once considered taboo to harm these tortoises , but with increasing levels of drought and poverty , this tradition has been forgone .\nit astounded me that wcs stated\nillegal poaching and smuggling has increased at least tenfold\nin the last five or six years .\nand upon further research , i discovered in a 2011 bbc article by hannah mcneish , that poachers will roam villages ( armed with guns and machetes ) in groups of up to 100 while they collect thousands of tortoises .\ntsilavo rafeliarisoa , a conservationist , explained :\nwhen a gang of poachers with guns and machetes come and take tortoises , the villagers are defenseless .\nperhaps more shocking was the revelation that more people are eating tortoises because of rising food costs . apparently , according to mcneish ' s article :\nit has become a favourite snack in southern towns such as tsiombe and beloka , even among government officials who ought to be at the forefront of campaigns to save the reptiles from extinction .\nby derfel73 ; visionholder et al . [ cc by - sa 3 . 0 urltoken via wikimedia commons\nalthough these tortoises live an exceptionally long time , they also have a relatively slow rate of reproduction .\nuncontrolled fires ( used to clear brush for agricultural uses ) has also destroyed much of the habitat these tortoises need .\nthe turtle conservancy published the following video in 2014 . it is the most comprehensive video i could find which summarized the iucn red list meeting ( 2007 - 2008 ) hosted in madagascar and dedicated to the survival of these rare and precious tortoises .\nthe latest in animal rights , heart warming stories , fun upcoming events and more .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nevaluates the conservation status of plant and animal species . the list is based on scientific assessment of an organism ' s status by experts .\ncopyright rhett butler 1994 - 2015 carbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions generated from urltoken operations ( server , data transfer , travel ) are mitigated through an association with anthrotect , an organization working with afro - indigenous and embera communities to protect forests in colombia ' s darien region . anthrotect is protecting the habitat of mongabay ' s mascot : the scale - crested pygmy tyrant .\nrainforest\nis used interchangeably with\nrain forest\non this site .\njungle\nis generally not used ."]}
{"id": 139, "summary": [{"text": "the great basin redband trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii ) is one of three redband trout subspecies of the rainbow trout in the western united states .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "the great basin redband trout is native to drainages in south central oregon east of the cascade range , extreme north east california and extreme north west nevada .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they occur in seven isolated drainages \u2014 the upper klamath lake basin , fort rock basin , harney-malheur basin , catlow basin , warner lakes basin , goose lake basin , and the chewaucan basin . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "great basin redband trout", "paragraphs": ["no children of northern great basin redband trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii ) found .\nlove your website . great pictures & great commentary . looking forward to future posts !\nread the final report for the six year great basin redband trout genetic assessment ( which received funding by wnti in 2012 ) .\nus fish and wildlife service . 2000 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; 12 - month finding for a petition to list the great basin redband trout as threatened or endangered . federal register 54 : 14932 - 14936 .\nin september 1997 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service received a formal petition to list the great basin redband trout as threatened or endangered throughout its range in southeastern oregon , northeastern california , and northwestern nevada . after a review of all available scientific and commercial information , we found that listing this species was not warranted ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 2000 ) . currently , we consider the great basin redband trout a species of concern and are continuing to monitor its status .\nredband trout are subspecies of the rainbow trout and exist in two well - defined geographic regions . the columbia river redband trout is found in montana , washington , and idaho , and the great basin redband trout is found in southeastern oregon and parts of california and nevada . the redband trout is similar in appearance to the rainbow trout but has larger , more rounded spots and parr marks that remain into adulthood . they generally grow larger than 10 inches . redband trout that live in streams tend to have profuse large spots over their bodies and fins ( except pectoral ) and frequently have an orange cutthroat mark under the jaws . they have a rosy red stripe along lateral line to a brick red lateral band ( especially in spawning males ) and tints of yellow or orange along the ventral region . gill covers can also be brilliant red .\nredbands are a primitive form of rainbow trout and the northern great basin of oregon and california is home to a great diversity of these fish . during a trip that i had made during 2006 i had caught one of unique varieties of redband trout that are found in this area and my goal for this trip was to catch the rest of them . beyond that i had decided that over the summer i would try to do the california heritage trout challenge , where you have to catch six different types of trout in their native stream in california . with three of the fish that i was targeting located in california , i figured that this would give me a great jump on it as long as everything went as planned .\nthe klamath basin creek ; the most difficult stream that i have ever fished . . .\nthurow , r . f . b . e . rieman , d . c . lee , p . j . howell and r . d . perkinson . 2007 . distribution and status of redband trout in the interior columbia river basin and portions of the klamath river and great basins . pp . 28 - 46 in redband trout : resilience and challenge in a changing landscape ( r . k . schroeder and j . d . hall , eds ) oregon chapter , american fisheries society .\nread more about the conservation strategy for interior redband trout in california , idaho , montana , nevada , oregon and washington ( nov 2016 ) .\nthis video is one i put together after my dad\u2019s and my trip to oregon in search of the native redband trout subspecies . this fish is considered to be one of the eight subspecies of the native northern great basin redband trout . each one of these beautiful native redbands was a glimpse of god\u2019s extravagance . please enjoy . chewaucan basin redband trout fly fishing fremont - winema national forest , or - - august 11 , 2016 special thanks to : - sammy ' s fly shop - tying all the flies and trip planning - temple fork outfitters - the awesome 3 wt rods - gopro - the awesome hero 3 + camera \u201cjoy\u201c by rend collective ( no copyright infringement is intended ) questions or orders ? visit our website : urltoken call sammy at : 720 - 443 - 7576 email sammy at : orderflies @ urltoken\nthe potential range of all forms of redband trout included freshwaters west of the rocky mountains , extending from northern california to northern british columbia , canada . despite their broad distribution , local extirpations ( extinct locally but exists elsewhere ) and important declines have occurred . redband trout have more limited distribution and fewer strongholds than historically . degradation and fragmentation of habitat , and the introduction of non - native species are primary factors that influenced the status and distribution of redband trout .\nthe photos below of columbia river redband trout are provided courtesy of the washington department of fish and wildlife . the columbia river redband trout is native to the columbia river drainage east of the cascade mountains . their known distribution extends upstream as far as barrier falls on the snake , spokane , pend oreille , and kootenai rivers . there is considerable variability in the life history of columbia river redband trout , including fish that migrate to the ocean and those that migrate solely within fresh water .\noverall the trip was a great success ; i managed to catch seven new varieties of trout and one new char . one top of that i got three fish for the california hertiage trout challenge . fishing licenses and gas were expensive as usual and the roads and roadwork in northern california sucked , but the fishing more than made up for it .\nthe fish to target for the day was the mccloud river redband , which are native to the mccloud river drainage in the mount shasta area of california . we broke camp in the klamath basin early and made our way to the spring fed streams on the southeastern slopes of mount shasta that are a refuge for the mccloud river redband .\nfrom hosmer lake , we headed southeast into the fort rock basin to search for its native trout . we arrive at the banks of the creek that was supposed to have the best population of redbands right as the sun went down and set up camp for the night .\nthe photo below was taken in rock creek ( upper klamath basin ) during an oregon department of fish and wildlife restoration project . photo credit : dave hering , national park service .\nclick here to read the 2015 status and conservation of interior redband trout in the western united states , north american journal of fisheries management , 35 : 1 , 31 - 53 , doi : 10 . 1080 / 02755947 . 2014 . 951807 .\nthis blog is all about fly fishing for native trout . on it i cover trip reports , fishing tactics , conservation , the latest news about native trout species and much more . this site provides a companion to my web page urltoken . gary\non the next cast , if that is the right word i caught a klamath basin redband on my dropper . after this the fish seemed to be aware of my presence so i moved little ways upstream to another small pool where i got another bull trout and redband . above this spot the vegetation formed an impassible barrier so i made my way back to the trail . since i had caught the fish that i came for and the sun was begining to fall i decided to forgo anymore fishing and hiked back out to the trailhead where we had setup camp . this was without a doubt the hardest stream that i have ever fished , but with the bull trout and redbands that i caught it was well worth the effort .\nredband trout conservation and restoration is necessary to ensure the long - term persistence of self - sustaining populations across the species\u2019 native range . maintenance of multiple inter - connected populations of redband trout across the diverse habitats of their native range and preservation of the diversity of their life history strategies ( fluvial and adfluvial forms ) will be important . conserving and restoring healthy populations of non - anadromous redband trout may also be critical to the persistence or restoration of some steelhead stocks . although the relationship between the two forms is not well understood there is evidence that some progeny of non - anadromous forms migrate to sea and some progeny of steelhead remain in freshwater . steelhead confined above barriers adopt a non - anadromous life history appropriate to the habitats available . it has been reported that steelhead progeny in very cold streams can residualize and adopt a non - anadromous life history and that these fish retained the ability to produce anadromous offspring . if sympatric redband trout have the potential to rebuild steelhead populations , that has application for the recovery of unique populations of steelhead eliminated by human - caused barriers .\nsince 2007 , the western native trout initiative has contributed over $ 648 , 887 to 16 projects benefiting redband trout , including catalyzing and leading the effort to complete the first - ever range - wide assessment and status review mentioned above . other funded projects have been diverse \u2013everything from genetic analysis , telemetry surveys , culvert renovation , levee removal , road relocation , fish ladders , fish screens , streambank stabilization , and large watershed improvement projects .\nthree life history patterns have been identified for redband trout ( excluding the anadromous form known as steelhead ) : ( 1 ) stream resident , ( 2 ) fluvial ( migrate between larger and smaller streams ) , and ( 3 ) lake resident adfluvial ( migrate between the lake and stream system ) . stream resident ( fluvial ) populations of redband trout spend their entire life cycles in flowing waters and spawn in the headwaters of the streams they inhabit . the abilities of individuals to express all these life histories is often tied to climatic cycles , with fluvial life histories expressed during wet cycles and reversing to resident life history during dry cycles . spawning is often in the spring ( march to june ) , though they may reproduce at most any time of the year except summer . in the fall , redband migrate to over - wintering areas within their streams . they eat mainly streamside and benthic ( bottom dwelling ) macroinvertebrates in smaller stream habitat but also consume other fish when they occupy larger streams , rivers or lakes . adfluvial populations consist of trout that spend most of their life cycles in lakes and reservoirs , before returning to stream headwaters and tributaries within their native basin to spawn . when lacustrine habitats such as lakes and marshes are available and migratory corridors connect it with surrounding streams , adfluvial populations of redband trout flourish . this adfluvial form is much larger and more fecund than the fluvial form . adfluvial juveniles typically migrate downstream after one to three years to mature in lakes .\nwhile i had failed to catch any redbands at this creek , i don ' t like going on these trips with out backup plans for streams that treat me like this . this trip was no execption so it was on to my second choice chewaucan basin stream , which ended up being much more productive than the first one . in fact i was rewarded with a chewaucan basin redband on my dry fly on the first cast . the fishing at this stream was amazing and every likely spot seemed to hold a fish with some going 12\nto 15\n. the water temperature at this stream was also some of the warmest that i have ever seen trout in , a testament to the adaptations of these fish to the extreme climate of the high desert of oregon .\nsix states , four federal agencies , five tribal governments and one non - governmental organization signed a rangewide conservation agreement for interior redband trout in july 2014 , agreeing to work together to conserve and protect habitat for this unique trout . the conservation agreement for interior redband trout is an example of the power of a partnership among state and federal fish and wildlife agencies and tribal nations that has been ongoing since 2009 . western native trout initiative is proud to have been involved in the partnership , convening 13 workshops to complete a comprehensive status review for redband trout in partnership with the state fisheries agencies of california , idaho , montana , nevada , oregon , washington , u . s . fish and wildlife service , u . s . forest service , bureau of land management and 11 tribal nations , as well as representatives from private companies . the project was funded through a grant from the national fish habitat action plan and matching funds from the partnering organizations through the western association of fish and wildlife agencies . when the entire project was complete , the final results involved the expertise of upwards of 95 biologists and arcgis technical experts and 15 data entry personnel . protecting this fish is a big job and we congratulate all our partners !\nbehnke , r . j . 1992 . native trout of western north america . american fisheries society . monograph 6 . bethesda , md . 275 pp .\nthe northern basin and range ecoregion covers the very large southeastern portion of the state , from burns south to the nevada border and from the christmas valley east to idaho . it is largely a high elevation desert - like area dominated by sagebrush communities and habitats .\ntopics of interest welcome and overview hunting & fishing information american recovery & reinvestment act avian influenza barred owls bats birds bull trout climate change coastal cutthroat trout culvert replacement dry forest ecosystems ecosystem services experience nature federal programs assessment fire grants gravel mining gray wolf invasive species jr . duck stamp lamprey marbled murrelet new carissa plant conservation pollinators portland harbor salmon spotted owl stream habitat surrogate species west nile virus\nso i decided to just scout the creek out until it heated up a bit . i hiked both upstream and downstream about a 1 / 2 mile and found some decent looking water downstream , but the best spot i had found was the culvert pool were the road crossed the creek . by 8 : 00am it had warmed up enough for my liking , so i righted up my 4wt with a size 12 royal pmx and size 18 black copper john dropper . the first spot that i tried was the culvert pool , which seemed to be packed with fish and it only took me a couple of minutes to catch my first fort rock basin redband .\nfrustrated with the cramped conditions , i decided to continue my search for some better water . about another 1 / 2 mile upstream i found a spot with a decent pool where i would have enough room to set the hook if need be . i rose a fish as soon as my royal pmx hit the water , but didn ' t get a good hook set . after a couple more tries i finally got a solid hook up , although it wasn ' t a redband like i was expecting , but instead was a stream resident bull trout ! my research had indicated that bull trout were also present in this creek , but with all of my failed attempts to catch this elusive fish in washington i never expected that i would actually catch any .\nthe fishing in this creek was ridiculous , and every pool would hold several fish that grabbed my fly as soon as it hit the water . on my way back upstream i stopped at a small pool where i caught my biggest trout on the creek , a nice deeply colored about 10 inch buck . as we were heading out of the refuge we saw a good number of pronghorn antelope amidst some beautiful scenery . with the catlow valley redband being caught and photographed , we called it a wrap and made the long drive home .\nas soon as the royal pmx hit the water a fish attacked it , but unfortunately it managed to shake the hook . on the next cast though another fish grabbed my fly and i got a solid hook up and i caught my first catlow valley redband , which was followed by a number of other ones .\nwith the first variety of redband sucessfully caught my dad and i decided that we might as well hit the road again for the next spot , which a small stream draining to summer lake in the chewaucan basin . the research that i had done prior to heading out on the trip showed that this stream had never been stocked with hatchery trout , so it should have the purest population of chewaucan redbands . we drove up to summer lake rim and the headwaters of the creek , but it was much smaller than i had anticipated at only a foot wide and a few inches deep in most places . i decided that i would spend about an hour fishing the creek , so i headed downstream to search for some type of holding water . there was evidence of beaver activity along the creek , but it all appeared to be at least five or ten years old and all of the ponds had long since was out . after a 1 / 2 mile of fishing a hiking and still no sign of fish , i pulled the plug on it and headed back to the car .\ni had originally planned on fishing two more streams that these redbands are native to in order to get a better sampling of the diversity found among the different isolated populations . the only problem with this idea was the the poor signage and maze of forest service and logging roads that made the other streams impossible to find . we ended up wasting the next couple of hours on a wild goose chase looking for a couple of streams that we never found . at this point we were pretty worn out and my dad suggested that we should head over to reno for the night . this idea sounded great as it would give me a shot a some lahontan cutthroat and put me another step closer to completing the heritage trout challenge . just getting to reno in the first place ended up being no small task though , and we ended up wasting two hours waiting for pilot cars at worthless road work projects . as we got closer to reno we noticed an odd cloud over the area which ended up being smoke from a forest fire in the south lake tahoe area and ruled out my plans of going after any lahontan cutthroat on this trip . skipping the fishing ended up making the stay in reno a bit more relaxing though , as it gave us a chance to take in the town and get a good nights sleep .\nboth my dad and i got rigged up to fish here and at the advice of a california fish and wildlife biologist we started out in the pocket water section , which was supposed to hold more fish than the meadow water . my dad hooked a fish almost right away on his dry , but lost it after a few seconds . the next fish that he hooked stayed on the line and he got the first goose lake redband of the trip .\nwe got up at about 7 : 00am and i went out to scout the creek out with my fly rod . this stream appeared to be about the size of the one above summer lake that i couldn ' t find any trout in and flowed through a meadow interspersed with a few groves of aspens here and there . i decide to head downstream to where a small tributary added its flow to the creek and found a decent pool with some fish in it .\ni fished the pool for another 45 minutes or so , and caught a few more trout before the fish seemed to stop feeding . at this point i headed for some of the spots that i noticed earlier in the moring when i scouted the creek , but after spending an hour of bush wacking and fishing i had only gotten one more small fish . the only thing to do was head back to the culvert pool , where i caught a couple more fish and even had two on at the same time for a couple of seconds .\nwe arrived at the first stream at around 11 : 00am and on my third or fouth cast i caught my first redband . the fishing didn ' t slow down either and just seemed to improve as i worked my way upstream . i was evident that the population of fish here was healthy and they didn ' t seem to even think twice before grabbing my fly . after covering about a quarter mile of the stream and catching plenty of redbands , i headed back to the car and handed my fly rod off to my dad who also caught several fish . once we had caught our fair share of fish , we hit the road again to try to find some more redbands in another nearby stream .\nthe next stop on the list was a small stream in the klamath basin that all of my research had indicated held a good population of redbands . it was evident as soon as we arrived at this stream that i was going to be in for some\nfun\nfishing as the creek flowed though an absolute tunnel of vegetation . i decided that i would hike upstream to see if i could find any beaver ponds or meadow stretches were the creek might open up a bit but after hiking about a mile i had no such luck . i decided to make the best of the situation a scrambled through the bushes down to the creek . when i got down to the creek , there wasn ' t even enough room to stand up straight let alone make a cast . this was small stream fishing in the extreme and the only way to get my fly to where it needed to be was doing some tap and dap fishing or using a sling shot cast . even with the less than ideal conditions i managed to get a fish to grab my fly , the only problem was that there wasn ' t enough room to raise the rod tip to set the hook so i lost it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsearch usfws threatened & endangered species system ( tess ) ( for listing rules , critical habitat , recovery plan , etc . )\noregon fish & wildlife office home pacific region ecological services home pacific region home u . s . fish and wildlife service national home page | department of the interior | urltoken | about the u . s . fish and wildlife service | accessibility | privacy | notices | disclaimer | foia\nseveral life history types with different migratory patterns . pools provide important habitat for all life stages .\npoor understanding of factors that influence long - term viability . limiting factor is likely to be availability of water ( linked to natural cycles ) . influence of climate change on these cycles is poorly understood in this region .\nthe east cascade ecoregion extends from the cascade mountains\u2019 summit east to the warmer , drier high desert and down the length of the state . this ecoregion varies dramatically from its cool , moist border with the west cascades ecoregion to its dry eastern border , where it meets sagebrush desert landscapes .\npassage barriers . non - natives in lake . high temperatures . water withdrawals . channelization . riparian condition .\nmy dad and i left home in washington early in the morning with rainy weather that would follow us all of the way into central oregon . normally when we head over the the bend oregon area we take us 26 over the cascades , but with the traffic getting out of the portland area we decided to take a different road . we ended up taking us 20 instead , which was a good move as there was nobody on the road and the drive up the santiam river valley made for a nice change .\nour first stop for the trip was hosmer lake , a high mountain lake that is stocked with atlantic salmon and located about an hour southwest of bend . the lake was beautiful , but the weather was cold and windy and the fish did appear to be too interested in feeding . i did a circle around the part of the lake near the boat launch in my float tube , using nymphs , dries and streamers . i even tried some of my standby attractor patterns for resident coho salmon in the puget sound , but only had a couple of hits . with the fishing being slow and the weather going down hill fast , my dad and i decided that it would be best just to head over to the next spot instead of hanging around at hosmer for the night .\nwe got off to a slow start in order to get a little enjoyment out of the swimming pool at our hotel in reno . once on the road we ran into three more road work projects on us 395 on our way to goose lake and lost about another hour because of them . when we got to goose lake we headed up a forest service road leading to the stream that i wanted to fish . once again finding the stream proved difficult , but after getting turned around a couple of times we finally made our way to the creek . the creek was beautiful and flowed from meandering meadows into high gradient pocket water sections .\nit soon became evident that the fish in this stream were pros at throwing flies and if you wanted to land them at all you had to do it quickly .\ni fished my way downstream further into the pocket water section , and managed to catch five redbands including one that was pretty good sized on my nymph . while the pocket water was much more productive , meadow section was a bit more scenic and i couldn ' t resist trying it out for a bit .\nthis section was fun but much less productive , as the fish were few and far between and spooked easily .\nwe made up a quick dinner before leaving the creek and then headed over to northern side of the warner mountains so i could try to catch some warner lakes redbands . the road to this spot was one of the hairiest that i have ever seen , and it switch backed up the mountain side past gold mines and to the tiny stream which was located in a meadow at about 7 , 000 feet above sea level . this spot was completely infested with mosquitoes and i made quick work of catching the warner lakes redbands that inhabited the stream . the fish were not large , but there were a good number of them at the culvert pool where the road crossed the creek .\ni used the same ever dependable royal pmx and copper john setup and caught a handful of fish at the culvert pool before heading upstream a little further . i lasted about a half hour before it got to dark fish and the swarm of mosquitoes that followed my every movement had completely eaten me alive .\nwe had originally planned on camping here , but between the mosquitoes and rapidly dropping temperatures we changed our mind , and decided to drive through the night to the next spot .\nthe drive to the next spot located in the hart mountain antelope refuge was a little interesting as the desert came alive at night and all manner of creatures seemed intent at testing our ability to dodge them . we arrived at the creek at around midnight and hit the hay .\nthis blog is all about fly fishing for native salmonids everywhere . it has been my quest to catch and photograph every species and subspecies of salmonids native to north america .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho ."]}
{"id": 147, "summary": [{"text": "the eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus ) , also known as the eastern native cat , is a medium-sized carnivorous dasyurid marsupial native to australia .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they are widespread and even locally common in tasmania .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "they have been considered extinct on the mainland since the 1960s , but efforts are being made to reintroduce them .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is one of six extant species of quolls . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eastern quoll", "paragraphs": ["the largest species of quoll is the spotted - tail quoll ( also called the tiger quoll ) , the smallest is the northern quoll .\nthe eastern quoll is extinct on the mainland and has declined rapidly across tasmania .\nthe eastern quoll is also known as an eastern native cat . this medium - sized quoll is now extinct in mainland australia , but is widespread in tasmania . unlike all other quolls , the eastern quoll only has four toes on its hind feet .\nvictorian eastern quoll specimens - where light meets dark ( www . wherelightmeetsdark . com )\ns3 table . mean values of all parameters measured using praat for eastern quoll vocalisations .\nthe 4 species are the spotted tailed quoll found along the east coast , the western quoll found in southern western australia , the eastern quoll found only in tasmania and the northern quoll found in tropical north queensland .\nthe eastern quoll is largely solitary . it hunts and scavenges , feeding largely on insects .\nspotted - tail quoll ( also called tiger quoll ) near threatened . the largest species of quoll . found in southeast australia and tasmania . a separate subspecies is found in eastern queensland .\n( photo of 2005 mainland eastern quoll specimen copyright 2005 paul mervin . used with permission . )\nby 1963 the last eastern quoll ever seen on mainland australia would be found dead on the road .\nat the same time newspaper reports were beginning to appear , describing the disappearance of the eastern quoll .\nfancourt ba , hawkins ce , nicol sc . evidence of rapid population decline of the eastern quoll (\n\u201cthis discovery raises the possibility that the eastern quoll may still exist in regions such as barrington tops , \u201d dr eldridge said . \u201chopefully , the mainland eastern quoll has been given a second chance . \u201d\nfor these reasons , the eastern , spotted - tail and northern quoll are all listed nationally as endangered , and the western quoll is listed as vulnerable .\nhowever , there appears to be a population of eastern quolls living in the state of victoria . victoria is within the eastern quoll\u2019s historical range on the mainland .\nthe eastern quoll is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ns1 video . dynamic weather model , showing monthly variation in eastern quoll core habitat from 1950 to 2012 .\nan eastern quoll caught and collared for research in the tasmanian midlands . photo rowena hamer . behaviour / ecology\nthere are several species of quoll\u2013 the new guinea quoll , the bronze quoll . the western quoll , the northern quoll , and the tiger quoll . quolls are sometimes referred to as \u201cnative cats\u201d or \u201cmarsupial martens . \u201d i find the latter to be a more accurate description of their ecological niche and appearance .\nwe now hold some of the last remaining threatened species populations on the mainland of australia , including the mainland eastern barred bandicoot , red bellied pademelon and eastern quoll .\na northern quoll . photo jiri lochman / lochman transparencies . we have four species of quoll in australia :\nthe western quoll used to be found in 70 % of australia , but is now only found in a small area in southwest australia . it is the second - largest quoll . the western quoll is similar to the eastern quoll but has five toes on its hind feet .\neastern quoll numbers declined as unfavourable weather conditions reduced the amount of environmentally suitable habitat across tasmania ( grey shading ) .\ns1 fig . the predicted range of the eastern quoll in tasmania as determined by the long - term climate model .\nconsultation document on listing eligibility and conservation actions dasyurus viverrinus ( eastern quoll ) ( pdf - 287 . 15 kb ) consultation document on listing eligibility and conservation actions dasyurus viverrinus ( eastern quoll ) ( docx - 115 . 56 kb )\nin tasmania , the eastern quoll has a widespread but patchy distribution ( 1 ) , being most common in the drier eastern half of the island ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\ns1 table . correlation matrices for the eight climatic variables used in weather models for the eastern quoll in tasmania ( 1950\u20132009 ) .\nearth sanctuaries limited , 2000 .\neastern quoll\n( on - line ) . accessed 11 / 25 / 00 at urltoken .\nbut that\u2019s what\u2019s left of the eastern quoll on the australian mainland , but there do continue to be lots of sightings of them .\nnorthern quoll : endangered . found in separate colonies in northern parts of western australia and the northern territory , and in eastern queensland .\nin a little more than 60 years from its initial population plunge , the eastern quoll would be extinct across its entire former mainland range .\nmt rothwell is the largest predator free ecosystem in victoria . the property is exclusively managed for the conservation of some of australia\u2019s most threatened faunal species , including the eastern barred bandicoot ( ebb ) and eastern quoll .\nmap of tasmania showing spatial distribution of changes in mean index of eastern quoll abundance ( ai ) by region over the 10 years to 2009 , as recorded in annual spotlight surveys , overlaid onto the predicted core habitat distribution for the eastern quoll as defined by the binary weather model .\na quoll\u2019s fur can range in colour from brown to black . its coat is dotted with lighter patches . the spotted - tailed quoll is the only quoll species that also has spots on its tail .\nthere is quite a large size difference between quoll species . the smallest australian quoll is the northern quoll , the largest the spotted - tailed quoll . northern quolls are the size of kittens , whereas tiger quolls are the size of full - grown cats or small dogs .\nrob brewster , who heads rewilding australia , said the park represented the habitat that typified the last strongholds of the eastern quoll on the mainland .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus )\ntitle =\narkive species - eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na nocturnal species , the eastern quoll shelters in a den by day , usually in an underground burrow , fallen log or rock pile ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the eastern quoll is mainly terrestrial , moving across the ground with a bounding gait and only occasionally climbing ( 3 ) .\nthe spotted - tailed quoll is also known as the tiger quoll . it is the largest quoll , and the only one to have spots on its tail . there are two subspecies of tiger quoll . dasyurus maculatus maculatus is found in southeast australia , and dasyurus maculatus gracilis is found in east queensland .\nestablished in august 2014 , the australian quoll conservancy is australia\u2019s newest conservation group . the aqc is dedicated to the conservation of all four of australia\u2019s quoll species , particularly the race \u201cgracilis\u201d of the spotted tailed quoll in north qld .\nparks and wildlife service of tasmania , october 20 , 1997 .\neastern quoll\n( on - line ) . accessed november 25 , 2000 at urltoken .\nskin samples taken from the specimen by staff at oeh were sent to australian museum researchers who conducted genetic testing to compare known mainland and tasmanian eastern quoll specimens .\nthe tasmanian experience demonstrates that if nsw and victoria are ever to reintroduce the eastern quoll , at least on a landscape scale , we must first reintroduce the devil - in a hope that a healthy devil population would suppress cat and perhaps fox numbers , allowing the eastern quoll to have a chance to survive in the wild .\nmaybe one day we\u2019ll find a genuine relict population of eastern quolls on the mainland .\nin september 2008 museum victoria released an article describing two eastern quoll specimens which had been collected as roadkill near mount rothwell conservation and research centre , west of melbourne .\nthe eastern quoll is classed as vulnerable under federal legislation , but is not listed under tasmanian state legislation . further details can be found at our threatened species site .\nby 2006 , mt rothwell manager paul mervin estimates over 500 eastern quolls had born in captivity across all mainland sanctuaries breeding eastern quolls . without exception , all captive - bred eastern quolls were the more common fawn colour despite some sanctuaries even pairing two black quolls together .\nthe eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus ) is a boldly spotted 1 kg carnivorous marsupial that was once common throughout the open forests and woodlands of south - eastern australia , before the introduction of red foxes saw the species disappear from the mainland between 1900 and 1960 .\nfurther recommended conservation measures for the eastern quoll include the control of fox populations ( 1 ) ( 2 ) , and the tasmanian government is now undertaking a fox eradication programme ( 7 ) . suggestions have also been made to re - introduce the eastern quoll into parts of the mainland where red foxes are controlled ( 3 ) ( 8 ) .\nin eastern australia . journal of zoology . 2006 ; 268 ( 4 ) : 347\u201354 .\nthe eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus ) is a medium sized carnivorous marsupial ( figures 1 & 2 ) . mainland populations were once distributed from south australia to queensland but are now presumed extinct , mainly due to fox predation . in tasmania eastern quolls are still common .\nlike the spotted - tail quoll , the eastern quoll is an opportunistic carnivore that takes live prey and scavenges . the eastern quoll is an impressive hunter , taking small mammals such as rabbits , mice and rats . they can also be quite bold when competing with the larger tasmanian devil for food . eastern quolls sometimes scavenge morsels of food from around feeding devils . however , the main component of its diet is invertebrates , especially agricultural pests such as the cockchafer beetle and corbie grub . carrion and some fruits are also eaten .\nthe last confirmed specimen of the eastern quoll on the australian mainland was from nielsen park , vaucluse in sydney dating from 1963 , and is now held by the australian museum .\nwe\u2019ll have a closer look at the 6 species of quoll further down the page .\ntemporal variation in area of environmentally suitable habitat and quoll abundance from 1990 to 2009 .\ndespite its larger size , the spotted - tailed quoll still treads an ecological tightrope .\nlong - term conservation efforts mean the future is looking brighter for the western quoll .\nthis ' trophic cascade ' of events ; whereby the damage to an ecosystems top order predator impacts on other species within the environment , now threatens the survival of the eastern quoll in tasmania . if devil numbers do not recover , and perhaps even if they do , then the decimation of the eastern quoll and its eventual extinction may mirror the mainland experience .\ndr todd soderquist , threatened species officer of the office of environment and heritage , said , \u201creports of eastern quolls still occur in nsw occasionally , but most are likely to be mistaken identification of the larger spotted - tailed quoll . a confirmed record of an eastern quoll is extremely important in focusing our surveys toward areas where unverified yet promising identifications have occurred .\none of the australian quolls is the eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus ) . it is currently found only in tasmania , but its range once included much of the southeastern australian mainland .\nweather - defined species distribution models for the eastern quoll in tasmania , showing ( a ) habitat suitability ( logistic output ) and ( b ) core distribution ( binary output ) .\neastern quolls face an uphill battle to recover after climate change drove wild populations closer to extinction .\ns2 fig . response curves of eastern quolls for each of the modelled weather variables in tasmania .\nfigure 2 . a litter of six month old juvenile captive eastern quolls in a nest box .\nthe last \u201cnative\u201d mainland eastern quoll died in sydney in 1963 . these little marsupials , though called \u201cnative cats , \u201d are thought to have suffered greatly when foxes were introduced to australia . foxes readily kill them , and because tasmania has been fox free up until very recently . it was thought that this was why the eastern quoll has been able to thrive there .\njagoe , m . , talune wildlife park , koala gardens . july 28 , 2000 .\neastern quoll\n( on - line ) . accessed november 25 , 2000 at urltoken .\nfigure 3 . image of a tail hair plucked from an eastern quoll . dna is collected from cells which were part of the hair follicle - not the actual shaft of the hair .\nthe western quoll , for instance , was once found across 70 % of australia . it\u2019s now only found in the far south - west of western australia . the eastern quoll , once widespread in south - east australia , has been extinct on the mainland since the 1960s .\nthe quoll is mainly nocturnal , and tends to stay in its den during the day .\nthe new guinean quoll ( dasyurus albopunctatus ) lives in the forests of northern new guinea .\nthe northern quoll is the smallest species of quoll . all quolls have relatively short life spans , and the male northern quoll are particularly short - lived . in some areas , all adult male northern quolls die after the breeding season , leaving only female quolls and their young .\nthere are six species of quoll . four are found in australia and / or tasmania , the other two are found in new guinea . the six species of quoll are listed below .\nthe only species of quoll to have a full pouch is the tiger quoll . the other species have folds of skin on their undersides which develop into a pouch during the breeding season .\nonce found across much of south - eastern australia , the eastern quoll is now found only in tasmania . disease is thought to be responsible for a sudden crash in mainland populations in the early 1900s , although foxes , cats , rabbits , poisoning and persecution have all been linked to their decline .\n\u201cthis exciting discovery indicates that the eastern quoll survived for decades longer on the mainland than previously thought , \u201d dr mark eldridge , principal research scientist at the australian museum research institute ( amri ) .\nplease contact the australian quoll conservancy should you require further information on network , rescue and research .\nthe endangered northern quoll has been virtually wiped out from areas since the arrival of cane toads .\nthe last eastern quoll on the australian mainland is thought to have been killed around 1963 , although there have been unconfirmed sightings since ( 1 ) ( 3 ) . the factors that caused the eastern quoll to become extinct on the mainland are not well known ( 1 ) , but may have included predation by and competition with introduced carnivores such as red foxes ( vulpes vulpes ) and feral cats , as well as disease transmitted from these non - native species . the eastern quoll was also hunted in the past , and has been persecuted as it may sometimes prey on domestic poultry ( 3 ) .\nthe eastern quoll is also vulnerable to mortality on roads ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , with an increase in traffic speed resulting in an increase in the number of quolls killed ( 1 ) . although the biology of the eastern quoll is fairly well known , its precise habitat requirements , distribution , abundance and diseases are less well understood ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe eastern quoll ( or native cat , as it is sometimes called ) has two colour phases - - ginger - brown or black , both with white spots on the body but not the tail .\nbronwyn fancourt has spent four years researching the causes of the decline of eastern quoll in tasmania . the following is a brief summary of the extremely enlightening presentation she gave to the bruny island community recently .\nthe eastern quoll has not been confirmed on mainland australia since 1963 when the last one died in sydney , nsw . prior to this the species ' distribution extended from south - east south australia , through most of victoria , along the eastern seaboard of new south wales and possibly into south - east queensland .\nthe eastern quoll\u2019s persistence in tasmania decades after it disappeared from the mainland suggests tasmania is a far safer place for eastern quolls and offers them the best chance to recover . removing them from a relatively safe place and reintroducing them to high - risk mainland sites filled with dingoes , foxes and toxic fox baits could actually hinder , not help , their recovery . for example , while baiting foxes may reduce the threat from foxes , it takes less than half of one fox bait to kill an adult female eastern quoll .\n\u201cdna based analysis indicated that the new eastern quoll specimen was most similar to specimens from mainland australia and not tasmania , \u201d dr greta frankham of the australian centre for wildlife genomics at the australian museum confirmed .\neastern and northern tasmania . population undergoing significant decline . numbers in the low thousands . extinct in former range on mainland in south and east . last mainland sighting was in neilson park in eastern sydney in the 1960s .\nthe eastern quoll once occurred across southeast australia , from south australia , through victoria to the central coast of new south wales ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . however , after reductions of between 50 and 90 percent in its historical range , the eastern quoll now exists in the wild only in tasmania and on the nearby bruny island , where it may have been introduced ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe male eastern quoll is larger than the female ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . both sexes have a long body , short legs , a narrow head with a tapering snout , and erect ears that have rounded tips ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . compared to the closely related spotted - tailed quoll ( dasyurus maculatus ) , the eastern quoll is slighter in build and has a more pointed muzzle ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , and is also distinguished by the lack of spots on its tail ( 2 ) .\nthe spotted - tailed quoll can eat medium - sized birds and mammals , such as possums and rabbits . smaller quoll species eat insects , reptiles , frogs , birds\u2019 eggs , small birds and mammals .\ndespite their mainland demise , eastern quolls continued to thrive in tasmania \u2013 until recently . across tasmania , quoll numbers declined by more than 50 % in the 10 years to 2009 and show no sign of recovery .\nthe answer to yesterday\u2019s \u201cwhat is the species ? \u201d is an eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus ) . the one in the photo above is a darker phase than the one in the photo that asked the question .\nlindenmayer said the park was one of the last strongholds for the endangered eastern bristlebird and also contained rare vegetation .\neastern quolls were released into the sanctuary from 2002 through to 2006 . all captive - bred eastern quolls during this time were tagged with microchips . as eastern quolls are able to breed in their first year , the first\nwild born\nquolls ( within the sanctuary ) would have arrived in 2003 and these would not have received microchips .\na collaborative effort between the office of environment and heritage and the australian museum has confirmed the discovery of an eastern quoll specimen from barrington tops , raising hopes that the species may not be extinct in new south wales .\nmale eastern quolls are about the size of a small domestic cat averaging 60 cm in length and 1 . 3 kg in weight ; females are slightly smaller . they have thick , soft fur that is coloured fawn , brown or black . small white spots cover the body except for the bushy tail which may have a white tip . compared to the related spotted - tail quoll , the eastern quoll is slightly built with a pointed muzzle .\ni hope we can mitigate some of the issues have that have really harmed the quoll of two colors .\nthere are 6 species of quoll ; 4 are found in australia , 2 are found in new guinea .\ncitation : dorph a , mcdonald pg ( 2017 ) the acoustic repertoire and behavioural context of the vocalisations of a nocturnal dasyurid , the eastern quoll ( dasyurus viverrinus ) . plos one 12 ( 7 ) : e0179337 . urltoken\nthe reintroduction comes after the earlier release of the eastern bettong in 2012 , after a similar mainland extinction around 1900 .\nwith the frequency of extreme weather events predicted to increase over coming decades , the future for eastern quolls looks uncertain .\nthe diaries and newspaper reports left for us by the australian ' s in the 19th century depict a land where the quoll was in great abundance . stories of quolls in peoples kitchens , chook yards , the local church , and everywhere in between were a regular theme . advertisements offering eastern quoll skin rugs and waist coasts were even found in city newspapers , and up until the 1890s it seemed that the quoll wasn ' t going anywhere .\nquolls are carnivorous , which means they eat meat . the larger the quoll , the larger its potential prey . smaller quoll species eat insects , worms , frogs , lizards and small mammals . the tiger quoll also eats larger animals such as possums , rabbits and hares . quolls will also eat carrion , fruit and grass .\ndiagnosing species decline : a contextual review of threats , causes and future directions for management and conservation of the eastern quoll . wildlife research . 43 : 197 - 211 . ( fancourt , b . a . , 2016 ) .\nwhatever the truth is ; either the fox , poisoning and shooting , an epidemic , or perhaps a combination of these factors , resuted in the eastern quoll becoming exceedingly rare in most parts of mainland australia from about 1900 onward .\nalthough the new specimen could be identified as an eastern quoll , it was not initially clear whether it derived from a local barrington tops population or was an escapee from captive animals of tasmanian origin , where a population has survived .\nthe northern quoll is rated \u2018endangered\u2019 on the iucn red list . the other 5 species are rated \u2018near threatened\u2019 .\n\u2018quoll\u2019 is an aboriginal name . captain cook saw quolls in 1770 , and heard local people using the name .\nit is doubtful we will ever have answers to most of these questions and with eastern quoll sighting reports being forwarded to wlmd from a number of locations in nsw , there may well be other populations persisting in small pockets of wilderness .\ntwo dead eastern quolls were collected in 2008 - one in june and the other in september . both were found by local wildlife carer raylene reynolds and forwarded to museum victoria . ms reynolds reported having seen quolls feeding beside the road previously , where these two specimens were found . the location is also close to where one eastern quoll was found in 2005 .\nthe federal government , which has voiced its determination to tackle the threat feral cats pose to native species , is holding a threatened species summit in july to discuss , among other things , the reintroduction of animals such as the eastern quoll .\nfancourt ba , hawkins ce , cameron ez , jones me , nicol sc ( 2015 ) devil declines and catastrophic cascades : is mesopredator release of feral cats inhibiting recovery of the eastern quoll ? plos one 10 : e0119303 . pmid : 25760348\nsome quolls can climb high into trees to capture prey , including tree - roosting sleeping birds . northern quolls are the smallest , most aggressive and most arboreal ( tree - based ) of all quoll species , eastern quolls are the least .\na mainland population may still exist , but if it does , it is very small and fragmented . the most recent sighting of the mainland eastern quoll was in 2006 , so it is worth exploring to see if they are still out there .\naitkin lm , nelson je , shepherd rk . development of hearing and vocalization in a marsupial , the northern quoll ,\nthe quoll is a carnivorous marsupial . it is easily recognised by its distinctive pale spots . the quoll is native to australia and new guinea . it is threatened by habitat loss and the spread of invasive species ( in particular the cane toad ) . this page contains quoll facts for kids and adults , and is part of our australian animals series .\ngrowing up to 125cm ( including a long tail ) and 5kg , the spotted - tail quoll ( or tiger quoll ) is now the largest native carnivore left on the mainland ( excluding dingoes ) . the northern quoll is the smallest of the quolls , with males weighing around 1kg ( females are appreciably smaller ) \u2013 the size of a small kitten .\nfancourt , b . a . ( 2016 ) . diagnosing species decline : a contextual review of threats , causes and future directions for management and conservation of the eastern quoll . wildlife research . 43 : 197 - 211 . available from : urltoken .\nin this study , we tested the hypothesis that the recent decline of the eastern quoll in tasmania is due to short - term variation in climatic variables . we built sdms for the species using both long - term climate means and short - term weather variables , and we compared the predictions of the area of suitable habitat from the weather model with an index of range - wide abundance of the quoll from standardised transect counts . we made four predictions : ( 1 ) climatic variables would provide meaningful predictions of habitat suitability for the eastern quoll ; ( 2 ) weather sdms using short - term spatially and temporally explicit weather data would perform better than climate sdms that use long - term climatic means ; ( 3 ) weather sdms would predict a reduction in the amount of suitable habitat corresponding to the period of decline in quoll abundance , and quoll declines would be greatest in regions with lowest mean habitat suitability ; and ( 4 ) predicted habitat suitability would exhibit a positive relationship with quoll abundance .\nfancourt ba , hawkins ce , cameron ez , jones m , nicol sc . devil decline and catastrophic cascades : is mesopredator release of feral cats inhibiting recovery of the eastern quoll ? plos one . 2015 ; 10 ( 3 ) : e0119303 . pmid : 25760348\nfive eastern quolls have been released into a woodland sanctuary in canberra ' s north , decades after they were last seen in the wild .\nwhat has now become clear is that tasmanian devils were suppressing feral cat numbers at levels that allowed eastern quolls to persist in the environment .\nif these are descendants then how long have eastern quolls survived outside the sanctuary ? have they developed specific adaptive behaviours to cope with their environment ? have they interacted with predators , and in particular foxes ? ( the red fox , vulpes vulpes has recently been introduced into the island state of tasmania - the eastern quoll ' s last stronghold - and may have contributed to their extinction on the mainland . )\naitkin lm , nelson je , shepherd rk . hearing , vocalization and the external ear of a marsupial , the northern quoll ,\nbronwyn recommends that an insurance population ( or captive breeding ) of quolls be established to supplement other quoll populations across mainland tasmania .\nwe protect quoll habitat , by maintaining native vegetation and conserving hollow logs . our fire management helps preserve quoll habitat and important habitat features , while our feral predator management , aimed at fox and cat control , also reduces competition and the pressure of predation .\nthe eastern quoll breeds in the early winter , between may and august ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) , with the young being born after a gestation period of around 21 days ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . there may be up to 30 young in each litter , but the pouch of the female eastern quoll usually contains only 6 teats . this means that the only young to survive are those that can attach themselves to the teats in order to feed ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe eastern quoll once lived in eastern australia and tasmania . today , its thought to exist only in tasmania . apparently , it could not survive competition with and predation from feral cats and then succumbed to predation by foxes . it was also widely poisoned because it was viewed to be threat to poultry . it tends to live in areas very close to farming enterprises , so it is possible that the quoll took the odd chicken . it is also possible that all of these pressures combined with a disease that finally extirpated them from the mainland .\na taxidermied specimen was recently handed over to the national parks and wildlife service in gloucester by a local resident , who reported it to be collected as a road kill on barrington tops in 1989 . staff at npws were excited to realise the specimen was an eastern quoll .\nmainland australia\u2019s largest marsupial carnivore , the spotted - tailed quoll , is a creature now verging on the mythical . populations plummeted within decades of european settlement in their forest habitats along australia\u2019s eastern seaboard and in tasmania , where they are second in size only to the tasmanian devil .\nthe eastern quoll was once widespread across south - eastern australia . it disappeared from the mainland in the 1960s . today , it is only found in the wild in tasmania , but does exist in a mainland safe haven in victoria . it is mostly solitary and is active at night : hunting for prey such as insects , small mammals , birds and reptiles . eastern quolls have a thick coat , which can be either fawn or black , with white spots . both fawn and black young can be born in the same litter . fawn quolls are much more common .\nalthough considered to be widespread and relatively common in tasmania ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the eastern quoll is now believed to be undergoing a rapid decline ( 6 ) . the recent introduction of the red fox to tasmania is likely to present the most significant threat to the eastern quoll there ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) , although it may also face threats from habitat clearance , poisoning by insecticides , illegal persecution , and predation by and competition with feral cats ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nferal cats are well suited to taking prey that quolls eat , the direct competition potentially forcing the eastern quoll from its habitat . dogs , roadkills from collision with vehicles , and illegal poisoning or trapping by poultry owners are also causing declines . the species is wholly protected by law .\ninterestingly , while weather conditions have since improved , eastern quolls have not recovered . with their numbers pushed so low , the remaining small populations can no longer breed faster than other threats kill them off . historically , when quoll numbers were higher , they could cope with these threats .\nwhile the young eastern quolls are being cared for by the female , their mortality rate is low . however , after weaning the young tend to disperse , and mortality is high during the first few months of independent life ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the eastern quoll reaches sexual maturity within its first year , and may live for around three to five years in the wild ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nfancourt , b . ( 2011 ) in search of disappearing eastern quolls . paws newsletter , foundation for national parks & wildlife . available at : urltoken\nassociation between seroprevalence of t . gondii igg antibodies in eastern quolls at cradle mountain and the square - root transformed number of eastern quolls captured 2 months later ( y = 2 . 552\u20130 . 022\u00d7 ) . each data point represents a single trapping / sampling session between may 2011 and july 2013 .\nnewspaper reports become less numerous as the decades pass . by 1948 , when an eastern quoll turned up in kew , near melbourne , it seems that most people in victoria haven ' t seen a quoll for 30 years . quolls were still being reported and collected around the suburbs of sydney , which suggests that perhaps the eastern quolls final mainland strongholds were those areas of bushland protected from foxes by the less penetrable city fringes , may have slowed the now ubiquitous urban fox population . it may have also been a barrier to the poisoning of quolls , which would have regularly occurred in more rural areas , or acted as a barrier to whatever epidemic may have struck the quoll at the turn of the century .\nthe eastern quoll is one of australia\u2019s few remaining carnivorous marsupials . it belongs to the same family grouping as the tasmanian devil , antechinus and dunnarts and is a protected species under the nature conservation act 2002 . once present across south - eastern australia , it is now considered extinct on the mainland . many factors are thought to be linked with its extinction , including foxes , poisons , cane toads , habitat loss , disease and persecution .\nwe have demonstrated that the distribution and abundance of the eastern quoll appear to be correlated with changes in short - term weather variables . temporally explicit sdms related unfavourable weather conditions to a sudden decline in both distribution of core habitat and quoll abundance . however , while improved weather conditions predicted a subsequent recovery in suitable habitat , quoll abundance did not recover . this suggests that the recent decline in abundance is not a short - term fluctuation , and that some unmeasured factor ( s ) is continuing to suppress quoll populations and inhibit their recovery . we suggest that while the causal agents continue to operate unchecked , ongoing declines may lead to an increased extinction risk . further research is required to identify these agents .\nspotted - tailed quoll view full size creator : \u00a9 houghton library , harvard university , ms typ 55 . 12 ( fol . 8 )\nnow , with the sanctuary ' s permission , where light meets dark would like to report two further eastern quolls discovered in the same vicinity in 2005 .\neastern quolls can be seen in all but the narawntapu range national park and the arthur river area . they are common in mt . field national park .\neastern quolls survived in tasmania but have not been seen on the mainland since 1963 ; they eat insects , fruit and animal carcasses . photograph : rob brewster\nwe\u2019re proud to have two species of quoll on our reserves and partnerships . spotted - tail quolls are present on our tasmanian reserves , and the northern quoll is commonly recorded in the uunguu ipa ( our wunambal gaambera partnership ) , and has been caught on camera at carnarvon station reserve .\nquolls are classed as an \u2018endangered species\u2019 . the quoll population as been on the decline due to habitat loss and competition from cats and foxes .\nthe eastern quoll tends to live alone , foraging mainly for invertebrates such as beetle larvae and corbie grubs ( oncopera spp . ) . however , it is an opportunistic carnivore and will also hunt small mammals such as rabbits , mice and rats , as well as birds , lizards and snakes . it also scavenges on larger prey and occasionally feeds on grass and fruits ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the eastern quoll may even compete with the larger tasmanian devil ( sarcophilus harrisii ) for food , darting around its kills to take small pieces of flesh ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nto conserve the eastern quoll , the changes to its range and population density in tasmania need to be monitored . the reasons behind its decline and its extinction on the australian mainland also need to be better understood in order for management plans and habitat conservation measures to be put in place ( 1 ) .\nthis small marsupial may also benefit from the protection and maintenance of suitable habitat , as well as measures to reduce road kills ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the eastern quoll is fully protected by law , and is listed under a range of national and regional legislation ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nit was thought that with the commencement of baiting for foxes , and the potential for wild dogs to also be destroyed via uptake of the baits , combined with the demise of the devils , that the eastern quoll would fare well , having a greater share of resources available when scavenging through the bush .\nour smallest and most endangered quoll once occurred across northern australia , from eastern queensland to the west australian pilbara . but over the last century , it has disappeared from vast areas , while numbers have crashed in many others , probably due to the effects of pastoralism , changed fire regimes and feral cats .\ngrey shading represents the total area of core habitat across all 12 months for each year ( left axis ) as given by the independent binary weather model . width of shading indicates variability of suitable area within each year ( lower and upper bounds of shading represent the months with the lowest and highest amounts of suitable habitat respectively ) . black dots represent the quoll abundance index ( ai ) , being the total number of eastern quoll sightings recorded in annual spotlight surveys across all transects ( n = 147 ) surveyed every year from 1990 to 2009 inclusive ( right axis ) [ 7 ] . arrows indicate ( a ) identified changepoint in mean quoll ai , and ( b ) identified changepoint in relationship between area of suitable habitat and quoll ai .\neastern quolls are nocturnal and only occasionally forage or bask during daylight . during the day they sleep in nests made under rocks in underground burrows or fallen logs .\nwhile meeting international criteria for being considered endangered , there has been reluctance to add the eastern quoll to the state threatened species listing . exactly what is causing the decline is being investigated , but otherwise there are no management plans for the species in its last refuge . as an insurance policy , captive populations of eastern quolls should be established in zoos and in larger fenced sanctuaries , in case they are lost from the wild before the cause of their decline is discovered .\nin light of this finding , all potential sightings of eastern quolls in nsw over the last 40 years are being re - assessed for credibility by oeh . in addition , as part of the nsw government\u2019s $ 100 million saving our species program , surveys for eastern quolls are being designed to confirm whether any remnant populations survive .\nlittle is known about the quolls of new guinea . the bronze quoll ( dasyurus spartacus ) lives in the savanna and grasslands of southern new guinea .\nfancourt ba , bateman bl , vanderwal j , nicol sc , hawkins ce , jones m , et al . testing the role of climate change in species decline : is the eastern quoll a victim of a change in the weather . plos one . 2015 ; 10 ( 6 ) : e0129420 . pmid : 26106887\ncitation : fancourt ba , bateman bl , vanderwal j , nicol sc , hawkins ce , jones me , et al . ( 2015 ) testing the role of climate change in species decline : is the eastern quoll a victim of a change in the weather ? plos one 10 ( 6 ) : e0129420 . urltoken\neastern quolls once lived in southeastern australia , tasmania , kangaroo island , and king island ( nowak , 1991 ) . they were last seen in the sydney suburb of vaucluse in the 1960 ' s and are now extinct from the australian mainland . eastern quolls are still common in tasmania ( parks and wildlife service of tasmania 1997 ) .\nthe eastern quoll is a medium - sized carnivorous marsupial with thick , soft fur that is fawn , brown or black and covered in small white spots , except on the tail ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the tail is long and bushy , and sometimes has a white tip ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nbronwyn concluded that unfavourable weather conditions in the early 2000s contributed to the initial dramatic decline of the eastern quoll across tasmania , and that their numbers have fallen below a critical threshold . thus , faced with ongoing predation pressure , particularly of juvenile quolls by feral cats , their numbers on mainland tasmania are too small to recover without assistance .\nthe quoll has ridges on the bottom of its feet to help it climb . it is unable to use its long tail to grip onto branches as monkeys do .\nquolls have a naturally short life span . smaller species live only for around 2 years and larger species , like the spotted tailed quoll , 4 \u2013 5 years .\nmt rothwell sanctuary is a 45 minute car trip west of melbourne . it has been designed as a\nferal - proof enclosure\n, keeping predator species such as foxes , cats and dogs away from the endangered species that live within its boundaries . the sanctuary ' s first eastern quoll breeding season was in 2002 and 50 young were produced .\neastern quolls are set to be released on the australian mainland , 50 years after they were wiped out by a combination of habitat loss and the spread of foxes and feral cats .\nthis species occurs in two distinct colour morphs , the first being fawn with whitish underparts , and the second being black with brownish underparts ( 3 ) . the fawn morph of the eastern quoll is more common , but both can occur in the same litter . both morphs possess the distinctive white spots ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nbronwyn\u2019s research investigated the impacts of climate , the decline in devil numbers , disease ( toxoplasmosis ) and feral cats on the numbers of quolls at several sites across the state . her research provided much insight into the ecology and behaviour of the eastern quoll and the interactions between devils , quolls and feral cats . it is indeed a very complex story .\nthe second largest of australia\u2019s quoll species , the western quoll ( or chuditch ) now occurs naturally only in south - western australia . it was once found across most of the australian mainland , but like other quolls , it declined rapidly following european settlement , mostly due to predation by foxes and cats but with contributions from many other factors .\ncaptive breeding colonies of eastern quoll exist on the mainland and are comprised of animals imported from tasmania . these populations are used for display purposes and are valuable \u201cinsurance colonies\u201d , in case of declines in the wild populations of tasmanian eastern quolls . the mainland captive population was created from only a few animals and as there has been very little input from non - related animals we fear the genetic diversity of the population is extremely low . this inbreeding is likely to limit the long - term viability of the mainland captive populations and hence reduce their value .\neastern quolls prefer areas with low rainfall and cold winters . but an 18 - month period of warm winters and higher seasonal rainfall during 2002 - 03 resulted in most of tasmania becoming unsuitable for eastern quolls . this rapidly drove their numbers down . in fact , the amount of environmentally suitable habitat in this period was lower than at any other time during the previous 60 years .\nmonthly climatic data were obtained at a 0 . 05\u00b0 grid scale ( ~ 5 km x 5 km ) for the period 1947 to 2012 from the australian water availability project ( awap ) [ 40 ] . the spatial resolution of these data was approximately double the maximum home range size for the eastern quoll [ 33 ] and therefore was considered appropriate for this species .\nbronwyn warned that as an island population , eastern quolls on bruny island are very vulnerable to unpredictable events , such as climatic changes ( e . g . wetter and warmer conditions ) or disease outbreaks . in addition , if the number of feral cats increased significantly on north bruny their predation on juvenile quolls could reduce the quoll population , particularly if combined with other unfavourable events .\neastern quolls \u2013 small , fleet - footed and ferocious \u2013 are one of australia\u2019s few surviving marsupial predators . they were once so common in southeast australia that when europeans arrived the quolls were reportedly hyperabundant .\ndespite their mainland demise , eastern quolls continued to thrive in tasmania , until recently . in the 10 years to 2009 , their numbers had fallen by more than 50 % with no sign of recovery .\nthe eastern quoll is one of 20 mammals that the australian government has prioritised resource allocation to support the species recovery effort . this species is a priority for investment as actions may benefit multiple species and there are strong partnerships with the act government and community groups . priority actions which may support the species include establishment of populations in feral - free enclosures and landscape predator control at reintroduction sites .\nbrewster said the release should take place next year . but he said it would be \u201cvery hard\u201d to restore the quoll to its former range unless fox and cat numbers were drastically reduced .\nquolls generally breed during winter . being marsupials , quoll young ( pups ) spend the first part of their lives in a pouch . females have between five and eight pups per litter .\nin addition to the eastern quolls , mt rothwell has had significant success breeding the critically endangered eastern barred bandicoot . it is also home to red - bellied pademelons ( now extinct in the wild on the mainland ) , brush - tailed rock wallabies ( critically endangered in victoria ) , long - nosed potoroos ( vulnerable ) , spotted - tailed quolls ( endangered ) and rufous bettongs ( extinct in victoria ) .\nnorth bruny , however is an interesting case study \u2013 it is one of the few sites across tasmania where quoll numbers have increased in recent years . with its favourable climate and mosaic of open grasslands , woodlands and agricultural pastures , it offers ideal quoll habitat . an increase in abundance is possibly due to improvements in pasture management that now provide better quality feeding and denning habitat .\naustralia\u2019s history is littered with examples where delays and inaction prevented small populations from recovering , with some species now lost forever . the eastern quolls\u2019 fate is not yet sealed . but we have to act now .\nthis study aims to use genetic markers to non - invasively and reliably examine the genetic diversity of a small population of captive eastern quolls at pearcedale conservation park ( pcp ) , victoria . techniques used included :\nthe quoll is around the size of a small cat . its face is pointed , and its mouth is filled with sharp teeth . it has a moist , pink nose and bright eyes .\nchange in ai is calculated as the change in the mean annual number of quoll sightings from 1997\u201399 to 2007\u201309 for each spotlighting region , based on the 150 transects consistently surveyed in each of these two periods [ 7 ] . white circles indicate an increase in ai , black circles indicate a decrease in ai for each region . circle size indicates relative magnitude of absolute increase or decrease in ai , being large circles ( > 6 quoll sightings ) , medium circles ( 3\u20136 sightings ) , and small circles ( < 3 sightings ) . eight regions have been excluded from this analysis , as there were either no eastern quoll detections in the region during the 10 year period ( 7 regions ) , or there was no change in the ai over the 10 year period ( 1 region ) ."]}
{"id": 156, "summary": [{"text": "the semiplumbeous hawk ( leucopternis semiplumbeus ) is a species of bird of prey in the family accipitridae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in colombia , costa rica , ecuador , honduras , and panama .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "semiplumbeous hawk", "paragraphs": ["based on millsap et al . ( 2011 ) , the gray hawk , formerly asturina nitida , has been split into gray hawk , asturina plagiata and gray - lined hawk , asturina nitida .\nplumbeous hawk recorded day before . unable to follow up with any demisemi or hemidemisemiplumbeous hawks\nthe tiny hawk is among the most poorly known members of its genus in the neotropics . name for its diminutive size , the male tiny hawk is only about 75 g although females exceed 100 g .\nbutastur teesa , commonly called the white - eyed buzzard , is a medium - sized hawk found in south asia .\nfire island raptor enumerations\u2026 rather out of date site but with lots of useful links to hawk watching in the us of a .\nthe tiny hawk ( and presumably semicollared hawk ) do not seem closely related to accipiter ( kocum , 2006 ; olson , 2006 ) and have been removed from accipiter and placed in the genus hieraspiza ( kaup 1844 , type superciliosa ) . it has not been clear what they are related to .\nbierregaard , r . o . , jr , boesman , p . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . semiplumbeous hawk ( leucopternis semiplumbeus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe cooper ' s hawk , northern goshawk , and closely related taxa are the closest relatives of the harriers . they go in genus astur ( lac\u00e9p\u00e8de 1799 , type gentilis ) . these are sister to a clade that includes the eurasian sparrowhawk and the sharp - shinned hawk complex . it retains the name accipiter ( brisson 1760 , type nisus ) . i have included the gray - bellied hawk with this group based on kocum ( 2006 ) , although the support for this is not strong .\nthe hawk migration association of north america ( hmana ) is a membership - based organization committed to the conservation of raptors through the scientific study , enjoyment , and appreciation of raptor migration . . .\nthe tiny hawk ( accipiter superciliosus ) is a small diurnal bird of prey found in or near forests , primarily humid , throughout much of the neotropics . it is primarily a bird - eater , and is known to prey on hummingbirds .\nthe key papers for the booted eagles ( aquilinae ) are bunce et al . ( 2005 ) , helbig et al . ( 2005 ) , lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , haring et al . ( 2007b ) , and lerner et al . ( 2017 ) . the spizaetus hawk - eagles belong in two different clades within aquilinae . thus spizaetus is divided into nisaetus and spizaetus . the black - and - chestnut eagle ( oroaetus ) must be merged into the remaining spizaetus . the rufous - bellied hawk - eagle ( lophotriorchis ) is separated from hieraaetus . while the spotted eagles are separated from aquila as clanga . hieraaetus loses a couple of species to aquila , which also gains cassin ' s hawk - eagle from spizaetus .\nkocum ( 2006 ) includes several species from this group in her dissertation . her analysis places them in a weakly supported unresolved basal polytomy with accipitrini , harpagini , and the remaining buteoninae . griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) grouped together the lizard buzzard , gabar goshawk , long - tailed hawk , and the chanting goshawks . the group was basal to accipitrini and buteoninae , but did not include the tiny hawk . the analysis by nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) bundles them together as shown here , but their evidence for this seems weak .\nthe javan hawk - eagle ( nisaetus bartelsi ) ( earlier placed in spizaetus [ 2 ] ) is a medium - sized , approximately 60 cm long , dark brown raptor in the family accipitridae . its head and neck are rufous and it is heavily barred black below .\na small greyish brown hawk . adults have conspicuous white or yellowish white eyes , two dark cheek stripes , a black gular stripe , whitish neck patch , buff shoulder patches , barred brown and white underparts , orange - yellow cere and a long rufous tail . rounded longish slim wings with dark tips that look like those of a shikra in silhouette . sexes alike . juveniles have a buff head , brown iris , indistinct or absent cheek and throat stripes , dark - brown streaked breast , and more strongly barred rufous uppertail .\nthis list includes three relatives of the sharp - shinned hawk that sacc has not split ( although they are split in the sibley - monore list ) . they could be allopatric forms best treated as one species . however , although the combined analysis of kocum ( 2006 ) placed ventralis and erythronemius in a clade striatus , other arrangements were seen for some of the other genes ( chionogaster was not included ) . breman et al . ( 2013 ) also found a separation between striatus and erythronemius . this hints , but does not prove , that a species - level treatment is appropriate , as has been followed by various authors .\nthis slim and small sized hawk is easily identified by its white iris to the eye and the white throat and dark mesial stripe . a white spot is sometimes visible on the back of the head . when perched the wing tip nearly reaches the tip of the tail . the ceres are distinctly yellow and the head is dark with the underside of the body darkly barred . in flight the narrow wings appear rounded with black tips to the feathers and the wing - lining appears dark . the upper wing in flight shows a pale bar over the brown . the rufous tail is barred with a darker subterminal band . young birds have the iris brownish and the forehead is whitish and a broad supercilium may be present .\nthe white - eyed buzzard ( butastur teesa ) is a medium sized hawk , distinct from the true buzzards in the genus buteo , found in south asia . adults have a rufous tail , a distinctive white iris , and a white throat bearing a dark mesial stripe bordered . the head is brown and the median coverts of the upper wing are pale . they lack the typical carpal patches on the underside of the wings seen in true buzzards but the entire wing lining appears dark in contrast to the flight feathers . they sit upright on perches for prolonged periods and soar on thermals in search of insect and small vertebrate prey . they are vociferous in the breeding season and several birds may be heard calling as they soar together .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be small , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe population is estimated to number 1 , 000 - 10 , 000 individuals , roughly equivalent to 670 - 6 , 700 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\npair present , calling bird was perched 10 meters above ground . recorded during a respite in constant cold front rain .\nmoore et al . 2013 : bird sounds of ecuador dvd same bird as previous cut . intervals shortened\nmoore et al . 2013 : bird sounds of ecuador dvd perched . intervals shortened\nselectively logged humid forest . reference : a : 208 - 212 ( leusemx1 ) . . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 21 side a track 41 seq . a )\nrecorded in 120 year - old forest , on two separate days . filtered to reduce wind noise .\ncalls from a pair perched , probably interacting with pair of buteo magnirostris . near end , one bird flew farther off to vocalize . disturbed forest edge .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nextreme e honduras # r and e nicaragua # r s to w colombia ( e to magdalena valley ) and nw ecuador ( esmeraldas and nw pichincha ) . several recently seen and heard in allpahuayo - mishana national reserve , n peru , possibly referring to present species or to a closely related new species # r .\n31\u201336 cm ; male 250 g , female 325 g ; wingspan 51\u201364 cm . small , stocky , short - winged\nquite vocal in breeding season , when gives a series of loud , piercing upslurred whistles :\nkwee . . . . . .\nhumid forests of tropical and lower subtropical zones ; forest edge , in and around forest fragments . . .\nalmost no information . one anecdotal record of nest - building in crown of tall tree in costa rica in jan ; male in breeding condition taken . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . formerly classified as near threatened . although considered locally common in some areas of primary forest , and tolerant of . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\njose alvarez et al . reported the bird as a new report to peru in cotinga 34 ( 2012 ) : ol 61\u201384 , published online 10 march 2012 . avifauna de la reserva nacional allpahuayo mishana , loreto , per\u00fa\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nhas sometimes been incorporated within buteo . recent phylogenetic analyses suggested that only the three species listed below belong in leucopternis # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 982 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\ndistribution size : 3 , 900 , 000 km2 . global range : south east iran to myanmar , southern tibet . indian subcontinent range : north east afghanistan ( nuristan ) , north west pakistan , north west himalayas to himachal , sub - himalayas from south west baluchistan to west bengal , north central bangladesh , southern peninsula , south assam hills\nclements , j . f . , t . s . schulenberg , m . j . iliff , d . roberson , t . a . fredericks , b . l . sullivan , and c . l . wood . 2014 . the ebird / clements checklist of birds of the world : version 6 . 9 . downloaded from urltoken\na . global : habitat systems : terrestrial ; freshwater . forest dependency : does not normally occur in forest . altitude : 0 - 1200 m . altitudinal limits : ( max ) 4000 m . general habitats : savanna - dry ; shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry ; grassland - subtropical / tropical dry ; artificial / terrestrial - arable land . b . indian subcontinent : open dry country and thin deciduous forest , scrub and cultivation . avoids humid and densely wooded tracts .\nnot a migrant . in india , it is a widespread resident that moves locally .\ncarnivorous . locusts , grasshoppers and other large insects ; as well as mice , lizards and frogs . also hunts for crabs near wetlands and larger prey like the black - naped hare or lepus nigricollis .\nglobal : 100 , 000 mature individuals ( 2009 ) . india : 5000 birds in an area of 50 , 000 km2 around delhi ( 1950 ) .\nusually solitary , they often sit upright on dry trees and telegraph posts etc for long periods of time . these rather sluggish birds soar on thermals in search of insect and small vertebrate prey . vociferous in the breeding season , pairs call , which sounds like plainitive mewing , while soaring in circles high up in the air .\nbreeding season : february to may in india . nest location : usually built by both parents in the fork of a thicky foliaged tree such as a mango , preferably one in a grove . nest : like a crows in being a loose unlined cup of twigs . clutch size : 3 . eggs : broad , greenish - white unspotted ovals with a smooth texture . parental investment : both parents share the responsibility of nest - building and feeding the young . only females incubate eggs however . incubation time : 19 days .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be fluctuating , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nred list category & criteria : least concern ( ver 3 . 1 ) year published : 2009 assessor / s : birdlife international reviewer / s : bird , j . , butchart , s .\ncites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) india listed species : yes . appendix : ii . cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) global listed species : yes . appendix : ii . aewa ( agreement on the conservation of african - eurasian migratory waterbirds ) listed species : no . iwpa ( indian wildlife protection act , 1972 ) listed species : yes . iwpa ( indian wildlife protection act , 1972 ) schedule : iv .\nfledgelings are reddish brown unlike most other downy raptor chicks which tend to be white .\n, an old name for the sparrowhawks . molecular phylogeny studies suggest that the genus is a sister group of the buteoninae .\n. it is a resident in iran , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh and myanmar . it is absent from sri lanka and is probably absent from the andamans . it is a summer visitor in northeastern afghanistan . it is mainly found in the plains but may go up to 1200m in the foothills of the himalayas .\nthe usual habitat is in dry , open forest or cultivation . they are numerous in some areas but declining .\nin flight , the dark wing lining and white throat are distinctive on the underside .\nthis species is usually seen soaring alone in thermals or perched still . groups of two or three may sometimes be seen . they have a mewing call or falling whistle ( transcribed as\nthey feed mainly on locusts , grasshoppers , crickets and other large insects as well as mice , lizards and frogs . they may also take crabs from near wetlands\nthe breeding season is february to may . the nest is loose platform of twigs not unlike that of a crow , sometimes placed in a leafless tree .\nboth sexes share nest - building and feeding young ; female alone incubates for about 19 days until the eggs hatch .\nhume , ao ( 1869 ) . my scrap book : rough notes on indian oology and ornithology . baptist mission press , calcutta . pp . 286\u2013288 .\nrasmussen pc & jc anderton ( 2005 ) . birds of south asia . the ripley guide . volume 2 . smithsonian institution & lynx edicions . pp . 100\u2013101 .\nclark , william s ; schmitt , n john ( 1992 ) .\nflight identification of indian raptors with pale bars on upper wings\n. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 89 ( 1 ) : 1\u20133 .\ngnanaselvan , p ( 1992 ) .\nnesting of the white - eyed buzzard - eagle in pudukudi , thanjavur district\n. newsletter for birdwatchers 32 ( 7 & 8 ) : 16\u201317 .\njerdon , tc ( 1862 ) . the birds of india . volume 1 . military orphan press , calcutta . pp . 92\u201393 .\nlerner , hrl ; matthew c . klaver , david p . mindell ( 2008 ) .\nmolecular phylogenetics of the buteonine birds of prey ( accipitridae )\n. the auk 125 ( 2 ) : 304\u2013315 . doi : 10 . 1525 / auk . 2008 . 06161 .\ngalushin vm ( 1975 ) .\na comparative analysis of the density of predatory birds in two selected areas within the palaearctic and oriental regions , near moscow and delhi\n. emu 74 : 331 .\nwhistler , hugh ( 1949 ) . popular handbook of indian birds . gurney and jackson . pp . 366\u2013367 .\ndewar , douglas ( 1912 ) . jungle folk : indian natural history . john lane . pp . 32\u201336 .\nmackenzie , k ( 1894 ) .\nfood of the white - eyed buzzard\n. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 9 ( 1 ) : 101 .\njaved , salim ( 1995 ) .\nhare in the diet of white - eyed buzzard eagle butastur teesa ( franklin )\n. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 92 ( 1 ) : 119 .\nkanoje , r ( 1997 ) .\nnesting site of white - eyed buzzard in kanha national park\n. newsletter for birdwatchers 37 ( 5 ) : 90 .\nblanford , wt ( 1895 ) . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . birds . volume 3 . london : taylor and francis . pp . 362\u2013364 .\nsoni , rg ( 1993 ) .\nbreeding of white - eyed buzzard in the thar desert\n. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 90 ( 3 ) : 506\u2013507 .\nhume , ao ( 1890 ) . the nests and eggs of indian birds . volume 3 . r h porter , london . pp . 158\u2013161 .\nali s & sd ripley ( 1978 ) . handbook of the birds of india and pakistan . volume 1 ( 2 ed . ) . new delhi : oxford university press . pp . 256\u2013258 .\ndharejo , a . m . bilqees , f . m . khan , m . m . ( 2007 ) .\nuvitellina teesae , new species ( digenea : cyclocoelidae ) from liver of white - eyed buzzard butastur teesa ( accipitridae ) , in hala , hyderabad , sindh , pakistan\n. pakistan journal of zoology 39 ( 6 ) : 385\u2013388 .\nlevine , norman d ( 1982 ) .\nthe genus atoxoplasma ( protozoa , apicomplexa )\n. journal of parasitology 68 ( 4 ) : 719\u2013723 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 3280933 . jstor 3280933 . pmid 7119994 .\ntendeiro , j ( 1988 ) .\netudes sur les colpocephalum ( mallophaga , menoponidae ) parasites des falconiforms 1 . groupe zerafae price & beer\n. bonn . zool . beitr . 39 : 77\u2013102 .\nansari ha & d kaul ( 1986 ) .\ncytotaxonomic study in the order falconiformes ( aves )\n. zoologica scripta 15 ( 4 ) : 351\u2013356 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1463 - 6409 . 1986 . tb00235 . x .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ntelluraves contains slightly more than 3 / 4 of all bird species . athough there ' s some residual uncertainty about the other main branches of passerea , the land bird clade telluraves is well - supported by jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) where it receives 100 % bootstrap support . further , hackett et al . ( 2008 ) and ericson et al . ( 2006a ) both found the hawks and american vultures to be closer to the picimorphae than to the falcons ( see also suh et al . , 2011 ; mccormack et al . , 2013 ; yuri et al . 2013 ) . other papers ( e . g . , morgan - richards et al . , 2008 ) are less supportive , putting all of them somewhere between the ardeae and the passerines . the order here follows jarvis et al .\nthe main division in telluraves is between the group containing the mousebirds , hawks , owl , and woodpeckers ( afroaves ) and the group containing the falcons , parrots , and passerines ( australaves ) ( ericson et al . , 2006a ; hackett et al . , 2008 ; ericson , 2012 ; jarvis et al . , 2014 ) . australaves is by far the larger group , containing about 64 % of all bird species . in contrast , afroaves only has about 11 & half ; % of the species . still , afroaves is much larger than any other high - level group than branches off sooner .\ni ' m not fond of the names afroaves and australaves , mainly because the names suggest some knowledge of their origin that we don ' t have . as you will note in some of comments in the next few pages , some of the groups where the crown group appears to originate in africa or australia today ( ericson , 2012 ) have fossil records that are quite different . the earliest fossils throughout the clade come from the northern hemisphere . more precisely , they come from eupore and north america , which were connected in paleocene and early eocene .\nin the tif list , afroaves is divided into four groups : coliiformes , accipitrimorphae , strigiformes , and picimorphae . there is some uncertainty about whether strigiformes are closer to accipitrimorphae or to picimorphae . suh ( 2016 ) and jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) prefer the latter , and that is followed here .\nthe coliiformes are a relict afrotropical group consisting of 6 species in 2 genera . it wasn ' t always so . there ' s a fairly extensive fossil record from europe and north america . primitive coliiformes ( sandcoleidae ) are known from the early eocence ( 48 - 56 mya ) . by the late eocene , only modern forms are known ( mayr , 2009 ) .\nalthough new world vultures are rather similar to old world vultures ( part of accipitridae ) , they are not closely related . this was already recognized by huxley in 1876 based on morphological evidence . nonetheless , they were traditionally placed in falconiformes , as where the accipitridae and falconidae . there are also some superficial similarities to storks , and when sibley and ahlquist found support for this using dna hybridization techniques , they were removed from falconiformes and placed next to the storks . more recent analysis have shown this is incorrect , and have also broken up falconiformes . as mentioned above , more recent research ( e . g . , hackett et al . , 2008 ; han et al . , 2011 ; mccormack et al . , 2013 ; yuri et al . , 2013 ; jarvis et al . , 2014 ) puts the new world vultures close to the accipitriformes .\nthe phylogeny of cathartidae is based on johnson et al . ( 2016 ) .\nthose interested in ancient raptors should read darren naish ' s post on titan - hawks .\nthe secretarybird is the first branch of accipitriformes , followed by the osprey . after that , come the accipitridae ( hawks , kites , and eagles ) .\nit is not clear whether the osprey is a single species . the ioc recognizes two osprey species , eastern ( indo - australasian cristatus ) and western ( everything else ) . some have suggested that the caribbean population ( ridgwayi ) should also be separated .\nmonti et al . suggest that the new world clade is basal , as suggested by the cyt - b analysis . however , combining nd2 with cyt - b yielded a different topology , with the old world clade basal . in any event , the separation of all 4 clades appears to have taken place over a short time interval . the cyt - b analysis suggested the new world clade is a million or so years old . a few of the samples showed a mismatch between geography and clade .\nat present , it remains unclear whether or not the osprey should be considered a considered a single species , or 3 - 4 .\nat the genus level , the order presented here attempts to synthesize the papers by amaral et al . ( 2006 , 2009 ) , barrowclough et al . ( 2014 ) , breman et al . ( 2013 ) , griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) , haring et al . ( 2007b ) , helbig et al . ( 2005 ) , kocum ( 2006 ) , lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , lerner et al . ( 2008 ) , nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) , oatley et al . ( 2015 ) , ong et al . ( 2011 ) , and wink and sauer - g\u00fcrth ( 2004 ) . some of the genera were restructured based on these and other papers .\nthe accipitridae are a complicated family . you can see from the diagram that i treat them as consisting of ten subfamilies with large families accipitrinae and buteoninae at the end . the latter two subfamilies are further divided into tribes . the timing estimates of nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) have influenced what gets counted as a subfamily and what counts as a tribe . after reading jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) , i suspect nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ' s divergence dates are a little short . nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi did not include the crested goshawk subfamily , lophospizinae , but indications are that it is near aquilinae ( oatley et al . , 2015 ) .\none thing that genetic results have made clear is that the kites are not a natural group . rather , they are scattered in three subfamilie . the first group is the elanine kites . kites also occur in three clades in perninae and four clades in buteoninae .\nnow that it is clear that henicopernis belongs within perninae ( barrowclough et al . , 2014 ) , this small primarily african clade is cleanly separated from perninae . the separation from perninae seems to be quite ancient ( nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi , 2014 ) , so i recognize both groups as subfamilies .\nthe honey - buzzards ( pernis ) have been sorted out by gamauf and haring ( 2004 ) , including the recently - split phillipine honey - buzzard . barrowclough et al . ( 2014 ) provided additional information concerning the australo - papuan species .\nthree groups of kites are part of perninae . the neotropical chondrohierax and leptodon kites , the swallow - tailed kite ( elanoides , sister to the pernis honey - buzzards ) , and the square - tailed kite ( lophoictinia , sister to the henicopernis honey - buzzards ) . note that the honey - buzzards are not a natural group either .\nthe name gypinae ( blyth , 1851 ) has priority over aegypiinae ( w . p . sclater , 1924 ) . the old world vultures are gathered here and fall into two clades . the first four species ( and genera ! ) are in one clade , with necrosyrtes and gyps in the other . the arrangement of species within gyps has taken both arshad et al . ( 2009 ) and nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) into account . i follow lerner et al . ( 2005 ) and nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) for the genera . arshad et al . is almost the same , while griffiths et al . ( 2009 ) is broadly consistent but less well - resolved .\nin the serpent eagles , dryotriorchis has been merged into circaetus . exactly how many species are in spilornis remains an issue . there are six here , but ferguson - lees and christie ( 2001 ) list 13 ! i ' ve not accepted the ioc split of minimus because i don ' t see any evidence to split this and not the others .\nwhat evidence there is suggests that the crested goshawk is not part of accipitrinae . barcoding suggested it is basal to the accipitrinae / buteoninae clade ( ong et al . , 2011 ; breman et al . , 2013 ) . raty , in a birdforum post got similar results when adding a partial cytochrome - b gene . more recently , oatley et al . ' s ( 2015 ) 4 - gene analysis found the crested goshawk near the aquilinae ( harpiinae was not in the analysis ) . i ' m not sure i ' m entirely convinced , but i ' ve double - down on this and put it in a trichotomy with harpiinae and aquilinae . besides , there ' s something that appeals to me in having the crested goshawks near the harpy eagles .\ndna from the sulawesi ( crested ) goshawk has not been tested , but it is thought to be a very close relative of the crested goshawk , with the two forming a superspecies . the name lophospiza ( kaup 1844 , type trivirgata ) is available for these two species .\nthe split between the harpy eagles and booted eagles seems to have occurred about 20 million years ago ( nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi , 2014 ) , so i treat them as separate subfamilies .\nalthough it is fairly basal , there is still some uncertain concerning the closest relatives of the crowned eagle , stephanoaetus coronatus .\ni ' ve included the extinct haast ' s eagle of new zealand on the species tree since bunce et al . ( 2005 ) analyzed dna from it . however , it isn ' t included on the main list because it likely became extinct prior to 1500 , which is the cutoff for inclusion .\nthere is a deep division of the accipitrinae into two groups which i rank as tribes : melieraxini and accipitrini .\nthe name melieraxinae has appeared in the literature since at least lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , but does not seem to be formally established .\nthe papers by wink and sauer - g\u00fcrth ( 2004 ) , breman et al . ( 2013 ) , barrowclough et al . ( 2014 ) , nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) and kocum ' s dissertation ( 2006 ) allow us to make a rough draft of a species - level tree for the accipitters . doubtless it will need further adjustment .\nthe result is that the genus accipiter has been divided into 6 pieces . two of those , hieraspiza and lophospiza have been moved outside the accipitrini . kocum ( 2006 ) , griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) , lerner et al . ( 2008 ) , and nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) found that the circus harriers are embedded within the traditional accipiter . the options are to lump circus into accipiter or divide accipiter into at least three parts . i ' ve chosen to take the latter course , dividing accipter into four parts .\nthe arrangement of the harriers follows oatley et al . ( 2015 ) . i have split the hen and northern harriers . oatley et al . found that the northern harrier was closer to the cinereous harrier than to the hen harrier . oatley et al . also found that the last 5 harriers are very closely related , possibily conspecific . however , i distrust their estimated divergence dates . they are markedly shorter than comparable dates in nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) , which already seem a bit short compared to jarvis et al . ( 2015 ) .\nthe buteoninae are the largest subfamily of the accipitridae . according to nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) , the clade is roughly 20 million years old . there are three deep divisions ( 15 - 18 million years ago ) in the buteoninae which i have recognized as tribes : harpagini , milvini , and buteonini .\nmany of the changes between versions 2 . 00 and 2 . 01 of this page were due to the publication of lerner et al . ( 2008 ) . their results have subsequently been refined by amaral et al . ( 2009 ) and nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) . i have additionally consulted amaral et al . ( 2006 ) , barrowclough et al . \\ ( 2014 ) , griffiths et al . \\ ( 2007 ) , kocum ( 2006 ) , kruckenhauser et al . \\ ( 2004 ) , ong et al . \\ ( 2011 ) , and riesing et al . ( 2003 ) . although these sources are not in 100 % agreement , and there are still a few lacuna , i think the buteoninae are now in pretty good shape even at the species level .\nthere might still be a little modification of species boundaries to go , particularly in pseudastur and near buteo buteo . i ' ve modified the generic limits quite a bit in the buteoninae , but less drastically than suggested by riesing et al . ( 2003 ) and by lerner et al . ( 2008 ) . most of these changes were also adopted by amaral et al . ( 2009 ) , which prompted some further changes in version 2 . 15 . this has been further refined by considering nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) in version 2 . 61 .\nharpagini consists of the two harpagus kites . nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) put harpagini in the basal position . griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) also included them in their analysis . they have harpagus basal to accipitrinae + buteoninae . however , resolution was poor , and other basal raptors from griffiths et al . have moved to accipitridae .\nmilvini consists of the milvine kites and sea and fish eagles . the kites are the second of the four kite clades in buteoninae .\nthe two - species version of icthyophaga turns out to be nested within haliaeetus . it could either be submerged into haliaeetus , or expanded to include four haliaeetus species . i ' ve taken the second option . this puts all of the northern fish - eagles and sea - eagles in haliaeetus , while the tropical fish / sea - eagles are in icthyophaga . the two groups are not only geographically separated , but are visually distinct\u2014compare the relatively longer , narrower wings of haliaeetus to the shorter , broader wings of icthyophaga . there ' s a spelling issue here : icthyophaga or ichthyophaga ? both dickinson ( 2003 ) and peterson ( zoonomen . net ) give the former , which is the original spelling . peterson also argues that icthyophaga is correct . nonetheless , ichthyophaga is also in wide usage ( e . g . , hbw - 2 ) .\nthis brings us to buteonini . the first branch consists of butastur buzzards and the second branch is the ictinia kites ( third of the four buteoninae kite clades ) . the next clade contains busarellus , geranospiza , and the final kite clade , rostrhamus and presumably helicolestes . except possibly for the last two , they are all long - separated and deserving of genus status .\nthe clade starting at b is also flagged by lerner et al . as a good starting point for buteo . the former leucopternis , white , gray - backed , and mantled hawks are placed in pseudastur while the some of the remaining leucopternis are put in geranoaetus . this includes the white - tailed , and variable ( sometimes split as red - backed and puna ) hawks , formerly in buteo . it should be noted that the species boundaries in pseudastur seriously need adjustment , but it seems that further study will be needed to clarify the situation .\nthe clade at c is also a plausible way to delimit buteo . the sacc prefers to retain leucopternis . the balance of evidence suggests leucopternis is more basal than the gray and gray - lined hawks ( subgenus asturina ) . amaral et al . ( 2009 ) find asturina sister to buteo and nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) put the asturina hawks a little deeper in the buteos . i now follow both aou committees by including asturina in buteo .\nas defined below , buteo consists primarily of species breeding in the old world and nearctic , with a few neotropical species . the other genera that might be included in buteo \u2014 leucopternis ( point a ) , pseudastur , geranoaetus ( point b ) , parabuteo , rupornis , and morphnarchus ( point c ) \u2014 are primarily south and middle american breeders .\namaral et al . ( 2009 ) and nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) help clear up the situation with the remaining buteo species , although some issues remain . the new world species split out nicely , up to the lagopus / regalis pair . then we get into the old world buteos , whose taxonomy remains somewhat murky . two species were not considered in their analysis , and the true species boundaries among the old world buteos remain somewhat uncertain . i expect that the treatment here will subject to a bit of revision as more is known .\nriesing et al . ( 2003 , fig . 5 ) found evidence that archer ' s buzzard , buteo archeri is not part of the augur buzzard , buteo augur , but is sister to a clade consisting of the red - necked , augur and jackal buzzards , and possibly the madagascan buzzard , buteo brachypterus . other evidence in riesing et al . ( fig . 4 ) , and in nagy and t\u00f6k\u00f6lyi ( 2014 ) puts brachypterus in a slightly more basal position , out of this clade .\nanother apparently misplaced buteo was the forest buzzard , buteo trizonatus . it was considered a subspecies of the mountain buzzard , buteo oreophilus , but genetic data ( esp . kruckenhauser et al . , 2004 ) suggests it is closer to the common buzzard , buteo buteo . although the genetic distance is small , its distant separation from the common buzzard ' s breeding range and distinct plumage suggest it should be considered a distinct species .\nalthough the breeding buzzards of the cape verde and socotra islands have been considered races of the common buzzard , genetic data ( clouet and wink , 2000 ) suggests they are more closely related to the long - legged buzzard , buteo rufinus . once again , the genetic distances are small , but this suggests treating them as distinct species : cape verde buzzard , buteo bannermani , and socotra buzzard , buteo socotraensis . oddly , although it had been studied for over a century , the socotra buzzard had not been formally named until 2010 when porter and kirwan dubbed it buteo socotraensis . this replaces the informal name \u2018b . socotrae\u2019 that some have used .\nfatbirder - linking birders worldwide . . . wildlife travellers see our sister site : wand\nhawks , eagles , kites , harriers and old world vultures are included in this group . the osprey is placed in a separate family ( pandionidae ) , as are the secretary bird ( sagittariidae ) and the new world vultures . the other bird of prey family , which includes caracaras and falcons , are a distinct and separate group .\nthe accipitridae are a diverse family with a great deal of variation in size and shape . they range in size from the tiny pearl kite\n, which measures up to 120cm and weighs up to 14kg . wingspan can vary from 39cm in the little sparrowhawk to more than 300cm in the cinereous vulture and himalayan vulture\nof new zealand , which is estimated to have measured up to 140cm and to have weighed 15kg to 16 . 5 kg in the largest females .\n( possibly not closely related to other vultures ) , it may form more than half of the diet . most accipitrids will not eat plant material . insects are taken exclusively by around 12 species , in great numbers by 44 additional species , and opportunistically by a great many others . the diet of the honey - buzzards includes not only the adults and young of social insects such as wasps and bees , but the honey and combs from their nests . the snail kite\nare specialists in consuming snails , which usually constitute 50 - 95 % of their diet .\noccasionally , an eagle or other raptor that kills prey considerably heavier than itself ( too heavy for the raptor to carry and fly with ) will then have to leave prey where they ' ve killed and later return repeatedly to feed or dismember and bring to a perch or nest piece by piece . this has the advantage of providing a surplus of food but has the disadvantage of potentially attracting scavengers or other predators which can steal the kill or even attack the feeding accipitrid . using this method , accipitrids such as the golden eagle\nhave successfully hunted ungulates , such as deer and antelope , and other large mammals ( kangaroos and emus in the wedge - tailed ) weighing more than 30kg , 7\u20138 times their own mass . more typical prey for these powerful booted eagle species weigh between 0 . 5kg and 5kg . the haliaeetus eagles such as steller ' s sea eagle\nis most closely related to the snake eagles . another handsome aberration of the snake - eagle lineage ( although , unlike the philippine , has long been known to be a snake - eagle ) is the bateleur\n, which has evolved unusually bright plumage in adults , with a huge red cere , red feet , bright yellow bill , and boldly contrasting grey - and - white markings over black plumage . the bateleur has specialised to feed extensively on carrion and almost any other feeding opportunity that presents itself .\nthere are , according to the ioc , 255 species of hawks , buzzards , kites , eagles and old world vultures in the family accipitridae . they are :\nthe accipitridae , one of the four families within the order accipitriformes ( the other order of diurnal birds of prey being falconiformes ) , are a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet .\nthe bearded vulture ( gypaetus barbatus ) , also known as the lammergeier [ a ] or ossifrage , is a bird of prey and the only member of the genus gypaetus .\ntaxonomy : vultur barbatus linnaeus , 1758 , santa cruz , near oran , algeria . individual variation in plumage considerable , and geographical variation based largely on size . forms aureus ( europe and w asia ) and hemachalanus ( higher mountains of c asia ) sometimes recognized , but probably better subsumed within nominate barbatus . two subspecies tentatively recognized .\nthe cape griffon or cape vulture ( gyps coprotheres ) , also known as kolbe ' s vulture , is an old world vulture in the family accipitridae . it is endemic to southern africa , and is found mainly in south africa , lesotho , botswana and in some parts of northern namibia . it nests on cliffs and lays one egg per year . since 2015 , it has been classified as endangered .\nvultur coprotheres j . r . forster , 1798 , south africa . traditionally thought to form a species - group with g . himalayensis , g . indicus ( with tenuirostris ) , g . rueppelli and g . fulvus , and formerly considered conspecific with g . fulvus . recent genetic data , however , indicate that present species forms a clade with g . indicus and g . tenuirostris and that these three are sister to a clade comprising g . rueppelli and g . fulvus ; this arrangement independently supported by study based on wider molecular sample from additional loci . an apparently mixed ( and probably successful ) pairing between present species and g . africanus was reported at last surviving colony in namibia . monotypic .\nthe egyptian vulture ( neophron percnopterus ) is a small old world vulture , found widely distributed from southwestern europe and northern africa to india\u2026 .\ntaxonomy : vultur perenopterus [ sic ] linnaeus , 1758 , egypt . original specific name incorrectly spelt , and officially emended . following the naming of a new subspecies from canary is , further work revealed that population of this species in balearic is is equally distinct genetically ; further work desirable . nw himalayan population included in nominate , but possibly separable ( as race rubripersonatus ) . three subspecies currently recognized .\ntaxonomy : spiza\u00ebtus nipalensis bartelsi stresemann , 1924 , western java . traditionally thought to form a species - group with n . nipalensis , n . alboniger ( with n . nanus ) , n . lanceolatus and n . philippensis ( with n . pinskeri ) . sometimes considered to be a race of n . nipalensis , but clearly distinct . monotypic .\nthe white - bellied goshawk ( accipiter haplochrous ) is a species of bird of prey in the accipitridae family . it is endemic to new caledonia . the species is also known as the new caledonia sparrowhawk\u2026\ntaxonomy : accipiter haplochrous p . l . sclater , 1859 , nu island , off new caledonia . traditionally thought to form a species - group with a . melanochlamys , a . albogularis and a . rufitorques . monotypic .\nnarrated & filmed by paul doherty 90 minutes 28 species covered ? 17 . 95 bird images dvd guides , 28 carousel walk , sherburn in elmet , n yorks ls25 6lp , united kingdom urltoken see fatbirder review\n? a field guide by james ferguson - lees & david christie illustrated by kim franklin , david mead , philip burton & alan harris published by christopher helm in paperback 2006 ? 19 . 99p see fatbirder review\na non - profit organization , the crc ` s mission is the conservation of birds of prey through rehabilitation , research and education ."]}
{"id": 157, "summary": [{"text": "nyassachromis prostoma is a species of fish in the family cichlidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is endemic to lake malawi and found in malawi and tanzania . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "nyassachromis prostoma", "paragraphs": ["nyassachromis prostoma is an mouthbrooding cichlid from lake malawi , africa . it was first typed by trewavas in 1935 .\na male of nyassachromis prostoma at gome rock , lake malawi [ malawi ] . photo by ad konings . determiner ad konings\nconservation : nyassachromis prostoma is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( lc ) least concern ( 2006 ) .\nnyassachromis prostoma has is occasionally available on cichlid sellers website . wild - caught fish would be $ 60 - $ 80 each . two inch juveniles go for about $ 8 to $ 12 each .\nin the wild , nyassachromis prostoma is an open water planktivore , but it is not difficult to feed in the aquarium . flake food , repashy spawn and grow , new life spectrum and xtreme pellets were all eagerly accepted by my group of fish .\nnyassachromis prostoma is a not a very aggressive cichlid and presents few problems . this fish should definitely be kept over sand since bower building is a prelude to courtship . my group did great in ordinary chicago water ( ph 7 . 4 ) at 78f .\ni obtained a group of eight , adult nyassachromis prostoma from a gcca rare fish auction in 2013 . the fish were a couple of inches long when i got them and i placed them in a 90 - gallon tank with substrate of quartz pool filter sand . this tank had only a few rocks for landscaping and was filtered by a tidepool ii wet / dry filter\nthis species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus copadichromis but is now valid in the genus nyassachromis ( konings 2016 ) . an amended assessment has been produced to reflect this taxonomic change .\nmembers of the genus nyassachromis prostoma were formerly placed in the copadichromis genus , but konings advises that juvenile color pattern was one reason why these fish were split into a new genus . nyassachromis are characterized by a rather small head and narrow body and conspicuous line on the body . males get up to six or seven inches while females stay smaller . this is a mostly silvery fish , but males have a nice bright blue sheen to the front third of the body and over the flank . the orange cap variety can have reddish coloration on the head , but it is not always very visible . the dorsal offers some red coloration , but the anal fin is mostly nondescript with only an egg dummy or two . females are smaller by an inch or two and are silver with a blue sheen .\nthis species has a dark lateral stripe on the body . konings ( 1995 ) regards this species as belonging to the genus nyassachromis due to its basic pigmentation pattern as well as its habit of constructing spawning cones , since all other species in the genus copadichromis have spots or lack pattern on the flanks and are not known to build spawning cones on sand [ except for copadichromis likomae ( iles , 1960 ) ] . this species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus copadichromis but is now valid in the genus nyassachromis ( konings 2016 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nkonings , a . 2016 . malawi cichlids in their natural habitat , 5th edition . cichlid press , el paso , usa .\nsnoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )\njustification : endemic to lake malawi . fairly widespread distribution with no major widespread threats identified .\nendemic to lake malawi . recorded from the northwestern coast but also observed on the east coast near masinje .\nit prefers shallow water and is rarely seen in large numbers at depths of more than 10 m . breeds from august to december . it constructs sand castle nests on the sand . a zooplanktivorous feeder .\n( amended version of 2006 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t60873a120691485 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsign up for email reminders for meetings , swaps , auctions , and other events .\nemail reminders for meeting notices providing a reminder for our next meeting , speaker info , rare fish auctions , picnics and holiday party .\nemail reminders for vendors to alert them when the next swap vendor signup dates are .\ni have found repashy spawn and grow to be a great conditioning food for large malawians . when the males were about five inches long , i observed the largest individual digging pits in the sand . this large male dug a pit which was at least three inches deep and about a foot around . a couple of weeks later , i observed my first female holding . i allowed the female to hold for 14 days after which i stripped her of 22 large fry .\ni offered live baby brine shrimp as a first food and the babies grew steadily .\nthe greater chicago cichlid association \u2014 gcca \u2014 is a not - for - profit , educational organization , chartered in the state of illinois , dedicated to the advancement and dissemination of information relating to the biology of the fishes in the family cichlidae , with particular emphasis on maintenance and breeding in captivity . we are simply cichlid hobbyists who love cichlids .\nfrom lake nyassa + greek , chromis = a fish , perhaps a perch ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4979 )\nmar\u00e9chal , c . , 1991 . copadichromis . p . 51 - 58 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 4979 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\npam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !\narticles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .\nbooks for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .\ne - books for sale pdf copies of popular cichlid books offered for sale at the best price .\ntrade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .\ntrewavas , ethelwynn . 1935 .\na synopsis of the cichlid fishes of lake nyasa\n. annals and magazine of natural history . series 10 ; pp . 65 - 118 ( crc00118 )\nto view the full profile . see this and all other species profiles , pictures and videos by becoming a\nof the cichlid room companion . become a subscriber and get a free book the same value of your membership ! you can also open the full profile for everyone to see by\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nformat summary genbank genbank ( full ) asn . 1 xml insdseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3\nthis entry is the master record for a targeted locus set and contains no sequence data .\nfinds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .\nfinds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . ."]}
{"id": 171, "summary": [{"text": "the japanese flying squid , japanese common squid or pacific flying squid , scientific name todarodes pacificus , is a squid of the family ommastrephidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this animal lives in the northern pacific ocean , in the area surrounding japan , along the entire coast of china up to russia , then spreading across the bering strait east towards the southern coast of alaska and canada .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "they tend to cluster around the central region of vietnam . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "japanese flying squid", "paragraphs": ["today i want to write about a really cool flying animal , the japanese flying squid .\nthe japanese flying squid or japanese common squid , ( todarodes pacificus ) , is an cephalopod from the crazy cephalopods expansion pack .\nen - japanese flying squid , fr - toutenon japonais , sp - pota japonesa .\nthe japanese flying squid : a cephalopod that can\u2026 . . fly ? | invertebrate zoology\n) at two locations in the japanese flying squid ( autumn cohort ) spawning ground .\npuneeta p , vijai d , yamamoto j , sakurai y . male copulatory behavior interrupts japanese flying squid\njapanese flying squid live in the northern pacific ocean in the cold waters of japan , china and russia .\njapanese flying squid are able to leap out of the water and fly for about 30 metres at a time .\nfacts about squids , giant squid , colossal squid , humboldt squid , vampire squid . squid information , anatomy , feeding , reproduction , evolution and squid predators\n. bull japanese soc fish oceanogr . 2012 ; 76 : 18\u201323 . ( in japanese with english abstract )\nikeda y , sakurai y , shimazaki k . maturation process of the japanese common squid\nkimura s , gohda t , sakurai y . characterization of nidamental mucin from japanese common squid\nthe main food source of the japanese flying squid is a variety of small fish . they will also consume other types of squid that are out there if food sources are short .\njapanese flying squid ( also known by the less flamboyant moniker japanese common squid ) are found in northern portions of the pacific ocean near korea , japan , coastal china , russia , and across the bering strait toward parts of alaska and canada .\nyatsu a , tafur r , maravi c . embryos and rhynchoteuthion paralarvae of the jumbo flying squid\nthere have been numerous sightings of a certain type of japanese squid\nflying\nabove the ocean ' s surface , and now scientists have offered an explanation .\nwhile reports of flying squid were widespread , how they pulled the trick off was unknown . some had wondered whether the squid glided ( like flying fish ) , but this study - - published in\njapanese flying squid ( todarodes pacificus ) gliding over the ocean south of japan . photo by graham ekins . photo used by permission . copyright \u00a9 2010 graham ekins .\nyamamoto and his team were tracking a shoal of around 100 squid , part of the japanese flying squid family , in the northwest pacific , 600 kilometres ( 370 miles ) east of tokyo , in july 2011 .\nsteenstrup , in an indoor aquarium . bull japanese soc sci fish . 1963 ; 29 : 930\u2013934 . ( in japanese with english abstract )\nvijai d , sakai m , sakurai y . embryonic and paralarval development following artificial fertilization in the neon flying squid\nneon flying squid : amazing creatures soar more than 100 feet through the air at 11 . 2 metres per second\nmurata , m . , and hayase , s . , 1993 . life history and biological information on flying squid (\n2 . fishing gears used include purse seine and jigging gear in japanese waters .\nyatsu , a . , and mori , j . , 2000 . early growth of the autumn cohort of neon flying squid ,\nit marks the first specific study of the neon flying squid and its curious talent , according to yamamoto , though a 2004 study collected substantial anecdotal evidence of flying squid . speaking to afp , yamamoto said :\nthere were always witnesses and rumours that said squid were seen flying , but no one had clarified how they actually do it . we have proved that it really is true .\nyamamoto j , miyanaga s , fukui shin\u2019ichi , sakurai y . effect of temperature on swimming behavior of paralarvae of the japanese common squid\nmurata , m . , and nakamura , y . , 1998 . seasonal migration and diel vertical migration of the neon flying squid ,\nneon flying squid : amazing creatures soar more than 100 feet through the air at 11 . 2 metres per second | daily mail online\nthree sub - populations of japanese flying squid have been found off japanese waters . the main group spawns in the east china sea , the second group spawns in autumn in western kyushu , and the third but minor group spawns in the spring or summer in the sea of japan and north - eastern japan .\n) occurred in subtropical japanese waters in winter . heisei 8 nendo ikaruishigen kenkyuu kaigi houkoku . report of the 1996 meeting on squid resources . national research institute of far seas fisheries , shimizu , 81\u201391 ( in japanese ) .\nwe have discovered that squid do not just jump out of water but have a highly developed flying posture ,\nthe report said .\nmori , j . , tanaka , h . , and yatsu , a . , 1999b . paralarvae and adults of neon flying squid (\nwelch , w . d . , and morris , j . f . t . , 1993 . age and growth of flying squid (\nyatsu , a . , tanaka , h . , and mori , j . , 1998 . population structure of the neon flying squid ,\n' we have discovered that squid do not just jump out of water but have a highly developed flying posture , ' the report said .\nthe japanese flying squid was not the species caught on film and measured , but if they aren\u2019t already partaking of this aerial transportation , they should really consider , it as they undertake a lengthy 2000km migration during their short lives .\n, fish sci ser 7 . koseisha koseikaku , tokyo , pp 23\u201343 ( in japanese )\n, fish sci ser 7 . koseisha koseikaku , tokyo , pp 113\u2013125 ( in japanese )\nresearchers say is the first time anyone has ever described the mechanism the flying mollusc employs .\nimage taken by kouta muramatsu of hokkaido university on july 25 , 2011 shows the oceanic squid flying in the air in the northwest pacific ocean .\nmurakami , k . , watanabe , y . , and nakata , j . , 1981 . growth , distribution and migration of flying squid (\n. squid cartilage lacks hyaluronan , and the core protein differs from vertebrate cartilage glycosaminoglycan core protein . squid chondroitin sulphate contains novel tetrasaccharide sequences ; the common squid ,\nthe main fishery players of the japanese flying squid is mostly japan . this is followed by the republic of korea , and then china . the production and consumption of this squid is the highest in japan . this squid is also exported to other countries for human consumption . the usa is the top importer of this squid , while japan is the largest consumer and exporter . this squid is used to make seafood - related dishes , such as sushi .\nhow does the japanese flying squid catch air ? it releases a high - pressured water jet for propulsion , and then spreads its fins like wings to glide above the water , according to a new study from marine biologists at hokkaido university .\nthe main food source of the japanese flying squid is a variety of small fish . they will also consume other types of squid that are out there if food sources are short . fishermen have learned to check their nets often too . otherwise they will discover their catch is far less because larger squid have consumed the smaller ones in there with them .\nin japanese waters , squids are mainly caught in summer - autumn squid fishery ; coastal catches are landed fresh while catches from offshore waters are landed as frozen blocks . in addition to squid jigging and net fishing in japanese waters they are also caught in multi - gear fisheries within chinese and korean waters .\nthe japanese flying squid isn\u2019t as well known as many others out there . they also have features that are distinct to this particular species . you will notice rings around the back of the head . these are used to determine how old they are . they are very small and light weight squid as well .\nhe added that as the squid are vulnerable when flying , it ' s possible they may be a source of food for sea birds or other predators .\nflying snails . well , that blows another preconceived notion out of the water , as it were .\nyatsu , a . , and watanabe , t . , 1996 . interannual variability in neon flying squid abundance and oceanographic conditions in the central north pacific , 1982\u20131992 .\nlarvae in the marine crustacea . bull inst publ health 23 : 65\u201371 ( in japanese with english summary )\n, fish sci ser 7 . koseisha kosei - kaku , tokyo , pp . 98\u2013107 ( in japanese )\nchen , c . s . , and chiu , t . s . , 2003 . variations of life history parameters in two geographical groups of the neon flying squid ,\nfan , w . , cui , x . s . , and shen , x . q . , 2004 . study on the relationship between the neon flying squid ,\nyatsu , a . , midorikawa , s . , shimadda , t . , and uozumi , y . , 1997 . age and growth of the neon flying squid ,\nyou will find the japanese flying squid in the northern parts of the pacific ocean . they can be found all the way up the cost too . this includes both china and russia . they have also been located along the bering straight and into the areas of alaska and canada .\n, japanese common squid . in : rosa r , pierce gj , o\u2019dor rk , editors . advances in squid biology , ecology and fisheries part ii\u2013oegopsid squids . new york : nova science publishers , inc ; 2013 . pp . 249\u2013271 .\naoki , i . , and miyashita , k . , 2000 . dispersal of larvae and juveniles of japanese anchovy\ncitation :\njapanese flying squid , todarodes pacificus ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nnews of the finding comes after other japanese scientists last month unveiled the world ' s first pictures of the elusive giant squid in its natural habitat , deep in the pacific ocean .\nichii , t . , mahapatra , k . , okamura , h . , and okada , y . , 2006 . stock assessment of the autumn cohort of neon flying squid (\n( nematoda : anisakidae ) from the euphausiids . jpn j parasitol 18 : 241\u2013248 ( in japanese with english summary )\nparalarvae of autumn cohort in northern waters of hawaiian islands . report of the 2004 meeting on squid resources . japan sea national fisheries research institute , niigata , 35\u201348 ( in japanese ) .\narg\u00fcelles , j . , rodhouse , p . g . , villegas , p . , and castilloa , g . , 2001 . age , growth and population structure of jumbo flying squid\nthere are no specific management plans in place in chinese waters , but the stock is well managed within japanese limits through tac quotas ; but score 2 and score 4 have been equal to or above 6 in recent years in japanese waters .\nthe behavior of the japanese flying squid is hard to identify . we don\u2019t know much about them in their natural habitat . at the same time though we can\u2019t learn much from them in captivity . this is one species of squid that tends to not do well at all in such an environment . they suffer from stress so they don\u2019t eat or at like they normally would .\na species of oceanic squid can fly more than 30 metres ( 100 feet ) through the air at speeds faster than usain bolt if it wants to escape predators , japanese researchers said friday .\nevery time you think nature couldn ' t get any weirder . . . what ' ll be next in the evolution of flying squid ? sustainable flight via ' air pumping ' jet propulsion ?\nmodelling of trends is only possible after getting catch and landing data across its entire distribution range from china to japanese waters .\nthe researchers tracked about 100 squid in the northwest pacific ocean in july 2011 , and there they observed the creatures launching into the air . when flying , the squid can remain airborne for about three seconds and travel upwards of about 30 meters , yamamoto told afp .\nin the north pacific . heisei 14 nendo ikarui shigen kenkyuu kaigi houkoku . report of the 2002 meeting on squid resources . hokkaido national fisheries research institute , kushiro , 1\u20135 ( in japanese ) .\nyu , w . , chen , x . j . , yi , q . , and li , y . s . , 2013 . review on the early life history of neon flying squid\nmokrin , n . m . , novikov , y . v . , & zuenko , y . i . ( 2002 ) . seasonal migrations and oceanographic conditions for concentration of the japanese flying squid ( todarodes pacificus steenstrup , 1880 ) in the northwestern japan sea . bull . marine science , 71 : 487 - 499 .\ntype i and type ii larvae collected from fishes caught in japanese coastal waters and their identification . jpn j parasitol 31 : 131\u2013134\nkagei n ( 1979 ) euphausiids and their parasites ( i ) . geiken tsushin ( 328 ) : 53\u201362 ( in japanese )\nrosa , a . l . , yamamoto , j . , and sakurai , y . , 2011 . effects of environmental variability on the spawning areas , catch and recruitment of the japanese common squid ,\nthe squid in question turns out to be todarodes pacificus , and according to the literature it isn\u2019t the first member of the species to try to mate with a diner\u2019s oral mucosa . it also boasts an intriguing common name : japanese flying squid . can it actually fly ? sort of . can it impregnate a human ? absolutely not . and , really folks , get your mind out of the gutter .\nvijai d . egg masses of flying squids ( cephalopoda : ommastrephidae ) . j shellfish res . 2016 ; 35 : 1007\u20131012 .\nthere were always witnesses and rumours that said squid were seen flying , but no one had clarified how they actually do it . we have proved that it really is true ,\nyamamoto told afp .\n' there were always witnesses and rumours that said squid were seen flying , but no one had clarified how they actually do it . we have proved that it really is true , ' yamamoto told afp .\nstudied 23 patients with seafood allergies and determined that 18 of them were sensitized to squid . however , none of the patients were confirmed as squid\u2010allergic by either history or challenge trials . in a study of 99 patients with shrimp allergy , 63 individuals had attempted squid ingestion and 11 subjects were identified as squid\u2010allergic (\ntanaka y . japanese anchovy egg accumulation at the sea surface or pycnocline\u2014observations and model . j oceanogr . 1992 ; 48 : 461\u2013472 .\nsp . in marine mammals collected in the antarctic ocean . bull inst public health 19 : 193\u2013196 ( in japanese with english summary )\nto help conserve the levels of japanese flying squid out there , plenty of effort is put into the process of capturing them . since these squid are going to die anyway after they mate , that is the best time to capture them . the goal is to allow them to successfully mate and for the females to deposit the eggs . then they can be captured before the inevitable death the face occur . this way they aren\u2019t taking away from the life span of these squid in their natural environment .\nso flying squid invented the canard wing , not people . lucky thing the mayans didn ' t see these things and make gold pendants of them or we would be saying they were proof they had rockets too .\nand of related species of nematodes in the fishes from sagami bay . yokohama med j 23 : 285\u2013316 ( in japanese with english summary )\njapanese flying squid also have three hearts , and the ability to shoot ink at predators . they are comfortable in a range of temperatures and can survive almost freezing 36 degrees fahrenheit ( 2 degrees celsius ) to 81 degrees fahrenheit ( 27 degrees celsius ) . they usually inhabit the top layer of the ocean , that gives them access to the open air .\nchen , x . j . , zhao , x . h . , and chen , y . , 2007 . influence of el ni\u00f1o / la ni\u00f1a on the western winter - spring cohort of neon flying squid (\nneither its fins nor its arms are the japanese flying squid\u2019s primary tools for travel . instead they race through the water via jet propulsion ( mantle first during sustained swimming , with limbs dangling behind them ) . this is done by taking water into the mantle and then forcefully expelling it through a siphon . whoosh ! other squid ( and octopi ) also propel themselves in this soaring manner , todarodes pacificus just happened to get the cool name .\n) occurred in the subtropical north pacific ocean in autumn . heisei 9 nendo ikaruishigen kenkyuu kaigi houkoku . report of the 1997 meeting on squid resources . tohoku national fisheries research institute , hachinohe , 1\u20138 ( in japanese ) .\nichii , t . , mahapatra , k . , sakai , m . , and okada , y . , 2009 . life history of the neon flying squid : effect of the oceanographic regime in the north pacific ocean .\n) in the north pacific . research institute of north pacific fisheries , hakodate , hokkaido university , 161\u2013179 ( in japanese with english summary ) .\nthe neon flying squid propels itself out of the ocean by shooting a jet of water at high pressure , before opening its fins to glide at up to 11 . 2 metres per second , jun yamamoto of hokkaido university said .\ndescribed an individual from norway who was weakly sensitized to squid and more strongly sensitized to crustacean shellfish but provided no other evidence of squid allergy . a case of severe anaphylaxis to squid was reported to the french allergy vigilance network from the isle of reunion (\nyou ' re not hallucinating . that ' s just squid skin . | deep look\nthe fishing season is all year around . however , the most popular seasons are from january to march , and then june to september as this is when the largest catch of japanese flying squid can be caught . they are caught with hook and line , lift nets , and gill nets . the most popular fishing method is hook and line , which is used in jigging .\nregular stock assessments are conducted and the stock is well managed through annual tac limits in japanese waters ( fisheries agency of japan 2012a , b ) .\njun yamamoto and his team had been sailing around the northwest pacific ocean , 600km off the coast of japan , looking for schools of squid . they spotted about 100 20cm squid swimming just below the surface of the ocean , but as they approached around 20 of the squid launched themselves into the air , gliding around 30m in ten seconds . that the squid took flight as the researchers ' boat approached has led yamamoto to speculate that flying is a safety mechanism , to help them espace predators .\ndavenport , j ( 1994 ) . how and why do flying fish fly ? rev . fish biol . fish , 4 : 184 - 214 .\nthey tend to live in the upper layers of the ocean , but are only short lived as they live for only 1 year . within this year of life , the japanese flying squid matures from larvae form . they then fed , grow , migrate , and then at the end of their lives , they congregate in mating grounds where they reproduce . when they reproduce , they die .\nadachi k , yabumoto m , yoo h - k , morioka k , ikeda y , ueta y , et al . salt soluble without jelly - like component from the oviducal gland induces chorionic expansion in the ova of the japanese common squid\nthe japanese flying squid isn\u2019t unique in either its locomotion or its sperm delivery system . what sets it apart from other squid is its popularity as food , especially in japan , korea and other east asian nations . often it is sold in a processed , dried form ( i . e . , no insemination risk ) , but it is increasingly also consumed raw and sometimes with its internal organs still intact , and thus the species occasionally finds its way into food horror headlines .\nchen , x . j . , tian , s . q . , chen , y . , and liu , b . l . , 2010c . a modeling approach to identify optimal habitat and suitable fishing grounds for neon flying squid (\nichii , t . , mahapatra , k . , sakai , m . , inagake , d . , and okada , y . , 2004 . differing body size between the autumn and the winter - spring cohorts of neon flying squid (\nspp . ( anisakinae , nematoda ) in marine mammals on the coast of japan . jpn j parasitol 16 : 427\u2013435 ( in japanese with english summary )\nit is important to understand the physical process that determines the vertical distribution of egg masses to predict their horizontal drift in relation to embryo survival and subsequent recruitment [ 33 ] . in our previous cycle of experiments [ 13 ] , we observed the spawning behavior of the japanese flying squid and how the thermocline helps to sustain the egg masses in the water column . the present study was designed to investigate the structure and durability of the egg masses , including how they function to prevent infestation , the physical properties , and the role of jelly during embryo development in the egg mass . the fate of the egg mass jelly during and after embryo development was also assessed . the properties of the egg masses observed in vitro were related to seawater parameters in the natural spawning grounds of the japanese flying squid .\ndietary studies of squid are difficult because their oesophagus is very narrow as it passes through their brain , therefore food particles must be chewed up very finely and are hard to identify . both dietary analysis and squid fatty acid analysis are being used to determine squid prey species .\ndurward rd , vessey e , o\u2019dor rk , amaratunga t . reproduction in the squid ,\ncheslin m v , giragosov vye . the egg mass and embryonic development of the purple squid\nspp . larvae from fish and squid in newfoundland . proc helminthol soc wash 49 : 65\u201370\nthere were always witnesses and rumors that said squid were seen flying , but no one had clarified how they actually do it ,\nbiologist jun yamamoto of hokkaido university told afp .\nwe have proved that it really is true .\nchen , x . j , cao , j . , chen , y . , liu , b . l . , and tian , s . q . , 2012 . effect of the kuroshio on the spatial distribution of the red flying squid\nreproduction takes place for the japanese flying squid at about the end of their life . after they mate , the will die . they will migrate to the location for mating which has been identified as one of three locations \u2013 the east china sea , kyushu , and the sea of japan . the females can create up to 4 , 000 eggs at a time which they will deposit into the ocean .\ntotal estimated catch , including estimates for non - reported landings , are below an advised tac issued by the scientific body conducting the stock assessments within japanese waters .\nin the subtropical north pacific ocean in autumn , 1997 and 1998 ( abstract ) . heisei 10 nendo ikarui shigen kenkyuu kaigi houkoku . report of the 1998 meeting on squid resources . hokkaido national fisheries research institute , kushiro , 85\u201386 ( in japanese ) .\nthe largest invertebrate in the world is the giant squid , which can grow to 15 m .\n) were documented as part of a study primarily aimed at identification of the major squid allergen .\nrodhouse , p . g . , 2001 . managing and forecasting squid fisheries in variable environments .\nmarine biologists in japan have discovered how squid are able to move across the oceans so quickly .\nmachida m ( 1971 ) survey on gastric nematodes of the northern fur seal on breeding islands . jpn j parasitol 20 : 371\u2013378 ( in japanese with english summary )\nkidokoro , h . 2009 . impact of climatic changes on the distribution , migration pattern and stock abundance of the japanese common squid , todarodes pacificus in the sea of japan , bull . fish . res . agen . no . 27 , 95 - 189 . urltoken\nthe stock is managed through tacs or quotas in japanese waters ; but management effectiveness could not be evaluated for korean and chinese waters hence a precautionary score is applied here .\nwhen japanese flying squid hook up , the male clutches the female and uses his \u201chectocotylus\u201d ( the fourth right arm , designed for this sort of hand off ) to grab some spermatophores and stick them onto the lucky lady . it\u2019s the ejaculation device contained in the spermatophores \u2013 not the live male squid \u2013 that ultimately sends the sperm mass burrowing through the female\u2019s skin . it\u2019s not a powerful enough mechanism to penetrate the thick skin of , say , a human hand . the delicate mucosa inside the human mouth , however , is no problem .\nichii , t . , mahapatra , k . , sakai , m . , wakabayashi , t . , okamura , h . , igarashi , h . , inagake , d . , and okada , y . , 2011 . changes in abundance of the neon flying squid\nthis is the first reported instance of accidental culinary insemination involving a partially cooked squid . in all other cases , unsuspecting diners bit into fully raw squid . but even the raw squid incidents were few and far between . most squid \u2013 raw or cooked \u2013 is served sans internal organs and is thus unlikely to contain spermatophores . and calamari\u2019s biggest threat to health is probably the whole breading and frying thing .\nstaaf dj , zeidberg ld , gilly w . effects of temperature on embryonic development of the humboldt squid\nhigh amounts of japanese flying squid are consumed in both japan and china . therefore the commercial fishing for them is very high . they use it for sushi which is a big part of their diet there . the abundant amounts are also shipped to other countries for consumption including the united states . they are mainly captured the first three months of the year . however , to keep up with the demand for it the process continues all year long .\n( note : the kites in the above photo look more like octopi than squid , so don\u2019t rely on them for species identification . it\u2019s just not easy finding a good picture of a squid kite . )\nyatsu , a . , watanabe , t . , mori , j . , nagasawa , k . , ishida , y . , meguro , t . , kamei , y . , and sakurai , y . , 2000 . interannual variability in stock abundance of the neon flying squid ,\nsquid belong to a group of molluscs called cephalopods , which also includes octopuses , cuttlefish and their allies .\nmost squid complete their life cycle \u2013 from tiny planktonic juveniles to mature adults \u2013 in approximately one year .\ngraphic on a species of squid that can fly more than 30 metres through the air to escape predators .\nin squid jigging fishery and the relationship between fishing ground and sst in the north pacific ocean in 2004 .\nregular stock assessments are in place in japanese waters ( affrc 2012a , b ) , but there is shortage of information on stock assessments , distribution and landings in chinese and korean waters .\ntang , f . h . , cui , x . s . , fan , w . , shen , x . q . , and wu , y . m . , 2011 . study on relationship of neon flying squid yield in north pacific ocean with marine environment by remote sensing .\nthe warty squid moroteuthis ingens is one of the species most preyed - upon by vertebrate predators in the subantarctic .\n* helpful hint : parasites in raw squid and fish can be killed by freezing the items prior to consumption .\nikeda y , shimazaki k . does nidamental gland jelly induce the formation of perivitelline space at fertilization in the squid\nsquid are a diverse group of invertebrates ( animals without backbones ) , and range in size from barely two and a half centimetres ( idiosepius sp . ) to a total length approaching 18 metres ( giant squid architeuthis sp . ) .\nthe fins and the web between the arms create aerodynamic lift and keep the squid stable on its flight arc .\n, it was thought that the enzyme plays a role in myosin metabolism in squid muscle . however , tissue distribution analyses revealed that myhc hydrolytic activity is not restricted to the mantle muscle in squid , but is also found in other tissues\nwho recognized that it is not an obligate correlate of small egg size . indeed , the embryos of the pygmy squid\nindicate that some of the 24 squid\u2010allergic patients were also allergic to octopus but the exact number is unclear . similarly ,\nbirk ma , paight c , seibel ba . observations of multiple pelagic egg masses from small - sized jumbo squid (\n' the fins and the web between the arms create aerodynamic lift and keep the squid stable on its flight arc .\nbased on stock assessments in japanese waters current fishing mortality is not expected to cause the stock to drop below b lim in the next five years , and an increase in fishing effort could be sustained .\nalthough the stock is relatively well managed within japanese maritime limits through tac quotas ; reliable estimates of status of the stock are not available in chinese and korean waters hence status of the stock cannot be determined .\nmarine biology - - found that the squid actually propel themselves with a jet of water , and that they deliberately control their fins and arms to direct themselves . thus , describing them as\nflying\nis actually pretty accurate . a major downside for the squid , though , is that they have to fly backwards , so they don ' t know whether where they ' re going to land is any safer than where they ' re escaping from .\nmachida m ( 1969 ) parasitic nematodes in the stomach of northern fur seals caught in the western pacific , off the coast of northern japan . jpn j parasitol 18 : 575\u2013579 ( in japanese with english summary )\nimage taken by kouta muramatsu of hokkaido university on july 25 , 2011 shows the oceanic squid flying in the air in the northwest pacific ocean . it propels itself out of the ocean by shooting a jet of water at high pressure , before opening its fins to glide at up to 11 . 2m per second , the university said .\nthe overall size of a squid can vary depending on the species . some of them are only 24 inches long while others are more than 40 feet in length . the heaviest squid found was in 2007 around new zealand . it was more than 1 , 000 pounds ! they body of a squid may seem very unique , but it definitely serves its purpose in the water .\nfootage of the giant squid\u2014architeuthis to scientists\u2014provided final proof of the quasi - mythical ocean - dwelling beast reported by sailors for centuries .\ntang , y . s . , 1996 . the relationship between the squid fishing ground and rip current in the northwestern pacific .\nthese giant predators lurk off the shore of san diego ' s popular beaches . read more about the giant squid invasion : urltoken\njapan ' s national science museum succeeded in filming the huge creature at a depth of more than half a kilometre ( a third of a mile ) after teaming up with japanese public broadcaster nhk and the us discovery channel .\nmany vertebrate predators depend heavily on squid , which is second only to krill as a food source in the southern ocean . animals such as the grey - headed albatross and the sperm whale ( the largest of the toothed whales ) feed almost entirely on squid .\nbazzino , g . , quinones , r . a . , and norbis , w . , 2005 . environmental associations of shortfin squid\nthe peptide pagt ( 405 . 99 da ) isolated from farmed amur sturgeon skin could maintain the intramyofibrillar water of japanese sea bass mince subjected to freeze\u2013thaw cycles . in fresh minces ( freeze\u2013thaw cycle 0 ) , the intramyofibrillar water (\nthe researchers had plenty of time to photograph and study the squid , and work out exactly how they stay in the air . yamamoto writes :\nonce they finish shooting out the water , they glide by spreading out their fins and arms . the fins and the web between the arms create aerodynamic lift and keep the squid stable on its flight arc . as they land back in the water , the fins are all folded back into place to minimise the impact . we have discovered that squid do not just jump out of water but have a highly developed flying posture . this finding means that we should no longer consider squid as things that live only in the water . it is highly possible that they are also a source of food for sea birds .\nqualitative scores have been assigned for this stock due to absence of reliable scientific and management quality information within korean and chinese waters . stock assessments have been conducted on a regular basis within japanese limits but a precautionary score has been applied for the whole stock here due to transboundary nature of the stock , which straddles korean , chinese and japanese maritime limits . management measures could not be evaluated for chinese and korean waters hence precautionary scores are applied for 1 to 3 .\nour bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .\npla2 can use as alternative enzyme of porcine pancreatic pla2 , and phospholipids from squid are rich source of functional polyunsaturated fatty acids , especially dha .\nkimura s , higuchi y , aminaka m , bower jr , sakurai y . chemical properties of egg - mass mucin complexes of the ommastrephid squid\nchen , x . j . , 1995 . an approach to the relationship between the squid fishing ground and water temperature in the northwestern pacific .\nthe squid that can fly faster than usain bolt ! amazing creatures soar more than 100 feet through the air at 11 . 2 metres per second\nthere are more than 300 known species of squid out there that have been identified . they fall into one of two categories \u2013 myopsida and oegopsida .\nkoslow , j . a . , and allen , c . , 2011 . the influence of the ocean environment on the abundance of market squid ,\nthis cranchid squid larva is only 10 mm long but adults can grow up to 2 m . their bodies remain translucent . ( photo : russ hopcroft )\nnew research is shedding light on the preferred habitat of the northern squid , gonatus fabricii - a key but often overlooked species in arctic marine food webs .\nthat are main fisheries products in hokkaido prefecture , japan was analyzed . total lipids were extracted from scallop adductor muscle and squid mantle muscle by the method of\nkimura s , sugiura y , mizuno h , kato n , hanaoka y . occurrence of a mucin - type glycoprotein in nidamental gland mucosubstance from the squid\nwhile in the water , a squid can swim using two main methods . one method , like a fish , is fin undulation ( macia et al . 2004 ) . while fin undulation is sufficient for the regular paced movement of a squid , the use of jet propulsion is necessary when the squid needs to move quickly , such as when evading a predator ( macia et al . 2004 ) . the first step of jet propulsion is achieved when water is drawn into the mantle through a wide opening and into the mantle compression chamber ( packard 1969 ) . should a squid need to make a quick evasive move , it can contract its mantle , forcing the water through a slender funnel , creating a jet that will propel it in the opposite direction of the jet stream ( gosline and demont 1985 ) . so where does the flight come from ? sometimes , if the jet propulsion from the squid is strong enough , there is enough force to push it through the water surface and send it flying through the air ( muramatsu 2013 ) .\nfootage of the giant squid - - architeuthis to scientists - - provided final proof of the quasi - mythical ocean - dwelling beast reported by sailors for centuries .\ndescribe seven patients with histories of reactions from the ingestion of squid or the inhalation of vapors from cooking of squid . all of these patients experienced asthmatic reactions . positive spts and rasts were obtained . six of the seven patients had a history of coexisting shrimp allergy . the cross\u2010reaction with shrimp was confirmed by spt and rast in these six individuals . no cross\u2010reactivity could be confirmed between squid and oyster and the patients ' histories provided no suggestion of cross\u2010reactivity with other molluscan shellfish . in a study of 48 seafood\u2010allergic patients in the canary islands of spain , 24 individuals were identified as allergic to squid including 18 individuals who were also allergic to crustacean shellfish (\nkoyama t , kobayashi a , kumada m , komiya y , oshima t , kagei n , ishii t , machida m ( 1969 ) morphological and taxonomical studies on anisakidae larvae found in marine fishes and squids . jpn j parasitol 18 : 466\u2013487 ( in japanese with english summary )\nsomeday you ' ll be looking out a window , and instead of a pigeon sitting on the window sill , it will be a squid . eating a pigeon .\nthese squid have a mantle length of about 50 cm . females are larger than males . they have 8 arms and 2 tentacles . they also have 3 hearts .\nand swordtip squid concentration on the changes of unfrozen water in mf during freezing at 25\u00b0c for 90 days . after the addition of squid peptides , the amount of unfrozen water regarded as bound water increased in the mf because of the interaction between hydrophilic side chains of peptides and hydrate water in the hydration sphere of mf . the mf in the presence of 5 . 0\u20137 . 5 % concentrations of peptides of swordtip squid had a maximum amount of unfrozen water ( 0 . 737\u20130 . 625 g h\nresearchers at the hokkaido university classified the squid\u2019s flight into four main parts . the first step is launching , where the squid uses the high pressure from jet propulsion to break through the surface , folding their arms so as to reduce resistance from the water surface . the second step is jetting , where the squid opens up its arms and fins and travels through the air using the water remaining in its mantle . the third step is gliding where , similar to a flying fish , it uses its spread out arms and fins to help generate lift from the wind and travel further . the last step is diving , where much like any other organism that dives , it folds in its appendages to form a streamline body shape to make entry back into the water a smooth process ( muramatsu 2013 ) .\nyoung re , harman rf , mangold km . the common occurrence of oegopsid squid eggs in near - surface oceanic waters . pacific sci . 1985 ; 39 : 359\u2013366 .\npuneeta p , vijai d , yoo h - k , matsui h , sakurai y . observations on the spawning behavior , egg masses and paralarval development of the ommastrephid squid\n[ parody ] this is clear evidence of the flying spaghetti monster . his noodley appendages are obvious . once again science queers the pitch by developing an overly complex explanation for what we witness as a simple truth . i can just imagine him riding the backs of dinosaurs in our recent past .\nthe giant squid has the largest eye in the animal kingdom . it is much bigger than the eye of a blue whale ! that is about the size of a volleyball .\nthe squid are in the air for about three seconds and travel upwards of 30 metres , said yamamoto , in what he believed was a defence strategy to escape being eaten .\nanderson , c . i . h . , and rodhouse , p . g . , 2001 . lifecycle , oceanography and variability : ommastrephid squid in the variable oceanography environments .\ngenerally , these creatures can weigh about 1 . 1 pounds ( 500 grams ) and can have a length of up to around 1 . 5 feet ( 50 centimeters ) . the average life span of such a squid is very short ( about 1 year ) because they are so heavily preyed upon by creatures like sperm whales , dolphins , seals , baleen whales and rays . chinese , japanese and other people in the region fish the squid for consumption . also contributing to the short life span , is that they die as soon as they reproduce ( 1 year is usually the time it takes for them to reach sexual maturity , mate , and lay eggs ) .\nscientists and broadcasters said monday they have captured footage of an elusive giant squid roaming the depths of the pacific ocean , showing it in its natural habitat for the first time ever .\nit can be fun as well as educational to look at photos of the different types of squid . you will be able to see first hand the differences in their appearance as well as their size . many people don\u2019t realize that what they may see in the water is a squid though because one species can look so different from others they have previously identified .\nstaaf dj , camarillo - coop s , haddock shd , nyack ac , payne j , salinas - zavala ca , et al . natural egg mass deposition by the humboldt squid (\ndawe , e . g . , colbourne , e . b . , and drinkwater , k . f . , 2000 . environmental effects on recruitment of short - finned squid (\nresearchers say architeuthis eats other types of squid and grenadier , a species of fish that lives in the deep ocean . they say it can grow to be longer than 10 metres .\nto escape predators in the ocean , these cephalopods will speed away by shooting a jet of water . but can squid use that behavior to take to the air and control their trajectories ?\nit is reasonable to think that different enzymes in squid liver can be characterized by the enzyme - specific digestion pattern of myofibrils , which are easily analyzed on sds - page . inhibition spectrum study was the method to identify the proteinase present in squid liver . when myofibrils were incubated with the crude extract in the absence of any inhibitors , mhc and actin were degraded into fragments (\nscientists have uncovered a new large species of squid among 70 types gathered during an exploration of the depths of the indian ocean , the international union for the conservation of nature said on monday .\narkhipkin ai , rodhouse pgk , pierce gj , sauer w , sakai m , allcock l , et al . world squid fisheries . rev fish sci aquac . 2015 ; 23 : 92\u2013252 .\njackson , g . d . , and domeier , m . l . , 2003 . the effects of an extraordinary el ni\u00f1o / la ni\u00f1a event on the size and growth of the squid\nfor years , fishermen and sailors have reported seeing squid\nflying\nacross the surface of the sea , and every now and again someone gets lucky and manages to nab a few photographs of cephalopods in action . it ' s only now , though , that marine biologists from hokkaido university have discovered exactly how these squids squirt water out fast enough to propel themselves through the air at up to 11 . 2 metres per second - - faster than usain bolt ' s top speed of 10 . 31 metres per second .\nthis finding means that we should no longer consider squid as things that live only in the water . it is highly possible that they are also a source of food for sea birds .\nresearchers from the university of queensland played a key role in filming the first video images of a live giant squid in its natural habitat , in lightless water up to a kilometre under the ocean .\nwatanabe k , sakurai y , segawa s , okutani t . development of the ommastrephid squid todarodes pacificus , from fertilized egg to rhynchoteuthion paralarva . am malacol bull . 1996 ; 13 : 73\u201388 .\nlitz , m . n . , phillips , a . j . , brodeur , r . d . , and emmett , r . l . , 2011 . seasonal occurrences of humboldt squid (\n' this finding means that we should no longer consider squid as things that live only in the water . it is highly possible that they are also a source of food for sea birds . '\n) , but these suspicions were not confirmed by diagnostic evaluations . a survey of 659 portuguese adults revealed 3 individuals reporting allergy to squid and octopus but further confirmation of these self\u2010reported allergies was not sought (\nliu , h . s . , and chen , x . j . , 2002 . study on water temperature distributions and fishing grounds of squid in the north pacific during may - july in 2009 .\nthe impact of the squid fishery in a multi - gear fishing across all three jurisdictions is difficult to quantify until more information is made publicly available on types of gear used within limits of this fishery .\nas a squid moves through the water , they stretch in the mantel area . this is going to force water to be moved through the funnel . you will notice that they move tail first through the water . they are very quick as well as agile in the water . when a squid feels that they are in danger they release a dark color of ink as they try to make their rapid escape .\na squid has gills which is uses to breath through . therefore it doesn\u2019t have to go to the surface of the water for air . they have a very complex body design for a mollusk which makes them very fascinating . they are also simple enough to capture in the water . this is why so many fishermen use squid for bait . it is an attractive way for them to get a variety of fish .\n) . following confirmation of this hypothesis , as discussed in the previous paragraph , other deep - sea squid families with similar reproductive structure morphologies ( e . g . octopoteuthidae , onychoteuthidae , gonatidae and architeuthidae ;\ngong , y . & k . h . choi , 2008 . fluctuations in abundance of common squid , todarodes pacificus in the far east . journal of environmental biology 29 ( 4 ) : 449 - 452 . urltoken\nan image from footage taken by nhk and discovery channel in july 2012 and released on january 7 , 2013 shows a giant squid up to 8m long , filmed at a depth of 630m in the sea near ogasawara islands .\nwhat ' s more , the squid can speed through the air at over 11 meters per second . that ' s faster than usain bolt , who averaged only 10 . 3 meters per second in the 2012 london olympics .\na more rigorous study of both government reports and published literature is necessary for chinese waters . studies need to be conducted to evaluate seasonal movements of this stock across all three jurisdictions of korean , chinese and japanese waters . governance measures also remain unknown for this stock in chinese and korean waters . suggest increased data collection to gather information to make an analytical assessment possible in the near future across its distribution range .\nmacia s , robinson mp , craze p , dalton r , thomas jd ( 2004 ) new observations on airborne jet propulsion ( flight ) in squid , with a review of previous reports . j mollusc . stud . 70 : 297\u2013299 ."]}
{"id": 174, "summary": [{"text": "the black crested mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus ) is a species of primate in the family cercopithecidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in angola and democratic republic of the congo .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "black crested mangabey", "paragraphs": ["black - crested mangabey geographic range in africa . map credit : chermundy and iucn .\nzingo , a black - crested mangabey born at brookfield zoo . ( brookfield zoo )\na black crested mangabey , native to the forests of central africa , examines an enrichment puzzle .\nthe black crested mangabey occurs in primary and secondary rainforest , gallery forest and swamp land ( 4 ) .\nthe tana river crested mangabey cercocebus galeritus and the sanje mangabey cercocebus sanjei are listed as endangered by the international union for conservation of nature , while the black crested mangabey lophocebus aterminus ssp . is listed as near threatened .\nthe black crested mangabey is found in the democratic republic of the congo , south of the congo river , and in angola ( 1 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - black crested mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - black crested mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus )\ntitle =\narkive species - black crested mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe white - eyelid mangabey\u2019s genus name \u201ccerocebus\u201d means\ntail monkey\nin greek ; the crested mangabey\u2019s genus name \u201clophocebus\u201d means\ncrest monkey .\nzingo ,\na baby black - crested mangabey was born on july 4 , the zoo said . zingo was born to 7 - year - old mother kiwi and 15 - year - old father videll and is the first black - crested mangabey born at the zoo , which has exhibited the species since 2015 .\nthe black crested mangabey is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) . subspecies : the northern black mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus aterrimus ) is classified as near threatened and the southern black mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus opdenboschi ) is classified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nas its name suggests , the black crested mangabey ( lophocebus aterrimus ) can be distinguished from other mangabey species by the prominent pointed black crest of hair on top of its head ( 4 ) . often called \u201cthe ones with the thin waist\u201d by locals ( 5 ) , mangabeys are slender monkeys of medium size , with tails that are longer than the length of the body ( 6 ) . the black crested mangabey has coarse black fur on the rest of its body , and grey , outward - curving cheek whiskers ( 7 ) .\nlisted under class b of the african convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources , the capturing and killing of the black - crested mangabey is currently permitted only with permission .\nlittle information is available on the breeding biology of the black crested mangabey in the wild . in the democratic republic of the congo , the black crested mangabey has been recorded giving birth in the wet season , in july and august ( 16 ) . mangabeys commonly give birth to a single young after a gestation period of five and a half to six months ( 9 ) .\nthe female black crested mangabey is typically smaller and more slender than the male ( 2 ) , and the fur of the juvenile is usually darker than that of the adults ( 8 ) .\nthe yokokala faunal reserve ( also in the democratic republic of the congo ) , was originally created to conserve the population of bonobos , and now also works to conserve the black - crested mangabey population .\nlike many other mangabey species , the black crested mangabey is also hunted for bushmeat ( 1 ) ( 14 ) . the construction of roads by logging companies opens up previously inaccessible areas of forest , increasing the threat of hunting for the region\u2019s wildlife ( 17 ) .\nthe black crested mangabey is listed under appendix ii of the convention of international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this species should be carefully controlled ( 3 ) . it is also listed under class b of the african convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources , which means that capture and killing of the black crested mangabey is only allowed with permission ( 18 ) .\nthe crowned hawk eagle ( stephanoaetus coronatus ) is a common predator of the black crested mangabey . when this bird is detected , the mangabey gives an alarm - bark then seeks cover in the dense canopy foliage , where it will remain silent for many hours ( 13 ) .\nin the 1920s . gray - cheeked and cherry - headed mangabeys were added in the 1930s , and we celebrated the birth of our first sooty mangabey in 1933 and the birth of the first gray - cheeked mangabey in the us in 1936 . black - crested mangabeys were added in 1960 , and our first golden - bellied mangabey arrived in 1991 .\ntoday , the zoo is home to northern black - crested mangabeys . they can be seen living with colobus monkeys along the monkey trail in lost forest .\ntwo subspecies of the black crested mangabey are recognised . lophocebus aterrimus aterrimus occurs in the central congo basin , while lophocebus aterrimus opdenboschi occurs in south - western democratic republic of the congoand north - eastern angola ( 1 ) .\nfemale black - crested mangabeys emit signs of being ready to breed to their male counterparts during estrus , when their buttocks region swells and takes on a pinkish hue .\nalong with habitat loss and destruction , the black - crested mangabey is also naturally threatened by predators , serving in the food chain for leopards , large birds like crowned eagles , and humans who hunt them for the bush - meat trade .\nthe black crested mangabey lives in multi - male , multi - female troops of 9 to 16 individuals ( 4 ) . each troop inhabits a home range of approximately 48 to 70 hectares , which may overlap with the range of other troops ( 4 ) .\nthe black crested mangabey is also found in the lomako - yokokala faunal reserve in the democratic republic of the congo ( 1 ) , an area created in 2006 to conserve an important population of bonobos ( pan paniscus ) and numerous other species ( 20 ) .\nthe zoo tv series : baby white crowned mangabey hand reared in dublin zoo . mp4\nhorn , a . d . ( 1987 ) the socioecology of the black mangabey ( cercocebus aterrimus ) near lake tumba , zaire . american journal of primatology , 12 : 165 - 180 .\nthe black - crested mangabeys\u2019 genus name , \u201clophocebus , \u201d means\ncrest monkey\nin greek . \u200b locals have referred to them as \u2018baboon - mangabeys , \u2019 since they resemble the baboon species .\nsince the black crested mangabey does not have the contrasting , bright eyelids which are used as social signals by other mangabey species , it relies on a series of calls for communication ( 9 ) . the distinct \u2018whoop - gobble\u2019 call can be heard from a distance of one kilometre and is used by sexually mature males to maintain distance between groups . the \u2018whoop\u2019 functions as a signal for others to listen and the \u2018gobble\u2019 is specific to each individual , showing their location in the forest ( 10 ) . a variety of nasal grunts are used to indicate when the group starts to move , and the male black crested mangabey also emits grunts to greet and comfort juveniles ( 10 ) .\nthe zoo said that a young mangabey will cling to its mom ' s abdomen as she moves around .\nthe long tail of the golden - bellied mangabey , like other old world monkeys , is not prehensile .\nthe black crested mangabey occurs in the salonga national park in the democratic republic of the congo ( 1 ) , an area where the united nations educational , scientific and cultural organization ( unesco ) and united nations foundation ( unf ) are working to preserve the forest and its wildlife by training and motivating staff to protect the park ( 19 ) .\nthe black crested mangabey\u2019s diet consists primarily of fruit and seeds , although it may also feed on some flowers , young leaves , nectar and bark ( 1 ) ( 14 ) . small animal prey , such as insects , may also be occasionally eaten ( 4 ) ( 14 ) . all mangabey species have large incisors to bite into fruit and flat molars which help to crack open and crush hard seeds ( 15 ) . mangabeys also have large food pouches in the cheeks , used to store food ( 5 ) .\nthe salonga national park in the democratic republic of the congo , is an area where the united nations educational , scientific and cultural organization ( unesco ) and united nations foundation ( unf ) works to preserve the forest and its inhabitants , including their population of black - crested mangabeys .\nthe unregulated and often illegal extraction of timber from the congo basin is probably the greatest threat to the black crested mangabey , as an unrelenting demand for timber from around the world drives the destruction of this primate\u2019s habitat ( 1 ) ( 14 ) ( 17 ) . the threat of logging is compounded by a growing human population in the region , causing an increase in land converted for cultivation ( 17 ) .\na highly arboreal monkey ( 6 ) ( 11 ) , the black crested mangabey typically forages in the middle and upper canopy , 12 to 30 metres off the ground ( 4 ) . mangabeys are able to jump up to five metres between trees as they forage ( 4 ) , but may also occasionally venture down to the forest floor in search of food ( 12 ) . most foraging takes place in the morning ( 13 ) .\nmangabeys , like this one grooming another golden - bellied mangabey ' s back , move through the forest by day , traveling in troops .\nbeing highly social creatures , the nature of the black - crested mangabey is known as non - aggressive and friendly . since they are mostly tree dwellers , or arboreal by nature , they are considered to be excellent jumpers , and will very seldom descend to the forest grounds . this species is also known to be diurnal , which means their foraging activity is concentrated during the daytime . they use a locomotion known as arboreal quadrupedalism , where they move through branches horizontally , and at a rapid pace , on all four of their limbs .\n\u200b diet the diet of a black - crested mangabey includes primarily vegetative substances , like fruit , nuts , seeds , leaves and flowers . nectar is also sometimes an important food source during some months , along with maize or sweet potatoes from neighboring crops . their large incisors and flat molars allow them to crack open hard seeds or nuts , and bite into fruit and that\u2019s far too tough - skinned for other primates . they will also sometimes use their teeth to rip off the bark on trees , allowing them to feed upon insects and spiders living underneath .\ntaxonomists have put mangabeys into two separate genera based on physical differences : white - eyelid mangabeys ( cercocebus species ) and crested mangabeys ( lophocebus species ) which have dark skin and eyelids and crests of hair on their heads . in 2006 , a third genera was added : rungwecebus , for the highland mangabey , which is the first new primate genus in 83 years .\n\u200b ecological role dispersing seeds around the forest is one of the main ecological roles that black - crested mangabeys play in helping to regrow the forests that they occupy . they have also been seen to toss fruit to the ground after taking a single bite , which inadvertently , serves as a source of food for some other species . pollination may also occur as a result of their consumption of nectar . \u200b\nblack - crested mangabeys are classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list and listed on appendix ii of convention of international trade in endangered species ( cites ) . one of the greatest threats to this species is the illegal and unregulated uprooting of timber from the congo basin . as the human population continues to expand in that area , the need for land converted for human logging becomes even greater , thus diminishing the homes of these creatures .\nthe mangabey was named for what europeans thought was their homeland . the first shipment of these primates was labeled as coming from mangabe , a port in madagascar , but there are no mangabeys native to madagascar .\nwhite - eyelid mangabeys are most closely related to mandrills and drills , and the males are much larger than the females . crested mangabeys are more closely related to baboons and geladas , and both males and females are about the same size .\npeople continue to destroy mangabey habitat by logging the trees in their forest homes and hunting the monkeys illegally for bushmeat . and because mangabeys are such fruit lovers , they tend to raid fruit plantations and are often killed as pests .\nmangabeys can be golden brown , gray , dark brown , or a soft black , depending on the species or subspecies , usually with a lighter color on the underbelly . youngsters are generally darker than the adults . white - collared mangabeys have reddish hair on their head , a\nbeard\non each cheek , and white hair that wraps around their neck like a collar ( hence the name ! ) . black mangabeys have long , grayish brown whiskers that almost cover their ears and a high crest on their head\u2014a pointy hairdo !\nthese large forest dwellers are found only in africa . they look somewhat like guenons but are bigger . local people call some of them\nthe ones with the thin waist\nor\nfour - eyed monkeys ,\nbecause some mangabey species have bright white eyelids .\nincluding ( over ) hunting and habitat loss . many mangabey populations are severely limited in population size and areas of inhabited forest . along with other large primates such as chimpanzees and gorillas , these monkeys are among the first of the larger mammals to disappear from forests close to human settlements .\nwhen a male becomes sexually mature , he leaves his troop to find another one to join . if he can ' t find one , he lives alone until he does ; single males do not form all - male groups . when there is plenty of food available , mangabey troops often gather together for a while and even exchange troop members .\nmangabeys have some interesting ways of communicating with each other . it ' s often hard to see one another in the dense forest canopy , so sound is very important . in fact , mangabeys can be very noisy ! a special throat sac gives them a booming voice . the sac is larger in the adult male\u2014he can make shrieking alarm calls to alert others to danger , and he barks , twitters , and grunts to let other mangabey groups in the area know where his is so they don ' t accidentally intrude . the adult females often join in with a loud chorus .\nmuch like baboons , a female mangabey ' s buttocks swell when she is ready to breed . this is her visual signal to the adult males . a single infant is born with soft fur , and its eyes are open . its instinct to grasp onto its mother is so strong that it often grabs at the mother ' s hair with its hands as it ' s being born ! newborns cling to the mother ' s belly ; older infants often ride on her back . young are weaned when 7 to 10 months old , but stay near their mother until she gives birth to a new sibling . mature females stay with their troop , but males leave the group when they are about five years old .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nkingdon , j . ( 1997 ) the kingdon field guide to african mammals . academic press , london .\nrowe , n . ( 1996 ) the pictorial guide to the living primates . pogonia press , rhode island .\nmacdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the new encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .\ngroves , c . ( 2001 ) primate taxonomy . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c .\nfield , l . p . ( 2003 ) mangabeys : cercocebus and lophocebus . north american regional studbook . sacramento zoo , sacramento .\nestes , r . d . ( 1991 ) the behavior guide to african mammals . university of california press : california .\ndunbar , r . and barrett , l . ( 2000 ) cousins . bbc worldwide , london .\nlee , p . c . , thornback , j . and bennett , e . l . ( 1988 ) threatened primates of africa . the iucn red data book . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge .\nstrier , k . b . ( 2000 ) primate behavioural ecology . allyn & bacon , boston .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) primates of the world . the john hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\nafrican wildlife foundation ( 2006 ) a big win for conservation in drc - lomako yokokala faunal reserve officially gazetted . awf , 14 july . available at : urltoken\nkevin schafer photography 2148 halleck ave sw seattle wa 98116 usa tel : + 01 ( 206 ) 933 - 1668 fax : + 01 ( 206 ) 933 - 1659 kevin @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngrubb et al . ( 2003 ) recognized two subspecies , l . a . aterrimus and l . a . opdenboschi , in contrast to groves ( 2001 , 2005 ) who considered the two as worthy of recognition as distinct species .\njustification : listed as near threatened in view of the intensifying hunting pressure for the bushmeat trade with additional pressure from habitat loss , which is believed to have resulted in a decline in the order of 20 - 25 % over the past ~ 27 years . almost qualifies as threatened under criterion a2d .\nthis species is found south of the congo river in the democratic republic of the congo , in rainforest in lowland areas of the south - west congo basin and into angola ( gautier - hion et al . 1999 ) . there are two subspecies ( following grubb et al . 2003 ) : l . a . aterrimus is found in the central congo basin ; l . a . opdenboschi is found in north - eastern angola and south - western democratic republic of the congo .\nalthough widespread , its population size is not really known and further details are needed . densities of 70 individuals / km\u00b2 have been recorded in some localities .\nthis species is found in primary and secondary moist forests . in salonga national park , it has been observed in swamp forests , but does not occupy swamp in lomako ( mcgraw 1994 ) . it utilizes all forest levels ( especially the middle canopy layers ) , but seldom descends to the ground ( horn 1987 ; mcgraw 1994 ) . its diet consists largely of fruits and seeds , with high rates of nectarivory in some months of the year in salonga ; foraging activity is concentrated in the early morning ( horn 1987 ; mcgraw 1994 ; gautier - hion and maisels 1994 ) .\nlittle is known about the status of this species . however , it is subject to intensive , uncontrolled hunting for its meat in most parts of the range , and it is also vulnerable to loss of forest habitat .\nthis species is listed on appendix ii of cites and as class b according to the african convention . it is present in salonga national park , lukuru community reservation and the proposed lomako conservation area .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , to whom they are believed to have diverged from only about four million years ago .\ndiurnal : foraging for food is done in the early morning or daylight hours .\nprimary rainforest : rainforest that has remained undisturbed for a long time and has reached a mature condition .\nsecondary rainforest : rainforest that has re - grown after a major disturbance , such as fire or timber harvest , but has not yet reached the mature state of primary rainforest .\nphilopatric : tending to return to or remain near a particular site or area .\nestrus : a recurring period of sexual receptivity and fertility in many female mammals .\nmales of this species often times leave their natal groups , while females are conversely philopatric , and remain in their natal groups as central figures . smaller groups are sometimes formed that split off from the main group or troop .\nliving in a multi - male , multi - female group of 9 to 16 individuals , each groups\u2019 home range may overlap with the home range of another group , as they can occupy a range of 118 to 173 acres ( 47 to 70 hectares ) of land each . \u200b\nthe wet seasons in july and august are when females typically give birth . the gestation period lasts for a period of 5 \u00bd to 6 months , resulting in a birth of a single offspring . babies - who can weigh anywhere between 1 . 1 to 1 . 3lbs ( 18 to 21oz ) , cling to their mothers\u2019 bellies , and ride on their mothers\u2019 backs when juveniles .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nsorry , but the location you entered was not found . please try again .\nif you ' re looking for something to do this weekend , you might want to head to the brookfield zoo to meet the newest arrival .\nif you ' re lucky , you ' ll be able to see zingo in the tropic world : africa exhibit . the mangabeys have access to the habitat on a rotation basis with the colobus , another primate species , until the new family gets acclimated and the groups can be introduced to each other .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 abc inc . , wls - tv chicago . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nprimate info net is maintained by the wisconsin primate research center ( wprc ) library at the university of wisconsin - madison . wprc programs are supported by grant numbers rr000167 and rr015311 , national primate centers program , national center for research resources , the national institutes of health .\ndisclaimer : the wisconsin primate research center provides primate info net as an informational service . we are not responsible for the content of linked sites , nor does inclusion of a link imply endorsement of the views expressed in that content .\nall mangabeys have a tail that is longer than their body , providing balance for them as they scamper through the rain forest canopy .\nadult male mangabeys also make a sound that biologists call a whoop - gobble . the whoop gets the attention of other mangabeys in the area ; the gobble tells everyone who and where he is . this unique call may be heard for a distance of up to 1 , 000 yards ( 1 kilometer ) .\nwhite is an important color when you need to get your point across . white - collared mangabeys use movements of their white - tipped tails to express themselves . white hair on the underside of the chin helps make other facial gestures more noticeable . for white - eyelid mangabeys , batting their eyelids and raising their eyebrows can have a whole range of meanings . making these facial expressions and flashing their white eyelids against their darker fur help get the message across . flashing eyelids can mean\nwarning\u2014watch your step !\nspending most of their time there . however , white - eyelid mangabeys are also comfortable on the ground , traveling on their hands and feet between patches of forest or to forage in the leaf litter for tasty food items . in some areas of the forest , the ground is swampy , but that\u2019s not a problem for mangabeys . webbing between their fingers and toes helps these amazing monkeys swim !\nall mangabeys are excellent jumpers , and gray - cheeked mangabeys and white - collared mangabeys have a tail that is strong enough to hook onto branches as they leap about the forest canopy .\nmangabeys are mainly fruit eaters , although they can also eat leaves , nuts , seeds , insects , and spiders . powerful teeth and jaws help them crack hard nut shells or bite into thick - skinned fruits . mangabeys also tear bark from trees using their teeth and hands to find bugs and spiders hiding underneath . large cheek pouches act like a shopping cart : mangabeys fill their pouches with food until full ! the biggest meal of the day for mangabeys is breakfast , and they start foraging for food in the early morning , often before the sun comes up .\nlike many monkey species , mangabeys lick nectar from flowers , moving from tree to tree for this sweet feast , earning them status as pollinators as well as seed dispersers .\nat the san diego zoo , the mangabeys are offered low - starch , high - fiber biscuits , assorted fruits ( such as apples , grapes , melons ) , vegetables ( green beans , corn , eggplant ) , and greens ( cabbage , lettuce , kale ) . enrichment treats can include raisins , popcorn , and peanuts .\n, depending on the species and the availability of food and habitat . there is usually one adult male that acts as leader and the troop ' s defender , but sometimes the larger troops have two or three adult males that split off with their own family units to forage for food .\nthe association of zoos and aquariums has a species survival plan ( ssp ) for mangabeys which helps to maintain genetic diversity in zoo populations ; the ssp works with various zoos to help them care for these primates . san diego zoo global is involved in the ssp effort to protect these forest monkeys from extinction .\nyou can help us bring mangabeys and other primate species back from the brink by supporting the san diego zoo global wildlife conservancy . together we can save and protect wildlife around the globe ."]}
{"id": 176, "summary": [{"text": "branchiopoda is a class of crustaceans .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it comprises fairy shrimp , clam shrimp , cladocera , notostraca and the devonian lepidocaris .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they are mostly small , freshwater animals that feed on plankton and detritus . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "branchiopoda", "paragraphs": ["fauna ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) reveals hidden diversity and phylogeographic structure .\non eocyzicus sp . ( conchostraca : branchiopoda ) at panchgani , w . india\nand the phylogeny of branchiopoda and crustacea . fossils strata 32 : 202 pp .\nmolecular characterization of visual pigments in branchiopoda and the evolution of opsins in arthropoda .\nanostracans ( branchiopoda ) of botswana : morphology , distribution , diversity , and endemicity .\ndistribution , diversity and conservation of anostraca ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) in southern africa .\npesta , 1936 ( branchiopoda , anostraca ) in italy . crustaceana 77 : 1007\u20131012 .\n( dexter , 1956 ) ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) . hydrobiologia 486 : 57\u201361 .\n( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca ) from the nearctic . zootaxa 1126 : 35\u201351 .\nbranchiopoda ( anostraca , notostraca , laevicaudata , spinicaudata , cyclestherida ) - bugguide . net\n.\ngolbal diversity of large branchiopods ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) in freshwater\n.\nthe large branchiopoda ( crustacea ) from temporary habitats of the drakensberg region , south africa .\nfour new streptocephalus ( crustacea , branchiopoda , anostraca ) species from south - east africa .\n, a new species ( anostraca , branchiopoda ) from turkey . crustaceana 79 : 89\u201398 .\n( branchiopoda : notostraca ) from ephemeral waters of the northern chihuahuan desert of north america .\n.\nlimnadiid clam shrimp distribution in australia ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata )\n.\ntree of life web project . 2002 . branchiopoda . version 01 january 2002 ( temporary ) .\ndistribution and assemblages of large branchiopods ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) of northern western ghats , india .\na checklist of branchiopoda ( anostraca and cladocera ) of chilean continental waters . - pubmed - ncbi\n( milne - edwards 1840 ) ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . aquat sci 70 : 65\u201376 .\n( r\u00fcppel , 1837 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) . hydrobiologia 586 : 249\u2013260 .\n( crustacea : branchiopoda ) : a group of morphologically cryptic species with origins in the cretaceous .\nanostracan ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) zoogeography ii . relating distribution to geochemical substrate properties in the usa\n.\nthe clam shrimp eocyzicusin australia ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata : cyzicidae )\n.\nanostracan ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) biogeography ii . relating distribution to geochemical substrate properties in the usa\nmonophyly and phylogeny of branchiopoda , with focus on morphology and homologies of branchiopod phyl . . .\nanostracan ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) zoogeography ii . relating distribution to geochemical substrate properties in the usa .\nlilljeborg 1887 ( branchiopoda , chydoridae ) in scotland . freshwater forum 1 ( 3 ) : 184\u2013194 .\n( milne - edwards , 1840 ) ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . aquat sci 70 : 65\u201376 .\n( branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) from north africa and adjacent regions , with two new species from mauritania .\na study of the larval stages of branchinella biswasi k . k . tiwari ( crustacea : branchiopoda )\nmolecular characterization of visual pigments in branchiopoda and the evolution of opsins in arthropoda . - pubmed - ncbi\nlarval development of lynceus brachyurus ( crustacea , branchiopoda , laevicaudata ) : redescription of u . . .\n( branchiopoda , anostraca ) in the united states and m\u00e9xico . southwest . nat . 9 : 68\u201377 .\ncontributions to the crustacean fauna of south africa : a revision of the south african branchiopoda ( phyllopoda ) .\nmolecular characterization of ribosomal intergenic spacer in the tadpole shrimp triops cancriformis ( crustacea , branchiopoda , notostraca ) .\nparartemiopsis longicornis ( smirnov ) , senior synonym of p . mongolica rogers ( crustacea : branchiopoda . . .\n.\nthe large branchiopods ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) of gnammas ( rock holes ) in australia\n.\non the occurrence of eocyzicus plumosus n . sp . ( branchiopoda , conchostraca ) in tuticorin , south india\n( baird , 1859 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) , with a comparison of male claspers among the conchostraca and cladocera and its bearing on phylogeny of the \u2018bivalved\u2019 branchiopoda . zoologica scripta , 25 : 291\u2013316 .\nreview of the eulimnadia ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata : limnadiidae ) from argentina with the description of a new species .\nmura g ( 2001 ) updating anostraca ( crustacea branchiopoda ) distribution in italy . j limnol 60 : 45\u201349 .\nself - fertilization and the role of males in populations of tadpole shrimp ( branchiopoda : notostraca : . . .\na new genus and species of chirocephalid fairy shrimp ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca ) from mong . . .\nspinicaudata ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) in australia\u2019s arid zone : unparalleled diversity at regional scales and within water bodies .\nevolutionary systematics of the australian cyzicidae ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) with the description of a new genus .\non the larval development of eubranchipus grubii ( crustacea , branchiopoda , anostraca ) , with notes on . . .\nlife - history traits of streptocephalus purcelli sars , 1898 ( branchiopoda , anostraca ) from temporary waters with different phenology .\nbaird , 1843 ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anomopoda ) . phd dissertation , ghent university , belgium : 506 pp .\n( branchiopoda , anostraca ) in the united states and m\u00e9xico . s . west . nat . 9 : 68\u201377 .\ndumont hj , negrea sv ( 2002 ) introduction to the class branchiopoda . leiden : backhuys publishers . 388 p .\n.\na new genus and species of branchiopodid fairy shrimp ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca ) from australia\n.\n, c . k . g . - 1965 - three new species of conchostraca ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) from rajasthan .\na review of the african streptocephalidae ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca ) part 1 : south of zambezi and kunene rivers .\na review of the african streptocephalidae ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca ) part 2 : north of zambezi and kunene rivers .\nreview of the eulimnadia ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) from north africa and adjacent regions , with two new species from mauritania .\n( crustacea , branchiopoda ) from different geographical origin . mediterranean populations . j plankton res 14 ( 7 ) : 949\u2013959 .\nhudec , i . , 1998 . anomopoda ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) from some venezuelan tepuis . hydrobiologia 377 : 205\u2013211 .\nearly signs of lethal effects in daphnia magna ( branchiopoda , cladocera ) exposed to the insecticide cypermethrin and the fungicide azoxystrobin .\n( baird , 1859 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) , with a comparison of male claspers among the conchostraca and cladocera and its bearing on phylogeny of the ' bivalved ' branchiopoda . zool . scr . 25 : 291 - 316 .\n, its larval development , morphology and significance for the phylogeny of branchiopoda and crustacea . hydrobiologia 298 : 1 - 13 .\nthere also are various taxonomic schemes for subdividing branchiopoda . the following is the classification of myers et al . ( 2008a ) :\nthe afromontane cladocera ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) of the rwenzori ( uganda\u2013d . r . congo ) : taxonomy , ecology and biogeography\nbaird , 1843 ( branchiopoda : cladocera : anomopoda ) : morphology and evolution of scraping stenothermic alonines . zootaxa 2875 : 1\u201364 .\n( branchiopoda : notostraca ) from the baja california peninsula , m\u00e9xico : new insights on species diversity and phylogeny of the genus .\nmolecular characterization of ribosomal intergenic spacer in the tadpole shrimp triops cancriformis ( crustacea , branchiopoda , notostraca ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe nauplius eye complex in ' conchostracans ' ( crustacea , branchiopoda : laevicaudata , spinicaudata , cyclestherida ) and its phylogenetic implications .\nmale claspers in clam shrimps ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) in the light of evolution : a case study on homology versus analogy .\nreview of the eulimnadia ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata : limnadiidae ) from argentina with the description of a new species . - pubmed - ncbi\nreview of the eulimnadia ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata : limnadiidae ) from argentina with the description of a new species . | borea research unit\nhatching response to temperature along a latitudinal gradient by the fairy shrimp branchinecta lindahli ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca ) in culture conditions .\nmackin ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) in baja california sur ; first record from mexico . biol . jb . dodonaea 60 : 138\u2013143 .\nr2 dynamics in triops cancriformis ( bosc , 1801 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , notostraca ) : turnover rate and 28s concerted evolution .\n.\nan integrative approach to species delineation incorporating different species concepts : a case study of limnadopsis ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata )\n.\na .\na revision of the australian endemic clam shrimp limnadopsisspencer & hall ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata : limnadiidae )\n.\nfl\u00f6ssner , d . , 1972 . kiemen - und blattf\u00fcsser . branchiopoda , fischl\u00e4use , branchiura . tierwelt deutschlands 60 : 501 pp .\nfollo , j . , and d . fautin . 2001 . branchiopoda animal diversity web ( online ) . retrieved may 26 , 2008 .\nthe class branchiopoda is divided into 10 orders , two of which are extinct and known only through the fossil record . branchiopods show a great\nwithin the branchiopoda , and the use of the groups sarsostraca and calmanostraca , the latter including all the orders except the anostraca and lipostraca .\nthe afromontane cladocera ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) of the rwenzori ( uganda\u2013d . r . congo ) : taxonomy , ecology and biogeography | springerlink\nsmirnov , n . n . , 2008 . checklist of the south african cladocera ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) . zootaxa 1788 : 47\u201356 .\n, new species ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) , a fairy shrimp from central mexico . j . crust . biol . 13 : 585\u2013593 .\n.\ncaenestheriella mariaen . sp . ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata : cyzicidae ) : a new clam shrimp from western australia\n.\nwhat made you want to look up branchiopoda ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nthe genus branchipodopsis ( crustacea , branchiopoda , anostraca ) in southern africa . morphology , distribution , relationships and the description of five new species .\ncrustacean assemblage and environmental characteristics of a man - made solar salt work in southern france , with emphasis on anostracan ( branchiopoda ) population dynamics .\ng\u00fcnther , 1890 ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) in europe : an integrated and interdisciplinary approach . internat rev hydrobiol 94 ( 5 ) : 560\u2013579 .\nmura g ( 1986 ) sem morphological survey on the egg shell in the italian anostracans ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) . hydrobiologia 134 : 273\u2013286 .\nearly signs of lethal effects in daphnia magna ( branchiopoda , cladocera ) exposed to the insecticide cypermethrin and the fungicide azoxystrobin . - pubmed - ncbi\nalonso , m . , 1996 . crustacea branchiopoda . fauna iberica 7 : museo nacional de ciencias naturales , csic , madrid : 486 pp .\nolesen , j . 2000 . an updated phylogeny of the conchostraca - cladocera clade ( branchiopoda , diplostraca ) . crustaceana 73 : 869 - 886 .\nexploring links between geology , hydroperiod , and diversity and distribution patterns of anostracans and notostracans ( branchiopoda ) in a tropical savannah habitat in se zimbabwe .\nthe nauplius eye complex in ' conchostracans ' ( crustacea , branchiopoda : laevicaudata , spinicaudata , cyclestherida ) and its phylogenetic implications . - pubmed - ncbi\nlinder , f . , 1941 . contributions to the morphology and the taxonomy of the branchiopoda anostraca . zool . bidr . upps . 20 : 101\u2013302 .\nrabet , n . ( 2010 ) revision of the egg morphology of eulimnadia ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) . zoosystema , 32 , 373\u2013391 . urltoken\nr2 dynamics in triops cancriformis ( bosc , 1801 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , notostraca ) : turnover rate and 28s concerted evolution . - pubmed - ncbi\nlinder , f . , 1945 . affinities within the branchiopoda , with notes on some dubious fossils . ark . zool . 37a : 1 - 28 .\nfl\u00f6ssner , d . , 1972 . krebstiere , crustacea . kiemen - und blattf\u00fcsser , branchiopoda . fischla\u00fcse , branchiura . die tierwelt deutschlands 60 : 501 pp .\nrogers , d . c . , & timms , b . v . ( 2014 ) . anostracan ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) zoogeography iii . australian bioregions .\nbrtek j ( 1995 ) some notes on the taxonomy of the family chirocephalidae ( crustacea , branchiopoda , anostraca ) . zbor slov n\u00e1r m\u00faz pr\u00edr vedy 41 : 3\u201315 .\neder , e . & w . h\u00f6dl , 2003 . catalogus novus faunae austriae , no . 1 . die gro\u00df - branchiopoden \u00f6sterreichs , crustacea : branchiopoda excl . cladocera . ( the large branchiopods of austria , crustacea : branchiopoda excl . cladocera ) . biosystematics and ecology series no . 20 , austrian academy of sciences press , 56 pp\nalonso , m . 1996 . crustacea branchiopoda . fauna iberica , 7 . madrid , museo nacional de ciencias naturales , consejo superior de investigaciones cientificas , 486p . [ links ]\n( crustacea : branchiopoda ) , in need of a taxonomic revision ; evidence from penile morphology . zool . j . linn . soc . , zool . 119 : 447\u2013455 .\nthe branchiopoda originated in pre - devonian times , for in the devonian period a distinct order and suborder are evident : the lipostraca and the spinicaudata , respectively . the lipostraca contains only\nolesen , j . 1998 . a phylogenetic analysis of the conchostraca and cladocera ( crustacea , branchiopoda , diplostraca ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 122 : 491 - 536 .\nhudec , i . , 2010 . fauna slovenska iii . anomopoda , ctenopoda , haplopoda , onychopoda ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) , veda . vydavatel stvo slovenskej adad\u00e9mie vied , bratislava .\nrogers dc ( 2002 ) female - biased characters for anostracan ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) identification : a key for species of california and oregon , usa . hydrobiologia 486 : 125\u2013132 .\nbrendonck l . ( 1996 ) . diapause , quiescence , hatching requirements : what we can learn from large freshwater branchiopods ( crustacea : branchiopoda : anostraca , notostraca , conchostraca ) .\n( bosc ) ( branchiopoda ; notostraca ; apodidae ) a new record from poonch valley ( j & k state ) india . proceedings of the indian science congress 67 : 164 .\nwalcott , c . d . , 1912 . middle cambrian branchiopoda , malacostraca , trilobita and merostomata . cambrian geology and paleontology ii . smithsonian miscellaneous collections 57 : 145 - 228 .\nto cite this page : follo , j . and d . fautin 2001 .\nbranchiopoda\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nnegrea , s . , n . botnariuc , and h . j . dumont . 1999 . phylogeny , evolution and classification of the branchiopoda ( crustacea ) . hydrobiologia 412 : 191\u2013212 .\nkotov , a . a . and \u0161tifter , p . 2006 . cladocera : family ilyocryptidae ( branchiopoda : cladocera : anomopoda ) . leiden , backhuys publisher , 172p . [ links ]\ntimms , b . ( 2016 ) a partial revision of the australian eulimnadia packard , 1874 ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata : limnadiidae ) . zootaxa , 4066 ( 4 ) , 351\u2013389 . urltoken\nolesen , j . , martin , j . w . & roessler , e . w . ( 1996 ) external morphology of the male of cyclestheria hislopi ( baird , 1859 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) , with a comparison of male claspers among the conchostraca and cladocera and its bearing on phylogeny of the \u201cbivalved\u201d branchiopoda . zoologica scripta , 25 , 291\u2013316 . urltoken\nscanabissi , f . & tommasini , s . ( 1994 ) functional morphology and ultrastructure of male reproductive system in the leptestheriidae ( branchiopoda , conchostraca ) . crustaceana , 67 , 362\u2013370 . urltoken\nfl\u00f6ssner , d . , 1972 . krebstiere . crustacea . kiemen - und blattfusser . branchiopoda . fishlause . brachiura . die tierwelt deutchland . 60 : 1\u2013501 . gustav fisher verlag , jena .\ntimms , b . v . ( 2012 ) . an appraisal of the diversity and distribution of large branchiopods ( branchiopoda : anostraca , laevicaudata , spinicaudata , cyclestherida , notostraca ) in australia .\naspects of the evolution of the branchiopod crustaceans are reviewed and discussed . despite views to the contrary presented in recent textbooks , the monophyly of branchiopoda is defended based on morphological characters . the crown group branchiopoda is supported / diagnosed by a set of synapomorphies relating to limb morphology of both larvae and adults , including , among others , a similar . . . [ show full abstract ]\n, a new genus of thamnocephalidae ( branchiopoda , anostraca ) , with some notes on the taxonomy of the family . zbor . slov . n\u00e1r . m\u00faz , pr\u00edr . vedy xlii : 3\u20138 .\nsars , g . o . , 1865 . norges ferskvandskrebsdyr . f ' rste afsnit branchiopoda . i cladocera ctenopoda ( fam . sididae and holopedidae ) . br ' gger & christie , christiania .\nkotov , a . a . 1997 . structure of thoracic limbs in bosminopsis deitersi richard , 1895 ( anomopoda , branchiopoda ) . hydrobiologia , 360 ( 1 ) : 25 - 32 . [ links ]\nscanabissi , f . & mondini , c . ( 2000 ) sperm transfer and occurrence of spermatophore in the conchostraca leptestheriidae ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) . invertebrate reproduction and development , 38 , 99\u2013106 . urltoken\nduigan , c . a . , 1992 . the ecology and distribution of the littoral freshwater chydoridae ( branchiopoda , anomopoda ) of ireland , with taxonomic comments on some species . hydrobiologia 241 : 1\u201370 .\nrichter , s . , olesen , j . , & wheeler , w . ( 2007 ) . phylogeny of branchiopoda ( crustacea ) based on a combined analysis of morphological data and six molecular loci .\nrogers dc , schwentner m , olesen j , richter s . evolution , classification , and global diversity of large branchiopoda . journal of crustacean biology . 2015 ; 35 ( 3 ) : 297 - 300 .\nerratum : patricio de los rios escalante & alexey a . kotov ( 2015 ) a checklist of branchiopoda ( anostraca and cladocera ) of chilean continental waters . zootaxa , 4027 ( 3 ) : 366 - 388 .\nphilippi t . , simovich m . a . , bauder e . t . and moorad j . a . ( 2001 ) . habitat ephemerality and hatching fractions of a diapausing anostracan ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) .\nschwentner , m . , just , f . , & richter , s . ( 2015a ) . evolutionary systematics of the australian cyzicidae ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) with the description of a new genus .\nfryer g . , 1988 . studies on the functional morphology and biology of the notostraca ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) . phil . trans . r . soc . , lond . b 321 : 27 - 124 .\nkotov , a . a . 2009 . a revision of leydigia kurz , 1875 ( anomopoda , cladocera , branchiopoda ) , and subgeneric differentiation within the genus . zootaxa , 2082 : 1 - 68 . [ links ]\nharp ; g . l . , g . leeds & h . w . robison , 1997 . first report on the fairy shrimps ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) of arkansas . southwest . nat . 42 : 259\u2013264 .\nde los r\u00edos escalante , p . & kotov , a . a . ( 2015 ) a checklist of branchiopoda ( anostraca and cladocera ) of chilean continental waters . zootaxa , 4027 ( 3 ) , 366\u2013388 . urltoken\nduigan , c . a . , 1990 . a historical review of research on irish chydoridae ( branchiopoda , anomopoda ) with a checklist of taxa recorded in ireland . ir . nat . j . 23 : 239\u2013246 .\nlinder , f . , 1952 . contributions to the morphology and taxonomy of the branchiopoda notostraca , with special reference to the north american species . proc . u . s . nat . mus . 102 : 1\u201369 .\nbraband , a . , richter , s . , hiesel , r . , & scholtz , g . ( 2002 ) . phylogenetic relationships within the phyllopoda ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers .\nsinev , a . y . 2004 . redescription of two species of the genus leydigiopsis sars , 1901 ( branchiopoda , anomopoda , chydoridae ) . invertebrate zoology , 1 ( 1 ) : 75 - 92 . [ links ]\nrogers , d . c . , weeks s . & hoeh , r . ( 2010 ) a new species of eulimnadia ( crustacea ; branchiopoda ; diplostraca ; spinicaudata ) from north america . zootaxa , 2413 , 61\u201368 .\nbrendonck l . , centeno d . m . and persoone g . ( 1993 ) . fecundity and resting egg characteristics of some subtropical fairy shrimp and clam shrimp species ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) , reared under laboratory conditions .\nschwentner , m . , timms , b . v . , & richter , s . ( 2015b ) . spinicaudata ( branchiopoda : diplostraca ) in australia\u2019s arid zone : unparalleled diversity at regional scales and within water bodies .\ngeddes , m . c . , 1983 . biogeography and ecology of australian anostraca ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) . papers from the conference on the biology and evolution of crustacea . aust . mus . mem . 18 : 155\u2013163 .\nalonso , m . , 1996 . crustacea , branchiopoda . in ramos , m . a . ( ed . ) , fauna ib\u00e9rica , vol . 7 . museo nacional de ciencias naturales , csic , madrid : 486 pp .\n.\nco - occurrence of two tadpole shrimp , triopscf . australiensis ( branchiopoda : notostraca ) , lineages in middle paroo , north - western new south wales , with the first record of triopshermaphrodites for the australian continent\n.\nsars , g . o . , 1890 . oversigt af norges crustaceer med forelobige bernaerkninger over de nye eller mindre bekjendte arter . ii . branchiopoda - ostracoda - cirripedia . forhandl . vidensk . kristiania 1 : 1 - 80 .\ntasch , p . , 1969 . branchiopoda . in moore , r . c . & c . teichert ( eds ) , treatise on invertebrate paleontology . part r , arthropoda 4 , vol . 1 : 129 - 191 .\nrabet , n . , montero , d . & lacau , s . ( 2014 ) the effects of pool sediments on the egg morphology of neotropical eulimnadia ( branchiopoda : limnadiidae ) . journal of limnology , 73 , 1\u201310 . urltoken\nrogers , d . c . , dadseepai , p . & sanoamuang , l . ( 2016 ) the spinicaudatan clam shrimps ( branchiopoda : diplostraca ) of thailand . journal of crustacean biology , 36 ( 4 ) , 567\u2013575 . urltoken\nrogers , d . c . , rabet , n . & weeks , s . c . ( 2012 ) revision of the extant genera of limnadiidae ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) . journal of crustacean biology , 32 , 827\u2013842 . urltoken\nmunoz j , g\u00f3mez a , green aj , figuerola j , amat f , et al . ( 2010 ) evolutionary origin and phylogeography of the diploid obligate parthenogen artemia parthenogenetica ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . plos one 5 : e11932 .\n. fauna and distribution of fairy shrimps ( branchiopoda : anostraca ; notostraca ) in water bodies of northern siberia and far east [ russian sfsr , ussr ] . izvestiya sibirskogo otdeleniya akademii nauk ssr seriya biologischeskiky nauk : 106 - 110 .\nweekers , p . h . h . , g . murugan , j . r . vanfleteren & h . j . dumont . phylogenetic analysis of anostracans ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) inferred from ssu rdna sequences ( in press ) .\nbraband , a . , s . richter , r . hiesel , and g . scholtz . 2002 . phylogenetic relationships within the phyllopoda ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 25 : 229\u2013244 .\nolesen , j . , 1996 . external morphology and phylogenetic signi - ficance of the dorsal / neck organ in the conchostraca and the head pores of the cladoceran family chydoridae ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) . hydrobiologia 330 : 213 - 226 .\nkotov , a . a . & p . \u0161tifter , 2006 . family ilyocryptidae ( branchiopoda : cladocera : anomopoda ) . guide to the identification of the macroinvertebrates of the continental waters of the world . blackhuys publishers , leiden : 172 pp .\nmaeda - mart\u00ednez , a . m . , d . belk , h . obreg\u00f3n - barboza & h . j . dumont , 1995a . diagnosis and phylogeny of the new world streptocephalidae ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . hydrobiologia 298 : 15\u201344 .\nmaeda - mart\u00ednez , a . m . , d . belk , h . obreg\u00f3n - barboza & h . j . dumont , 1995b . a contribution to the systematics of the streptocephalidae ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . hydrobiologia 298 : 203\u2013232 .\ntasch , p . 1969 . branchiopoda . in : treatise on invertebrate paleontology . part r . arthropoda 4 . r . c . moore ed . geological society of america , inc . and univ . of kansas . 1 : 128 - 191 .\nhuang , w . - p . & chou , l . - s . ( 2015 ) temperature effect on development and reproduction of the androdioecious clam shrimp , eulimnadia braueriana ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) . journal of crustacean biology , 35 , 330\u2013338 . urltoken\npereira , g . & garc\u00eda , j . v . ( 2001 ) a review of the clam shrimp family limnadiidae ( branchiopoda , conchostraca ) from venezuela , with the description of a new species . journal of crustacean biology , 21 , 640\u2013652 . urltoken\nweeks , s . c . , sanderson , t . f . , zofkova , m . & knott , b . ( 2008 ) breeding systems in the clam shrimp family limnadiidae ( branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) . invertebrate biology , 127 , 336\u2013349 . urltoken\ndumont , h . j . & m . silva - briano , 1998 . a reclassification of the anomopod families macrothricidae and chydoridae , with the creation of a new suborder , the radopoda ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) . hydrobiologia 384 : 1 - 31 .\nkazuyuki kashiyama , takaharu seki , hideharu numata , shin g . goto ; molecular characterization of visual pigments in branchiopoda and the evolution of opsins in arthropoda , molecular biology and evolution , volume 26 , issue 4 , 1 april 2009 , pages 951 , urltoken\nbrendonck , l . , rogers , d . c . , olesen , j . , weeks , s . & hoeh , r . ( 2008 ) global diversity of large branchiopods ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) in freshwaters . hydrobiologia , 595 , 167\u2013176 . urltoken\nmartin , j . w . & belk , d . ( 1989 ) eulimnadia ovilunata and e . ovisimilis , new species of clam shrimps ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) from south america . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 102 , 894\u2013900 .\n\u0161r\u00e1mek - hu\u0161sek , r . , 1962 . 4 . r\u00e1d cladocera \u2014 perloocky . in r . \u0161r\u00e1mek - hu\u0161ek , m . stra\u0161kraba & j . brtek , lupenonozci \u2014 branchiopoda . fauna \u010dssr , \u010desk . akad . ved , praha 16 : 1\u2013470 .\ncitation : mu\u00f1oz j , g\u00f3mez a , green aj , figuerola j , amat f , rico c ( 2010 ) evolutionary origin and phylogeography of the diploid obligate parthenogen artemia parthenogenetica ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . plos one 5 ( 8 ) : e11932 . urltoken\nschwentner , m . , timms , b . v . & richter , s . ( 2015 ) spinicaudata ( branchiopoda : diplostraca ) in australia\u2019s arid zone : unparalleled diversity at regional scales and within water bodies . journal of crustacean biology , 35 , 366\u2013378 . urltoken\nstenderup , j . t . , j . olesen , and h . glenner . 2006 . molecular phylogeny of the branchiopoda ( crustacea ) \u0096multiple approaches suggest a ' diplostracan ' ancestry of the notostraca . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 41 ( 1 ) : 182 - 194 .\nkotov , a . a . , a . y . sinev & v . l . berrios , 2010 . the cladocera ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) of six high altitude water bodies in the north chilean andes , with discussion of andean endemism . zootaxa 2430 : 1\u201366 .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2008a . class branchiopoda ( branchiopods ) the animal diversity web ( online ) . retrieved may 26 , 2008 .\nsinev , a . y . 2015 . revision of the puchella - group of alona s . lato leads to its translocation to ovalona van damme et dumont , 2008 ( branchiopoda : anomopoda : chydoridae ) . zootaxa , 4044 ( 4 ) : 451 - 492 . [ links ]\nolesen , j . , s . richter , and g . scholtz . 2001 . the evolutionary transformation of phyllopodous to stenopodous limbs in the branchiopoda ( crustacea ) - is there a common mechanism for early limb development in arthropods ? international journal of developmental biology 45 : 869 - 876 .\nwe introduce this branchiopoda special issue of the journal of crustacean biology , providing a brief outline of the 13 research papers presented at the 8 th international crustacean congress in frankfurt , germany , august 2014 . we also discuss the current status and direction of research on the large branchiopod crustaceans .\nchiambeng , g . y . & h . j . dumont , 2005 . the branchiopoda ( crustacea : anomopoda , ctenopoda & cyclestheridae ) of the rain forests of cameroon , west africa : low abundance , few endemics and a boreal - tropical disjunction . journal of biogeography 32 : 1611\u20131620 .\ncitation : ketmaier v , marrone f , alfonso g , paulus k , wiemann a , tiedemann r , et al . ( 2012 ) mitochondrial dna regionalism and historical demography in the extant populations of chirocephalus kerkyrensis ( branchiopoda : anostraca ) . plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e30082 . urltoken\nbrtek , j . , 1997 . checklist of the valid and invalid names of the ' large branchiopods ' ( anostraca , notostraca , spinicaudata and laevicaudata ) with a survey of the taxonomy of all branchiopoda . zb . slov . nar . muze prir . vedy 43 : 3 - 35 .\nscanabissi , f . , cesari , m . , reed , s . k . & weeks , s . c . ( 2006 ) ultrastructure of the male gonad and male gametogenesis in the clam shrimp eulimnadia texana ( crustacea , branchiopoda , spinicaudata ) . invertebrate biology , 125 , 117\u2013124 . urltoken\ntremel , b . , s . e . frey , n . d . yan , k . m . somers & t . w . pawson , 2000 . habitat specificity of littoral chydoridae ( crustacea , branchiopoda , anomopoda ) in plastic lake , ontario , canada . hydrobiologia 432 : 195\u2013205 .\nmabidi a , bird ms , perissinotto r , rogers dc ( 2016 ) ecology and distribution of large branchiopods ( crustacea , branchiopoda , anostraca , notostraca , laevicaudata , spinicaudata ) of the eastern cape karoo , south africa . zookeys 618 : 15\u201338 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 618 . 9212\nwe are especially grateful to prof . michael turkay for hosting the 8 th international crustacean congress . we want to thank frederick schram for working with us on the development of this branchiopoda special issue of the journal of crustacean biology , and we want to thank all of the contributors whose research fills these pages .\nvan damme , k . ; sinev , a . y . and dumont , h . j . 2011 . separation of anthalona gen . n . from alona baird , 1843 ( branchiopoda : cladocera : anomopoda ) : morphology and evolution of scraping stenothermic alonine . zootaxa , 2875 : 1 - 64 . [ links ]\n. biogeography and ecology of australian anostraca ( crustacea : branchiopoda ) , pp . 155 - 163 . in , j . k . lowry ( ed . ) , papers from the conference on the biology and evolution of crustacea . held at the australian museum sydney 1980 , australian museum memoir 18 , sydney , australia .\nrabet , n . , godinho , l . b . , montero , d . & lacau , s . ( 2012 ) exploration of the egg shell structure of three neotropical eulimnadia species : a new insight into genus taxonomy ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) . studies on neotropical fauna and environment , 47 , 221\u2013226 . urltoken\nit is our hope that this work will inspire students of branchiopoda to rigorously examine and test the validity of the various taxa described from this region , to properly describe and diagnose them according to modern standards , to do so in the larger systematic framework of the global fauna , and to generate useful dichotomous keys for their identification .\nhoeh , w . r . , smallwood , n . d . , senyo , d . m . , chapman , e . g . & weeks , s . c . ( 2006 ) evaluating the monophyly of eulimnadia and the limnadiinae ( branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) using dna sequences . journal of crustacean biology , 26 , 182\u2013192 . urltoken\nkaji , t . , fritsch , m . , schwentner , m . , olesen , j . & richter , s . ( 2014 ) male claspers in clam shrimps ( crustacea , branchiopoda ) in the light of evolution : a case study on homology . journal of experimental zoology ( molecular development & evolution ) , 322b , 269\u2013280 . urltoken\nsinev , a . y . ; van damme , k . and kotov , a . a . 2005 . redescription of tropical - temperate cladocerans alona diaphana king , 1853 and alona davidi richard , 1895 and their translocation to leberis smirnov , 1989 ( branchiopoda : anomopoda ; chydoridae ) . arthropoda selecta , 14 ( 3 ) : 183 - 205 . [ links ]\nself - fertilization has both negative and positive fitness effects on species evolution . selfing can increase inbreeding depression , thereby decreasing genetic diversity . in contrast , self - fertilization can preserve beneficial gene combinations and facilitate colonization success . within the class of crustaceans branchiopoda , selfing is a primary reproductive mode . some species of triops , in . . . [ show full abstract ]\nsousa , f . d . r . ; elmoor - loureiro , l . m . a . and santos , s . 2015 . redescription of coronatella poppei ( richard , 1897 ) ( crustacea , branchiopoda , chydoridae ) and a revision of the genus in brazil , with descriptions of new taxa . zootaxa , 3955 ( 2 ) : 211 - 244 . [ links ]\nthis paper is the first comprehensive review of the littoral freshwater chydoridae ( branchiopoda , anomopoda ) of ireland . it reports on a countrywide survey , during which a total of 316 samples was taken at 287 sampling sites between march , 1984 and june , 1986 . together with all previous records , the survey results provide baseline data on the ecology and distribution of this important animal group .\n. . . several characters uniquely shared by lepidocaris and anostraca support a position of the devonian taxon in the anostracan stem - group [ 46 ] , although an alternative placement in the stem - group of branchiopoda has also been suggested [ 47 ] . the resemblance of the rhynie chert spiny structures to anostracan cysts provides a circumstantial argument for an anostracan identity for lepidocaris . . . .\nhowever , carcinologists have long debated the taxonomic status of crustaceans , sometimes assigning the group to one of the phylum , subphylum , and superclass level , with five , six , or even ten classes recognized ( hobbs 2003 ) . many also list the crustacea as a class . in taxonomic schemes that consider the crustacea to be a class , branchiopoda generally is considered to be a order .\nas part of a larger project examining and comparing the ontogeny of all major taxa of the branchiopoda in a phylogenetic context , the larval development of caenestheriella gifuensis ( ishikawa , 1895 ) , a japanese spinicaudatan ' conchostracan ' , is described by scanning electron microscopy . seven different larval stages are recognised , in most cases based on significant morphological differences . . . . [ show full abstract ]\nty - jour ti - contributions to the morphology and taxonomy of the branchiopoda notostraca , with special reference to the north american species t2 - proceedings of the united states national museum . vl - 102 ur - urltoken pb - smithsonian institution press , [ etc . ] cy - washington : py - 1956 sp - 1 ep - 69 sn - 0096 - 3801 au - linder , folke er -\nobreg\u00f3n - barboza , h . , maeda - mart\u00ednez , a . m . , murugan , g . , timms , b . v . , grygier , m . j . , rogers , d . c . , rodr\u00edguez - almaraz , g . , & dumont , h . j . ( 2007 ) . morphology and systematic significance of the mystax , a hitherto undescribed structure of males in certain notostraca ( branchiopoda ) .\nbrantner , j . s . , ott , d . w . , duff , r . j . , sanoamuang , l . - o . , simhachalam , g . p . , babu , k . k . s . & weeks , s . c . ( 2013 ) androdioecy and hermaphroditism in five species of clam shrimps ( crustacea : branchiopoda : spinicaudata ) from india and thailand . invertebrate biology , 132 , 27\u201337 . urltoken\na . m . maeda - mart\u00ednez , h . obreg\u00f3n - barboza , h . garc\u00eda - velazco , branchiopoda : cyclestherida , laevicaudata and spinicaudata in jorge llorente bousquets , juan j morrone ( eds . ) , biodiversidad , taxonom\u00eda y biogeograf\u00eda de artr\u00f3podos de m\u00e9xico : hacia una s\u00edntesis de su conocimiento , vol . iii , d . f . univ . nacional auto\u0301noma de me\u0301xico , me\u0301xico , pp . 323 - 332 , 2002 . in spanish hardcopy in libraries\n. . . the laevicaudata , or\nsmooth clam shrimp\n, is a taxon of bivalved branchiopod crustaceans with a peculiar adult appearance ( e . g . , an enormous head ) and bizarre flattened larvae ( martin 1992 ; olesen & martin 2014 ) . the laevicaudata are branchiopods , but their precise phylogenetic position within the branchiopoda has been under some debate ( richter et al . 2007 ; olesen 2009 ; pessacq et al . 2011 ; olesen . . .\nbranchiopoda is a diverse group of primitive , aquatic , primarily freshwater crustaceans , mostly resembling shrimp . this taxon is generally placed as a class of the arthropod subphylum ( or superclass ) crustacea , but some taxonomic schemes recognize it as an order , with crustacea listed as a class . branchiopods should not be confused with the almost identically spelled brachiopods ( without the n ) , which comprise an unrelated phylum ( brachiopoda ) of sessile , two - shelled , marine animals ( lamp shells ) .\nwe present a cladistic analysis of all branchiopod groups , using a total of 42 morphological characters . the class branchiopoda is composed of five superorders and 11 orders ( nine recent , two fossil ) . the orders ctenopoda , anomopoda and onychopoda form a monophyletic group , combined in the superorder cladocera . the order haplopoda , the fourth so - called cladoceran order ( s . lat . ) , belongs to a new monotypic superorder , the leptodorida . the circumtropical cyclesteria hislopi is the sole representative of a new conchostracan order , the cyclestherida .\n. . . however , unique fig . 13 . general phylogeny of branchiopoda ( richter et al . , 2007 ; olesen , 2009 ) illustrating evolution of clasper\ngripping area\n( opposing\nmovable finger\non outside of carapace ) in the three major clam shrimp taxa laevicaudata , spinicaudata , and cyclestherida . modifications to get a better grip around the female carapace margin has occurred independently as : 1 ) an apical club ( spinicaudata ) , 2 ) diverse setation ( laevicaudata ) , or 3 ) molariform setae ( cyclestherida ) . . . .\nbranchiopods are characterized by paired compound eyes and a single simple eye , as well as leaflike or phyllopodous appendages ( follo and fautin 2001 ) . the number of thoracic segments of branchiopoda varies from species to species . the structure of the reproductive , nervous , and circulatory systems is primitive compared to other crustaceans . branchiopods in general are equipped with a ventral food groove , useful for suspension and filter feeding . the water current in the ventral food groove , used for breathing and feeding in most species , is produced by a battery of unspecialized legs . this is thought to resemble a very original way of living among the crustaceans .\n. . . we have readdressed clasper evolution in the light of functionality based on the homologies suggested by kaji et al . ( 2014 ) . we explored a likely evolutionary scenario for clam shrimp claspers based on a combination of clasper homologies , functionality , and branchiopoda phylogeny as available in several papers ( e . g . , richter et al . , 2007 ; olesen , 2009 ; olesen and richter , 2013 ; kaji et al . , 2014 ; sigvardt and olesen , 2014 ; fig . 13 ) . our general conclusion is that all similar ( but not necessarily homologous ) clasper parts ( movable finger , palps , and palm ) have the same general function in laevicaudata and spinicaudata ( fig . 11 ; cyclestherida amplexus not studied ) . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncs is powered by eprints 3 which is developed by the school of electronics and computer science at the university of southampton . more information and software credits .\ndevelopmental genetics and arthropod evolution : part 1 , on legs . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ninstitute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics , university of amsterdam , netherland . schram @ urltoken\nleft : a mirrored right lateral view of daphnia magna , courtesy of urltoken right : a right lateral view of a fairy shrimp , courtesy of u . s . fish and wildlife service\nwith almost 800 described species , it is difficult to generalize about the branchipods . most live in fresh or brackish ( slightly salty ) water and a few are found in marine habitats . many are found exclusively in temporary ponds , where their eggs survive long periods of drought . you often find packages of dried eggs for sale in pet and toy stores . when the eggs are placed in water with an airstone , they hatch in just a couple days and you can watch them grow and swim . they are often used as food for aquarium animals .\nit is even more difficult to generalize about the body form of branchiopods . the thorax and abdomen are fused or indistinguishable in most but the anostraca . their appendages are generally phyllopodus ( leaf - like ) , although some groups have more appendages than others . they have a combination of paired compound and / or a single simple median eyes . many are capable of parthenogenesis ( growing from unfertilized eggs ) but several use other reproductive strategies , ranging from releasing eggs when the adult molts to encapsulating the eggs in a modified molt .\nbranchiopods feed in many ways . some suspension feed and either remove organic particles from the water as they swim or stir up sediments to suspend organic particles that have settled and then remove them from the water . others scrape organic matter from sand grains and rock . still others actively prey on other small animals .\nscourfield , d . j . 1926 . on a new type of crustacean from the old red sandstone - lepidocaris rhyniensis . phil . trans . roy . soc . lond . ( b ) 214 : 153 - 187 .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n. rostrum absent ; eyes sessile ; compound , visual elements present ; ocular scale absent ; naupliar eyes present . antennules ( antenna 1 ) uniramous ; peduncle and flagellum indistinguishable ; exopod well developed , whip - like . antennae ( antenna 2 ) reduced , vestigial or absent . mandible uniramous ; palp absent . maxillipeds , absent .\n; phyllopodous ( broad or narrow ) ; differentiated ( some prehensile ) . abdomen with more than 12 somites . epimera absent . pleopods absent . uropods well developed , 1 pair , positioned ventrolaterally ; rami absent ; whip - like .\n. freshwater , brackish or saline temporary ponds , shallow lakes , peat bogs and moors .\ncite this publication as : lowry , j . k . ( 1999 onwards ) . ' crustacea , the higher taxa : description , identification , and information retrieval . ' version : 2 october 1999 . urltoken .\nv . on a new type of crustacean from the old red sandstone ( rhymie chert bed , aberdeenshire ) \u2014 lepidocaris rhyniensis , gen . et sp . nov | philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences\nv . on a new type of crustacean from the old red sandstone ( rhymie chert bed , aberdeenshire ) \u2014 lepidocaris rhyniensis , gen . et sp . nov\nthis text was harvested from a scanned image of the original document using optical character recognition ( ocr ) software . as such , it may contain errors . please contact the royal society if you find an error you would like to see corrected . mathematical notations produced through infty ocr .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nyou are going to email the following v . on a new type of crustacean from the old red sandstone ( rhymie chert bed , aberdeenshire ) \u2014 lepidocaris rhyniensis , gen . et sp . nov\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the philosophical transactions of the royal society b : biological sciences web site .\nalthough a few species of water fleas have adapted to a life in the sea , branchiopods belong primarily in fresh water . all branchiopods are free - living\u2014there are no parasitic or sessile species . they generally are not adapted to life in subterranean waters or the deep sea , although water fleas ( order cladocera ) of the subclass diplostraca has hypogean representatives ( inhabiting subterranean habitats ) , with less than 100 of the 450 recognized species of cladocera occupying subterranean waters ( hobbs 2003 ) .\nbranchiopods range greatly in size , from 0 . 2 millimeters ( . 007 inches ) in length to 100 millimeters ( 3 . 9 inches ) in length . water fleas living in subterranean waters are very small , from 0 . 2 to two millimeters ( . 07 inches ) and are laterally compressed ( hobbs 2003 ) .\nleptodora , a relatively large branchiopod , relies on its very transparent body for camouflage . it is so transparent that its shadow is said to be more visible than its body .\nclam shrimp live up to their name as they are often seen burrowed in the mud like mussels at the bottom of temporary ponds . they are so well adapted to this extreme way of life that they are able to reach adulthood within a few days after inundation under optimal conditions . they can reproduce sexually , hermaphroditically , or parthenogenetically ( zenkevich 1968 ) .\nwhile the superorder diplostraca is recognized in older classifications , and included the orders of conchostraca and cladocera , there is data that suggests these orders may be artificial ( at least in their present state ) as some of their members seem to have a paraphyletic origin within the diplostraca . for this reason , the order conchostraca is no longer used by some authorities . another taxonomic scheme recognizes the following :\nthe oldest known species of branchiopod is a 500 million year old fossil fairy shrimp called rehbachiella kinnekullensis . fairy shrimps also are seen as the most original and primitive members of the class .\nthe order lipostraca is represented only by fossils . the genus lipidocaris includes specimens that have been well - preserved from the devonian age rhynie chert in scotland ( russell - hunter 1969 ) . these lacked a carapace ( as with the anostraca ) and had a pair of very large second antennae that probably were used for swimming as in the modern cladocera ( russell - hunter 1969 ) .\nbranchiopods probably originated in marine environments , but only those who migrated to fresh water survived . the fact that they are especially adapted to temporary pools and waters that are too extreme for other animals to live in ( like salt lakes ) indicates that they could have sought refuge in these places because they were unable to compete with or evade the more advanced groups of animals evolving in their original habitats . this resulted in a short generation cycle and small body size .\nthe large branchiopods anostraca , notostraca , and conchostraca ( even if it the last one seems to be a partially artificial order ) are considered to be the most primitive , and most of them are still unable to live in waters where there are fish and other advanced predators , since they are too slow and vulnerable to survive them . a few of them , however , have adaptations allowing them to cope with this problem well enough to survive , even with predators around them .\nthe small branchiopods , mostly represented by water fleas , have succeeded in becoming zooplankton in such a degree that waters filled with fish and other threats are no longer a problem . their main adaptation for survival is their high number thanks to their small size , ability to produce many offspring , and short life cycle .\nhobbs , h . h . 2003 . crustacea in encyclopedia of caves and karst science . routledge . retrieved december 5 , 2006 .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2008b . phylum brachiopoda the animal diversity web ( online ) . retrieved may 26 , 2008 .\nrussell - hunter , w . d . a biology of higher invertebrates . london : macmillan company , 1969 .\nzenkevich , l . a . 1968 . zhizn\u02b9 zhivotnykh ( the animal life ) , volume 2 , chapter 7 ( phylum arthropoda ) . moskva :\nprosveshchenie .\noclc 13589037 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 2 june 2008 , at 23 : 21 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nbrine shrimp , of the order anostraca , are most noted for their desiccation - resistant eggs that will hatch in salt water . most species of branchiopods are gonochoric and some are parthenogenetic . those species that have indirect development produce nauplius larvae .\nbrusca , r . c . and g . j . brusca . 1990 . chapter 18 : phylum arthropoda : the crustaceans . invertebrates . sinauer associates , inc . sunderland , massachusetts .\nkozloff , e . n . 1990 . chapter 17 : subphylum crustacea . invertebrates . saunders college publishing . philadelphia and other cities .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\nlatreille , p . a . ( 1817 ) . les crustac\u00e9s , les arachnides , et les insectes . in : g . l . c . f . d . cuvier le regne animal , distribue d ' apres son organisation , pour servrir de base a l ' histoire naturelle des animaux et d ' introduction a l ' anatomie comparee . volume 3 paris . [ details ]\nmartin , j . w . , & davis , g . e . ( 2001 ) . an updated classification of the recent crustacea . science series , 39 . natural history museum of los angeles county . los angeles , ca ( usa ) . 124 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbrusca , r . c . ; brusca , g . j . ( 1990 ) . invertebrates . sinauer associates : sunderland , ma ( usa ) . isbn 0 - 87893 - 098 - 1 . 922 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n, phylum arthropoda ) . they are aquatic animals that include brine shrimp , fairy shrimp , tadpole shrimp , water fleas , and other small , chiefly freshwater forms .\ndates back to the devonian period ( 416 million to 359 . 2 million years ago ) . although certain members of the group , such as fairy shrimp in the infraorder anostraca , are mainly confined to temporary pools , the water flea , order\n, is so successful that there are few fresh waters in the world without one or more species of anomopod .\nthe smallest branchiopods are found among the anomopods , where some species are only 0 . 25 millimetre ( 0 . 01 inch ) long . the largest living branchiopod is\n, a fairy shrimp that reaches a length of 10 centimetres ( 3 . 9 inches ) . some members of the fossil order kazacharthra also grew to a length of 10 centimetres .\nof form . in the laevicaudata , for example , the number of trunk segments remains constant ; there are 12 pairs of trunk limbs in the female and 10 pairs in the male . in the\nthe two fossil groups as well differ markedly from each other . the order lipostraca lacked a carapace and had 13 pairs of trunk limbs and a pair of large antennae , which appear to have been used in swimming . the order kazacharthra had a well - developed carapace and six pairs of large thoracic limbs . the main structural feature linking these diverse forms , both living and fossil , is the flattened , or paddlelike , trunk limb , which often but not always is used in filter feeding . in the infraorders onychopoda and haplopoda even this feature is modified , and the trunk limbs have become specialized for grasping prey .\n, and the suborders laevicaudata and spinicaudata are particularly characteristic of temporary waters , where they survive dry periods as resting eggs . the anostracan\nare regularly found in small pools of the arctic tundra regions . these pools are temporary in the sense that they freeze solid in winter . a few species in these groups are found in permanent lakes ."]}
{"id": 187, "summary": [{"text": "the new guinea big-eared bat ( pharotis imogene ) is a vesper bat endemic to papua new guinea .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is listed as a critically endangered species due to ongoing habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is the only known member of the genus pharotis , which is closely related to nyctophilus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "previously , the species was believed to have been extinct since 1890 , when it was last spotted .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2012 , researchers realised that a female bat collected near kamali was a member of this species.due to its imperiled status , it is identified by the alliance for zero extinction as a species in danger of imminent extinction .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "in 2013 , bat conservation international listed this species as one of the 35 species of its worldwide priority list of conservation . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "new guinea big - eared bat", "paragraphs": ["back after going missing for more than a century : the new guinea big - eared bat .\nin march 2014 the bat was loaned to the australian museum in sydney , where researcher harry parnaby identified it as pharotis imogene \u2013 the new guinea big - eared bat .\nthis article was co - authored by catherine hughes . the new guinea big - eared bat was rediscovered as part of her honours project at the university of queensland .\nmore than a century after it was \u201clost\u201d , the new guinea big - eared bat has been discovered by queensland researchers working in papua new guinea\u2019s forests . the critically endangered bat was thought to be extinct , and the discovery shows there is still much to learn about biodiversity in our region .\nthe new guinea big - eared bat ( pharotis imogene ) , is a species of vesper bat endemic to papua new guinea . it is listed as a critically endangered species due to ongoing habitat loss . it is the only known member of the genus pharotis , which is closely related to nyctophilus .\nthe new guinea big - eared bat , like the rest of the genera pharotis and nyctophilus , is distinguished by a combination of two features : large ears and a simple \u201cnose - leaf\u201d structure immediately behind the nostrils . collectively , the group of species is known as long - eared ( or big - eared ) bats . p . imogene has larger ears than most .\nscientists in australia are walking back their presumption that the new guinea big - eared bat ( pharotis imogene ) - - a species of bat last spotted in 1890 - - was lost . field researchers recently realized that one of the specimens they collected during an expedition to papua new guinea in 2012 was none other than the supposedly extinct bat , which has not been seen in more than 120 years .\nin a study published last week , the team described how it was able to identify the specimen as the presumed extinct new guinea big - eared bat . though the winged creature was initially thought to be a small - toothed bat , which also has characteristically large ears and a leaf - like nose structure , comparative material allowed researchers to confirm that the specimen is the pharotis imogene . ( the first and - - until now - - only specimens of the new guinea big - eared bat were reportedly collected by an italian scientist in 1890 . )\nwhen catherine and julie captured their bat , on the edge of logged forest near an old coconut plantation now covered with grassland , they thought it was either the small - toothed nyctophilus ( nyctophilus microdon ) or a pharotis \u2013 the genus to which the new guinea big - eared bat belongs .\nnow that the long - lost species has been rediscovered , so to speak , researchers are seeking to determine how the big - eared bat remained hidden for more than 120 years .\nthe new guinea big - eared bat pharotis imogene has not been reported since the first and only specimens were collected in 1890 and the species was presumed extinct . we document the capture of one individual of the species from the coastal district of abau , in central province , papua new guinea , 120 km east of the only previous known locality at kamali . we recommend that field surveys be urgently undertaken to assess the conservation status of the species .\n\u2014 this is a list of the mammal species recorded in papua new guinea . there are 242 mammal species in papua new guinea , of which 7 are critically endangered , 12 are endangered , 39 are vulnerable , and 0 are near threatened . [ this list is derived from \u2026\n\u2014 this is a list of the bird species recorded in papua new guinea . the avifauna of papua new guinea includes a total of 781 species , of which 76 are endemic , one has been introduced by humans , and 18 are rare or accidental . 28 species are globally\u2026 \u2026\nnew species of mammals from northern south america : a long - tongued bat , genus anoura gray .\nnothing is known of the ecology of new guinea big - eared bat , and therefore more surveys are needed in the coastal lowland rainforests of southern png . many lowland rainforest habitats are being disturbed by timber logging ( both sustainable and otherwise ) , clearing for development , and agriculture . the effect of these disturbances on the bat is unknown ; however if the species is found in low numbers , it may be threatened by local disturbances .\nresearchers recommended further field studies in order to evaluate the conservation status of the species . as the conversation notes , timber logging in lowland rainforest areas on the island could potentially disturb the big - eared bat ' s habitat , if the population is relatively low .\na third geographic region where bat - catching by web - building spiders was repeatedly witnessed ( seven reports ) is the area of australia ( report # 39\u201344 ) and papua new guinea ( report # 45 ) . most australian incidences were observed in the coastal areas of new south wales and queensland (\nas the authors note in a may 30 article for the conversation , much of lowland papua new guinea ' s rainforests are being cut down for timber or to make way for development or agriculture . that practice could place additional pressures on the big - eared bats as well as other microbats in the region . in other words , we may not have another 120 years to save this rediscovered species .\nthis research was undertaken with permission from the national research institute , papua new guinea , who organised the research visa to conduct field research in cloudy bay , abau , central province , papua new guinea . this work was conducted under animal ethics approval , granted from the university of queensland animal ethics committee number : safs / 165 / 11 / various funds\nmight be less efficient in bat catching . the only reported incidence where a bat got entangled in a\n\u2014 taxobox name = big eared flying fox status = lr / lc | status system = iucn2 . 3 regnum = animalia phylum = chordata classis = mammalia ordo = chiroptera familia = pteropodidae genus = pteropus species = p . macrotis binomial = pteropus macrotis\u2026 \u2026\n3 new species of weird , endangered fish discovered in india , u . s and colombia\non july 25 , 2012 , catherine hughes and julie broken - brow caught a small , female bat in a trap at the edge of a forest in southeast papua new guinea ( png ) . but the bat didn\u2019t match any species known to exist . and so began a fascinating detective story about a species that hadn\u2019t been spotted for more than 120 years .\nchurchill s ( 2008 ) australian bats , 2 nd edition . sydney : new holland . 255 p .\ngriffin dr ( 1958 ) listening in the dark . new haven : yale university press . 413 p .\nof course , conclusively identifying a species that hasn ' t been seen in 124 years is no easy task , especially when ( as in this case ) the only previously known sample used to describe it has long since disappeared . as recounted in the may 28 issue of records of the australian museum , parnaby was able to distinguish the rediscovered bat from other species by the curve of its nose , the size and lobes of its ears and the naked skin above its nostrils . other than these relatively minor physical attributes the pharotis bat looks quite similar to another local species , the small - toothed long - eared bat ( nyctophilus microdon ) . in fact , a specimen from this species was found in 1985 and initially misidentified as the big - eared bat until it was reexamined three years later .\nsometimes research into one question reveals the answer to another . in july 2012 catherine hughes and julie broken - brow , students at the university of queensland in australia , were in papua new guinea studying how the region\u2019s tiny microbats responded to sustainable logging of their forest homes .\ngertsch wj ( 1979 ) american spiders , 2 nd edition . new york : van nostrand reinhold . 196 p .\nmarshall sd ( 2001 ) tarantulas and other arachnids . hauppauge , new york : barron\u2019s educational series , inc . 111 p .\npp . 151\u2013200 in ecology of bats ( t . h . kunz , ed . ) . plenum publishing corporation , new york\nlunar phobia in a neotropical fruit bat , artibeus jamaicensis ( chiroptera : phyllostomidae ) .\ncollected by queensland students catherine hughes and julie broken - brow in july 2012 , the female bat was euthanized and held at the papua new guinea national museum and art gallery for future research . then , nearly two years later , harry parnaby , a research associate from the australian museum , received the specimen on loan so he could determine the species , according to australian news website the conversation .\nleen n , novick a ( 1969 ) the world of bats . new york : holt , rinehart and winston . 171 p .\nallen gm ( 2004 ) bats : biology , behavior , and folklore . new york : dover publications , inc . 368 p .\nsometimes research into one question reveals the answer to another . in july 2012 catherine hughes and julie broken - brow , students at the university of queensland in australia , were in papua new guinea studying how the region ' s tiny microbats responded to sustainable logging of their forest homes . as part of the project , the scientists trapped and caught 41 bats from nine known species\u2014as well as a female bat they could not immediately identify .\nfield rate of metabolisms and water uptake in the blossom - bat syconycteris australis ( megachiroptera ) .\n\u2014 for other uses , see bat ( disambiguation ) . bats temporal range : 52\u20130 ma \u2026\nnow that p . imogene has been rediscovered , the authors note that much remains to be learned about it . part of hughes and broken - brow ' s original work involved recording the echolocation calls of papua new guinea ' s bats . we still don ' t know what the big - eared bats sound like nor do we know anything about their ecology . what are their habitat requirements ? what do they eat ? how and where do they nest ? how many of these rare bats remain ? the authors wrote that\ndetailed surveys are needed to critically determine whether this species requires the proximity of both rainforest and more open habitats ,\nwhich would help to determine regional forestry practices . they also note that earlier surveys of protected areas have never turned up any sign of this species . the bat was found in an unprotected area , so its habitats may be at risk . they recommend new surveys to establish the bat ' s distribution and abundance , additional acoustic studies to see if its echolocation calls can be identified and ( if anyone gets that far ) radio surveys to define their habitat and roosting requirements at various stages of their reproductive cycle .\nhabitat exploitation by a gleaning bat , plecotus auritus . philosophical transactions of the royal society london , b\nseasonal changes in energetics and torpor patterns in the subtropical blossom - bat syconycteris australis ( megachiroptera ) .\nthis species has not been recorded from any protected areas . field surveys using appropriate sampling techniques ( e . g . , harp traps ) are urgently needed to determine if this species is still extant . this is one of the highest priorities for surveys in papua new guinea ( f . bonaccorso pers . comm . ) . any important roosting or foraging sites should be protected .\nmeasurements of the new specimen are consistent with those of the first specimens collected in 1890 from a coastal village called kamali , 120 km west of our study site .\nwhitaker jo , hamilton wj ( 1998 ) mammals of the eastern united states , 3 rd edition . ithaca , new york : cornell university press . 608 p .\nfresh weight and wingspan of bat species reported to be captured by spiders ( arranged in alphabethical order ) .\nthe trap that caught the bat was only at the site for two nights , making this discovery particularly lucky .\nheterothermy and the use of torpor by the bat eptesicus fuscus ( chiroptera : vespertilionidae ) : a field study .\npp . 11\u201345 in high altitude tropical biogeography ( f . vuilleumier and m . monasterio , eds . ) . oxford university press and american museum of natural history , new york\n- have been reported so far to be engaged in bat catching . it can be assumed , however , that other\njustification : listed as critically endangered ( possibly extinct ) because if this species still exists it is likely to have a very small population size , and small range size that is subject to a continued decline in extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , and the extent and quality of habitat . this species has not been recorded in more than 100 years ( since 1890 ) and it is known only from a rapidly changing portion of southeastern papua new guinea . there is still a possibility that new survey methods to the region , particularly harp traps , might lead to the rediscovery of this species and such surveys are urgently needed .\ntemperature regulation , rate of metabolism , and roost temperature in the greater white - lined bat saccopteryx bilineata ( emballonuridae ) .\nfifty - two reports of bat - catching spiders based on literature and unpublished data ( for more details see file s1 ) .\nthe roles of energetics , water economy , foraging behavior , and geothermal refugia in the distribution of the bat , macrotus californicus .\nit is the first record of the species since 1890 \u2013 meaning that this bat was missing in action for the entire 20th century .\nresource and habitat use in two frugivorous bat species ( phyllostomidae : carollia perspicillata and c . castanea ) in panama : mechanisms of coexistence\nforaging mode and echolocation call frequency of adult bat species reported to be captured in spider webs ( arranged in order of increasing peak frequency ) .\npp . 39\u201347 in biology of bats of the new world family phyllostomatidae . part i ( r . j . baker , j . k . jones , jr . , and d . c . carter , eds . )\ncare and management of the long - tongued bat , glossophaga soricina ( chiroptera , phyllostomatidae ) in the laboratory , with observation on estivation induced by food deprivation .\nin 2013 , a rapid biodiversity survey conducted by the wildlife conservation society in a remote location of png ( hindenburg wall ) discovered at least 89 new plant and animal species . these surveys show that png\u2019s biodiversity numbers will continue to grow as we survey more of the country .\nwas observed eating a bat on the forest floor in northeastern brazil ( r . west , pers . comm . ; report # 3 ) . moreover , a large reddish parachute tarantula ,\n; report # 11 ) , the captured bat might have been a juvenile fruit - eating phyllostomid bat though the features needed for a positive identification were not sufficiently recognizable in the photo ( a . gardner , pers . comm . ) . the old world flying foxes ( pteropodidae ) have never been reported to get captured or killed by spiders except for one report from captivity . liat\n; g . jones , pers . comm . ) . one might expect such highly specialized foragers to be sufficiently well adapted to avoid collisions with spider webs . however , studies in new south wales ( australia ) and bavaria ( germany ) revealed that gleaning insectivorous bats ( i . e . ,\n, may 2011 ) . another incidence of a bat caught in a spider web was observed on the isle of wight , south east england ( g . street , pers . comm . ) .\ndeaths of bats in spider webs have been considered to occur very rarely . in two more recent papers , a web - building spider , argiope savignyi , and a theraphosid spider , poecilotheria rufilata , were each reported to predate on a small bat [ 30 ] \u2013 [ 31 ] . these authors hypothesized that bat captures and kills due to spiders might be more frequent than previously thought . to test this hypothesis , an extensive global literature survey on bat - catching spiders was conducted , along with an attempt to use web - based sources as well . the insights from this research are reviewed here .\npreviously , the species was believed to have been extinct since 1890 , when it was last spotted . in 2012 , researchers realized that a female bat collected near kamali was a member of this species .\nan extensive bibliographic search was conducted in order to find any information available on bat - catching spiders . the search was based largely on the thomson - reuters data base ( web of science ) , google scholar , google books , proquest dissertations & theses , and flickr image - hosting website ( hosting more than 6 billion images ) . in addition to this , an internet search for blogger information on this topic was conducted . bloggers who had posted photographs and reports on bat - catching spiders on the internet were contacted to get detailed information on their observations . furthermore , the staff of bat hospitals was contacted to get information on bats rescued from spider webs . finally , an inquiry among fellow arachnologists and chiropterologists was carried out to get access to unpublished reports on this topic . many of these experts had conducted field studies for decades , and their feedback provided valuable information needed to assess how frequent incidences of bat catches by spiders might be . altogether , 52 reports on bat - catching spiders could be gathered (\nthrelfall c ( 2011 ) conserving biodiversity in urban landscapes . mechanisms influencing the distribution , community assembly and resource use of insectivorous bats in sydney , australia . ph . d . thesis , evolution & ecology research centre , school of biological , earth and environmental sciences , university of new south wales , sydney , australia .\nweb ended with the bat\u2019s successful escape . nevertheless this spider species should not be ruled out as a potential predator of small bats ; it is known to catch and eat various types of vertebrates including small birds\nin general , moderate spatial overlap occurred between the foraging and core areas of individual bats ( fig . 2 ) , which were distributed along the lakeshore in bat cove , at fairchild and harvard peninsula , and around colorado point . during some nights 1 female ( f3 ) crossed the canal and spent part of the night foraging somewhere around the mainland peninsula buena vista . this individual thus had at least 1 other foraging area , the exact location of which could not be determined because we were not able to continuously follow this bat and obtain a sufficient number of radiofixes within that area . bat f5 had by far the largest home range and its foraging areas were located far from one another . during some tracking nights we lost contact with the bat as it moved quickly out of the range of the receivers . on 1 night , we managed to follow this bat as it traveled about 7 . 5 km from the day roost along the barro colorado island shoreline to another foraging area located around gigante , a nearby mainland peninsula ( fig . 2f ) .\nthe bat was ethically euthanized and taken to the png national museum and art gallery in port moresby . specimens like this are an important reference for future research , and also a good way to identify species whose identity cannot be confirmed in the field .\nto facilitate comparison with other studies , we used 95 % kernel isopleths to delineate foraging areas ( white and garrot 1990 ) . in contrast to the home range , foraging areas do not include the day roost and areas traversed by a bat while commuting .\nbat - catching spiders belong to the araneomorph families nephilidae ( golden silk orb - weavers ) , araneidae ( orb - weaver spiders ) , sparassidae ( huntsman spiders ) , and the mygalomorph family theraphosidae ( tarantulas ) . furthermore , an attack attempt by an araneomorph hunting spider of the family pisauridae ( fishing spiders ) was witnessed . seventy - three percent of the known incidences of bat catches were attributable to orb - weaving spiders , 15 % to unidentified web - building spiders , and 12 % to hunting spiders (\na second geographic region where bat - catching by web - building spiders has frequently been reported ( 13 reports ; 2i and l ) is eastern and southeastern asia including locations in china ( report # 26\u201334 ) , japan ( report # 35 ) , vietnam ( report # 36 ) , malaysia ( report # 37 ) , and sri lanka ( report # 38 ) . here , bat - catching by spiders have been witnessed particularly often in the eastern coastal area of china , specifically in parks and forests of the greater hong kong area (\nwe further identified number and locations of foraging and core areas of each tracked individual and calculated the distances a bat traveled on a nightly basis within its range to describe patterns of range use . specifically , we calculated the minimum distance flown per night ( based on the distance between successive fixes ) , as well as maximum range span , that is , the distance between the day roost and the farthest point of a bat ' s home range . moreover , we quantified the distances the bats traveled when commuting from the day roost to the nearest foraging area .\nin the bat communities of andean cloud forests , frugivores represent the most species - rich guild , in contrast with lowland rain forest bat communities , where insectivores are the dominant guild ( fleming 1986 ; graham 1983 ; patterson et al . 1996 ; soriano 2000 ; soriano et al . 1999 ) . apparently , insectivores of tropical origin have a limit to their vertical distribution that prevents them from accessing andean cloud forests , and only some vespertilionidae of neartic origin reach these forests , along with a few representatives of the molossidae ( soriano 2000 ; soriano et al . 1999 ) .\nwith regard to bat - eating theraphosids photographed in the neotropics and in india , the actual killing of the bats was not witnessed . however , it has been proven by means of observations in captivity that large theraphosids are capable of killing bats . this is shown in a youtube video where a\nthe neotropical orb - weaving spider eriophora fuliginea has been observed to kill and eat small bats that got entangled in its webs [ 8 ] , [ 37 ] , [ 101 ] . when a bat got caught in a web , the spider immobilized the bat by attack - wrapping and subsequently biting it [ 101 ] . following this , the spiders fed on the dead bats for many hours ( d . e . wilson , pers . comm . ) . the incidences of bats being caught , killed , and eaten in webs of eriophora spp . are without any doubt predation events .\npng is one of the world\u2019s biodiversity hotspots . the country accounts for about 7 % of the world\u2019s species diversity , with about 276 known mammal species , 314 freshwater fish , 641 amphibian and reptile species , 740 birds , and many more . according to the world wildlife fund , between 1998 and 2008 , 1060 new species were discovered , including a blue - eyed spotted cuscus , a 2 . 5 metre freshwater shark , and a giant bent - toed gecko .\n) : vespertilionidae ( plain - faced bats ) , emballonuridae ( sheath - tailed bats ) , rhinolophidae ( horseshoe bats ) , hipposideridae ( old world leaf - nosed bats ) and phyllostomidae ( new world leaf - nosed bats ) . in 31 % of the reported incidences the captured bats remained unidentified . the majority of identifiable captured bats belonged to the families vespertilionidae ( 64 % of reports ) or emabllonuridae ( 22 % ) , whereas only few reports existed for hipposideridae ( 8 % ) and one for rhinolophidae ( 3 % ) . the capture of phyllostomid bats was only reported once ( report # 20 ) or maybe twice ( report # 11 ) . in the latter , uncertain report , concerning a small brown - coloured bat entangled in a spider web in guatemala (\nduring these inquiries we got access to several previously unpublished photographs of bat - catching spiders . these photographs were shown to established bat and spider taxonomists for identification of the bats and spiders , respectively . in a few cases photographs of habitats were sent to vegetation specialists for proper habitat classification . nomenclature follows [ 32 ] \u2013 [ 33 ] . spiders reported in this paper are divided into two major groups based on foraging mode ( sensu gertsch [ 14 ] ) : \u201chunting spiders\u201d ( i . e . , spiders that forage without the use of a catching web ) and \u201cweb - building spiders\u201d ( i . e . , spiders that forage using a catching web ) . data on spider weight and size as well as bat weight , wingspan , foraging mode and echolocation call frequency were taken from the literature when available . report numbers used in the results , tables and figures refer to the respective detailed report description ( see file s1 ) .\nwith about 150 species , new world leaf - nosed bats ( phyllostomidae ) are dominant components of local bat faunas in neotropical lowland forests . phyllostomid bats are ecologically highly diverse and unparalleled in their feeding habits , exploiting a wide selection of foods , ranging from fruit , leaves , nectar , and pollen to insects and other arthropods , small vertebrates , and blood ( e . g . , findley 1993 ; kalko et al . 1996 ) . although radiotracking studies have long focused on frugivorous members of this speciose family ( charles - dominique 1991 ; fleming 1988 ; handley et al . 1991 ; heithaus et al . 1975 ; morrison 1978 ; thies 1998 ) , insectivorous species have just started to receive some attention ( bernard and fenton 2003 ; kalko et al . 1999 ; weinbeer and kalko 2004 ) .\nconsumption reached a minimum level at least once , the bat was taken from the chamber , body temperature was measured with a rapid - read thermometer , and body mass was measured . rate of metabolism , as determined by rate of oxygen consumption , was calculated and expressed as a mass - specific rate with the equation of\nenergetic variables reported for bat species with different diets and from lowland and montane habitats . actual values measured are compared with predicted values ( as percentages of predicted ) . for bascal metabolic rate , predicted value is from mcnab ( 1988 ) , and for thermal conductance , predicted value is from herreid and kessel ( 1967 )\n( pisauridae ) to kill a bat pup has been witnessed below a bridge in indiana , usa ( p . clem & v . brack , pers . comm . ; report # 6 ) . however , in this latter case the predation attempt failed probably because the spider was frightened by the presence of the photographing observers ( see\n; report # 49\u201350 ) , and these both refer to warm areas in the southern usa . incidences of bat catches by orb - weaving spiders are unknown from the northern part of north america ( b . fenton , pers . comm . ) . likewise , incidences of this type have not been reported in the ukrainian and russian scientific literature ( a . t . bashta , pers . comm . ) . only two incidences of bats being captured in spider webs have been reported from europe ( report # 51\u201352 ) . in one case , a dead bat was found entangled in the web of an orb - weaving spider on a building site near stuttgart , germany ( german tabloid\nfield observations . \u2014occasionally we were able to follow a bat ' s flight path with a flashlight by illuminating the reflecting tape attached to the transmitter . characteristically , the bats foraged at low heights ( < 50 cm ) above the water surface , either flying under or close to overhanging vegetation along the shore but they often also ventured out several tens of meters onto the lake . in general , however , most bats hunted within 50 m from shore . in this context , 1 female ( f4 ) again was a notable exception because examination of our tracking data indicates that this bat periodically foraged at large distances , sometimes as far as 600 m , away from shore out on the lake .\nthe purpose of this paper is to examine adaptive responses of 3 bat species with different food habits ; responses , which the species use to solve problems of survival and energy balance in neotropical high mountains . thus , we will take into account theoretical aspects of metabolism and temperature regulation to characterize physiological features that distinguish some species that are capable of living in such environments .\nin temperate latitudes , the vespertilionid bat eptesicus fuscus uses facultative daily torpor linked to environmental and reproductive conditions ( audet and fenton 1988 ) . however , the cost of this mechanism in pregnant females is prolonged gestation . characteristics shown by e . fuscus possibly occur in tropical montane representatives of the vespertilionidae , permitting this family to have a higher representation than molossidae in tropical cloud forests .\nin this paper we test the hypothesis that bats of the andean highlands show distinctive metabolic responses compared with bats from lowland forests . we compared existing literature with new information on 3 bat species having the following food habits : a nectarivore ( anoura latidens ) , a frugivore ( sturnira erythromos ) , and an insectivore ( tadarida brasiliensis ) . basal metabolic rate , as determined by oxygen consumption , thermal conductance , and body temperature were measured at ambient temperatures of 10\u201338\u00b0c . some distinctive metabolic responses of these bat species , although varying with respect to food guild , allow us to separate them from counterpart species that are typically found in lowland forests . a . latidens is characterized by higher basal metabolic rate ; however , thermal conductance and lower critical temperature values do not show an adaptation to cool environments , as expected . s . erythromos also increases its basal metabolic rate , but it maintains thermal conductance as expected , which implies a very important displacement of thermoneutral zone to lower temperatures . at temperatures below lower critical temperature , in addition to an endothermic response , s . erythromos sometimes expresses a hypothermic response or facultative torpor , independent of sex and body mass . t . brasiliensis has a lower basal metabolic rate and thermal conductance and also has its thermoneutral zone range displaced toward lower temperatures . likewise , this species enters obligate torpor when ambient temperatures are below 22\u00b0c .\nalthough available information is yet very limited , there is evidence to support the hypothesis that thermoregulatory restrictions prevent some species of bats from inhabiting high mountain environments . this includes the tendency for metabolic rate , minimal thermal conductance , and lower critical temperature in some bat species in andean cloud forests to vary with food habits . qualitative and quantitative differences separate andean mountain bats from those of lowland forests .\n\u2014 bat1 / bat / , n . , v . , batted , batting . n . 1 . sports . a . the wooden club used in certain games , as baseball and cricket , to strike the ball . b . a racket , esp . one used in badminton or table tennis . c . a whip used by a jockey . d . the act of using a\u2026 \u2026\n) , body temperature , and thermal conductance were measured . although temperature intervals were not the same for each species , the experiments were done at ambient temperatures between 10 and 38\u00b0c . measurements were taken in an open - flow respirometer using the following protocol : the bat was placed in an hermetic metabolic chamber of 450 ml with mesh plastic walls and roof to allow it to rest in a normal position . a sufficient quantity of lead bullets was put at the bottom of the chamber to permit submersion in a thermally controlled bath . ambient temperatures inside the metabolic chamber were measured by thermocouples connected to a hh23 microprocessor digital thermometer ( omega , stamford , connecticut ) . air was pumped from the room through the chamber , maintaining an air flow of 70\u201380 ml / min , measured by a matheson 601 rotameter ( secaucus , new jersey ) . to ensure adequate mixing of air in the chamber , incoming and outgoing air tubes were placed at different levels . outgoing air flowed through a column of indicating silica gel to dehydrate it , through another column of indicating soda lime that absorbed co\nyet at the same time , major losses to png\u2019s biodiversity are being caused by rapid human population growth , forest degradation by illegal logging and trading , the establishment of plantations ( palm oil , coconut , coffee ) , mining and forestry , and climate change . while our team are delighted with rediscovering this bat from extinction , we are still saddened by the plight of other animals such as the bramble cay melomys in nearby torres strait .\nthe transmitters were attached to the backs of the bats below the scapulae , usually after partially trimming the fur , and tightly glued onto the skin of the bat by using histoacrylic glue ( braun surgical , melsungen , germany ) . recaptured individuals showed no signs of any injury that could have resulted from tagging . in an attempt to visually locate feeding bats at night , some transmitters were additionally marked with a small piece of red reflecting tape .\nlocations of individual home ranges , and foraging and core areas . \u2014examination of our tracking data indicates that m . macrophyllum forages exclusively over water , whereby all bats restricted their flight activity predominantly to the immediate shoreline of gatun lake ( within approximately 50 m ) . this resulted in most cases in distinctly elongated home - range shapes ( fig . 1 ) . we have no evidence that bats also used the forest as a hunting habitat . except for bat m2 , which spent most of its foraging time around colorado point ( fig . 2a ) , males in general and a harem male ( m3 ) in particular , used small foraging and core areas that were located in laboratory cove or bat cove , that is , in close proximity to their day roost in the barracuda ( fig . 2b ) . females , in contrast , were much more variable , having foraging and core areas both close to and very distant from the day roost ( figs . 2c - f ) .\nthe species chosen for this study inhabit the andean cloud forest ( > 2 , 000 m elevation ) and belong to each of the 3 different dietary types found in this ecological unit . thus , we worked with anoura latidens , a nectar\u2013polinivorous species with a wide elevational range ( 50\u20132 , 240 m ) but found most frequently in montane localities ( handley 1984 ) ; sturnira erythromos , a frugivorous bat that occurs in montane environments with a narrow elevation range in venezuela ( 1 , 000\u20132 , 500 m\u2014 handley 1976 ) ; and tadarida brasiliensis , an insectivorous bat with a wide distribution range , which includes subtropical regions of north and south america and the tropical andes ( wilkins 1989 ) . in south america , t . brasiliensis seems to be absent in the amazonian basin , and although it seems to prefer the mountain region in the neotropics ( up to 2 , 107 m\u2014 handley 1976 ) , this species may be found at low elevations ( koopman 1982 ; wilkins 1989 ) .\nuse of foraging and core areas . \u2014although overall ranges were large , m . macrophyllum concentrated its activity in small core - use areas of typically less than 10 ha , representing roughly 35 % of the size of foraging areas . there was moderate spatial overlap between foraging and core areas of individual bats ( fig . 2 ) . however , because we were only able to track 1 bat at a time , we could not test whether there was also temporal overlap in the use of feeding sites .\nall five groups of bat - catching spider taxa ( nephilidae , araneidae , theraphosidae , sparassidae , and pisauridae ) are known to be predominantly predaceous on insects [ 14 ] , [ 53 ] , [ 64 ] , [ 69 ] , [ 101 ] . with regard to large - sized theraphosids , sparassids , and pisaurids , their feeding behavior in the field has not been thoroughly investigated and one cannot currently judge whether predation on bats is of significance to them from a feeding ecological point of view .\ndatabase . \u2014between april and july 2002 , 10 bats ( 6 females and 4 males ) were tagged for radiotracking . data from 1 female that lost the transmitter by the beginning of the 3rd night of tracking were excluded from analyses . the database thus consisted of 5 females and 4 males ( hereafter referred to as f1\u2013f5 and m1\u2013m4 , respectively ) that were tracked for an average of 5 . 3 nights \u00b1 0 . 9 sd each . this led to 519 . 5 h of tracking with on average 422 . 5 h ( 82 % ) of contact time ( range = 55\u2013100 % ) during which a bat could be followed closely .\nthis insectivorous species shows the lowest basal metabolic rate and thermal conductance measured for any tropical bat ( 42 % and 68 % , respectively , of expected values for their body mass ; table 1 ) . these values appear below the 95 % confidence limit for regressions for lowland insectivorous bats , both for basal metabolic rate and for thermal conductance as a function of body mass . likewise , t . brasiliensis shows the lowest values known for upper and lower critical temperatures ( table 1 ) . although some of these features differ from those found for the nectarivores and frugivores examined in this study , they are in agreement with what can be expected for insectivorous bats .\nthe nectarivorous bat , a . latidens , is endothermic and has a high basal metabolic rate ; however , its high thermal conductance and lower critical temperature do not show an adaptation to cool environments as expected . further data from additional individuals are necessary to characterize this species . the frugivore s . erythromos has a high basal metabolic rate and maintains thermal conductance as expected , which implies a very important displacement of thermoneutral zone to lower temperatures . at temperatures below the lower critical temperature , some bats express a hypothermic response or facultative torpor . one insectivore , t . brasiliensis , has very low basal metabolic rate and thermal conductance and a thermoneutral zone range displaced toward lower temperatures , and all the individuals enter obligate torpor at ambient temperatures < 22\u00b0c .\nfostered by recent advances in transmitter miniaturization , radiotracking has proven a particularly powerful technique for investigating many aspects of bat ecology , including home - range requirements and patterns of space and habitat use . however , so far most detailed radiotracking studies have concentrated on temperate - zone species ( e . g . , catto et al . 1996 ; entwistle et al . 1996 ; leonard and fenton 1983 ; robinson and stebbings 1997 ; wai - ping and fenton 1989 ) , whereas relatively few studies have been conducted in the tropics ( e . g . , bernard and fenton 2003 ; charles - dominique 1991 ; fenton et al . 1993 ; fleming 1988 ; gannon and willig 1997 ; kalko et al . 1999 ; morrison 1978 ; reviewed in kalko 1998 ) .\nanatomical features such as very dense fur , absence of an uropatagium , small ears , and densely haired feet and toes ( de la torre 1961 ) can partially compensate for the tendency for rapid heat loss caused by high temperature differentials between the bat and the ambient air . an additional feature is the dual response that s . erythromos shows to temperatures below the lower critical temperature , which we interpret as facultative torpor . we observed that individuals could respond as typical normotherms or as hypotherms ( fig . 2 ) . as hypotherms , bats entered reversible torpor and decreased their body temperature ( hypothermia ) . this physiological response allows them to reduce energetic expenditures . s . lilium can economize between 10 % and 30 % of its reserves under similar conditions via hypothermia ( audet and thomas 1997 ) .\nabsolute and mass - specific values of basal metabolic rate obtained for the montane nectarivorous bat a . latidens are among the highest known for glossophagine bats ( table 1 ) . the high basal metabolic rate permits a . latidens to maintain constant body temperature . such physiological response has been demonstrated previously for mammals with feeding habits based on carbohydrates ( mcnab 1986 ) . all representatives of the genus anoura inhabit mountain environments and use caves , caverns , and rocky shelters as diurnal refuges , where they roost in small groups ( lemke and tamsitt 1979 ) . within diurnal refuges , they are exposed to ambient temperatures below their lower critical temperature ( 19\u00b0c\u2014a . ruiz , in litt . ) ; consequently , high basal metabolic rate allows them to resist the temperature differential between their body and the environment ( arends et al . 1995 ) .\nthis frugivorous bat shows both the highest mass - specific basal metabolic rate among those known for lowlands and a high value among frugivore bats for minimal thermal conductance ( table 1 ) . the basal metabolic rate of s . erythromos is above the 95 % confidence limit for the regression obtained for the mass - specific basal metabolic rate of frugivore bats from neotropical lowlands . its thermal conductance value places it at the upper end of the expected range for a regression line of lowland frugivorous bats ( table 1 ) . on the other hand , the range of thermoneutral zone is the smallest of the guild ( table 1 ) , and s . erythromos also shows the lowest lower critical temperature in relation to size ; this value is shared with other much larger species such as artibeus jamaicensis and a . lituratus ( table 1 ) .\nin the tropics , huge nephilid orb - webs ( genera nephila and nephilengys ) sometimes block the entrances to bat caves ( [ 61 ] ; c . dietz , pers . comm . ) . such cave entrance inhabiting nephilid populations have been discovered in east and south east asia as well as in the neotropics . so far it is unknown to what extend cave - roosting bats flying back and forth between caves and foraging areas are able to detect and avoid these webs . since it is hypothesized that the bats might navigate by spatial memory while passing through cave entrances [ 121 ] , it is conceivable that some of them may crash into nephilid webs within the cave\u2019s entrance zone , given the fact that in some areas they leave caves at dusk in gigantic swarms . monitoring nephild webs at cave entrances by means of video recording devices could bring an answer to this question .\nanother factor that influences home - range size , in addition to foraging mode , is availability and distribution of food in space and time . small aerial insects , in contrast to , for instance , frogs , which often occur aggregated at spawning pools , are more widely distributed throughout the landscape . thus , bats like m . macrophyllum exploiting this resource should travel longer distances on a nightly basis and have large home ranges . for instance , weinbeer and kalko ( 2004 ) found average home ranges of 46 ha ( range 19\u2013158 ha ) for the insectivorous bat lampronycteris brachyis ( phyllostomidae ) on barro colorado island . similar to m . macrophyllum ( weinbeer et al . , in press ) , this species was characterized by a high flight activity of more than 3 h per night , during which the bats traveled estimated distances of several dozen kilometers ( m . macrophyllum : about 35\u201350 km , l . brachyotis : approximately 60 km ) , paralleling many aerial insectivorous vespertilionids .\nthe neotropical orb - weaving spider nephila clavipes has been witnessed catching bats quite frequently ( 9 reports ) , but in none of these cases was it seen biting , wrapping or eating a bat . likewise , birds trapped in the webs of this spider species were apparently not consumed [ 22 ] \u2013 . only once has a neotropical nephila been observed biting a bird , but without subsequent consumption of the prey [ 22 ] . it has been suggested that nephila clavipes might be unable to deal with large , aggressive prey such as bats and birds [ 24 ] , [ 27 ] . if this latter assumption is true , then the captures of bats in the webs of nephila clavipes would be cases of non - predation deaths ( the bats dying of exhaustion , starvation , dehydration , and / or hyperthermia ) . the two european incidences where bats were killed in spider webs without the spiders feeding on them must be considered to have been cases of non - predation deaths as well .\nin recent years , the idea has been proposed that the occasional catch of large , energetically rewarding prey may be essential in order to fulfil the reproductive needs of large orb - weaving spiders ( \u201crare , large prey\u201d hypothesis ; see [ 122 ] \u2013 [ 123 ] ) . while large orb - weavers such as nephila spp . capture predominantly small insects of little energetic value , they derive the bulk of their energy from a few rare , large prey items ( see [ 46 ] , [ 49 ] , [ 53 ] , [ 122 ] ) . in this context \u201crare , large prey\u201d encompasses large insects ( e . g . , cicadas , moths , coleopterans , orthopterans , and odonates ) as well as small flying vertebrates ( bats and birds ) . in our opinion , the examples of bat - eating orb - weavers reported in this paper are consistent with the\nrare , large prey\nhypothesis , though one may object to this given the rarity of such events .\nthe ancova analysis ( table 1 ) of data available for 21 tropical bat species and the 3 species in this study indicates that log 10 of basal metabolic rate is significantly correlated with log 10 of body mass ( p = 0 . 0035 , r 2 = 0 . 40 ) and with food habits ( p = 0 . 00002 ) . it is not significantly correlated with maximal elevation range ( p = 0 . 56 ) . although elevation did not show an effect on log 10 of basal metabolic rate , when both elevation and food habits are taken into account , a statistically significant impact on log 10 of metabolic rate was obtained ( p = 0 . 0002 ) . this implies that elevation does not have the same effect as diet on metabolic responses of the various dietary groups examined . our results seem to show that both the nectarivorous a . latidens and the frugivorous s . erythromos increase their basal metabolic rate as a response to elevation , whereas the insectivorous t . brasiliensis shows the opposite response , probably as a consequence of its poor energetic budget .\nthe lowest temperature at which a bat maintained its basal metabolic rate ( lower critical temperature ) was determined by finding the intersection between regression lines with best fit to data , calculated by minimal squares method for values inside and below the zone of thermal neutrality ( nickerson et al . 1989 ) . in the case of a . latidens , the method of nickerson et al . ( 1989 ) was not feasible because this species showed different conductances in and below thermal neutrality ; consequently , we define lower critical temperature as the minimal value of ambient temperature in which the range of basal metabolic rate was independent of ambient temperature . an approximation to upper critical temperature was obtained as the inflection point in metabolic rate as ambient temperature increased . differences in metabolic rate as well as in thermal conductance between normothermic and hypothermic bats were tested using 1 - way analysis of variance . analysis of covariance ( ancova ) was used to test the impact of various factors on basal rate of different species of tropical bats for which data were available from the literature . thus , log 10 of basal metabolic rate = f ( log 10 body mass , maximal elevation range , and diet ) .\nmovement patterns . \u2014commuting distances between day roost and nearest foraging area ranged from 0 to 4 . 35 km , with no significant difference between the sexes ( males : median = 0 km , iqr = 0 km ; females : 0 . 040 km , iqr = 0\u20133 . 38 km ; z = \u20131 . 60 , p = 0 . 109 ) . except for 2 females ( fl and f4 ) whose single foraging areas were located more than 2 and 4 km away from the day roost , the majority of individuals had their closest foraging area directly adjacent to their day roost . in commuting between day roost and feeding areas or between the latter , tagged individuals typically did not fly the most direct route , which would have led them through forest , but closely followed the shoreline or flew over open water instead . some bats ( m1 , m2 , and f1 ) flew over or crossed only small , forested areas en route to their foraging areas . during commutes along the shoreline , the bats attained a flight speed of approximately 8 . 3 m / s ( 30 km / h ) as estimated based on the speed of our motorboats ( determined by use of a global positioning system unit ) while closely tracking a bat ."]}
{"id": 192, "summary": [{"text": "the royal knifefish or indochina featherback , chitala blanci , is a species of fish in the notopteridae family found in the mekong basin in cambodia , laos , thailand and vietnam . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "royal knifefish", "paragraphs": ["the royal knifefish is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the royal knifefish ( chitala blanci ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nmy 20inch royal clown knifefish living amongst the aquarium plants in my aquascaped monster predatory tank . such a peaceful & graceful giant !\nwhich comes from india and is also a common import . this species is also called the clown knifefish as wells as royal clown knifefish , royal spotted knifefish and spotted featherback . the coloring and behaviors of these two are the same but the india species is said to get a bit larger , reaching up to 4 feet ( 122 cm ) . the\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - royal knifefish ( chitala blanci )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - royal knifefish ( chitala blanci )\ntitle =\narkive species - royal knifefish ( chitala blanci )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthis species is also referred to as \u2018royal knifefish\u2019 in the aquarium trade although it arguably has no place in the ornamental hobby given its adult size and specialised requirements .\nthe most attractive of knifefish species , with great personality . can be very aggressive once sexually mature .\nthe royal knifefish is a fish from malam jungle . they are extremely common , contrary to the name , which might make fishers think that they are less common . they are caught by casting s - m from the pier of around it . it is an easy catch to hit and reel in .\nit is a very popular knifefish . this is partly because of its common availability and being relatively inexpensive . but its also a favorite because it is extremely attractive . they usually have a pattern of large spots , but this can be quite variable and it seems that no two clown knifefish are exactly alike .\nthe normal coloring of the clown knifefish is a silvery gray characterized by a variable pattern of large spots above the base of the anal fin . yet sometimes they may have no spots at all , and sometimes they may have two rows of smaller spots . other common names it is known by are clown featherback fish , spotted knifefish , spotted featherback fish , and clown knife . there is also an albino color form as seen in the picture above that ' s called the albino clown knifefish .\nbottom - clown knifefish will spend most of their time in the middle or near the bottom of the tank , but they may occasionally go to the surface to grab a gulp of air or a meal .\nthe tank is 8x2x2 will be upgrading to a 12x3x3 so that should be fun , i ' ve got another post on here , under the ancient fish threads titled royal knife fish , silver arowans , jaguars etc have a look if you want to see how i put the 8x2x2 together .\nwas described by gray in 1831 . they are found in south east asia ; thailand , laos , cambodia , and vietnam . the species is not listed on the iucn red list . these fish are in great demand in many of the regions they live in for food . other common names they are known by include clown featherback fish , spotted knifefish , spotted featherback fish , and clown knife . the albino color form is known as the albino clown knifefish .\nmy old rck was pushing 20\nwhen i sold him ( had to make room for new stock ) . i will always have a soft spot for knifefish now , especialy the royals . you do know once they hit sexual maturity they wont tolerate eachother in the same tank right ?\nthe clown knife has the typical knifefish body shape , flat and elongated with an arched back . its anal fin and caudal fin ( tail fin ) are joined , giving it a long continuous fin along the underside . this fin undulates , allowing it to move either forwards or back wards , making it a very graceful swimmer .\ni bought a royal knife ( 26 cm ) and a clown knife ( 20 cm ) recently and i love them to bits . they are like my children , and they get along so well . they are food shy , they won ' t eat while i am standing there looking at them . i give them ox heart and live fish . ten minutes and everything is gone . thanks to this website , i found the most amazing fish in this world !\nis it a member of the notopteridae family which contains contains some of the more outgoing species of knifefish . they are generally peaceful and will do well with other fish that are not particularly aggressive and that are too large to fit into its mouth . do take caution as they have poor eye sight and will some times try to eat bigger fish then they can handle . they can ultimately injury or kill a fish they are unable to eat .\nas with most fish the clown knifefish are prone to skin flukes , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , ichthyobodo infection , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , bacterial infections ( general ) , and bacterial disease . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .\nthe clown knifefish can reach up to about 3 1 / 2 feet ( 100 cm ) and weigh about 11 pounds ( 5 kg ) in the wild . most tank raise specimens however , won ' t grow much larger than 10 to 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) . its body shape is flat and elongated with an arched back . it has a continuous fin along the underside formed by a joining of the caudal and anal fin . this fin undulates , allowing it to move either forwards or back wards . it also has a very small dorsal fin .\ni have a juvenile clown knife in a 55 gal with my 5 angels , which range from 4 inches tall to 6 inches tall , and they leave each other alone . however , the clown knife is a predatory fish , so anything under an inch has been eaten . i think my clown knife is growing at a few centimeters a month , and will be selling it when it reaches 12 inches . i wouldn ' t keep a full - grown knifefish with anything less than a couple hundred gallon tank and fish that were at least a foot or two in length , as the bigger knife fishes can grow to 3 and a half feet long . with your fish , keep in mind how big the angelfish are and how big they will be compared to the knife fish . ( ps : i also have a dwarf gourami that was a gift from a friend , a pleco as big as the knife fish , some clown loaches , and a small catfish that ' s about 2 1 / 2 inches , and none of them have been harassed by my knife so far . keep your fish well - fed and i doubt anything too big to be eaten will be a problem to house in the same tank . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthis species is endemic to the mekong basin , where it is found in lao pdr , thailand , central highlands of viet nam ( srepok basin ) and cambodia . it is found as far north in thailand as loei in the mekong ( and perhaps , based on local knowledge ( see poulsen\n( 2004 ) record local fisher reports of the species in the mekong delta in viet nam , and it is also reported from the tonle sap lake ( undp 2004 ) .\nlocally common in northeastern cambodia and southern lao pdr . much less common in thai waters .\nthis species occurs in the mekong mainstream and larger tributaries , especially in rocky rapid and submerged wood areas . local people have reported spawning behaviour over rocky substrates , with parental care given to young .\nlocally consumed as a food fish . commonly seen in markets from southern lao pdr to kratie , cambodia . popular aquarium species in thai markets , which are mostly collected ( particularly juveniles and sub - adults ) from laotian waters .\nhabitat alteration , caused by dams and other infrastructure development , in the mekong and larger tributaries . dams in the mekong mainstream pose future threats to critical habitats of this species . overfishing for the aquarium trade and for consumption may lead to population declines in the near future .\nhabitat and fisheries management based on local participation is needed . quota regulation of trade and export is recommended .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .\nthis fish requires pristine water quality . it also prefers swift moving water , making high filtration necessary for this species ' health .\nand do have a small dorsal fin . their flanks are deep grey with darker speckling . the belly is paler in colour .\nthis page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 02 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nblanci : in honour of \u201cfriend and colleague m . blanc , in memory of an especially dangerous fish - collecting trip in 1959\u201d .\nendemic to the mekong river drainage in laos , thailand , vietnam , and cambodia , including the mekong delta region and tonl\u00e9 sap lake system .\nmostly recorded from the mekong main channel and lower parts of certain tributaries , where it displays a preference for rocky habitats such as deep pools and rapids , typically with moderate to fast - flowing water . moves into areas of flooded forest to spawn .\nit is thought to be threatened by dam construction and other anthropogenic habitat alterations .\nsuitable only for public installations or the very largest , highly - specialised private aquaria .\nprefers dim lighting and access to refuges in the form of driftwood , large rocks or lengths of plastic piping .\na large , mature filter system , rigorous maintenance regime comprising weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % tank volume , and provision of highly - oxygenated water with a degree of movement should be considered mandatory .\nan obligate , typically nocturnal , predator feeding on smaller fishes , crustaceans and other invertebrates in nature but in most cases adapting well to dead alternatives in captivity .\nyoung fish can be offered chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , small earthworms , chopped prawn and suchlike while adults will accept strips of fish flesh , whole prawns / shrimp , mussels , live river shrimp , larger earthworms , etc . , as well as dried pellets although the latter should not form the staple diet .\nthis species should not be fed mammalian or avian meat such as beef heart or chicken since some of the lipids contained in these cannot be properly metabolised by the fish and may cause excess fat deposits and even organ degeneration .\nsimilarly there is no benefit in the use of \u2018feeder\u2019 fish such as livebearers or small goldfish which carry with them the risk of parasite or disease introduction and at any rate tend not have a high nutritional value unless properly conditioned beforehand .\nrelatively peaceful with fishes too large to be considered prey but can be territorial with conspecifics and other similarly - shaped species , especially if space is at a premium .\nunreported in captivity but in nature male individuals contruct nests from branches and leaves and remains to guard the eggs and fry post - spawning , which takes place in areas of flooded forest during the wet season .\nit can be distinguished from congeners by presence of many small , dark spots on the anterior portion of the body which merge to form oblique , irregular stripes extending onto the anal and caudal fins posteriorly .\nnotopterids are distributed in africa and southeast asia and all possess an elongated anal - fin which is continuous with the caudal - fin , a \u2018humped\u2019 appearance , very small scales , plus the ability to breathe atmospheric air .\nd ' aubenton , f . , 1865 - bulletin du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle ( s\u00e9rie 2 ) 37 ( 2 ) : 261 - 264 notopterus blanci n . sp . , nouvelle esp\u00e8ce de poisson notopteridae de haut m\u00e9kong cambodgien .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nkottelat , m . , 2001 - wht publications , colombo : 1 - 198 fishes of laos .\nkottelat , m . , 1998 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 128 fishes of the nam theun and xe bangfai basins , laos , with diagnoses of twenty - two new species ( teleostei : cyprinidae , balitoridae , cobitidae , coiidae and odontobutidae ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 - fao , rome : 1 - 265 fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fishes of the cambodian mekong .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nimage quest marine the moos poffley end witney oxfordshire ox29 9uw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 704050 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1993 779203 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / stock\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ngot some experience to share for this page ? no registration necessary to contribute ! your privacy is respected : your e - mail is published only if you wish so . all submissions are reviewed before addition . write based on your personal experiences , with no abbreviations , no chat lingo , and using proper punctuation and capitalization . ready ? then send your comments !\ncopyright \u00a9 1997 - 2011 marcos a . avila . all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is strictly forbidden without written permission .\nbetta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .\nfish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .\npiranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\nwe have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?\nlooking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .\ni ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?\nthis spotted featherback fish inhabit lakes , swamps , and the moving backwaters waters of medium to large rivers . young fish occur in schools among aquatic plants and submerged roots . adults tend to be loaners , commonly found near shore in areas with overhanging vegetation or docks . they utilize air to survive in warm , stagnant waters with little oxygen . more recently they have been popping up in the united states in warmer climates states like florida . these fish are some times caught by anglers going after bass . they are starting to populate parts of the united states because of irresponsible fish owners setting them free when they can no longer care for these demanding fish . the largest fish reported in florida was 36 inches long .\nis listed as more precarious on the iucn red list , and is considered near threatened ( nt ) .\n, glen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , and neal pronek say these two are so similar that only a trained ichthyologist can distinguish between them , and that their taxonomical standing is in a state of confusion . it may turn out that\nlc - least concern - although it is heavily utilized from the wild , at present there is no evidence of widespread population declines . it is has also been introduced for aquaculture in myanmar and the philippines .\ntheir overall body color is a silvery gray . their most distinguishing characteristic is a variable pattern of large spots above the base of the anal fin . however , it seems that no two patterns are exactly alike . they may have no spots at all , and sometimes you may find one with two rows of smaller spots . the specimen pictured above is the albino color form .\n15 years - the clown knife fish has a lifespan of about 8 - 15 years in captivity .\nclown knife fish are not suggested for beginners but rather for an aquarist with some fish keeping experience . these fish are usually offered for sale at a size of 3 to 6 inches and many hobbyists have unknowingly bought a pet they weren\u2019t prepared to keep . that cute little 3 inch fish can grow to over 3 feet long , but in an aquarium 10 - 20 inches is usually the maximum size . if you plan on keeping one for a long time in good condition , be prepared to setup a 200 gallon tank .\njuveniles can be sensitive to water conditions when they are smaller than 9 or 10 inches . many young fish die soon after purchase normally due to shock or unsuitable tank and water conditions . they are very hardy fish once they reach a larger size . like most knife fish they are extremely shy and are sometimes hard to get to eat when introduced to a new tank .\nthe clown featherfin fish are carnivores . in the wild they are predatory animals , primarily piscivores , which means they mostly eat fish . in the aquarium they prefer to eat fresh foods such as worms or small fish , but it is a good idea to do your best to condition them to eat sinking pellets or some other dried food of substance . this will make feeding them much easier and less costly .\nwhen shopping for a clown knife , avoid fish that are under 3 inches or over 6 inches . the smaller ones are relatively delicate and the larger ones can be harder to get feeding .\nthis fish is scaleless and very sensitive to water condition changes as with most scaleless fish . a high quality filter is a must ! weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % are needed . water condition tests should also be done weekly to make sure levels are not spiking .\nin the wild they inhabit slow moving rivers and lakes in many areas of asia , so do well in tanks set up similar to this type of environment . due to their nocturnal nature they need a place to hide during the day . a piece of pipe or a cave where they can get away from the light works great . without this , they can become stressed very easily and will try to fit themselves into any dark space they can find , often causing damage to themselves . they do better with open swimming space , but they are adept as negotiating obstacles such as plants and piles of rock .\nthey prefer a neutral ph and softer water , but larger fish can adapt to a higher ph and hard water . provide them with well filtered water , a dimly lit tank and hiding places , and you should have a happy clown knife .\n55 gal ( 208 l ) - a 55 gallon tank is fine for a juvenile , but they grow quickly and will soon need a tank that is 200 gallons or more for the adult .\nthey are generally peaceful but due to their large size , they will eat any tank mates small enough to fit into their large mouths . don ' t keep them with large aggressive fish , but large peaceful fish are okay .\nmonitor - while it is not necessarily aggressive , it will eat anything small enough to be considered a meal .\nmonitor - they ignore tank mates that are big enough to not be considered food .\nthreat - is aggressive - in the wild , this fish hunts at night for worms , crustaceans , insects and snails .\ncaptive breeding is possible but this probably won\u2019t happen unless the fish are kept in a very large tank . in this case , that means 500 gallons or more . the pair will usually lay their eggs on floating plants and the male will aggressively guard them until they hatch in 6 or 7 days . the fry should be moved into a rearing tank and fed baby brine shrimp until they are large enough to take other foods . .\nthe clown knife does not have scales which make it more prone to disease . clown knife are normally the first fish in a tank to show signs of ick and will twitch and rub around the tank . they respond well to most medication and normally heal quickly . never use copper in a clown knife fish tank .\nthese fish are hardy and disease is not usually a problem in a well maintained aquarium . that being said there is no guarantee that you won ' t have to deal with health problems or disease . animal world is a great source for information on disease and treatments . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference .\nanything you add to your tank can bring disease to your tank . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . take great care and make sure to properly clean or quarantine anything that you add to an established tank so not to upset the balance . because these fish eat live food , disease can be passed to them from their foods . make sure to quarantine live food before feeding .\nwhen keeping more sensitive types of fish , it is common for all fishes to be infected even before the first warning signs can be noticed . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your fish the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish is more likely to acquire disease .\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 1 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1991\ndr . r\u00fcdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 2 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1993\nglen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , neal pronek , encyclopedia of exotic tropical fishes for freshwater aquariums , tfh publications , 2005\nyes , these fish can get very large in the wild . however , please see the ' description ' section above and you ' ll see that most tank raise specimens won ' t grow much larger than 10 to 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) . also , as stated under ' aquarium setup , ' a 55 gallon tank is only suitable for them as juveniles . 200 gallons or more is recommended for the adult .\neven if the fish ' stopped growing ' at 10 - 20 inches , it ' s never going to live a healthy long life in a 55 gallon aquarium . what happens is that the fish , on the outside , stops growing , but the organs don ' t . eventually the organs overcrowd the stunted fish ' s insides , likely putting pressure on the swim bladder , which leads to continuing complications and ultimately death . i wouldn ' t suggest this fish for anything smaller than a tank 6 ' x 3 '\nthe angels will become dinner should be housed with other large non aggressive fish .\ni have a large adult over 1 ft almost 1 1 / 2 ft . long . very good health very hearty . just looking for a good home willing to let go of tank and other fish as well i am moving soon and won ' t be able to take them with me . i ' m so sad but i have to sell them all ! if you are interested please call 714 - 474 - 9184 . thank u ! i\ni ' m interested in your fish please call me and lets talk details . 847 - 845 - 5549\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nwe ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .\nhow big arw they . . . im suprised they dont fight . . . from all ive read and heard once they get biggwr its really hard to keep 2 together\nreal name : joined : dec 28 , 2006 messages : 15 , 861 likes received : 8 trophy points : 89 location : very much south . . last seen : dec 1 , 2016\nyour selfless efforts are helping to keep mods gainfully employed . we salute you , mister able to derail and get any thread locked with relative ease\n: close it or clean it . . . i ' m having a very hard time not getting banned here .\neverybody is too busy with their umbees and the stupid names that they like to label their strains with .\nthanks for your compliments , i ' ll be uploading a new video off my new setup and you can see some new additions , only 4 from the 8 new additions the other remaining 4 need to grow more before i can put them into the 8ft tank , you ' ll see , can ' t wait till i upgrade to the all glass 12 ' x3 ' x3 ' aquarium in june ish time , will keep y ' all posted .\nnot sure . if you google it , you will probably find lots of info .\ngenerally peaceful fish too large to be eaten . knife fish aren ' t aggressive , and don ' t compete well with aggressive tankmates . angelfish would be about the most aggressive cichlids i ' d recommend , rainbows would be a safe bet .\nthere ' s not much technique to catching this fish . it ' s just like any s - m fish that ever hits . it is easy to reel in . some of the larger ones might fight a bit and even escape , but overall , it shouldn ' t be hard .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic ."]}
{"id": 217, "summary": [{"text": "the black-tufted marmoset ( callithrix penicillata ) , also known as mico-estrela in portuguese , is a species of new world monkey that lives primarily in the neo-tropical gallery forests of the brazilian central plateau .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it ranges from bahia to paran\u00e1 , and as far inland as goi\u00e1s , between 14 and 25 degrees south of the equator , and can commonly be seen in the city of rio de janeiro .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this marmoset typically resides in rainforests , living an arboreal life high in the trees , but below the canopy .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "they are only rarely spotted near the ground . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "black - tufted marmoset", "paragraphs": ["the black - tufted marmoset carries specific positive effects by being a highly valuable exotic pet .\nbehavioral characteristics of pair bonding in the black tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix penicillata ) .\nthe black - tufted marmoset has an average full - grown weight of a mere 12 ounces .\ncolour discrimination in the black - tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix penicillata ) : ecological implications .\n( weid\u2019s black - tufted - ear marmoset ) lives in southwest brazil , mainly in the coastal regions .\nthe black tufted - ear marmoset has nonopposable thumbs and nails of the digits which are claw - like .\ninformation on wied\u2019s black - tufted - ear marmoset is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ncolour discrimination in the black - tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix penicillata ) : ecological implications . - pubmed - ncbi\nmay explain why the black tufted - ear marmoset has a small home range ( rylands and de faria , 1993 ) .\nblack tufted marmoset is a new monkey in the world . mico - estrela in portuguese name , sometime its called callithrix penicillata . most of the black tufted marmoset lives in the brazilian forest , some of them are living where people live close to forest .\nthis behaviour has not been observed in black - tufted marmosets living in more traditional rainforest habitats .\nsome examples of callitrichids include the moustached tamarin , the golden - handed tamarin , the emperor tamarin , the bare - faced tamarin , the cotton - top tamarin , the golden lion tamarin , the black tufted - eared marmoset , the common marmoset , the buffy - headed marmoset , and geoffroyi ' s tufted - eared marmoset .\ngums make up > 70 % of the plant part of the diet of the black tufted - ear marmoset ( fonseca and lacher , 1984 ) . being highly\nin their study , marina duarte and professor robert young revealed how the black - tufted marmosets make sleeping site choices .\nthe black - tufted marmoset ( callithrix penicillata ) is a new world monkey in the callitrichidae family of monkeys and lives primarily in the neo - tropical gallery forests of the brazilian central plateau . the black - tufted marmoset is characterized by black tufts of hair around their ears , and it typically has some sparse white hairs on its face with brown or black head and its limbs . their upper bodies are gray , as well as its abdomen , while its rump and underside are typically black .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - wied\u2019s black - tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix kuhlii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - wied\u2019s black - tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix kuhlii )\ntitle =\narkive species - wied\u2019s black - tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix kuhlii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nblack - tufted marmosets living in brazil ' s city parks are going to surprising lengths to avoid unusual predators - domestic cats .\nthe black - tufted marmoset usually resides in rainforests high up in the trees but below the canopy . it is typically found between 14 and 25 degrees south of the equator , and ranges from bahia to paran\u00e1 and as far inland as goi\u00e1s . it is very rare to see a black - tufted marmoset at ground level , though during periods of drought it may come down to scavenge for food and water .\nthe coloring of wied ' s marmoset is mostly black , with white markings on cheeks and forehead . it has rings on its tail and black tufts of fur coming out of its ears .\nthe life - span of a wild black - pencilled marmoset is unknown , however the average lifespan in captivity is 15 years .\nblack - pencilled marmosets typically have some sparse white hairs on their faces , with a dark brown or black head . their upper body and limbs are gray and their rump is usually black . the marmosets ' undersides are black with a gray abdomen . their tail is ringed with black and white and is not prehensile , but is used for balance . they are characterized by the black tufts around their ears . black - pencilled marmosets do not have an opposable thumb and their nails tend to have a claw - like appearance .\n, 1993 ) . this behavior pattern is frequent in the black tufted - ear marmoset and can occur more frequently by an individual where the home ranges of two groups overlap , thus suggesting a use for demarcation of territory ( rylands , 1990 ) .\nmarcelo c . leal , luiz r . franc\u0327a ; the seminiferous epithelium cycle length in the black tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix penicillata ) is similar to humans , biology of reproduction , volume 74 , issue 4 , 1 april 2006 , pages 616\u2013624 , urltoken\nthese are snippets out of the diary of louie , our marmoset , with the hopes that it one day saves the life of another marmoset or tamarin .\nbarros , m . , c . alencar , c . tomaz . 2004 . differences in aerial and terrestrial visual scanning in captive black tufted - ear marmosets ( callithrix penicillata ) exposed to a novel environment .\nmiranda , g . , d . faria . 2001 . ecological aspects of black - pincelled marmoset ( callithix penicillata ) in the cerradao and dense cerradao of the brazilian central plateau .\ntranslocated populations of the common marmoset also flourish in the ranges of other brazilian marmoset and tamarin species , such as around rio de janiero , well beyond their native coastal forests .\nwied ' s marmoset ( callithrix kuhlii ) , also known as wied ' s black - tufted - ear marmoset , is a new world monkey that lives in tropical and subtropical forests of eastern brazil . unlike other marmosets , wied ' s marmoset lives in groups consisting of 4 or 5 females and 2 or 3 males ( plus children ) . they are matriarchal , and only the dominant female is allowed to mate . like other marmosets , the offspring are always born in pairs .\nweid\u2019s black - tufted - ear marmosets live in a variety of forest types , particularly tropical and subtropical forests . these marmosets inhabit the lower part of the trees . it thrives in areas of dense vegetation and new growth .\ngroup size and composition of the common marmoset varies from group to group in the wild .\nthe common marmoset is widespread and common in northeastern brazil because of its adaptability to different habitats .\nfood sharing is more important in the lion tamarins than in other marmosets and tamarins , and helps maintain social structure . this species may form mixed species groups with wied ' s black - tufted - ear marmoset . they do not compete with each other because they forage in separate areas and occupy different niches in the environment . golden - headed lion tamarins forage in the upper levels of the forest , while wied ' s black - tufted - ear marmosets forage in the middle and lower levels of the forest . golden - headed lion tamarins also prefer to forage in epiphytic bromeliads .\nthe marmoset has large black tufts behind its ears . the head is black or brown mixed with gray and white patch on the forehead and the body is gray / brown . the long tail is ringed with black and grey . the tail is used to help the monkey balance as it moves around in the tree tops . their preferred food is tree sap but they will eat some insects , fruit or eggs in a pinch .\nblack - pencilled marmosets are monogamous and typically live in family groups which include the reproducing couple and their offspring .\nblack - pencilled marmosets are vulnerable to a wide range of both terrestrial and aerial predators . aerial predators , large\nunlike several of their close relatives , the common marmoset is currently not listed as a threatened species .\nthe common marmoset is entirely arboreal ( tree dwelling ) and prefers secondary or disturbed forests and edge habitat .\nthe black - tufted marmoset\u2019s diet consists primarily of tree sap which it obtains by chewing through the bark with its long lower incisors . in periods of drought , it will also include fruit and insects in its diet . in periods of sustained and serious droughts , it will adapt to eat small arthropods , mollusks , bird eggs , baby birds , and other small vertebrates .\n. black - pencilled marmosets use a series of predator - specific vocalizations as well as visual scanning in their antipredation strategies .\n\u201cmarmoset\u201d is derived from the french \u201cmarmouset\u201d which means , loosely , shrimp or dwarf . an apt name , considering they are the smallest of the true monkeys ( the lightest of the true monkeys is the pygmy marmoset ) .\nthe home range of a marmoset group can vary from 5 , 000 to 65 , 000 square meters ( 1 . 2 - 16 acres ) . on any one day a marmoset group will travel about 500 to 1000 meters .\ntiago falotico added an association between\ncallithrix sp . ( marmoset ) - captive\nand\ncallithrix penicillata\n.\nscientists studying how marmoset and tamarins adapt to urban environments have also recorded their communication in groups and interaction with humans .\nunfortunately , in some areas of its distribution , populations of the common marmoset are showing signs of decline due to habitat destruction .\napproximately 115 domestic cats live in the park and researchers recorded an average of three attempts at marmoset predation by cats per day .\nfonseca , g . a . b . , lacher , t . e . jr . , alves c . jr . , & magalh\u00e3es - castro , b . ( 1980 ) . some ecological aspects of free - living black tufted - ear marmosets ( callithrix jacchus penicillata ) . antropologia contempor\u00e2neo , 3 , 197 .\nthe black tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix penicillata geoffroy , 1812 ) is a small neotropical primate ( 350 to 500 g ) , whose original habitat is in the cerrado areas ( i . e . savannah ) of central brazil ( fonseca & lacher , 1984 ) . in addition to it living in these natural habitats , it is a species that can be widely found in the parks and streets of the cities of brazil ( leite et al . , 2011 ) .\nblack - tufted marmosets mark their territory with aromatic secretions produced by glands on their chests and near the anus . this is primarily to deter other species of monkey from feeding in the area . group members alert each other to danger , using specific cries to warn against different types of predator . common predators are snakes , birds of prey and wild cats .\nblack - pencilled marmosets live in rainforests , usually residing high in the trees , under the canopy . marmosets have rarely been observed at or near ground level .\nblack - pencilled marmosets are considered highly valuable and exotic pets . they are also used often in zoo exhibits as well as many different types of scientific studies .\nblack - tufted or black - pencilled marmosets are found in the central and coastal region of brazil but relatively far inland from the ocean . they live high up in rainforest trees , and are seldom seen far below the upper canopy or anywhere near the ground . this species is usually found in gallery forest : the trees that grow in narrow strips beside rivers , and which are frequently flooded . it grows to be between 7 and 9 inches ( 18 - 23cm ) long and weighs about 12 ounces ( 350g ) on average .\nat the smithsonian ' s national zoo , their diet includes canned marmoset diet , bananas , grapes , apples , string beans , fruit and mealworms .\nrosenberg , s . 2004 .\npenicillata marmoset : ( callithrix penicillata )\n( on - line ) . accessed march 31 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe common marmoset , like other marmosets and tamarins , relies on a diet of tree exudates ( gums and saps ) , small animal prey , and fruits .\nmarmoset researchers observed the behaviour whilst investigating the affect of city noise levels on urban populations in belo horizonte city park in minas gerais , south - eastern brazil .\nweid\u2019s marmosets are relatively small , weighing between 350 and 400 grams , or about 13 ounces . they are generally black with gray head pelage and have a distinctly ringed tail . there is an area of white around their cheeks and forehead , and they have black tufts of hair around their ears . they have nails that are claw - like and lack opposable thumbs .\nwied ' s marmoset is highly social , spending much of its time grooming . it has individually distinctive calls , and it communicates through gestures and olfactory markings as well .\nvoland , e . ( 1977 ) . social play behaviour of the common marmoset ( callithrix jacchus erxl . , 1977 ) in captivity . primates , 18 , 883 - 902 .\nblack - pencilled marmosets commonly feed on tree sap . during food shortages or droughts their diet also includes fruit and insects , and they have even been known to eat various arthropods , molluscs , and small vertebrates .\nmarmosets gain access to exudates from a variety of tree species by gnawing holes in the tree bark . the specialized dentition of the common marmoset acts as a tool facilitating access to gums and saps\nblack - pencilled marmosets have no special status with the iucn red list or the unites states endangered species act list . they are listed in appendix ii of cites and are not currently considered an endangered or threatened species .\nmarmosets and tamarins are found primarily in the tropical rainforests of south america with a few remnant populations located in central america . the common marmoset is distributed throughout the atlantic coastal forest of northeastern brazil .\nthe communication of black - pencilled marmosets has not been fully studied , however , it is believed that they communicate mostly through vocalizations . they appear to have predator - specific cries when they are threatened and have many vocalizations in addition to predator warnings . black - pencilled marmosets also use scent marking , though it is unclear whether this is a form of communication , as many different family groups simply ignore the markings that another family group has left .\ncamarotti flm , silva vl , oliveira ab ( 2015 ) the effects of introducing the amazonian squirrel monkey on the behavior of the northeast marmoset . acta amaz 45 ( 1 ) : 29\u201334 . doi :\nrylands , a . b . ( 1986 ) . ranging behaviour and habitat preference of a wild marmoset group , callithrix humeralifer ( callitrichidae - primates ) . journal of zoology , 210 , 1 - 26 .\ncaptive studies have taught scientists a great deal about the behavior and biology of the common marmoset . this information has been applied towards the protection as well as the captive and wild breeding of other closely related primates .\nblack - pencilled marmosets are found in the neo - tropical gallery forests of the brazilian central plateau . they live along the brazillian coast ranging from bahia to sao paulo , and as far inland as goias , between 14 and 17 degrees s .\nwied ' s marmoset is eaten by birds of prey ( the harpy eagle , the gray hawk , the roadside hawk and the white - tailed hawk ) , felines ( the jaguar , jaguarundi and ocelot ) and snakes .\nleite , g . c . , duarte , m . h . l . , & young r . j . ( 2011 ) . human\u0096marmoset interactions in a city park . applied animal behaviour science , 132 , 187\u0096192 .\nstevenson , m . f . , & poole , t . b . ( 1976 ) . an ethogram of the common marmoset , callithrix jacchus jacchus : general behaviour repertoire . animal behaviour , 24 , 428 - 451 .\nthe common marmoset c . jacchus is a well - established experimental model for performing toxicological studies and investigating reproductive biology in primates . in the present work we performed a careful and accurate histological and morphometrical investigation of the testis in the marmoset c . penicillata , including the determination of spermatogenic cycle length and sertoli cell and spermatogenic efficiencies , and suggest that this species might also be useful for comparative studies involving primates , particularly for studies related to the spermatogenic process .\nmiranda , g . h . b . , & faria . d . s . ( 2001 ) . ecological aspects of black - pincelled marmosets ( callithrix penicillata ) in the cerrad\u00e3o and dense cerrado of the brazilian central plateau . brazilian journal of biology , 61 , 397 - 404 .\nblack - pencilled marmosets breed twice a year and produce between 1 and 4 offspring , however they generally have twins . the gestation period is 150 days and offspring wean at about 8 weeks . the marmosets reach sexual maturity at approximately 18 months old . however , they typically mate very late .\nbrazilian bare - faced tamarins are named for their black , hairless face and ears contrasted with variable fur colors such as brown , black , or silver , depending on the subspecies . body length ranges from 208 to 283 mm and tail length is 335 to 420 mm . weight in both males and females averages 430 g . these primates have non - opposable thumbs with claw - like digits , except for the first digit on each toe . the dental formula is 2 / 2 - 1 / 1 - 3 / 3 - 2 / 2 = 32 teeth . canines are larger than incisors .\nthe spider monkeys got their name because of their striking resemblance to a large spider while hanging by their tails , their , slender body and disproportionately long , gangly limbs and narrow hands swaying in the treetops . spider monkeys are highly agile , and they are said to be second only to the gibbons in this respect . their hair tends to be coarse , long and stringy , lacking undercoat and ranging in color from ruddy gold to brown and black ; the hands and feet are usually black . heads are small with hairless faces , and a prominent muzzle . some have flesh colored rings around their eyes and white chin whiskers .\nan example of how the common marmoset has served as a model to help with the conservation of other primates is its use in the development of the embryo flush at the wisconsin primate research center in 1996 . this is a noninvasive technique designed to assist in breeding of wild and captive primates .\nscanlon , c . e . , chalmers , n . r . & monteiro da cruz , m . a . o . ( 1989 ) . changes in the size , composition and reproductive condition of wild marmoset groups ( callithrix jacchus jacchu s ) in northeast brazil . primates , 29 , 295 - 305 .\nblack - pencilled marmosets are diurnal and live in groups of 2 to 14 , which typically consist of a reproductive couple and their offspring . offspring are cared for by both the mother and father , as well as older siblings in the family . as twins are very common among marmosets , additional support for the mother is often required . though they live in small family groups , they often share sap trees with many other families in their species . they do engage in scent marking , but it is believed this is to deter other species from entering the area , and not other groups of their own species . black - pencilled marmosets also appear to be nomadic , moving throughout the forests as seasons become dry or wet .\nthis monkey supplements its diet of sap with fruit , nectar , flowers and seeds , as well as spiders and insects . since these are harvested from the middle and lower part of the forest , wied ' s marmoset often travels and forages in the company of the golden - headed lion tamarin , which forages in the canopy .\nhaig , d . ( 1999 ) .\nwhat is a marmoset ?\n. am j primatol 49 ( 4 ) : 285\u2013296 . doi : 10 . 1002 / ( sici ) 1098 - 2345 ( 199912 ) 49 : 4 < 285 : : aid - ajp1 > 3 . 0 . co ; 2 - x .\nsince chimerism changes the degrees of relatedness between individuals , it also changes the adaptive value of certain behaviors , like cooperatively raising young . it has been proposed that chimerism creates a system that makes it evolutionarily advantageous for an individual to cooperate to raise its siblings ; this closely matches to the way marmoset social systems have been observed to function in the wild .\nunlike c . jacchus , which has been fairly well investigated , little is known about reproductive biology in the male marmoset c . penicillata . with this in mind , the objectives of the present study were to perform a careful and accurate histological and morphometrical investigation of the testis and to determine the duration of spermatogenesis and sertoli cell and spermatogenic efficiencies in this species .\nhowler monkeys are stoutly built and have beards and long , thick hair , which may be black , brown , or red depending on the species . the females are brown to better serve as camouflage from predators . the red howler species ( alouatta seniculus ) is the most common but is heavily targeted by hunters eager for bush meat . they are also captured for the pet trade further depleting their numbers .\nblack - pencilled marmosets are mutualists with many tree species , dispersing seeds of the fruit that they consume . they also act as parasites of other species of trees because they create sores in the trees in order to extract sap , while not positively affecting the tree in any way . they also serve as a source of prey for many larger animal species that reside in the forests , including large birds of prey , snakes , and wild cats .\napoptosis occurs normally during specific steps of germ cell development [ 58 , 59 ] and can be estimated comparing the ratio of germ cell numbers before and after a given developmental step [ 18 , 60 ] . in mammals , only 2 or 3 out of 10 spermatozoa are produced from the initial differentiated type a spermatogonia , and the highest level of cell degeneration occurs during the spermatogonial proliferative phase and during meiosis [ 18 ] . the germ cell loss observed for marmoset in the present work ( 15 % ) was similar to that found for the marmoset c . jacchus [ 5 ] and much lower than the value observed for men ( 70 % ) [ 61 ] and most other mammalian species ( 25 % ) [ 18 , 62 \u2013 64 ] . similarly to what has been observed for c . jacchus [ 4 , 5 ] , our quantitative results suggest the existence of approximately four generations of differentiated spermatogonia in c . penicillata .\nthis allows for the possibility of horizontal inheritance . in other words , individuals could pass on the genotype that is different from their majority ( or self ) genotype . consider a father marmoset was chimeric in his germ line . this father could potentially pass on his secondary cell line ( the majority or self cell line of his brother ) to his offspring . in this way , this father ' s offspring would be more genetically similar to their uncle than to their father .\nafter waiting for 6 hours , we were finally able to bid on a male common marmoset monkey . while the bidding process was a bit stressful , we eventually bought louie below market value which was of course the reason we decided to buy at an auction instead of a breeder . there are risks associated with buying at an exotic animal auctions but it was one i was willing to take . on our way home louie had a blast running around in circles exploring his new environment .\nthe gsi found for the marmosets investigated in the present study is high when compared with that of primate species such as men and gorillas ( gorilla gorilla beringei ) [ 36 , 37 ] . at least in part , the higher gsi observed for c . penicillata is related to the very high seminiferous tubule volume density observed for this species , which is 50 % higher than the values observed for men [ 37 ] . the value observed for tubular diameter in the present investigation is similar to that found for the common marmoset [ 38 ] .\n1 . it is never a good idea to mix breeds of monkeys . they will not get along with other new world monkeys as adults . don ' t be fooled by pictures of capuchins cuddling a marmoset or tamarin . photo ops like that are not done with adult monkeys and have no basis in reality . as adults they will fight and likely inflict severe or even fatal wounds on one another . in nature these species do not inhabit the same space . if breeders tell you they get along fine , ask why they have them all in separate cages .\nthe daily sperm production per gram of testis ( dsp / g / t or spermatogenic efficiency ) observed for c . penicillata is four times higher than the values cited for humans and 25 % lower when compared with rhesus monkey ( m . mulatta ) [ 64 , 70 ] . although the spermatogenic cycle length in c . penicillata and humans is similar , the much higher spermatogenic efficiency ( dsp / g / t ) found for c . penicillata is probably because of the higher volume density of seminiferous tubules and the higher efficiency of sertoli cells observed for this marmoset species .\nalthough we attempted to do so , because of the lack of rigid synchronization and less - organized spermatogenesis , we did not succeed in precisely characterizing the stages of the cycle using acrosomic system methodology . indeed , this is a common difficulty found in other studies with primates , including humans [ 27 ] and the marmoset c . jacchus [ 5 , 55 ] . in fact , the methodologies used in these studies are similar to the tubular methodology system employed in the present work , and adjustment of the stages frequencies would provide results similar to the ones found for c . penicillata .\nto perform autoradiographic analysis , unstained testis sections ( 4 \u03bcm ) were dipped in autoradiography emulsion ( kodak ntb - 2 ; eastman kodak company ) at 45\u00b0c . after drying for approximately 1 hour at 25\u00b0c , sections were placed in sealed black boxes and stored in a refrigerator at 4\u00b0c for approximately 4 weeks . subsequently , testis sections were developed in kodak d - 19 solution at 15\u00b0c [ 25 ] and stained with toluidine blue . analyses of these sections were performed by light microscopy to detect the most advanced germ cell type labeled at different time periods post - thymidine injections . cells were considered labeled when 4\u20135 or more grains were present over the nucleus in the presence of low - to - moderate background .\ntwo different topographical arrangements of the stages of the seminiferous epithelium cycle are observed in mammals . in the first , named segmental and present in the vast majority of mammalian species investigated up to the present moment , only one stage is usually found per seminiferous tubule cross section , whereas in the helical arrangement , found in humans and some primates such as chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ) , two or more stages are present per tubule cross section [ 5 , 27 , 48 \u2013 50 ] . there are yet other primate species ( papio anubis and macaca fascicularis ) , including the marmoset c . penicillata , in which an intermediate situation between segmental and helical is observed [ 51 , 52 ] . differently from what is cited for the common marmoset c . jacchus [ 5 ] and similarly to what was observed in the cynomolgus monkey ( m . fascicularis ) [ 52 ] and in the olive baboon ( p . anubis ) [ 51 ] , only \u223c30 % of the tubular cross sections analyzed in c . penicillata showed more than one germ cell association . recent investigation [ 53 ] indicates that the variation observed for stage arrangement in primates is not related to phylogeny , spermatogenic efficiency , or mating system . surely , more studies are necessary to elucidate this interesting aspect of spermatogenesis observed in some primate species .\nowl monkeys have gray - tan to brown bodies and either gray or red fur on the sides of their necks . their coats range in thickness and length depending on the altitudes at which they are found , with species living at higher elevations having thicker , shaggier coats than those living at sea level . they have pale yellow to orange fur on their stomachs , underarms , and inner legs , light gray to white markings above and below their eyes , and three conspicuous , black stripes from the top of their head to either side of each eye and straight down the forehead between the eyes to the bridge of the nose . these patches may create an illusion of alertness even when eyes are closed . the throat and sides of the neck vary in color from gray in the northern species to red in the southern species . their non - prehensile tail is nearly as long as their body , with varying amounts of black at the tip . ears are small , and difficult to see ( aotus actually means\nearless\n) . their long , thin digits have straight nails and wide fingertip pads . two toes posses curved nails , which may be grooming nails similar to those found in prosimians . they are quadrupedal ( walking and leaping ) and arboreal ( tree dwelling ) , and their tail acts as a counter balance as they move through the trees . the average weight for a male at about two and a half to three pounds with the females weighing only slightly less .\nspider monkeys are among the largest new world monkeys ; black - headed spider monkeys , the largest spider monkey , have an average weight of 10 . 8 kg ( 24 lb ) for males and 9 . 66 kg ( 21 . 3 lb ) for females . when the monkey walks , its arms practically drag on the ground . unlike many monkeys , they do not use their arms for balance when walking , instead relying on their tail . also less common in primates , females rather than males disperse at puberty to join new groups . males tend to stick together for their whole life . hence males in a group are more likely to be related and have closer bonds than females . the strongest social bonds are formed between females and young offspring .\nthe number of sertoli cells per gram of testis found for c . penicillata is situated at an intermediate level compared to the values found for most mammalian species already investigated [ 18 , 66 , 69 ] , being , however , 25 % lower than the value observed for men [ 64 ] , and similar to the value found for the marmoset c . jacchus [ 5 ] . also , compared with other mammals already investigated [ 18 , 49 , 67 ] , sertoli cell efficiency in c . penicillata is situated at an intermediate level . however , the value found for sertoli cell efficiency in this species is 2 . 5 times higher than that found for humans [ 61 , 64 ] .\nto characterize the land - use and vegetation cover of each group ' s home range aerial photographs were interpreted ( using the programs autocadmap , arcgis , google earth and gps track maker ) so as to calculate the percentage of green area ( i . e . natural vegetation ) , clearings and built area ( i . e . asphalt , concrete , constructions ) ( figure 1 ) . the quantity of food plants in the green areas , for our study species within their home ranges , was estimated by the zoo ' s botanist at the start and the end of our study who ranked ( 1 to 4 with 1 being the highest ) the areas in terms of estimated natural food availability in relation to a wild marmoset ' s diet .\nfinally , although the values observed for several parameters investigated in the present work differ significantly from those observed for humans , the arrangement of germ cells associations and particularly the duration of spermatogenesis are similar in these two primate species . these aspects and the phylogenetic proximity between humans and the marmoset c . penicillata [ 5 , 71 ] suggest that this species might represent an alternative and useful experimental model for performing comparative studies regarding the spermatogenic process , particularly investigations related to the expansion of spermatogonial stem cells and the establishment of spermatogenic waves . also , the results found in the present study might be useful for biomedical research in which the spermatogonial transplantation and testis graft techniques could be used as a tool to better understand testis function and to preserve the genetic stock from endangered primate species .\nthe spermatogenic cycle length is under the control of the germ cell genotype [ 20 ] , and this parameter has been determined for only \u223c1 . 5 % of the \u223c4000 of mammalian species still alive [ 56 ] . for the mammalian species already investigated , the predominant value observed for each spermatogenic cycle is from 10 to 11 days . thus , although very similar to that observed for men [ 57 ] , in general the cycle length found for marmosets in the present study is higher than the values found for several mammalian species investigated , including most primates and the marmoset c . jacchus ( 10 days ) . this is a good illustration of the assumption that the duration of spermatogenesis is a species - specific event and is not phylogenetically determined [ 29 ] . however , in all species investigated up to date , the three phases of spermatogenesis ( spermatogonial , meiotic , and spermiogenic ) lasts approximately one third of the entire process .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nin the past , the eastern brazilian marmosets ( penicillata \u00e9 . geoffroy , 1812 , geoffroyi \u00e9 . geoffroy in humboldt , 1812 , aurita \u00e9 . geoffroy in humboldt , 1812 , and flaviceps thomas , 1903 ) of the \u201c jacchus group\u201d were considered to be subspecies of callithrix jacchus , following hershkovitz ( 1977 ) . all are now considered to be full species ( see coimbra - filho 1984 ; mittermeier et al . 1988 ; marroig et al . 2004 ; coimbra - filho et al . 2006 ; rylands et al . 1993 , 2008 ) . the taxonomic history and a discussion of the type locality can be found in vivo ( 1991 ) and coimbra - filho et al . 2006 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern due to its large increasing populations , adaptability to disturbed habitat , and large distribution range . these species were common in the pet trade and have been released from captivity in many areas outside of their previous range - often hybridizing with native callithrix .\nthis is an adaptable , widespread species , which has been introduced in a number of regions in brazil ( for example , esp\u00edrito santo , paran\u00e1 , s\u00e3o paulo and santa catarina ) , and is considered a competitor , displacing native species . however , as with c . jacchus , although widespread and hardy , and able to survive in extremely degraded habitats , populations of this species have disappeared or are declining in many parts of its range . hunted for pets .\nit has been introduced into part of the rio d\u00f4ce state park ( 35 , 973 ha ) , the ibitipoca state reserve ( 1 , 448 ha ) , both in the state of minas gerais ( mittermeier and rylands pers . obs . ) , and the ilha grande state park ( 56 , 000 ha ) , rio de janeiro ( h . k . m . corr\u00eaa pers . comm . ) . the following conservation units are within its geographical distribution ( * indicates possibly introduced and / or mixed populations of c . jacchus and c . penicillata ) : bras\u00edlia national park ( 28 , 000 ha ) df emas national park ( 131 , 868 ha ) go chapada dos veadeiros national park ( 60 , 000 ha ) go serra da canastra national park ( 71 , 525 ha ) mg serra do cip\u00f3 national park ( 33 , 800 ha ) mg araguaia national park ( ? ) ( 562 , 312 ha ) to grande sert\u00e3o veredas national park ( 84 , 000 ha ) mg chapada da diamantina national park ( 152 , 000 ha ) ba pirapitinga ecological station ( 1 , 090 ha ) mg raso da catarina ecological reserve ( 99 , 772 ha ) * ba ibitipoca state park ( 1 , 489 ha ) mg acau\u00e3 state reserve ( 5 , 000 ha ) mg it is listed on appendix ii of cites .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ntente n\u00e3o chorar com este v\u00eddeo ! m\u00e3es salvando seus filhos . gatos , cachorros , macacos , elefantes\nthis site is protected by copyscape please , do not copy content . students and teachers are allowed to use this information for school projects and homework .\nthe males and females form monogamous pairs . they often live in family groups with their offspring . they breed twice a year , and the older offspring assist their parents in raising their younger brothers and sisters . the young are sexually mature after just 18 months ( and live around 15 years ) but they can take their time choosing a suitable mate and moving off to their own range . it is also thought that the marmosets migrate to find optimal zones to inhabit depending on the environment and wet and dry seasons . in some cities of brazil the marmosets have adapted to urban environments either as pets or other looser relations with humans .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nmustatupsusilkkiapina\nto\ncallithrix penicillata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1812 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nmustatupsumarmosetti\nto\ncallithrix penicillata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1812 )\n.\ntiago falotico marked\nfile : schwarzpinselaffe . jpg\nas trusted on the\ncallithrix penicillata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy , 1812 )\npage .\ntiago falotico marked\ncurioso ( curious )\nas hidden on the\ncallithrix penicillata\npage .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe differences between monkeys and apes are easy to see once you know what to look for . apes do not have a tail and are generally larger than most other primates . they have a more upright body posture as well . apes rely more on vision than on smell and have a short broad nose rather than a snout , as old world monkeys do .\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\n( barros , et al . , 2004 ; miranda and faria , 2001 ; barros , et al . , 2004 ; miranda and faria , 2001 )\nthere is considerable parental investment by both parents ; infants are extremely dependent on their parents . the offspring are raised with the aid of other juvenile siblings . offspring are weaned at 8 weeks and then taught to search for food .\n( guerra , et al . , 1998 ; miranda and faria , 2001 ; rosenberg , 2004 )\n( barros , et al . , 2004 ; lacher , et al . , 1981 )\n( barros , et al . , 2004 ; de figueiredo and longatti , 1997 ; lacher , et al . , 1981 )\nvalerie ackley ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor , instructor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\ngenerally wanders from place to place , usually within a well - defined range .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nboudet , c . 2004 .\nmammal ' s planet\n( on - line ) . accessed march 30 , 2004 at urltoken .\nguerra , r . , e . takase , c . santos . 1998 . cross - fostering between two species of marmosets ( callithrix jacchus and callithrix penicillata ) .\nlacher , t . , g . bouchardet da fonseca , c . alves , b . magalhaes - castro . 1981 . exudate - eating , scent - marking , and territoriality in wild populations of marmosets .\nmittermeier , r . 1986 . primate conservation priorities in the neotropical region . pp . 221 - 240 in k benirschke , ed .\nde figueiredo , r . , c . longatti . 1997 . ecological aspects of the dispersal of a melastomatacae by marmosets and howler monkeys in a semideciduous forest in southeastern brazil ."]}
{"id": 220, "summary": [{"text": "the kenai peninsula wolf ( canis lupus alces ) , also known as the kenai peninsula grey wolf , was a subspecies of the gray wolf , canis lupus , that lived on a peninsula in southern alaska known as kenai peninsula . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "kenai peninsula wolf", "paragraphs": ["image - kenai peninsula wolf . jpg | animal jam clans wiki | fandom powered by wikia\nwolves still roam the kenai peninsula today , but classification in 1944 ( edward goldman ) separated the kenai peninsula wolf from these species , and their extinction as announced .\nwhile there is a current wolf population on the peninsula , the lack of genetic similarity to the original species has resulted in a classification of extinction for the original kenai peninsula wolf sub - species .\ncanis lupus occidentalis a large wolf from western canada , also called the mackenzie valley wolf .\nadmin - i ' ll add a poll later - 1 i think the kenai peninsula wolf weight is exaggerated , and 2 , the dire wolf weight is underestimated .\nx - canis lupus alces the kenai peninsula wolf ; one of the largest of north american wolves ; extinct by 1925 .\nthe gold rush in the late 1800s brought settlers , and the kenai peninsula wolf was often observed by people in the area . their population started to decrease as settlers hunted the wolf , and pesticides were used to safeguard communities . random sighting occurred up to the 1940s , but it is unknown if these wolves were direct descendants of the kenai peninsula wolf , or crossbred species .\nif you have hunted wolves , or plan on hunting wolves , you will be hunting a gray wolf or a subspecies of gray wolf . the most common subspecies of gray wolf to hunt are as follows :\nalmanac : ready to rumble \u2014 kenai was grounds for evel vs . awful , peninsula clarion vs . cheechako news\ntwo species of porpoise are regularly seen in the waters off the kenai peninsula : dall\u2019s porpoises , and harbor porpoises .\nthat colonized the area , or the descendants of a few of the kenai peninsula wolves that had survived . it has been shown through dna studies that , at minimum , kenai peninsula wolves mated with other alaskan subspecies , as the structure of the current wolf population ' s dna is similar to other mainland alaskan subspecies .\nfive species of pacific salmon spawn on the kenai peninsula . all are routinely referred to by at least two common names .\nanchorage , alaska ( ap ) \u2014 kenai peninsula wolves will get at least a year reprieve from state - sanctioned culling .\ngenetically , wolves of the peninsula were found to be indistinct from those of the mainland , so if there ever was a separate kenai strain of wolf , it\u2019s likely now extinct . yet the kenai peninsula wolves were distinct in one aspect , albeit an ignoble one . they experienced a prevalence of diseases before their mainland counterparts .\nkenai peninsula wolf was 45\nat the shoulder ? so only a few inches shorter than a male lion ? and 200 lbs ? seems more like a fantasy to me . is there a paper describing a skeleton , or is this anecdotal ? i vote for the dire wolf .\ncanis lupus crassodon a medium - size , greyish wolf found on vancouver island .\nif you hunt in alaska , you will be after one of these two subspecies found all over alaska and into the aleutian islands . these are the largest wolf species that you will hunt . one mackenzie valley wolf weighed 175 pounds . generally these wolves weigh in around 90 - 120 pounds . before it went extinct in 1924 , alaska was home to the largest recorded modern gray wolf subspecies , the kenai peninsula wolf that averaged around 200 pounds .\ngenetically , wolves of the peninsula were found to be indistinct from those of the mainland , so if there ever was a separate kenai strain of wolf , it ' s likely now extinct . yet the kenai peninsula wolves were distinct in one aspect , albeit an ignoble one . they experienced a prevalence of diseases before their mainland counterparts .\ncanis lupus griseoalbus a large wolf found in north alberta , saskatchewan , and manitoba .\ncanis lupus mackenzii the northwest territories wolf ; not recognized as a subspecies until 1943 .\nthe wolf population of the peninsula at that time was estimated at 186 wolves , with about 71 percent on the western kenai peninsula in what today would be alaska game management unit 15 , and about 29 percent on the eastern peninsula , today\u2019s gmu 7 . about 44 percent were thought to be on refuge land . bailey expects that\u2019s still the case today .\nhumpback whales are the most commonly sighted and abundant large whales in the waters around the kenai peninsula . watch for them in resurrection bay , in kenai fjords national park , and outside of kachemak bay .\nbetween poisoning , hunting and trapping pressure and disease , the kenai peninsula has not proven a very hospitable home to wolves over the years .\n\u201c ( the kenai peninsula wolves ) were the first alaskan wolves to acquire several dog - related diseases and parasites , \u201d bailey said .\n( the kenai peninsula wolves ) were the first alaskan wolves to acquire several dog - related diseases and parasites ,\nbailey said .\nthe kenai wolf was described and classified by zoologist edward goldman , it was apparently adapted for hunting moose so it ' s large size was beneficial , but when gold miners and settlers came to kenai they wiped out the wolves there . a wolf resurgence didn ' t occur until 1960 , however the new wolves were simply mainland wolves who had reached the peninsula . i think the size was probably exaggerated but they certainly could have been larger than their mainland counterparts , but i still favor the dire wolf due to it being an equally if not more powerfully built wolf .\nthe wolf population of the peninsula at that time was estimated at 186 wolves , with about 71 percent on the western kenai peninsula in what today would be alaska game management unit 15 , and about 29 percent on the eastern peninsula , today ' s gmu 7 . about 44 percent were thought to be on refuge land . bailey expects that ' s still the case today .\nx - canis lupus beothucus the newfoundland wolf , now extinct ; reported almost pure white .\ncanis lupus columbianus a large wolf found in the yukon , british columbia , and alberta .\ncanis lupus hudsonicus a light - coloured wolf found in northern manitoba and the northwest territories .\ncanis lupus irremotus a medium - sized , light - coloured wolf from the rocky mountains .\nif you hunt in idaho or montana , you will probably be hunting a subspecies called the rocky mountain wolf , generally a medium to large sized wolf ranging from 70 to 135 pounds .\nalthough commercial fisheries and salmon processing dominated the kenai peninsula economy for much of the 20th century , the beginning of the \u201cfish wars\u201d was just on the horizon . in the early 1900s a newly built railroad set the stage for the first sport fishery on the kenai peninsula . it began with fishermen from seward traveling to kenai lake and cooper landing to fish for large rainbow trout . as word spread about the exceptional size of these fish , sportsmen from the lower 48 and around the world began traveling to seward and lodges on kenai lake and so began trophy fishing and guide services on the kenai peninsula .\nx - canis lupus monstrabilis a wolf found in texas and new mexico ; extinct by 1942 .\nkenai wildlife may be more special than you think\n. peninsula clarion ( 2010 - 07 - 15 ) . retrieved on 2012 - 12 - 31 .\nas a companion to marybeth holleman ' s presentation on her new book ,\namong wolves : gordon haber ' s insights into alaska ' s most misunderstood animal ,\nat kenai peninsula college on april 2 , retired kenai national wildlife refuge biologist ted bailey gave an overview of the history of wolves on the peninsula .\ncanis lupus arctos the white wolf of the high arctic , found from melville island to ellesmere island .\nx - canis lupus fuscus a brownish - colored wolf from the cascade mountains ; extinct by 1940 .\ncanis lupus ligoni a small , dark - colored wolf from the alexander archipelago in the arctic islands .\nx - canis lupus youngi the southern rocky mountain wolf ; extinct by 1935 ; light buff color .\nthough there are scattered reports of wolf sightings in the area during the 1940s , confirmed re - emergence of wolves on the peninsula didn ' t occur until the 1960s . the largest recorded individual wolf of this breed was nearly 4 . 5 feet ( 1 . 4 m ) tall at the shoulder , the largest wolf ever recorded or sighted . it is unknown whether the new packs of wolves represented other\nthe species in its hunt for the large moose that roamed the peninsula . they inhabited the kenai peninsula and adjacent areas in alaskait fed largely on moose which is how its scientific name canis lupus alces was derived . it would also feed on other large ungulates\nboth black and brown ( grizzly ) bears are found on the kenai peninsula . overall , black bears are more abundant , although in some areas and times brown bears predominate .\nx - canis lupus mogollonensis a medium - sized wolf found in arizona and new mexico ; extinct by 1935 .\nliz jozwiak and ted spraker ( december 3 , 1999 )\nwolves on the kenai national wildlife refuge\n\u2013u . s . fish and wildlife service , kenai national wildlife refuge\ni can ' t find any data about kenai wolf size other than the sizes already given , not even the kenai peninsula website acknowledges this subspecies , they just mention how wolves went extinct in 1915 then returned from the mainland in the 1960 ' s , they never say they used to have the worlds biggest wolves , you ' d think they would be proud of that heritage .\nanother interesting factoid is the appearance of kenai wolves . about 33 percent of wolves on the kenai were black in peterson\u2019s initial study . over time that decreased 13 percent in 2000 .\ninstantly recognizable by their natty dark caps and black bibs , chickadees are common on the kenai peninsula . because of their bold dispositions and acrobatic natures , they\u2019re a great species to observe . watch and listen for chickadees year - round , in forested habitats of all types . all kenai peninsula chickadee species give some variation of the familiar\ntsikadee , dee , dee\ncall .\nanother interesting factoid is the appearance of kenai wolves . about 33 percent of wolves on the kenai were black in peterson ' s initial study . over time that decreased 13 percent in 2000 .\nrefuge notebook 04 - 30 - 2010 - kenai - u . s . fish and wildlife service\nrolf o . peterson , james d . woolington and theodore n . bailey ( 1984 ) .\nwolves of the kenai peninsula , alaska\n. wildlife monographs 88 : 3\u201352 . jstor 3830728 .\nsymbols of the wild north , caribou are a sought - after species for wildlife viewers on the kenai peninsula . these\nwandering deer\nare native to north america , europe , and asia .\njohn toppenberg , a board member of the alaska wildlife alliance , said from soldotna that he welcomed the decision and that he continues to disagree with the game board vote to kill kenai peninsula wolves .\nbald eagles big , powerful , sharp - eyed and dominating , bald eagles are perhaps the most famous members of the kenai peninsula\u2019s bird world . you may find them year - round , anywhere on the peninsula , from the high alpine to the river valleys , but they are most concentrated along the coast .\nin the 1800s and early 1900s , the kenai peninsula\u2019s wolves were exterminated by miners , prospectors , and homesteaders . between 1915 and 1965 , wolves were only occasionally documented in the region . between the late 1960s and mid - 1970s , however , wolf populations increased as the animals moved into suitable habitats , reproduced , and established territories .\nat the end of the day , we just aren\u2019t certain about the degree of endemism in kenai populations of marten , red fox , and brown bears , nor in extirpated populations of native caribou and wolf . this area of science is ripe for more exploration including genetic analysis of the many specimens collected before 1920 and archived at museums around the country . ecological understanding always brings a renewed appreciation of wildlife that share the kenai peninsula with us .\nthe smallest of the kenai peninsula\u2019s common owls , the boreal owl is about the size of a robin . like great gray owls , these white - spotted woodland owls hunt primarily by listening for the subtle sounds of their prey . smaller yet , the northern saw - whet owl is increasing in numbers on the peninsula .\nthe wolves inhabiting the kenai now are not original stock either . our current population descended from mainland packs that naturally re - colonized the kenai in the 1960s after an absence of perhaps 40 years . long - time trapper andrew berg saw one of the last kenai peninsula wolves ( canis lupus alces ) at the head of bear creek in 1909 , after a decade of persecution including the use of strychnine by miners . scattered reports of wolves indicate that they may have been present though extremely scarce on the kenai through the 1940s .\nthe kenai peninsula includes thousands of acres of national wildlife refuge and federal managers elsewhere have rejected predator control . the state could have begun killing wolves immediately on state and private land . vincent - lang said the department supports intensive management proposal on the peninsula but wants to increase its body of knowledge needed to inform its decisions .\nin the early 1980s , kenai peninsula wolves began to show signs of being infested with dog lice . despite efforts at treatment , the animals continue to struggle with lice , which damage their fur and cause severe itching .\nthe kenai peninsula\u2019s boreal forests and coastal rainforests , tundra areas and marshes are home to several species of owls . secretive , harder to spot , and less common than eagles , owls offer particularly special wildlife viewing opportunities .\nif you hunt in the great lakes states , you will be after a subspecies called a timber wolf . this smallish wolf , generally 50 - 100 pounds , is found in this area and the northeast part of the us . it is often mistaken for a coyote , and landed some hunters in trouble in states that don\u2019t permit wolf hunting . be careful when you predator hunt that you are really killing a coyote !\nalthough native to the kenai peninsula , caribou were absent for about 50 years between the 1910s and 1960s . releases of breeding stock in the 1960s established two herds : one in the mountains near hope and one in the kenai river flats area . in the 1980s , additional caribou were released in the tustumena lake / caribou hills region , eventually establishing three additional herds . they are generally most accessible for viewing in the kenai / soldotna area .\n170 - 180lbs was average for dire wolves not 110 . based on what reddhole posted . 2 . the kp wolf genotype has been so diluted that the original wolf is considered extinct . so people might want to think before they say\ntodays kp wolves weigh x pounds\n.\nboth steller\u2019s jays and gray jays are found on the kenai peninsula . steller\u2019s jays are rich cobalt blue shading to black on their jaunty , crested heads . gray jays have downy - soft gray and white plumage and no crests .\ncanis rufus : a reclusive animal that weighs between 16 - 40 kg ( 40 - 80 lbs ) , the red wolf is generally a night hunter and travels in groups of two or three . scientists are in disagreement over the origins of the red wolf . some insist it is a genetically distinct species ; some assert that it is a subspecies of grey wolf ; others theorize that it is a hybrid of grey wolves and coyotes .\nthe department also will conduct baseline population work , he said , to determine the number of peninsula moose and wolves .\nhuge and imposing , gangly yet oddly graceful , moose are among the quintessential animals of the north country around the globe . moose are abundant on the kenai peninsula , where they\u2019re not restricted to backcountry habitats\u2014they often venture into suburban areas and are even known to stroll city streets . since they\u2019re common , human - tolerant , and active year - round , it would be unusual to spend more than a couple of days wildlife watching on the kenai peninsula without seeing moose .\nthe board voted to kill wolves in game unit 15a , the area west of cooper landing and north of the sterling highway , and 15c , which covers much of the peninsula south of kasilof and west of kenai fjords national park .\non the peninsula today , the alaska board of game has initiated predator control programs , expanding hunting and trapping opportunities and allowing aerial shooting of wolves in some areas , in an effort to reduce pressure on the moose population . the u . s . fish and wildlife service , meanwhile , does not allow these liberalized wolf - harvest measures on the federally managed kenai national wildlife refuge .\ncanis lupus manningi the smallest arctic wolf , found on baffin island ; either white or light - coloured ; not recognized as a subspecies until 1943 .\nlow tide at kenai cannery , 1895 - 1903 . ( alaska state library , kate r . gompertz photograph collection .\nthey\u2019ve had their ups and downs since the late 1800s , with pressure from humans being one through line in their history . when the gold rush hit the kenai peninsula in 1885 - 86 , the thousands of prospectors hoping to strike it rich brought a hefty distrust of wolves . apparently they feared a rabies outbreak like they had seen in the klondike , bailey said , so they used poison to reduce the wolf population . poison also was a method of choice for those wanting to harvest fur - bearers to sell the pelts for money during the winter . by 1915 , bailey said , the wolves of the kenai peninsula were gone .\nlast january , during the dead of winter on the kenai peninsula , i was lucky enough to be goofing off with my family on the yucatan peninsula . every morning we awoke to the calls of great - tailed grackles , ruddy ground doves , chachalacas , and yellow - lored parrots . coatimundis and agoutis shamelessly begged food from hotel guests enroute to their own breakfasts .\nthey ' ve had their ups and downs since the late 1800s , with pressure from humans being one through line in their history . when the gold rush hit the kenai peninsula in 1885 - 86 , the thousands of prospectors hoping to strike it rich brought a hefty distrust of wolves . apparently they feared a rabies outbreak like they had seen in the klondike , bailey said , so they used poison to reduce the wolf population . poison also was a method of choice for those wanting to harvest fur - bearers to sell the pelts for money during the winter . by 1915 , bailey said , the wolves of the kenai peninsula were gone .\nwolves are often seen and heard in most parts of alaska by those willing to spend time in remote areas . the long term future of the wolf in alaska is secure , and alaska will probably continue to deal with the challenges related to the effects of wolf predation on big game populations for a long time .\nswans\u2014alaska\u2019s largest flying birds\u2014are often seen here . tundra swans and trumpeter swans are the two species that migrate through ; watch for them at potter\u2019s marsh , tern lake , and the kenai river estuary . some trumpeter swans remain on the peninsula to nest on larger lakes . a few swans winter in the region , and can be seen on the kenai river where water remains unfrozen .\nvarious studies of wolf ecology have shown that the balance between wolf and prey populations can be disrupted . for example , severe winters in combination with wolf and bear predation can drastically reduce a big game population . because many of alaska ' s big game populations and their habitats are less productive than those in lower latitudes and because predators such as wolves and bears are common here , human hunters have to limit their harvest in many areas . in some areas wolf numbers may need to be controlled in order to avoid relatively long periods of prey scarcity which could result in little or no harvest for people and also low numbers of wolves and other furbearers .\nas a companion to marybeth holleman\u2019s presentation on her new book , \u201camong wolves : gordon haber\u2019s insights into alaska\u2019s most misunderstood animal , \u201d at kpc on april 2 , retired kenai national wildlife refuge biologist ted bailey gave an overview of the history of wolves on the peninsula .\nyes . wolves were plentiful on the kenai peninsula in the late 1890 ' s . however , the gold rush brought prospectors to the area , and by 1915 wolves were almost completely exterminated by means of predator control programs using poison , along with heavy hunting and trapping .\ntypically one female wolf in a pack has a litter of about seven pups each year . this varies , in some packs more than one female may bring off a litter .\none of the most important fisheries that helped shape the history of alaska is the cook inlet commercial salmon fishery . the kenai peninsula has seen a tremendous history of canneries and buying stations since well before statehood . since the late 1880s , commercial fishing has been a critical part of alaskan economy and culture . settlers rushed to build fish camps throughout the kenai peninsula because of abundant salmon resources and other finfish found there . salmon packers built canneries at kenai , kasilof , chisik island , homer , and near tyonek . giant fish traps were constructed and dropped into the ocean to harvest salmon by the thousands . for decades , commercial fishing thrived in cook inlet . but that was not to last .\ncoyotes are also fairly abundant on the kenai peninsula , but their presence here may be a fairly recent event . after the extermination of wolves on the peninsula around the turn of the 20th century , the region\u2019s coyote population began to rise . this expansion was part of a continent wide increase in coyote numbers . today , these human - tolerant canids are particularly abundant at the edges of the human world\u2014a place that wolves avoid .\njohn morton is the supervisory fish & wildlife biologist at the kenai national wildlife refuge . he is also adjunct faculty at the university of alaska fairbanks . you can check on local birds or report your bird sighting on the kenai national wildlife refuge birding hotline ( 907 ) 262 - 2300 .\nof all that is known and still to be learned about wolves on the peninsula and beyond in alaska , one fact remains consistent , bailey said .\nin the case of peninsula moose , critics said , the board ignored the main problem \u2014 loss of habitat due to 60 years of wildfire suppression .\nthe rivers and streams of the kenai peninsula collectively produce millions of salmon . salmon are not confined to large waterways ; streams small enough to step across are visited by spawning adults , and some even lay their eggs in the intertidal zones of tiny creeks . these prodigal children of the rivers bring more than eggs to the rivers of the kenai . after spawning , they die , and their decaying bodies enrich the streams and forests with important marine - derived nutrients .\nfor a wolf to be that large , i think i need a skeleton to believe . the weight is more understandable than the height . that is just silly . is epicyon even that tall ?\nwolves are not commonly seen on the kenai peninsula , although they are fairly abundant ( their population is estimated at around 200 ) . they travel the backcountry in packs of seven to twelve , preying on moose , caribou , dall sheep and mountain goats . they also hunt marmots , beavers and other small mammals .\nat 18 - 25\nlong and weighing up to 4 pounds , great horned owls are the kenai peninsula\u2019s most powerful owls . they are the only large alaskan owls with prominent ear tufts . great horned owls hunt primarily by sight . their populations fluctuate with the populations of their primary prey animals ( snowshoe hares ) .\nfew places offer as much to nesting and migrating waterfowl as the kenai peninsula does . the western flatlands are pockmarked with thousands of lakes , ponds and wetlands , wild and inaccessible , that offer solitude and outstanding nesting habitat . mountain lakes in the central and eastern part of the peninsula provide additional breeding territory . huge estuaries provide crucial calories for migration . during summer , a visit to any lake or pond is a chance to watch nesting waterfowl , and in spring and fall you can watch the migration spectacle at marshes and estuaries . in winter , many waterfowl species can be seen along the saltwater shores and open waters of the kenai river .\nfish don\u2019t draw just bears . when salmon are running , some of the kenai peninsula wildlife viewing trail sites are occupied by hundreds of anglers . wildlife viewers may find those sites busier than preferred during the short fishing season ( dates vary by run and location ) , but tranquil and great for viewing most of the year .\ncommercial fishermen and personal use dipnetters enjoy fishing the peak of the kenai river sockeye salmon run , 2007 . photo courtesy of pat shields , adf & g soldotna .\nfor kenai peninsula wildlife watchers , gulls seem to be everywhere . often gathered in large , raucous congregations , they are frequently dismissed as\njust seagulls .\ngulls are among the most challenging of birds to identify , but because of their abundance they offer lots of opportunities to practice\u2014and their visibility makes them great subjects for extended viewing .\n, or red salmon are named for their blood - red spawning coloration and red flesh . averaging six to eight pounds , they are associated with lake systems . the russian river supports perhaps the most famous of the kenai peninsula\u2019s sockeye runs\u2014where bright red fish leap waterfalls and dodge milling anglers , who can sometimes seem as abundant as the salmon\nthat roamed the peninsula . it is widely accepted as the largest known species of canid . the species was classified in 1944 as one of the four subspecies in alaska by\ncanis lupus lycaon the eastern timber wolf of canada and the united states ; it originally had the largest range of all of north american subspecies ; the first subspecies to be recognized in north america ( 1775 ) .\nif you do want to hunt a wolf , the best place to start is alaska . the license and tag will cost you $ 115 . 00 . although you will have to have transport to alaska , and transport to where you can hunt , this is still a fairly cheap hunt and won\u2019t require any draw worries . if you are seeking the ultimate north american predator to add to your collection , don\u2019t forget about the wolf .\nfairly common along the shores and rivers of the kenai peninsula , the river otter is the same playful aquatic weasel found throughout north america . river otters live in freshwater systems and in coastal waters , denning just inside forest edges and foraging on beaches and close to shore . they average three to five feet in length and weigh 15 to 35 pounds .\nat the turn of the last century , the andrew j . stone expedition was organized to collect mammals and birds in arctic and subarctic alaska for the american museum of natural history . professor stone and his colleagues amassed 873 specimens of 28 mammal species during their forays to alaska that included staging out of homer to explore the kenai peninsula in 1901 and 1902 .\nthe refuge continued peterson\u2019s study from 1982 to 1993 , capturing , radio collaring and monitoring 107 wolves on the peninsula . in that time human harvest averaged 61 percent in the early 1980s and declined to 14 percent in the late 1980s and early 1990s . however , wolf density did not increase with that decline in harvest , so it is thought that disease and the decreasing moose population were factors in the wolves\u2019 decline .\nin contrast to kenai wolves and foxes that were considered bigger than those found elsewhere in alaska , american marten from the kenai were smaller and darker than individuals from populations elsewhere in north america and are classified as a subspecies : martes americana kenaiensis . here again , the science is based on only six specimens collected in the early 1900s , and contemporary taxonomists have suggested that subspecific designation is unwarranted . ironically , daniel elliot , who proposed that kenai marten be recognized as a subspecies also questioned the subspecific designation of stone\u2019s caribou as long ago as 1905 .\ntype for canis lupus alces goldman , 1941 catalog number : usnm 147471 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : female ; adult preparation : skull collector ( s ) : c . lambert year collected : 1904 locality : kachemak bay , kenai peninsula borough , alaska , united states , north america\nwarblers and thrushes spend time birdwatching on the kenai peninsula in summer and you\u2019ll notice warblers . only a little bigger than hummingbirds , these tiny birds dart like insects among the leaves , or perch to shout their surprisingly loud songs to the world . many seem designed specifically to blend with the willow , birch and alder leaves , sporting olive - green or bright yellow feathers .\nthe refuge continued peterson ' s study from 1982 to 1993 , capturing , radio collaring and monitoring 107 wolves on the peninsula . in that time human harvest averaged 61 percent in the early 1980s and declined to 14 percent in the late 1980s and early 1990s . however , wolf density did not increase with that decline in harvest , so it is thought that disease and the decreasing moose population were factors in the wolves ' decline .\nthe social order in the pack is characterized by a separate dominance hierarchy among females and males . in most areas wolf packs tend to remain within a territory used almost exclusively by pack members , with only occasional overlap in the ranges of neighboring packs .\nsimilarly , wilfred osgood , during his biological survey of the cook inlet in 1900 , reported that kenai foxes ( vulpes vulpes kenaiensis ) were the largest fox known in north america . confirmation of this possible endemic subspecies was muddied by the establishment of commercial fox farms on the kenai between wwi and the early 1930s . these propagation efforts involved capturing denning foxes and sometimes cross breeding them with captive stock .\nthe expedition collected specimens of a presumably endemic woodland caribou , rangifer tarandus stonei , with a narrow and long head , and slender antlers with \u201cunusual development of the brow antler and the anterior branch\u201d ( see photo ) . the last stone\u2019s caribou was killed on the kenai sometime around 1912 - 23 . the caribou that currently inhabit the kenai are descendants of individuals introduced by state and federal agencies in the 1960s and 1980s from the nelchina herd .\nptarmigan are close relatives of grouse , but where spruce grouse are forest specialists , ptarmigan prefer the open country of alpine tundra . there are three species of ptarmigan on the kenai peninsula : willow ptarmigan ( alaska\u2019s state bird ) , rock ptarmigan , and white - tailed ptarmigan . in areas where all three species overlap , the birds segregate themselves by elevation , with the willows the lowest , followed by the rocks , and finally the white - tails .\nwhen wolves re - established themselves on the peninsula they did so with protection from the state , with no hunting or trapping seasons . a hunting season for wolves was instituted in 1974 , with a trapping season added the following year .\nalaska averages about 500 moose - vehicle accidents per year , with many of those on the kenai peninsula . analysis of collision data shows that most vehicle - moose accidents occur at dawn and dusk when moose are on the move . drivers should slow down and pay close attention to the road and roadside , being alert for moose . if you spot a moose on the side of the road , watch out for more . calves will often run after cows across roads .\narabian peninsula : subspecies : pallipes , arabs . status : in decline , < 300 individuals . range occupied : 90 % . main prey : garbage , carrion , livestock . legal status : no protection . cause of decline : persecution .\nthe wolf is the primeval wild dog , the largest wild canid , long a hunter alongside people , and ancestor of our most faithful domestic companion . wolves vary widely in appearance . their fur is thick and usually grey , but can vary from nearly pure white , red , or brown to black .\nthe first study of wolves on the peninsula was conducted from 1976 to 1983 for the u . s . fish and wildlife service on the kenai national moose range ( later renamed the kenai national wildlife refuge ) by rolf peterson , particularly noted for his study of the wolves of isle royale national park in michigan . three to seven packs were monitored in that time , and the study found an average pack size of 11 . 2 ( from two to 20 ) , an average pack territory of 246 square miles ( from 68 to 601 square miles ) , a density of 18 . 2 wolves per 1 , 000 square kilometers , and an average human - caused mortality ( hunting and trapping ) of about 33 percent .\nalaska is home to an estimated 7 , 000 to 11 , 000 wolves . wolves have never been threatened or endangered in alaska . the food habits of the wolf often bring it into conflict with humans who in many parts of the world are also hunters of big game animals . although the wolf has coexisted with big game animals for thousands of years , under some conditions the impact of predation contributes to local scarcities of game which arouse some people ' s concern . in most non - coastal systems with moose and caribou , wolves and bears together maintain game populations below levels at which their food supply would be damaged .\nred squirrels wherever you find spruce trees on the kenai peninsula , you\u2019ll find red squirrels . the small , oil - rich seeds of the spruce provide a critical food for these hardy arboreal rodents , especially in winter , when other foods such as berries and fungus are scarce . in fact , red squirrels spend most of the late summer and early fall cutting green spruce cones for winter , and stashing them in semi - subterranean caches that are sometimes made up of piles of previous - years\u2019 discarded cone scales .\nalaskan moose are the largest moose in north america , and kenai peninsula moose are known as some of the largest in alaska . prime - condition bulls can weigh over 1 , 500 pounds and stand over seven feet tall at the shoulders . cows are smaller , weighing 800 - 1300 pounds . only the males have antlers , but both sexes have dangling\ndewlaps\nof skin under their chins . the long , brown and gray hairs that make up their coats are hollow , giving them insulation and buoyancy .\nsteller sea lions are among coastal alaska\u2019s most watchable marine mammals . they are vocal , social , and fairly common around the kenai peninsula . sea lions are fast swimmers and are graceful and powerful in the water . because they can rotate their rear flippers forward to use as\nhind legs ,\nthey are fairly agile on land . they\nhaul out\nin large , noisy groups at traditionally used rock outcrops and beaches . they also haul out on buoys , where they may be seen bellowing and jockeying for the best spots .\nthe same challenges to the survival of a pack from hunting , trapping and other human predator - control methods exist on the peninsula as dr . gordon haber , the subject of holleman\u2019s book , found in denali wolves , in that taking an alpha wolf has a disproportionately large impact than the death of a less - vital pack member . worldwide study has shown that when an alpha breeder is lost , pups survive 90 percent of the time in packs of more than six wolves , 56 percent of the time if only one alpha is lost and only 9 percent of the time if both alphas are lost , bailey said .\nnow that wolves are making a comeback and hunting them is not just a dream , how many species of wolves can you hunt ? north america has two species of wolves , the gray and the red . gray wolves are the most numerous and occupy the most of north america . the red wolf is rarer and occupies the southeastern united states .\nthe same challenges to the survival of a pack from hunting , trapping and other human predator - control methods exist on the peninsula as dr . gordon haber , the subject of holleman ' s book , found in denali wolves , in that taking an alpha wolf has a disproportionately large impact than the death of a less - vital pack member . worldwide study has shown that when an alpha breeder is lost , pups survive 90 percent of the time in packs of more than six wolves , 56 percent of the time if only one alpha is lost and only 9 percent of the time if both alphas are lost , bailey said .\n\u2022 three common gulls are large ( raven - sized ) birds , about 24 inches long , with pink legs and yellow bills with red dots . glaucous - winged gulls have gray wing tips . herring gulls and thayer\u2019s gulls both have jet - black wingtips and are difficult to tell apart . look into their eyes , if you can . usually , herring gulls have pale irises and thayer\u2019s have dark irises . some gulls are hybrids of two species . on the kenai peninsula this is common ; virtually all of the gulls nesting at skilak lake are hybrids .\n\u201cthe roles were kind of switched compared to today , \u201d bailey said . \u201cback then it was the federal government that was poisoning wolves , and the state of alaska , at statehood , they changed the outlook on wolves . they made the wolf a big game species and they protected it and developed seasons . today it is kind of the opposite . \u201d\nfor the birds , the region\u2019s estuaries and wetlands mean plenty of food : energy to carry them across hundreds or thousands of miles of inhospitable territory . for humans , this means outstanding birdwatching , including the chance to see not just lots of birds but unusual birds\u2014stray migrants from asia , for example . if you\u2019re planning a visit to the kenai peninsula during shorebird migration , check ahead for birding tours and other events designed to help people learn about and appreciate this phenomenon . for example , homer hosts an annual kachemak bay shorebird festival , featuring tours , presentations , and artwork .\nthe roles were kind of switched compared to today ,\nbailey said .\nback then it was the federal government that was poisoning wolves , and the state of alaska , at statehood , they changed the outlook on wolves . they made the wolf a big game species and they protected it and developed seasons . today it is kind of the opposite .\nmy family stayed in three rooms at kenai peninsula . each was clean , well furnished and had a great view from a sea cliff site , but very different thanks to the inspiration of the owner / architect / builder . one was mostly underground on the side of an embankment facing the sea . the second above the office with a deck and third , a more economical unit , was more conventional . check out their web site for pictures of all units . this property deserves all of the 5 ratings it has accumulated . it is very well managed with owner living next door .\nor king salmon are the largest salmon . kings average between 20 and 40 pounds , but larger fish are not at all uncommon . the state record sport - caught chinook was caught in the kenai river . it weighed 97 pounds . a chinook caught commercially in southeast alaska weighed 126 pounds .\niconic birds of the boreal forest , spruce grouse are common on the kenai peninsula . they feed on a variety of berries , leaves , flowers and insects in summer , but their winter diet consists almost entirely of spruce needles . to collect the small gravel pieces that help them grind and digest this tough forage , they begin frequenting roadsides , streambanks , and lakeshores in august\u2014so watch for them at dawn and dusk . they\u2019re well - camouflaged , so you\u2019ll have to look and listen carefully to spot them . scan for broods of chicks following the female . sometimes the male tags along as well .\nbirdwatchers on the kenai will also find thrushes : the familiar , ubiquitous american robin ; the similarly - sized ( but more gaudily - colored ) varied thrush of the coastal rainforests ; swainson\u2019s thrush ; gray - cheeked thrush ; and the small , shy hermit thrush with its lovely eerie song around seward .\nthree species of loons nest on the peninsula\u2019s many lakes : common loons , pacific loons , and red - throated loons . these large birds build mounded nests of shoreline debris just adjacent to the water ( loons are master divers , but can not walk on land ) . loon chicks can sometimes be seen riding on their parents\u2019 backs .\naquatic invertebrates the rivers , streams , lakes and ponds of the kenai peninsula are full of bugs\u2026and that\u2019s a good thing . aquatic insects form the basis for countless wildlife food chains . they\u2019re the primary food of juvenile salmon and other small fish , which are in turn eaten by larger fish , birds , and mammals . no bugs\u2026 no bears ! many insects that you\u2019ll find in streams and ponds are juvenile forms of bugs that spend their adult time zooming through the air . others spend their whole lives underwater . some are extremely tolerant of pollution and other poor conditions , while others are so sensitive that their presence is used as an indicator of good water quality .\nthere are three species of chickadee known to breed on the peninsula . blackcapped chickadees , the familiar chickadees of the\nlower 48\ncan be seen in deciduous forests throughout the region . boreal chickadees , with their brown caps and rusty flanks , are more common in dry forests of white spruce . chestnut - backed chickadees are common in the coastal rainforest .\nno matter what you choose to hunt , the wolf has a long and infamous history , making it a prime trophy for the predator hunter . since it has long come into conflict with ranchers and competed for game with humans , it hasn\u2019t always been popular . nearly being wiped out in the lower 48 states , it has recovered enough to be hunted in six of these states . alaska has always had a large enough population for hunting and trapping .\ninseason management of the kenai river dipnet fishery is also the responsibility of the division of sport fish . the fishery opens and closes by regulation , and inseason management is required if it is projected that the inriver escapement goal ( as assessed by the sonar at river mile 19 ) for sockeye salmon will not be met or if the escapement goals are exceeded .\nthe board of game , a seven - member panel appointed by the governor that sets game seasons and bag limits , voted to extend predator control to two game units on the peninsula , continuing an aggressive approach to killing wolves , black bears and grizzly bears to boost moose and caribou numbers through liberal predator hunting and trapping seasons or professional culling , which usually means shooting them from the air .\nin general , coyotes are small - game specialists , feeding on hares , marmots , small rodents , muskrats , and even insects , berries and fish , although they do occasionally kill a large mammal such as a moose calf or a dall sheep . they also scavenge carrion from wolf kills or winter - killed animals . coyotes are not social to the extent that wolves are , although they do sometimes hunt cooperatively , and family groups stay together through the summer . youngof previous years will occasionally help care for pups .\ndespite a generally high birth rate , wolves rarely become abundant because mortality is also high . in much of alaska , the major sources of mortality are : predation by other wolves ; hunting ; and trapping . diseases , malnutrition , and accidents also help regulate wolf numbers . predation by other wolves is a major cause of death because wolves defend their territories from other wolves . dispersing wolves ( e . g . , young adults ) are common but they typically find little suitable habitat that is not already occupied by other wolves .\nharbor seals feed on fish , clams , mussels , and crustaceans such as shrimp . they are hunted and preyed upon by sharks and by transient killer whales . in may and june they tend to move to sheltered waterways such as the deep bays of kenai fjords national park , where each female gives birth to a single pup , often on an iceberg . harbor seals favor nearshore water and will also swim up rivers .\nthe wolf occurs throughout mainland alaska , on unimak island in the aleutians , and on all of the major islands in southeast except admiralty , baranof , and chichagof . this range includes about 85 percent of alaska ' s 586 , 000 square - mile area . wolves are adaptable and exist in a wide variety of habitats extending from the rain forests of the southeast panhandle to the arctic tundra along the beaufort sea . alaska is home to an estimated 7 , 000 to 11 , 000 wolves . wolves have never been threatened or endangered in alaska . they are found in nearly all of their historic range , excepting the center of urban areas , although they are found on the outskirts of anchorage , fairbanks and juneau . wolves are common over much of the state . the highest densities occur in southeast alaska , where sitka black - tailed deer serve as the major food source for wolves . wolf densities are lowest in the coastal portions of western and northern alaska . although the distribution of wolves has remained relatively constant in recent times , their abundance is influenced by harvest levels , diseases , and prey availability\nsouthcentral alaska is a critical point in the migration routes of many species of shorebirds , whose annual journeys from southern wintering grounds to northern nesting areas can span thousands of miles . sandpipers , dunlin , godwits , whimbrels , curlews , plovers\u2026 the list of species can\u2019t convey the enormity of the spectacle at the height of spring migration , when the mudflats and beaches of the kenai river estuary , turnagain arm , kachemak bay , and other coastal hotspots are blanketed with thousands upon thousands of fluttering wings , darting legs , and bobbing heads .\nthe salmon - rich waters of cook inlet in southcentral alaska have given rise to several unique fisheries over the past century . the kenai river boasts some of the most active fisheries in the state . thousands of recreational fishers flock to the crowded banks every year with their rods , reels , and dip nets , ready to take home their limit of salmon . alaska ' s recreational fisheries are a relatively new concept ( the majority of the state\u2019s historical fisheries being largely commercial ) but have grown to become an integral part of the state\u2019s income and fisheries management ."]}
{"id": 234, "summary": [{"text": "aoteadrillia bulbacea is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was previously included within the family turridae . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "aoteadrillia bulbacea", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - aoteadrillia bulbacea ( r . b . watson , 1881 )\naoteadrillia bulbacea ( watson , 1881 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\nhow can i put and write and define aoteadrillia in a sentence and how is the word aoteadrillia used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528aoteadrillia\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528aoteadrillia\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528aoteadrillia\u9020\u53e5 , aoteadrillia meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\naoteadrillia powell , 1942 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 29 june 2012 .\naoteadrillia is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family horaiclavidae . [ 2 ]\naoteadrillia otagoensis powell , 1942 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\naoteadrillia chordata ( suter , 1908 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\naoteadrillia rawitensis ( hedley , 1922 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 15 april 2010 .\n\n' aoteadrillia wanganuiensis\n' is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia alpha\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia apicarinata\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia asper\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia exigua\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia callimorpha\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia ihungia\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia consequens\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\n\n' aoteadrillia waihuaensis\n' is an extinct species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family horaiclavidae .\nspencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nspencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\nnatural history museum , london ( nhm ) : collections management database system . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nthis section is empty . you can help by adding to it . ( april 2010 )\ntucker , j . k . 2004 catalog of recent and fossil turrids ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . zootaxa 682 : 1 - 1295 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nbouchet p . , kantor yu . i . , sysoev a . & puillandre n . ( 2011 ) a new operational classification of the conoidea . journal of molluscan studies 77 : 273 - 308 .\ntucker , j . k . 2004 catalog of recent and fossil turrids ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . zootaxa 682 : 1 - 1295 .\nthis page was last edited on 16 february 2018 , at 02 : 44 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nspecies aforia serranoi s . gofas , y . i . kantor & a . a . luque , 2014\nspecies agathotoma asthenika e . rol\u00e1n , r . fern\u00e1ndez - garc\u00e9s & c . redfern , 2012\nspecies agathotoma eduardoi e . rol\u00e1n , r . fern\u00e1ndez - garc\u00e9s & c . redfern , 2012\nspecies agathotoma kirshi e . rol\u00e1n , r . fern\u00e1ndez - garc\u00e9s & c . redfern , 2012\nspecies agathotoma prominens e . rol\u00e1n , r . fern\u00e1ndez - garc\u00e9s & c . redfern , 2012\nspecies agladrillia anadelgado e . rol\u00e1n , p . ryall & j . horro , 2007\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010"]}
{"id": 250, "summary": [{"text": "cranopsis is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family fissurellidae , the keyhole limpets .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "cranopsis was previously considered a subgenus of puncturella . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "cranopsis ( gastropod )", "paragraphs": ["worms - world register of marine species - cranopsis asturiana ( p . fischer , 1882 )\npuncturella ( craniopsis ) [ sic ] ( misspelling of cranopsis a . adams , 1860 )\ncowan , i . m . ( 1969 ) a new species of gastropod ( fissurellidae , fissurisepta ) from the eastern north pacific . the veliger , 12 , 24\u201326 .\n( of puncturella ( cranopsis ) asturiana ( p . fischer , 1882 ) ) p\u00e9rez farfante , i . ( 1947 ) . the genera zeidora , nesta , emarginula , rimula and puncturella in the western atlantic . johnsonia . 2 : 93 - 148 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 118 - 120 [ details ]\n( of rimula asturiana p . fischer , 1882 ) fischer p . ( 1882 - 1883 ) . diagnoses d ' esp\u00e8ces nouvelles de mollusques recueillis dans le cours des exp\u00e9ditions scientifiques de l ' aviso\nle travailleur\n( 1880 et 1881 ) . journal de conchyliologie 30 : 49 - 53 [ 1882 ] , 273 - 277 [ issued march 22 , 1883 according to fischer - piette ( 1937 ) , april 1883 according to winckworth , 1936 ] , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 51 [ details ]\n( of puncturella asturiana var . alta locard , 1898 ) locard a . ( 1897 - 1898 ) . exp\u00e9ditions scientifiques du travailleur et du talisman pendant les ann\u00e9es 1880 , 1881 , 1882 et 1883 . mollusques testac\u00e9s . paris , masson . vol . 1 [ 1897 ] , p . 1 - 516 pl . 1 - 22 ; vol . 2 [ 1898 ] , p . 1 - 515 , pl . 1 - 18 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : vol . 2 p . 78 [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nturgeon , d . ; quinn , j . f . ; bogan , a . e . ; coan , e . v . ; hochberg , f . g . ; lyons , w . g . ; mikkelsen , p . m . ; neves , r . j . ; roper , c . f . e . ; rosenberg , g . ; roth , b . ; scheltema , a . ; thompson , f . g . ; vecchione , m . ; williams , j . d . ( 1998 ) . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd ed . american fisheries society special publication , 26 . american fisheries society : bethesda , md ( usa ) . isbn 1 - 888569 - 01 - 8 . ix , 526 + cd - rom pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 57 [ details ]\n( of puncturella asturiana ( p . fischer , 1882 ) ) locard a . ( 1897 - 1898 ) . exp\u00e9ditions scientifiques du travailleur et du talisman pendant les ann\u00e9es 1880 , 1881 , 1882 et 1883 . mollusques testac\u00e9s . paris , masson . vol . 1 [ 1897 ] , p . 1 - 516 pl . 1 - 22 ; vol . 2 [ 1898 ] , p . 1 - 515 , pl . 1 - 18 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : vol . 2 , 77 - 78 [ details ]\n( of puncturella craticia r . b . watson , 1883 ) watson , r . b . ( 1878 - 1883 ) . mollusca of h . m . s . ' challenger ' expedition . journal of the linnean society ( london ) . 14 : 506 - 529 , 586 - 605 , 692 - 716 [ 1878 - 1879 ] ; 15 : 87 - 126 , 217 - 230 , 245 - 274 , 388 - 412 , 413 - 455 , 457 - 475 [ 1880 - 1881 ] ; 16 : 247 - 254 , 324 - 343 , 358 - 372 , 373 - 392 , 494 - 611 [ 1882 - 1883 ] ; 17 : 26 - 40 , 112 - 130 , 284 - 293 , 319 - 340 , 341 - 346 [ 1883 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : vol . 17 p . 29 ; note : in synonymy of rimula asturiana p . fischer , 1882 [ details ]\nmedin . ( 2011 ) . uk checklist of marine species derived from the applications marine recorder and unicorn . version 1 . 0 . [ details ]\nsysoev a . v . ( 2014 ) . deep - sea fauna of european seas : an annotated species check - list of benthic invertebrates living deeper than 2000 m in the seas bordering europe . gastropoda . invertebrate zoology . vol . 11 . no . 1 : 134\u2013155 [ in english ] . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 11 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 16 publications ) ( from synonym rimula asturiana p . fischer , 1882 ) to clemam ( from synonym rimula asturiana p . fischer , 1882 ) to clemam to encyclopedia of life to pesi to pesi ( from synonym rimula asturiana p . fischer , 1882 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym rimula asturiana p . fischer , 1882 ) to itis\nadams , a . ( 1860 ) . on some new genera and species of mollusca from japan . annals and magazine of natural history . ( 3 ) 5 : 299 - 303 [ april 1860 ] ; 405 - 413 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 302 [ details ]\nmclean j . h . & geiger d . l . ( 1998 ) . new genera and species having the fissurisepta shell form , with a generic - level phylogenetic analysis ( gastropoda : fissurellidae ) . contributions in science , natural history museum of los angeles county , 475 : 1 - 32 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmclean j . h . ( 1996 ) . the prosobranchia . in : taxonomic atlas of the benthic fauna of the santa maria basin and western santa barbara channel . the mollusca part 2 \u2013 the gastropoda . santa barbara museum of natural history . volume 9 : 1 - 160 . [ details ]\n( of puncturella ( craniopsis ) [ sic ] ) nordsieck f . ( 1968 ) . die europ\u00e4ischen meeres - geh\u00e4useschnecken ( prosobranchia ) . vom eismeer bis kapverden und mittelmeer . gustav fischer , stuttgart viii + 273 pp : page ( s ) : 12 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe following are opisthobranchs with shells , but are included here to aid in identification .\nall material posted on this site may be used for educational or non - commercial use provided this web site is duly credited as being the source of the material . copyright of all images remains with the originator . for the use of photos , please request permission through one of the contact listings .\nclick on the name of the family to view the species within that category .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nluiz ricardo l . simone museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , cx . postal 42494 ; 04218 - 970 s\u00e3o paulo , sp , brazil .\ncarlo m . cunha museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , cx . postal 42494 ; 04218 - 970 s\u00e3o paulo , sp , brazil .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . & pimenta , a . d . ( 2003 ) a new subgenus and three new species of brazilian deep water olivella swainson , 1831 ( mollusca , gastropoda , olivellidae ) collected by the rv marion dufresne in 1987 . zoosystema , 25 , 177\u2013185 .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . , pimenta , a . d . & caetano , c . h . s . ( 2005 ) turridae ( mollusca , neogastropoda , conoidea ) coletados no litoral sudeste do brasil , programa revizee \u201cscore\u201d central . bioci\u00eancias , 13 , 19\u201347 .\nadams , a . ( 1851 ) a catalogue of the species of emarginula , a genus of gasterepodous mollusca , belonging to the family fissurellidae ; in the collection of h . cuming , esq . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 19 , 82\u201392 . urltoken\nadams a . ( 1860 ) on some new genera and species of mollusca from japan . annals and magazine of natural history , 3 ( 5 ) , 299\u2013307 .\naldea , c . , zelaya , d . g . & troncoso , j . s . ( 2011 ) a new gigantic species of zeidora adams , 1860 from antarctic waters ( gastropoda : fissurellidae ) . the nautilus , 125 , 79\u201382 .\namaral , a . c . z . , lana , p . c . , fernandes , f . c . & coimbra , j . c . ( 2003 ) biodiversidade b\u00eantica da regi\u00e3o sul - sudeste da costa brasileira . revezee score sul . minist\u00e9rio do meio ambiente . s\u00e3o paulo , 156 pp .\nbetts , v . ( 1981 ) dicion\u00e1rio parintintin - portugu\u00eas . sociedade internacional de ling\u00fc\u00edstica . cuiab\u00e1 , 231 pp .\nclarke , a . h . ( 1961 ) abyssal mollusks from the south atlantic ocean . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 125 , 343\u2013387 , pls . 1\u20134 .\ncunha , c . m . ( 2011 ) a new species of acteon ( opisthobranchia : acteonidae ) from northeast brazil . zoologia , 28 , 229\u2013232 . urltoken\ndall , w . h . ( 1889 ) reports on the results of dredgings , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877\u201378 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879\u201380 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer ' blake ' . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 18 , 1\u2013492 , pls . 10\u201340 .\ndall , w . h . ( 1927 ) small shells from dredgings off the southeast coast of the united states by the united states fisheries steamer ' albatross ' in 1885 and 1886 . proceedings of the united states national museum , 70 , 1\u2013134 . urltoken\ndautzenberg , p . & fischer , h . ( 1896 ) dragages effectu\u00e9s par l ' hirondelle et par la princesse - alice , 1888 - 1895 . m\u00e9moires de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france , 9 , 395\u2013498 , pls . 15\u201322 .\ndefrance , m . ( 1827 ) dictionnaire des sciences naturelles , 45 , 471\u2013472 .\negorova , e . n . ( 1972 ) biological results of the soviet antarctic expeditions . 7 . mollusca of the davis sea . explorations of the faunas of the seas , 26 , 1\u2013142 .\nespinosa , j . , ortea , j . & fern\u00e1ndez - garc\u00e9s , r . ( 2004 ) descripci\u00f3n de dos nuevas especies del g\u00e9nero zeidora a . adams , 1860 ( mollusca : gastropoda ) de las costas de cuba . avicennia , 17 , 67\u201370 .\nfarfante , i . p . ( 1943a ) the genera fissurella , lucapina and lucapinella in the western atlantic . johnsonia , 1 ( 10 ) , 1\u201320 .\nfarfante , i . p . ( 1943b ) the genus diodora in the western atlantic . johnsonia , 1 ( 11 ) , 1\u201320 .\nfarfante , i . p . ( 1947 ) the genera zeidora , nesta , emarginula , rimula and puncturella in the western atlantic . johnsonia , 2 , 93\u2013148 .\nfernandes , m . r . & pimenta , a . d . ( 2013 ) taxonomic review of metaxia ( gastropoda : triphoridae ) from brazil , with description of a new species . zoologia , 28 , 819\u2013830 . urltoken\nfernandes , m . r . , pimenta , a . d . & leal , j . h . ( 2013 ) taxonomic review of triphorinae ( gastropoda : triphoridae ) from the vit\u00f3ria - trindade seamount chain , southeastern brazil . the nautilus , 127 , 1\u201318 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2011 ) a new species of eccliseogyra ( gastropoda : nystiellidae ) from southeastern brazil . the nautilus , 125 , 167\u2013170 .\ngeiger , d . l . & thacker , c . e . ( 2005 ) molecular phylogeny of vetigastropoda reveals non - monophyletic scissurellidae , trochoidea , and fissurelloidea . molluscan research , 25 , 47\u201355 .\ngeiger , d . l . & thacker , c . e . ( 2006 ) molecular phylogeny of basal gastropods ( vetigastropoda ) shows stochastic colonization of chemosynthetic habitats at least from the mid triassic . cahiers de biologie marine , 46 , 343\u2013346 .\ngray , j . e . ( 1825 ) a list and description of some species of shells not taken notice of by lamarck . annals of philosophy , 25 ( n . s . 9 ) , 134\u2013140 .\ngray , j . e . ( 1847 ) a list of the genera of recent mollusca , their synonyma and types . proceedings of the zoological society of london , 12 , 129\u2013219 .\nheilprin , a . ( 1889 ) on some new species of mollusca from the bermuda islands . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 41 , 141\u2013142 , pl . 8 .\nhouart , r . ( 1991 ) the southeastern brazilian muricidae collected by rv marion - dufresne in 1987 , with the description of three new species . the nautilus , 105 , 26\u201337 .\njeffreys , j . g . ( 1877 ) new and peculiar species of mollusca procured in the valourous expedition . annals and magazine of natural history , series 4 , 19 , 231\u2013243 .\njeffreys , j . g . ( 1882 ) on the mollusca procured during the lightning and porcupine expeditions . iv . proceedings of the zoological society of london ( 1881 ) , 922\u2013952 .\nlamarck , j . b . p . m . ( 1798\u20131816 ) tableau encyclop\u00e9dique et m\u00e9thodique des trois r\u00e8gnes de la nature . vol . 3 . paris , 16 pp . , pls . 391\u2013488 .\nlamarck , j . b . p . m . ( 1801 ) syst\u00eame des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . paris , viii , 432 pp .\nlamarck , j . b . p . m . ( 1822 ) histoire naturelle des animaux sans vert\u00e8bres . paris , 7 , 711 pp .\nlarraz\u00e1bal , m . e & oliveira , v . s . ( 2003 ) thecosomata e gymnosomata ( mollusca , gastropoda ) da cadeia fernando de noronha , brasil . revista brasileira de zoologia , 20 ( 2 ) , 351\u2013360 . urltoken\nleal , j . h . ( 1991 ) marine prosobranch gastropods from oceanic islands off brazil . universal book services . dr . w . backhuys . oegstgeest , 419 pp .\nleal , j . h . & bouchet , p . ( 1989 ) new deep - water volutidae from off southeastern brazil ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . the nautilus , 103 , 1\u201312 .\nlibassi , i . ( 1859 ) sopra alcune conchiglie fossile dei intorni de palermo . reale academia di scienze , lettere i belle arti di palermo , atti ( n . s . ) , 3 , 1\u201347 .\nlinn\u00e9 , c . ( 1771 ) mantissa plantarum . laurentii salvii . holmiae [ stockholm , sweden ] , pp . 43\u2013588 .\nlowe , r . t . ( 1827 ) on balanus punctatus , puncturella flemingii , & c . ; together with some corrections relative to turbo carneus , and some of the chitones before described . zoological journal , 3 , 76\u201380 .\nmatthews , h . r . & kempf , m . ( 1970 ) moluscos marinhos do norte e nordeste do brasil . ii . moluscos do arquip\u00e9lago de fernando de noronha ( com algumas refer\u00eancias ao atol das rocas ) . arquivos de ci\u00eancias do mar , 19 , 1\u201353 .\nmclean , j . h . ( 1970 ) descriptions of a new genus and eight new species of eastern pacific fissurellidae , with notes on other species . the veliger , 12 , 362\u2013367 .\nmclean , j . h . ( 2011 ) reinstatement of the fissurellid subfamily hemitominae , with the description of new genera , and proposed evolutionary lineage , based on morphological characters of shell and radula ( gastropoda : vetigastropoda ) . malacologia , 54 , 407\u2013427 . urltoken\nmclean , j . h . & geiger , d . j . ( 1998 ) new genera and species having fissurisepta shell form , with a generic - level phylogenetic analysis ( gastropoda : fissurellidae ) . los angeles county museum of natural history contributions in science , 475 , 1\u201332 .\nm\u00e9tivier , b . ( 1972 ) sur quelques fissurellidae ( mollusques , gast\u00e9ropodes ) du nord , nordest du br\u00e9sil . bulletin du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , series 3 ( zoologie ) , 32 , 405\u2013416 .\npilsbry , h . a . ( 1943 ) floridian species of rimula . the nautilus , 57 , 37\u201340 .\npimenta , a . d . , santos , f . n . & absal\u00e3o , r . s . ( 2011 ) taxonomic revision of the genus eulimella ( gastropoda , pyramidellidae ) from brazil , with description of three new species . zootaxa , 3063 , 22\u201338 .\nrios , e . c . ( 1985 ) seashells of brazil . funda\u00e7\u00e3o universidade do rio grande . rio grande , 329 pp . , 102 pls .\nrios , e . c . ( 1994 ) seashells of brazil , second edition . editora da furg . rio grande , 368 pp . , 113 pls .\nrios , e . c . ( 2009 ) compendium of brazilian sea shells . universidade federal do rio grande . rio grande , 668 pp .\nrios , e . c . , calvo , i . s . & barcellos , l . j . ( 1987 ) moluscos marinos de isla trinidad . comunicaciones de la sociedad malacologica del uruguay , 7 , 57\u201362 .\nsalvador , r . b . , cunha , c . m . & simone , l . r . l . ( 2013 ) taxonomic revision of the orthalicid land snails ( pulmonata : stylommatophora ) from trindade island , brazil . journal of natural history , 47 , 949\u2013961 . urltoken\nsalvini - plaw\u00e9n , l . & haszprunar , g . ( 1987 ) vetigastropoda and the systematics of streptoneurous gastropoda ( mollusca ) . journal of zoology , a 211 , 747\u2013770 . urltoken\nseguenza , g . ( 1862 ) paleontologia malacologica dele roce terziarie del discreto di messina studiata nei suoi rapporti zooloogici e geognostici . annali dell\u2019accademia degli aspiranti naturalisti , serie 3 , 2 , 77\u201395 .\nsimone , l . r . l . ( 1999 ) comparative morphology and systematics of brazilian terebridae ( mollusca , gastropoda , conoidea ) , with descriptions of three new species . zoosystema , 21 , 199\u2013248 .\nsimone , l . r . l . ( 2000 ) [ 1998 ] a phylogenetic study of the terebrinae ( mollusca , caenogastropoda , terebridae ) based on species from the western atlantic . journal of comparative biology , 3 , 137\u2013150 .\nsimone , l . r . l . ( 2008 ) a new species of fissurella from s\u00e3o pedro e s\u00e3o paulo archipelago , brazil ( vetigastropoda , fissurellidae ) . the veliger , 50 , 292\u2013304 .\nsimone , l . r . l . & cunha , c . m . ( 2003 ) pseudococculina rimula , a new species ( cocculiniformia : pseudococculinidae ) from off southeastern brazil . nautilus , 117 , 69\u201377 .\nsimone , l . r . l . & cunha , c . m . ( 2012 ) taxonomic study on the mollusks collected in marion - dufresne expedition ( md55 ) to se brazil : xenophoridae , cypraeoidea , mitriforms and terebridae ( caenogastropoda ) . zoosystema , 34 , 745\u2013781 . urltoken\nsowerby , g . b . i . ( 1812\u20131846 ) the mineral conchology of great britain ; or coloured figures and descriptions of those reamains of testaceous animals or shells , which have been preserved at various times and depth in the earth . vols . 1 . \u20137 . london , 234 pp . , 251 pp . , 194 pp . , 160 pp . , 168 pp . , 250 . & 123 pp . + pls 610\u2013648 .\nsowerby , g . b . iii ( 1901 ) descriptions of five new species of shells . journal of malacology , 8 , 101\u2013103 , pl . 9 .\nswainson , w . ( 1840 ) a treatise on malacology . longman , orme , brown , green , & longmans and john taylor . london , 419 pp .\nverhecken , a . ( 1991 ) description of two new species of bathyal cancellariidae ( mollusca , gastropoda ) from off brazil . bulletin du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle ( zoologie ) , 12 , 547\u2013553 .\nwatson , r . b . ( 1883 ) mollusca of h . m . s . ' challenger ' expedition . part xix . zoological journal of the linnean society , 17 , 320\u2013340 . urltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nregina l . cunha , a , 1 jorge m . assis , 1 celine madeira , 1 rui seabra , 2 fernando p . lima , 2 evandro p . lopes , 2 , 3 suzanne t . williams , 4 and rita castilho 1\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article\u2019s creative commons license , unless indicated otherwise in the credit line ; if the material is not included under the creative commons license , users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material . to view a copy of this license , visit urltoken\nremote oceanic archipelagos are the ideal setting for studying patterns and processes underlying speciation . while insular terrestrial communities can be formed either by immigration or from a few colonization events and subsequent in situ diversification 1 , phylogeographic patterns of marine species inhabiting island settings can be confounded by recurrent episodes of long - distance dispersal . the volcanic origin of oceanic islands and their circumscribed geographic boundaries enable inferring the tempo and sequence of island colonization when geological ages are known 2 .\nisolated islands are expected to have reduced species richness but high levels of endemicity as a result of few colonization events , particularly in older archipelagos 3 . for instance , the reduced dispersal abilities of some indo - west pacific turbinid gastropods that lack a long - lived planktonic stage played a crucial role in developing extensive archipelagic differentiation and fine scale endemism 4 . also , the ongoing emergence and subsidence of islands over geological time is thought to have promoted speciation within this group of marine gastropods at an insular scale 5 .\nallopatric speciation induced by vicariance is sometimes regarded as the main driver of differentiation 6 . nonetheless , recent developments in methodological approaches to biogeographic analysis 7 , which integrate a wider range of biogeographical processes ( i . e . dispersal , extinction , vicariance and duplication ) 8 , 9 , showed the importance of dispersal in the diversification processes 10 . for instance , divergence triggered by dispersal events and the organism - specific capacity to occupy suitable habitats and persist , has recently been identified as the main driver of the avian speciation in lowland neotropical rainforests 11 .\ndispersal in most sessile marine species occurs predominantly during larval stages in which larvae remain in the water column for periods that can vary between days to months before settlement 12 . it is generally assumed that planktotrophic feeding larvae exhibit higher geographic ranges because they are able to remain longer periods in the water column , while lecithotroph yolk - fed larvae complete their metamorphosis without feeding from the plankton and thus are more prone to originate locally structured populations 13 , 14 .\ncape verde represents an excellent model system for studying speciation and to infer colonization pathways given its remoteness and known geological age of most of the islands . this volcanic oceanic archipelago is approximately 500 km off mainland ( senegal - west africa ) and comprises ten major islands and several islets (\n) . geochronological data place the age of the islands between 5 . 9 \u00b1 0 . 1 million years ago ( mya ) and 25 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 8 mya\n. bi analysis retrieved two clades of cape verde fissurellidae . one clade included all specimens from cape verde that grouped with the included worldwide members of fissurellinae . the other clade grouped all cape verde samples with western atlantic and mediterranean\nphylogenetic relationships of fissurellidae based on a bayesian inference analysis of mitochondrial coi and nuclear 28s rrna genes produced by beast .\nbayesian posterior probabilities above 50 % are indicated over the branches ( full black circles : bpp = 100 % ; half - black circle : bpp = 86 % ) . geographical origin of the taxa is depicted in colours . photos of the shells corresponding to each of the cape verde fissurella and diodora species are shown . assignments of each cape verde sample to delineated entities from gmyc and spedestem species delimitation tests are shown by rectangles . colour of cluster boxes corresponding to each species indicates mismatch ( black ) and agreement ( white ) between both methods . figure generated in adobe illustrator cs6 ( version 16 . 0 . 0 ) ( urltoken ) and photos taken by r . l . cunha .\n) . specimens from south africa and angola were recovered as new species of uncertain generic status and named as fissurellidae sp . 1 and fissurellidae sp . 2 , respectively .\n) . effective sample sizes ( ess ) \u226b 200 indicated adequate sampling of the posterior . the 95 % hpd ( highest posterior density interval ) sampled by bamm after analysing 9 , 001 posterior samples comprised the eight most probable distinct shift configurations . the single best shift configurations sampled by bamm suggested an increasing of diversification rates in cape verde\n) . overall extinction rates were 0 . 046 ( 0 . 006\u20130 . 109 ) and remained constant through time . speciation rates were 0 . 089 ( 0 . 058\u20130 . 132 ) and an overall increase towards the present was identified .\nwas estimated at 10 . 21 [ 7 . 99\u201312 . 72 ] mya ( node a ;\n) but most of the diversification within this group occurred during the late pliocene ( 2 . 98 [ 2 . 19\u20133 . 89 ] mya ; node d ,\n) was estimated at 6 . 74 [ 5 . 29\u20138 . 41 ] mya ( node g ;\nbeast maximum clade credibility chronogram showing main cladogenetic events within fissurellidae based on mitochondrial coi and nuclear 28s rrna genes with ancestral estimation inferred with biogeobears .\nage estimates in million years and bayesian posterior probabilities ( bpp ) of cape verde clades are shown on the table . the corresponding 95 % highest posterior density intervals ( blue bars ) are depicted . internal coloured vertical bars at branches indicate main ancestral areas recovered by\nunder the selected bayarealike + j model immediately following a speciation event whereas at nodes indicate ancestral ranges before speciation . numbers at the coloured squares indicate present - day ( tips ) distribution of species . in the legend , islands that are not represented , individually , by a single species are not coloured .\nsp . ) , which was the pacific . this model suggests boavista as the ancestral range of\ncomprises the northwestern islands of the archipelago ( santo ant\u00e3o , ilh\u00e9u raso , santa luzia , s\u00e3o vicente and s\u00e3o nicolau ) . our results suggest a dispersal event towards sal where\nis sal , boavista , maio , santiago and s\u00e3o vicente , which implies dispersal events from the northwestern islands ( the ancestral area ) towards sal , boavista and maio .\nthe total amount per cell of the coastline of rocky substrate ( in grey ) and sand ( in yellow ) on each island is shown in supplementary information s3 . the percentage per cell of the coastline of rocky substrate ( in grey ) and sand ( in yellow ) on each island is shown in supplementary information s4 . boavista is the island with the highest percentage of sand whereas ilh\u00e9u raso and santiago show the highest percentage of rocky substrate ( supplementary information s4 ) .\nthe simulations using high - resolution ocean current fields over the 10 - year period allowed releasing 360 particles per cell ( 6 . 39e\npassive particles in total ) . maximum and average distances , probabilities and drifting time produced by the particles that effectively connected different coastal cells determined for the simulations running 4 and 30 days of passive dispersal are shown in\n. the mean distance that particles can reach during four days of passive dispersal is 75 . 3 \u00b1 75 . 9 km , which is approximately the same after 30 days ( 76 . 1 \u00b1 75 . 9 km ) . mean connectivity probabilities between pairs of islands produced with simulations running 4 and 30 days of passive dispersal are shown in\n, respectively . overall probabilities of connectivity between pairs of islands are quite low ( between 2 . 3e\n) . the highest probability of connectivity occurs between s\u00e3o vicente and santo ant\u00e3o and the lowest between santo ant\u00e3o and maio . the degree of connectivity between islands inferred in network analysis running for four or 30 days of passive dispersal are shown in\n( a and b ) , respectively . only stronger links are depicted . modularity values indicated good divisions > 0 . 3\n. the animation shows different source locations releasing particles every 12 hours from july to november 2010 . the particles are allowed to drift for a maximum of 30 days with effective dispersal measured when they end up on shore .\n( a ) degree of connectivity between cape verde islands inferred in network analysis for the simulation running four days of passive dispersal . only stronger links are depicted ( modularity : 0 . 38 ; three putative oceanographic clusters ; significance level of clustering : 0 . 0048 ) ; ( b ) degree of connectivity between cape verde islands inferred in network analysis for the simulation running 30 days of passive dispersal . only stronger links are depicted ( modularity : 0 . 34 ; two putative oceanographic clusters ; significance level of clustering : 0 . 0291 ) ; ( c ) example of pathways resulting from all particles sent from a coastal cell ( red dot ) in the simulation running four days of passive dispersal ; ( d ) example of pathways resulting from all particles sent from a coastal cell ( red dot ) in the simulation running 30 days of passive dispersal . figures were generated with igraph package ( version 1 . 0 . 1 ; url urltoken ) implemented in r language ( r core team ( 2015 ) . r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria . url urltoken ) and adobe illustrator cs6 ( version 16 . 0 . 0 ) ( urltoken ) .\nmaximum and average distances , probabilities and drifting time produced by the particles that effectively connected different coastal cells determined for the simulations running 4 and 30 days of passive dispersal .\nmean connectivity matrix between pairs of islands produced with the simulation running 4 days of passive dispersal .\nmean connectivity matrix between pairs of islands produced with the simulation running 30 days of passive dispersal .\nfrom the mediterranean and western atlantic . both species delimitation tests ( spedestem and gmyc ) indicated the existence of seven cape verde endemic\nspecies of the mediterranean , western atlantic and pacific , whereas gmyc did recognise cape verde specimens as a distinct entity . however , results from both gmyc and genetic distances between cape verde\n) , strongly suggest that these specimens should be considered an endemic species . these results are not in agreement with a morphology - based study that reported the existence of twelve\nwas unexpected , even for organisms with a theoretical pelagic larval phase of four days , considering that distances between islands are as little as 17 km ( e . g . , between ilh\u00e9u raso and s . nicolau ;\n) , and according to our simulations , the mean distance that a particle can reach after four days of passive dispersal is 75 . 3 \u00b1 75 . 9 km (\n, which represents a much larger distance than between most of islands of the cape verde archipelago . nonetheless , this coastal species coexists with its sister species along the continental shore , where no strong physical barriers were identified . it was suggested that transient allopatry determined by historical episodes of climatic fluctuations and shifting currents or ecological barriers could be the main driver of speciation\n. considering the extremely low estimated probabilities of connectivity between cape verde islands based on four or 30 days of passive dispersal ( e . g . , ilh\u00e9u raso\n) . age estimates placed this shift at 2 . 98 [ 2 . 19\u20133 . 89 ] mya (\n) at the plio - pleistocene boundary . key innovations or distinct habitat preferences are often invoked to explain higher rates of diversification\n. all eight species occupied similar habitats and we found no evidence for niche segregation among species ( lopes , evandro p . , pers . obs . ) .\nthe low levels of connectivity between islands and a shift in diversification rates offer plausible explanations for the level of endemism observed in fissurella but a question still remains : why did diodora not diversify in the cape verde archipelago ? to address this question , three hypotheses were considered : ( i ) different sampling efforts for each genus ; ( ii ) differences between the pld of fissurella and diodora , and ( iii ) time of origin of each genus in the archipelago .\ncould have been undersampled seems unlikely considering that the sampling effort was equally distributed for both genera . field work revealed a strong bias in abundances : while more than 300 specimens of\nspecimens in total , all from boavista and all belonging to the same species . the type of larval development of cape verde\nis unknown but under the observed oceanographic conditions , the second hypothesis of a longer pld to explain the existence of a single species owing to higher connectivity is not supported . our simulations based on patterns of ocean circulation did not significantly increase effective connectivity between islands even when pld was increased from four to 30 days of passive dispersal (\n) . note that only effective dispersal events ( i . e . those that result in a larva landing on a coast ) are reported . our analyses show very low probabilities of shore - to - shore connectivity ( 0 . 003 \u00b1 0 . 017 , on average ;\n) , since most particles are pushed to open waters and only produce effective connectivity events in the very first days of ocean drifting ( between 1 . 29 \u00b1 0 . 85 and 1 . 35 \u00b1 1 . 02 days , on average ;\n) . in fact , only 2 . 62 % of the particles travelled for more than four days , and such an increase in pld did not expand the maximum travelled distance of the particles ( 349 . 3 km ;\n) . as the archipelago is separated from the nearest mainland ( the coast of senegal ) by approximately 500 km , this means that island - to - continent dispersal is very unlikely . finally , the mrca of\nmight have had more opportunities to disperse to other islands and speciate avoiding the severe volcanic eruptions that struck boavista between 9 . 5 and 4 . 5 mya\nand likely had the greatest effect on rocky shore species such as keyhole limpets . other\nspecies also present in boavista might have become extinct after these volcanic events , before having time to disperse to other islands .\nkeyhole limpets can only be found on rocky substrates , we analysed the effect of hard substrate availability on species richness . the number of\nlineages showed , however , no correlation with the total area of rocky coast per island [ r ( 6 ) = \u22120 . 62 , p = 0 . 10 ] nor with the percentage of rocky coast per island [ r ( 6 ) = \u22120 . 50 , p = 0 . 22 , non - significant , see also\non the other hand , the degree of connectivity between islands provides the best predictor for present - day distribution of species . a model based on known patterns of ocean circulation and four days of passive dispersal (\n) . the cluster that includes the northwestern islands ( s . nicolau , santo ant\u00e3o , s . vicente , santa luzia and ilh\u00e9u raso ) represents the geographic distribution of\nsp . 2 ( sal and s . nicolau ) is favoured by patterns of ocean circulation that connect these two islands (\nthe archipelagic endemism in marine sessile organisms reported here was driven by shifts in diversification rates promoted by recurrent episodes of low sea levels during the plio - pleistocene boundary and patterns of ocean circulation favouring self - recruitment . the role of dispersal and persistence was determinant in shaping present - day geographic distribution of fissurellid keyhole limpets .\n) . all specimens were preserved in 96 % ethanol . dr . rol\u00e1n , e . , a recognized expert in cape verde invertebrate fauna and author of\nusing the - - auto option that automatically selects the appropriate strategy according to data size . alignments of both coi ( 540 bp ) and 28s rrna ( 826 bp ) were unambiguous , and amino acid translations in coi were checked using\n, respectively . we used the combined data set ( coi : 145 taxa , 540 bp ; 28s rrna : 145 taxa , 826 bp ) for both analyses . this data set included all 120 unique coi and 28s haplotypes from cape verde samples and the remaining fissurellidae retrieved from genbank ( accession numbers in\nselected the trn + i + g as the evolutionary model that best fits both data sets . the bayesian analysis was performed using two partitions , coi and 28s rrna . we used a yule tree prior\nthat assumes a constant rate of speciation among lineages and is more appropriate for species - level phylogenies . we used an uncorrelated relaxed , lognormal clock . mcmc analyses were run twice ( each run with 100 , 000 , 000 generations and a sample frequency of 10 , 000 ) following a discarded burn - in of 10 , 000 , 000 steps . length of burn - in was determined by visual examination of traces in\nusing the \u201cmaximum clade creditability\u201d option and mean node height . the convergence to the stationary distribution was confirmed by inspection of the mcmc samples and of effective sample sizes ( ess ) . ess values above 200 indicate convergence\n) and on the r2c2 research group cluster facility , both at the university of algarve .\n, code written by t . ezard , t . fujisawa and t . barraclough in r v . 3 . 0 . 2\nto compare the number of esus obtained from the single gene ( coi : 540 bp ; 145 taxa ) and the two - gene ( coi : 540 bp ; 28s : 826 bp ; 145 taxa ) data sets . the ultrametric trees based on the coi and the combined data sets were obtained with\nusing a strict clock model without fossil calibrations and a yule tree prior . both data sets included all 120 unique haplotypes from cape verde samples and remaining fissurellidae retrieved from genbank ( accession numbers in table 1 suplementary material ) . the analyses ran for 10 , 000 , 000 generations with sample frequency of 1000 , after a burn - in of 1000 , 000 .\nto delimit the number of fissurellid species in cape verde by comparing the probability of models where putative evolutionary lineages are separate entities to the probability of models where putative lineages are collapsed into a single lineage using a maximum likelihood approach . spedestem takes as an input ultrametric trees and a user - supplied estimate of theta returning a table of models ranked according to their probability . ultrametric trees based on the coi and 28s data sets were produced by\nusing the coi ( 540 bp ; 145 taxa ) and the 28s ( 826 bp ; 145 taxa ) data sets . the analyses ran for 10 , 000 , 000 generations with sample frequency of 1000 , after a burn - in of 1000 , 000 . we used\nthat allows incorporation of fossil uncertainties . the data set used in this analysis ( 35 taxa ; coi : 540 bp ; 28s rrna : 826 bp ) included a single representative from each cape verde species inferred by abgd and spedestem and the remaining fissurellidae used in previous analyses . the calibration points used in this analysis are described in the\n. this program uses mcmc simulations and reversible - jump sampling to estimate time - varying rates of speciation and extinction , and to find the optimal set of rate - shift configurations .\nultrametric tree was used for this analysis . we set four reversible jumping - mcmc running for 10 million generations sampled every 1000 generations and a burn - in of 10 % . the function setbammpriors in r was used to choose more appropriate prior values . we used ess ( effective sample size ) to assess the convergence of the runs and considered values above 200 as indicating convergence .\nto estimate the ancestral ranges of fissurellidae . full description of the method is available on\n. we defined 13 geographical areas : ( 1 ) sal ; ( 2 ) boavista ; ( 3 ) maio ; ( 4 ) santo ant\u00e3o ; ( 5 ) santiago ; ( 6 ) ilh\u00e9u raso ; ( 7 ) santa luzia ; ( 8 ) s\u00e3o vicente ; ( 9 ) s\u00e3o nicolau ; ( 10 ) mediterranean ; ( 11 ) western atlantic ; ( 12 ) pacific , and ( 13 ) africa . the maximum number of areas that any species may occur was set to five because it is the maximum number of areas where the species may occur .\nto characterize shore substrate composition along the studied area , we prepared a 0 . 01\u00b0 arc - degree ( approx . 1 . 6 km at 16\u00b0 n ) mesh using r ( r development core team , 2014 ) . the mesh grid was then imported to google earth , and all tiles covering both ocean and land were assigned a substrate type by means of visual inspection . substrate types used were \u201crock\u201d , \u201csand\u201d or \u201cboth\u201d . lastly , the substrate type layers produced in google earth were rasterised using the r package raster 54 , and the amount of each substrate was quantified .\nhow to cite this article : cunha , r . l . et al . drivers of cape verde archipelagic endemism in keyhole limpets . sci . rep . 7 , 41817 ; doi : 10 . 1038 / srep41817 ( 2017 ) .\npublisher ' s note : springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations .\nwe thank the direc\u00e7\u00e3o geral do ambiente , minist\u00e9rio do ambiente , habita\u00e7\u00e3o e ordenamento do territ\u00f3rio from cape verde for providing sampling permits . we are very grateful to dr . em\u00edlio rol\u00e1n for the help provided in species identification . we also thank katy nicastro and gerardo zardi for providing samples from south africa . rlc and ja were supported by post - doctoral fellowships from fct - portuguese science foundation ( sfrh / bpd / 109685 / 2015 and sfrh / bpd / 111003 / 2015 , respectively ) . rs was supported by marinfo - norte - 01 - 0145 - feder - 000031 , funded by norte portugal regional operational program ( norte2020 ) , under the portugal 2020 partnership agreement , through the european regional development fund ( erdf ) .\nauthor contributions r . l . c . and r . c . designed this study . e . p . l . collected the samples . c . m . sequenced all the samples . r . l . c . , j . a . , r . s . , and f . l . analyzed data . r . c . prepared figures and tables . r . l . c . wrote the manuscript and s . t . w . , r . c . , and f . l . revised it . all authors contributed with their ideas and reviewed the final version of the manuscript .\nreynoso - granados t . , monsalvo - spencer p . & serviere - zaragoza e .\n& guzman del proo , s . a . larval and early juvenile development of the volcano keyhole limpet , fissurella volcano\nmaddison w . p . & maddison d . r . mesquite : a modular system for evolutionary analysis . urltoken ( 2015 ) .\na mathematical theory of evolution , based on the conclusions of dr . j . c . willis , f . r . s\nr : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing ( vienna , austria , 2016 ) .\nmatzke n . j . biogeobears : biogeography with bayesian ( and likelihood ) evolutionary analysis in r scripts . r package , version 0 . 2 . 1 , published july 27 , 2013 at : urltoken ( 2013 ) .\nraster : geographic data analysis and modeling . r package version 2 . 1 - 25 . urltoken ( 2013 ) ."]}
{"id": 265, "summary": [{"text": "the timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh ) , also known as the timneh grey parrot or timneh african grey parrot , is a west african parrot that is variously considered a subspecies of the african grey parrot psittacus erithacus timneh , or a full species psittacus timneh .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "in aviculture , it is often referred to by the initials tag and is commonly kept as a companion parrot . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "timneh parrot", "paragraphs": ["clinical management of an ectopic egg in a timneh african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus timneh ) .\ntimneh african greys aka timneh parrots ( psittacus timneh formerly psittacus erithacus timneh ) are a bit smaller and less well known than the larger congo grey .\ninformation on the timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nclinical management of an ectopic egg in a timneh african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus timneh ) . - pubmed - ncbi\ntwo subspecies of the grey parrot are the larger , more popular congo grey parrot and the smaller timneh .\nheavy trapping and habitat loss are fueling population declines of the timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh ) in many parts of west africa .\nthe african grey parrot , grey parrot or congo african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) is an old world parrot in the family psittacidae .\narchived 2011 - 2012 topics : grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) has been split into grey parrot ( p . erithacus ) and timneh grey parrot ( p . timneh ) : are both eligible for uplisting ?\nthis entry was posted in africa , archive , parrots and tagged grey parrot , timneh grey parrot . bookmark the permalink .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh )\ntitle =\narkive species - timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n16 responses to archived 2011 - 2012 topics : grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) has been split into grey parrot ( p . erithacus ) and timneh grey parrot ( p . timneh ) : are both eligible for uplisting ?\nthe timneh parrot is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\narchived 2011 - 2012 topics : grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) has been split into grey parrot ( p . erithacus ) and timneh grey parrot ( p . timneh ) : are both eligible for uplisting ? | birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - timneh parrot\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - timneh parrot\ntitle =\narkive photo - timneh parrot\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe timneh grey parrot has a horn - colored beak , dark grey body , maroon tail , and white around the eyes .\nthe tail and undertail coverts are red , in comparison to the maroon of the smaller timneh parrot . both sexes appear similar .\nthis entry was posted in africa , archive , parrots and tagged parrots , timneh parrot , wildlife trade . bookmark the permalink .\ngrey parrot psittacus erithacus has been split into grey parrot p . erithacus and timneh grey parrot p . timneh on the basis of genetic , morphological , plumage and vocal differences , following the findings presented by melo and o\u2019ryan ( 2007 ) and additional work by the birdlife taxonomic working group ( unpubl . data ) .\ngiven the large numbers in captivity around the world , it seems incredible that almost nothing is known of the lives of wild timneh parrots ( psittacus timneh ) .\na 13 - year - old female timneh african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus timneh ) was evaluated because of the presence of a bald patch of skin caudal to the sternum and increased territorial and nesting behavior of 2 weeks ' duration .\nthis project has just captured the first ever video of timneh parrot breeding behaviour providing a valuable opportunity for biologists to learn more about the species in time .\n2008 .\npsittacus erithacus ( african grey parrot , congo african grey parrot , grey parrot )\n( on - line ) . zipcodezoo . com . accessed march 20 , 2008 at urltoken .\ni am looking for a timneh african grey baby if possible . my special needs son is devastate\ni am currently looking to purchase a baby timneh african grey parrot in ct or close to ct . please e - mail me if you can help thank you star\nthe timneh was until recently considered a sub - species of the congro grey . however , in 2011 , the timneh and congo grey parrot races were officially separated based on genetic , morphological , plumage and vocal differences ( ref . research by melo and o ' ryan - 2007 ) .\ncongo and tinmeh african greys ( ( psittacus e . erithacus and p . e . timneh ) , aves international\nthe status of the grey parrot and its habitat in state owned protected areas in the contemporary range of the parrot were evaluated and presented in table 2 .\none criteria for splitting up the two species was the fact that these two species don ' t interbreed within their natural habitat . however , congo grey / timneh grey hybrids have occurred in captivity ( for example , libby , a congo - timneh hybrid african grey parrot - image published on urltoken ) . even though congo - timneh crosses are very rare , they are said to be viable and fertile ( able to produce young ) . these hybrids are smaller in size than the congo african grey with the darker grey plumage of the timneh .\nthe african grey is a medium - sized parrot with a bare facial patch .\nafrican grey parrot personality , food & care | pet birds by lafeber co .\nclemmons , j . r . 2003 . status survey of the african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus timneh ) and development of a management program in guinea and guinea - bissau . cites , geneva , switzerland .\nthis is roscoe , my timneh african grey parrot talking and making various noises . can you tell what he is saying , and which noises he is mimicking ? : ) hint : he loves his name .\nthe african grey parrot is famous for its intelligence and ability to mimic human speech .\nthe timneh african grey is its own bird . it has a different look and a different personality than the congo . the timneh is not as\nking - like\nand demanding as the congo . but like the congo the timneh is a little shy , yet far more outgoing than its counterpart . timnehs will tolerate more commotion , doors banging and the general noises going on around him . being a more relaxed parrot than its cousin it is easier to have around .\nhilarious ! the smartest african gray parrot , talking - singing , and making vacuum sounds .\nfigure 4 : contemporary distribution of grey parrots in ecoregions of cameroon using parrot detection points .\ni . madindou and r . mulwa , \u201csome conservation aspects of the african grey parrot (\nthe african grey parrot is divided into two subspecies : the timneh african grey and the congo african grey parrot . both have slate gray feathers , yellow eyes , a reddish tail . the african grey congo parrot averages 12 . 8 inches in length , has a bright red tail ( visible in the image on the left ) and a large curved black beak . the timneh is about an inch smaller and has a dark maroon colored tail and a horn colored upper beak with a black tip ( as seen in the bird on the right ) .\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\nfigure 5 : current distribution of grey parrots in vegetation cover in cameroon in relation to parrot detection points .\ns . a . tamungang and s . s . ajayi , \u201cdiversity of food of the grey parrot (\nvarious parrot densities were calculated using the above formula . total surface area ( size ) occupied by rainforest within the current range of the parrot in each region was obtained from the ministry of forest and wildlife , cameroon [\nforaging is an important part of normal daily parrot activity . teach and encourage pet birds to play and forage .\na captive african grey parrot named alex was able to use english words to identify colours , shapes and quantities .\nfigure 2 : current distribution of grey parrots in cameroon in relation to parrot detection points and aboveground vegetation biomass .\ntable 2 : status of the grey parrot in national protected areas within the contemporary range of the bird species .\nare native to various parts of western and central africa including kenya , uganda , liberia , and islands off the west coast of africa . the timneh african grey ,\nthe parrot showed his ability to learn over 100 words , differentiating between objects , colors , materials , and shapes .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2016 ) . timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 15 september 2016 ) .\nm . melo and c . o ' ryan , \u201cgenetic differentiation between pr\u00edncipe island and mainland populations of the grey parrot (\nan african grey timneh that is well cared for will seldom become ill . though it is often difficult to determine illness , some visible signs of illness to be aware of are :\nthe timneh african grey is readily available in the pet market . the cost of the timneh is usually a little less than the cost of the congo , however they might be harder to find . the reason is for this is the timnehs were not imported to the same degree the congos were and so breeding these feathered creatures has to catch up to demand .\nafrican greys have a strong pair bond in the wild and it carries over to captivity . the timneh will prefer a singular individual , and often someone of the opposite sex . he will tolerate others in the family but stay attached to pretty much just one person . the timneh can be silly and likes to play and frequently considers its human one big personal toy .\nstaff from the institute of biodiversity and protected areas in guinea bissau ( ibap ) have been working with former parrot trappers and biologists from portugal and iucn member world parrot trust to collect a range of data while at the same time protecting nests from poachers .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . timneh parrot ( psittacus timneh ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ntimneh grey parrot appears to have disappeared completely from the forests on and near mt nimba in nimba county , liberia . recent surveys in jun - jul 2008 and jan 2009 by ron demey , apr - may 2010 by ben phalan and oct - nov 2011 by francoise dowsett - lemaire and ben phalan in the east nimba nature reserve and nearby forest areas ( including the new gba community forest in 2011 ) found no timneh grey parrots at all , and no indication from locals that they have been present in recent times .\none criteria for splitting up the two species was the fact that these two species don ' t interbreed within their natural habitat . however , cag / tag hybrids have occurred in captivity ( for example , libby , a congo - timneh hybrid african grey parrot - image published on urltoken ) . even though these crosses are very rare , they are said to be viable and fertile ( able to produce young ) . these hybrids are smaller in size than the congo african grey with the darker grey plumage of the timneh .\nthe african grey parrot is one of the most talented talking / mimicking birds on the planet , giving it quite a reputation among bird enthusiasts . not only do bird keepers love this intelligent bird , it\u2019s one of the most recognizable species to bird novices as well \u2014 everyone knows the african grey parrot . this parrot is one of the oldest psitticine species kept by humans , with records of the bird dating back to biblical times . understated beauty and a brainy no - nonsense attitude are what keep this parrot at the peak of popularity .\n] . similar information was also obtained on the total surface area of each region of the country . parrot densities were obtained from the formula\nwe estimated the extent of the current grey parrot range as a percentage of the whole country as 25 . 4 % and as a percentage of the regions with rainforest as 44 . 5 % . we further estimated the historic grey parrot range in cameroon lost over the years as 55 . 5 % in 2011 . the estimated extent of the range of the grey parrot in africa by cites in 2006 [ 11 ] was 3 , 000 , 000 km 2 . we calculated the contemporary parrot range on cameroon as a proportion of cites\u2019 range estimate as 9 % .\nmajor threats to sustainable parrot conservation in cameroon are directly linked to anthropogenic pressure either directly on the parrot or on its habitat . five major threats to the parrot ( figure 6 ) were identified from questionnaire sampling : forest deforestation , trapping for food , diseases , trapping for trade , and predation by wild animals . irrespective of region , deforestation and trapping for trade were the major threats with a combined percentage of 63 % .\nathan , m . s . and deter , d . ( 2000 ) the african grey parrot handbook . barron\u2019s educational series , new york .\nathan , m . 1999 . barron ' s guide to companion parrot behavior . new york , new york : barron ' s educational series .\ntable 1 : major vegetation types within the current range of the grey parrot in relation to total forest zone and protected areas [ 3 ] .\nmcgowan , p . 2001 . status , management and conservation of the african grey parrot , psittacus erithacus in nigeria . cites , geneva , switzerland .\nthe gray parrot is one of the largest parrot species in africa . both males and females have pale gray feathers with whitish edges on the head and neck , darker grey flight feathers , and short , striking red tails . the beak is black , and white facial skin surrounds pale yellow eyes .\nfigure 1 : historic range of the grey parrot in cameroon , in relation to sampled areas , protected areas , urban centres , and administrative boundaries .\np . e . timneh population : 120 , 100 - 259 , 000 birds , and p . e . erithacus population : 40 , 000 - 100 , 000 birds ( 1992 ) ( red list iucn 2011 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus )\ntitle =\narkive species - african grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nprogress and outcomes : in early 2013 the world parrot trust received a report from the guinea application of wildlife law ( galf ) of a group of confiscated birds in guinea , some of which were timneh parrots . wpt sent veterinarian dr . davide de guz to care for thirteen timnehs , funding for the birds ' care , and cameras for documentation of their recovery and release .\ndr . rowan martin , project coordinator with the world parrot trust told sos : \u201cfor a species that readily breeds in captivity it is remarkable that the breeding behaviour of timneh parrots has never been investiagted in the wild . it\u2019s not easy to do , but little by little this project is lifting the lid on the private lives of parrots and providing insights valuable for their conservation\u201d .\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\nfotso , r . 1998b . survey status of the distribution and utilization of the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) in cameroon . cites , geneva , swizterland .\nthe african grey parrot is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 4 ) .\nthe appalling conditions in which these wild parrots are transported from remote forests in small crates and then held in poor quarantine conditions result in the demise of a high proportion of them . please don\u2019t , however , mistake this for an ethical or animal welfare issue . trade in wild - caught timneh grey parrots ( p . timneh ) and african grey parrots ( p . erithacus ) will continue to threaten the persistence of local populations targeted by trappers and eventually result in local extinctions that cannot be reversed .\nthe contemporary range of the parrot extends to seven regions of cameroon , but five of the regions had grey parrots in significant quantities ( table 4 ) . the north west and west regions had very low parrot populations as a result of extensive exploitation pressures of the forest and also because larger parts of the regions have savannah and grassland vegetation . the littoral and southwest regions had relatively low parrot populations , while the south and the east regions had high populations , and the centre region occupied a median position ( table 4 ) .\nhabitat and trade threats are the frontline threats to sustainable parrot conservation in cameroon . the rainforest is the most exploited habitat in the country due to its richness in biological diversity .\nthe african grey parrot is a very mobile bird in the rainforest environment ; it moves intensively in search of rich food patches and suitable nesting sites [ 6 , 39 ] .\nmy love and best friend died this morning , i had her for 40 years . ( my timneh ) needless to say i ' m devasted over her passing . she was not ill . fine when i left for . . . ( more ) debra clymer\nbirdlife international ( 2006 ) birdlife international\u2019s review of the status of the african grey parrot and proposals to cites for its conservation . 22nd meeting of the animals committee , lima , peru .\nathan , m . , d . deter . 2000 . the african grey parrot handbook . hauppauge , ny : barron ' s educational series . accessed march 20 , 2008 at urltoken .\n33 cm . a mottled grey , medium - sized parrot . it has a large black bill and white mask enclosing a yellow eye , and has a striking red vent and tail .\nregional means ranged from 3 , 487 parrots in the littoral to 1351 , 275 parrots in the east regions . the south and the east regions had the highest parrot populations in the country .\nsome birds die in transit from physiological stress , due to lack of food and drinking water . the trapper may introduce food items in the cage that the wild caught bird is not familiar with and it refuses to eat . there is also a possibility of the transfer of diseases when sick birds are mixed with healthy ones . people who transport parrots with their valid documents suffer lower rates of parrot mortality than illegal transporters and their parrots experience less stress and as such are healthy . both legal and the illegal parrot trades have immensely contributed to the depletion of various parrot populations in cameroon .\nafrican greys are magnificent birds that are perhaps some of the most talented mimics of the avian world . hand - fed birds make excellent pets and are perfect when a quieter parrot is in order .\nthe timneh african grey parrot has the ability to reproduce any noise it hears in the home . it can sound just like a dog , a spouse , or anyone else that interests him . some examples are rather funny , like getting you to answer the phone when no one has called . or getting you to go to the door and open it for your children , and your children have not arrived home from school yet . one timneh african grey would love to watch the ninja turtles on television . one day some friends came over to visit . upon entering the door\nbilly\nstated quite clearly ,\ndrop your drawers , i have a pistol\n. everyone , struck completely dumb , just looked at each other and then went into fits of laughter .\nthe timneh is darker gray than its congo counterpart , with a maroon patch of feathers on the underside of its tail . the beak is primarily black but has an ivory or pinkish color on the upper third of the upper mandible . juveniles have black eyes that become a yellow cream color by about two years of age . the timneh ranges between 11 - 13\n( 27 . 5 - 32 . 5 cm ) in length from beak to tail , with a weight between 275 - 400 grams . this is about two thirds the size and weight of the congo .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : psittacus timneh . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthe timneh african grey ( or tag for short ) is smaller than the more popular congo african grey ( cag ) . it has a darker gray body , nearly black , with a horn - colored beak , and its tail ranges in color from maroon to dark gray or black .\nin cameroon , data on the geographical distributions and ecological requirements of parrots are limited . at the same time , concerns about the potential impacts of habitat fragmentation , deforestation , and live parrot offtake for the pet trade are of increasing interest to ecologists , wildlife managers , and policy makers [ 11 ] . for these reasons , data are needed for informed decisions on the parrot and its range , to determine sustainable conservation strategies for its populations . the need for information on grey parrot distribution and vegetation associations in cameroon for informed management and policy decisions formed the basis of this study [ 9 ] .\nafrican grey parrots require a special human to hold their attention span and keep them from being bored . exercise and play are important activities for the physical well being and psychological health of your parrot . provide your parrot with lots of activities in the form of large link chains , destructible bird toys , bird ladders , parrot swings , ropes , fresh branches for gnawing and chewing . they need a lot of stimulating toys at the same time , 3 to 5 work well , and rotated out with other toys on a regular basis . these activities help deter distress and prevent problems like feather picking and biting .\ns . a . tamungang , i . a . ayodele , and z . e . akum , \u201cbasic home range for the conservation of the african grey parrot in korup national park , cameroon , \u201d\nthe african grey timneh is equivalent in intelligence and ability to that of its congo counterpart , yet with unique strengths of its own . timnehs can learn to speak earlier than congos and are generally less nervous . in coloring they are a slightly darker gray and have a maroon tail rather than red . they are also bit smaller and less expensive , but makes an equally fine companion . being a more laid back version of african grey , some keepers actually prefer this more relaxed parrot to its cousin .\nwas first described by linnaeus in 1758 . it has been a lesser known grey found in the pet market , with the congo african grey being the most familiar . but today they are becoming increasingly more available . in aviculture it is known as tag , a shortened version of timneh african grey .\nthere has been a lot of work by specialized breeders to develop grey mutations , utilizing both the congo and the timneh african greys . varieties developed include red pied , albino , ino , blue , cinnamon , and more . the most spectacular mutation is a red african grey first developed in 1998 .\nthe timneh ( tag ) was until recently considered a sub - species of the congro grey ( cag ) . however , in 2011 , the two races were officially separated based on genetic , morphological , plumage and vocal differences ( ref . research by melo and o ' ryan - 2007 ) .\nthis african grey parrot only inhabits on the islands of principe and gernando po in the gulf of guinea . this bird is darker than the regular african grey , and is not a regular found in the trade\nfahlman , a . 2002 .\nafrican drey parrot conservation : a feasibility evaluation of developing a local conservation program in pricipe\n( on - line pdf ) . accessed april 10 , 2008 at urltoken .\nafrican grey parrots are among the most familiar of all parrots . originating from central africa , many african cities now have feral populations . the timneh grey parrot is localized to the ivory coast and sierra leone . habitats for grey parrots include savannahs , coastal mangroves , woodland and edges of forest clearings . african greys are listed under convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) appendix ii , which means these species are not necessarily threatened with extinction , but may become so unless their trade is strictly regulated .\nthe historic range of the grey parrot was relatively larger than its contemporary range but was limited to the rainforest and associated transitional vegetation of southern cameroon . the range encompassed major parts of the southwest , littoral , south , centre , and east regions and small parts of north west and west regions . grey parrots were roughly evenly distributed within this range . the grey parrot mostly preferred areas of the range at elevations of 5 to 650 m . out of the seven ecoregions in the country , three of them harboured grey parrots in significant numbers and the most preferred was the cross - sanaga - bioko forest . in these ecoregions , the grey parrot generally preferred a zone with mixed patches of primary and secondary vegetation . floral composition within the different habitat types was the strongest factor that influenced the contemporary distribution of the grey parrot in the country .\nin captivity , breeding the african grey timneh is not difficult . the reproductive years for this species is quite long . the timneh can start to reproduce around 4 years of age . when it is time to breed , the male feeds his mate and both will sing soft monotonous notes and perform mating dances where both sexes droop their wings . african greys will need a deep nest box that is mounted as high up as possible . they do not use any nesting material , but wood blocks should be provided for chewing , which stimulates breeding . the female at this time will sleep in the nest cavity while the male guards it .\nd\u00e4ndliker , g . 1992b . the grey parrot in ghana : a population survey , a contribution to the biology of the species , a study of its commercial exploitation and management recommendations . cites , lausanne , switzerland .\n28\u201339 cm . mottled grey , medium - sized parrot , with a large bill with a pale , horn - coloured area to part of the upper mandible , and white mask enclosing a yellow eye ; . . .\nworryingly , there also appears to be an increasing market for parrot heads and tail feathers , which are being harvested for purported medicinal purposes , and which are more easily stored and transported than live birds ( 14 ) .\ntimnehs have all the good qualities of their popular african grey congo counterpart . it has taken a while , but the african grey timneh is now getting more recognition . it has established itself as an excellent speaker with the perfect tone quality required by its humans to be understand , and can precisely mimic sounds in its environment .\nmelo , m . and o\u2019ryan , c . ( 2007 ) genetic differentiation between pr\u00edncipe island and mainland populations of the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) , and implications for conservation . molecular ecology 16 : 1673 - 1685 .\nthe parrot trade is big business in cameroonian society involving the public and the private sectors . it begins with the rural trappers and extends to exporters in towns and cities . the ministry of forestry and wildlife ( minfof ) is the major arm of the government that implements laws and regulations on the parrot trade . minfof works with cites to determine export quotas of parrots for a given period . the driving force behind the trade is poverty alleviation and unemployment .\nthe african grey parrot inhabits both primary and secondary lowland moist forest . it has also been observed at forest edges and clearings , and sometimes occurs in mangrove forest , gallery forest , savanna woodland and in cultivated areas . the african grey parrot is often found in areas of oil - palms ( elaeis guineensis ) , on which it likes to feed , and commonly roosts in raphia palms overhanging watercourses , or on offshore islands ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nmelo , m . and o\u2019ryan , c . ( 2007 ) genetic differentiation between pr\u00edncipe island and mainland populations of the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) , and implications for conservation . molecular ecology , 16 : 1673 - 1685 .\nalthough rarely recorded in markets in southeast asia relation to the grey parrot psittacus erithacus , there is evidence that this species is traded internationally \u2013 two individuals of unknown provenance were recorded for sale in bandung ; neither bird was ringed .\na mottled grey , medium - sized parrot . it has a large bill with a light , horn - coloured area to part of the upper mandible , and white mask enclosing a yellow eye . the tail is a dark maroon .\nreference : d\u00e4ndliker , g . 1992 . \u201cthe grey parrot in ghana : a population survey , a contribution to the biology of the species , a study of its commercial exploitation and management recommendations\u201d cites / eec / efta / unep .\nmelo , m . , c . o ' ryan . 2007 . genetic differentiation between principe island and mainland populations of the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) , and implications for conservation . molecular ecology , 16 : 1673 - 1685 .\nbottoni , l . , r . massa , d . boero . 2003 . the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) as a musician : an experiment with the temperate scale . ethology ecology and evolution , 15 : 133 - 141 .\nthere\u2019s a reason why the african grey is often considered the poster bird for parrot intelligence \u2014 not only is this bird inclined to amass a large vocabulary , african greys also demonstrate an aptitude for recognizing the meaning of words and phrases .\nannorbah , n . n . d . ; collar , n . j . ; marsden , s . j . 2016 . trade and habitat change virtually eliminate the grey parrot psittacus erithacus from ghana . ibis 158 : 82 - 91 .\ndid you know ? that the african grey has the reputation as being the best talker of all parrot species ? african grey parrots cannot only mimic speech , but mimic it in a voice that sounds quite human . they also imitate sounds with incredible accuracy , from dripping faucets to construction equipment . parrot keepers should be careful about uttering any words they don ' t want the birds to learn , since they seem to have a special talent for learning just what they shouldn ' t !\nyou should give a new arrival a few days to get use to you , your voice and its cage before trying to handle it . the timneh african grey parrot is somewhat shy and cautious by nature and they need a period of adjustment . they are reserved with new people and objects too , so will tend to sit back and watch before giving of themselves freely . a hand fed baby will not need much taming and can often be handled right away , but be patient and go slow . allow them to hear your voice , and get used to you and their new environment . .\nmelo , m . ; o ' ryan , c . 2007 . genetic differentiation between pr\u00edncipe island and mainland populations of the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) , and implications for conservation . molecular ecology 16 ( 8 ) : 1673 - 1685 .\nthe african grey parrot has a wide distribution across tropical africa , from south - eastern c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire east to kenya and tanzania , and south to angola ( 2 ) , including populations on the islands of pr\u00edncipe and s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 ( 3 ) .\njuste b . , j . 1996 . trade in the gray parrot psittacus erithacus on the island of pr\u00edncipe ( s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and pr\u00edncipe , central africa ) : initial assessement of the activity and its impact . biological conservation 76 : 101 - 104 .\n2016 ) . for several years guinea exported significant numbers as \u2018captive - bred\u2019 despite there being no commercial - scale breeding facilities in guinea ( cites 2012 ) . additionally , multiple shipments have been made from mali despite the species not naturally occurring there . in late 2015 , a shipment of 89 timneh parrots that originated in mali was confiscated in dakar ( r . martin\nthe need for information on grey parrot distribution and vegetation associations for informed management and policy decisions was the basis for this study . a nationwide survey of the grey parrot population and habitat status was carried out , using questionnaire and point count methods . from the results , the extent of the contemporary range of the parrots was restricted to southern cameroon , which harbours the rainforest . regional parrot population means ranged from 3 , 487 parrots in the littoral to 1 , 351 , 275 parrots in the east regions . the extent of the contemporary range as a percentage of the whole country was 25 . 4 % and as a percentage of the regions with rainforest was 44 . 5 % . the historic range of the bird has been reduced by over 55 . 5 % . estimated percentage of forest lost per region ranged from 20 . 4 % in the centre to 57 . 1 % in the east and south regions . at a global level , cameroon contributed 9 % to the total extent of the range of the grey parrot in africa . the range is increasingly fragmented , contracted , and lost through land - based socioeconomic activities . these degradation pressures on the range called for urgent conservation considerations for long - term survival of the parrot species and its associated biodiversity in cameroon .\nperches should be natural wood ranging in size from 2 - 4 inches in diameter . various sized fruit tree branches work very well . playthings can be such things as climbing ropes , chains , bells , parrot swings and wooden or other destructible bird toys .\njuste , j . 1995 . trade in the gray parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) on the island of principe ( sao tome and principe , central africa ) : initial assessment of the activity on its impact . biological conservation , 76 : 101 - 104 .\nsocioeconomic activities ( such as agroforestry ) that preserve the life of tree species known to be frequently used by the parrot ( such as ceiba pentandra , terminalia superba , melia excels , pycnanthus angolensis , etc . ) especially in the support zones of protected areas can be carried out with parrot / wildlife conservation programmes . the felling of trees destroys the nesting , feeding , and roosting sites of grey parrots . together , these negative factors are causing population declines and limits to population distribution of grey parrots in cameroon .\ns . a . tamungang and r . a . cheke , ecology and conservation of the grey parrot in cameroon . annual technical and financial progress report : field activities report from parrotpro , cameroon , unpublished report to loro parque fundaci\u00f3n , spain , 2009 .\nin the wild , the timneh african grey parrots breeding season is variable . greys enter into a lifelong monogamous bond when sexually mature . like macaws , they pick their mates carefully . the pair will show a great deal of devotion and affection to each other in the form of sitting closely and preening . these birds breed in loose colonies , with each pair occupying its own tree .\ngatter also records that in \u201c1981 - 84 , according to estimates of forest guards and myself , about 1 , 400 birds annually were smuggled from ivory coast via cavalla river near zwedru at only 3 canoe crossings \u2026 less than 1 % of them are p . e . erithacus\u201d . this is an indication that trade is not only a problem for erithacus , but for timneh also .\nwhile there has been some domestic demand within range states , most impacts seem to be due to international trade , probably owing to the high value of this species . in addition to those birds smuggled from ivory coast , in 2009 guinea exported 720 p . timneh , despite a quota of zero , and legal trade as monitored by cites may represent only a proportion of the total numbers taken from the wild . cites imposed a two - year ban from jan 2007 on exports of timneh from four west african countries , and the importation of wild - caught birds into the eu was prohibited in 2007 , leading to a fall in exports of both species , but the number of exportations rose once again in 2008 / 09 ( del hoyo et al . 2016 ) .\neach protected area designated with partial habitat status might not harbour the grey parrot in some of its parts due to the presence of savannah and grassland which do not attract the parrot . in some cases , the difference in habitat type in a protected area might be due to degradation from past socioeconomic pressures on the habitat or because that part of the protected area was on a relatively higher elevation than other parts . generally , high elevations brought about changes in vegetation composition and structure . for example , most of the grey parrots were detected below the elevation 800 m in the montane protected areas . in all , 54 . 6 % of the protected areas were completely covered with rainforest ( table 2 ) . the parrot therefore had more habitat resources for exploitation in those protected areas than those with partial rainforest .\nof particular concern is the effect of both the legal and illegal trade on the subspecies p . e . timneh , which has smaller numbers and a more limited distribution than the nominate species . there has been no effort to assess the impacts of trade in three of the five range states , nor to assess the effect of guinea having exported numbers of birds in excess of its estimated population .\na survey was carried out by a team on the ground in the study area from 2008 to 2011 involving collection of nationwide data on parrot population distribution , abundance , and vegetation associations . two major methods ( questionnaire and point count ) were used for field data collection .\np . erithacus the populations in upper guinea , nigeria and cameroon may have suffered reductions similar to those suffered by p . timneh . the populations in the congo basin , including equatorial guinea , gabon , republic of congo , dr congo , central african republic may have suffered some declines as stated previously in the birdlife grey parrot factsheet , due to harvesting and forest loss . however , it is unlikely we have sufficient data on the population in any congo basin country to say precisely that the decline of this species has exceeded 30 % . estimations of forest loss are likely to be the best proxy of p . erithacus population decline and should be used for this purpose .\nthe contemporary range of the parrot has not drastically contracted but has been reduced through fragmentation and deforestation in all regions . fragmentation was observed not only in logged forest concessions , farmland , and human settlements , but also in some parts of protected areas which were encroached with farms and human settlements . for example , villages were observed in the korup national park and the santchou reserve pending government resettlement activities to the support zone of the protected areas . all the regions with parrot populations had at least 20 . 40 % of surviving rainforest ( table 3 ) .\necology : timneh parrots are found in primary and secondary rainforest , forest edges and clearings , gallery forest , mangroves , savanna and cultivated land . diet consists of a variety of seeds , nuts , fruits ( including oil - palm ) and berries . birds will sometimes travel vast distances for food . they are generally seen in small , but vocal , flocks of a few dozen , usually not more .\nhas all the great attributes of these popular birds . though the timneh is a less common subspecies than the african grey congo , it ' s a very intelligent and clever bird . african greys are known to be the best talkers in the bird world . they are able to learn 200 or more words and all kinds of tricks . they also frequently imitate the sounds of their environment , and including people .\nthey equal the congo ' s in pet potential and\ntalking\nability . they are darker grey in color and have a maroon tail . we have found hand fed tags to be playful and affectionate . they need a\ngrey\nsized parrot cage , lots of stimulating toys and an affectionate owner . they bond closely with their owners and delight in being part of the family . our breeding tag ' s are on a pelleted diet with the addition of fresh fruits and veggies . ( source : rand b aviary - breeder of african greys and parrot connoisseur )\nthe african grey parrot is still numerous and found over a wide range , and occurs in a number of protected areas such as salonga national park in the democratic republic of congo . this park is a world heritage site and the largest tropical rainforest reserve in africa , although political instability there makes protection difficult ( 15 ) . however , despite trade being monitored to some extent under the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 4 ) , current levels are considered unsustainable and the african grey parrot is now in decline ( 2 ) ( 13 ) .\nmy love and best friend died this morning , i had her for 40 years . ( my timneh ) needless to say i ' m devasted over her passing . she was not ill . fine when i left for work this morning . couple hours later she laid dead on the bottom of her cage . worst part is not knowing what happened to her . heart attack ? did she fall from her perch and break her neck ? don ' t know i always thought i ' d be the one to go first . . my home is so quiet now it ' s so hard to be in it because of the silence . to everyone who owns a timneh they are the greatest . i know as time goes by pain lessens but the hole in my heart will forever be there . miss you so much my feathered friend .\ndata were further analysed to show the distribution of the grey parrot with respect to the ecological regions of cameroon ( figure 4 ) . there are seven ecoregions in the country and three of them harbour the grey parrot in significant numbers . in order of decreasing abundance of grey parrots , they are northwestern congolian lowland forest , which is a typical lowland rainforest ; atlantic equatorial coastal forest , which is made up predominantly of mangrove swamp forest ( figure 3 ) ; and the cross - sanaga - bioko forest , which is predominantly made up of a mixture of lowland and highland rainforest .\nthe species has a wide distribution across tropical africa , from guinea - bissau east to kenya and tanzania , and south to angola ( 2 ) , including populations on the islands of pr\u00edncipe and s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 ( 3 ) . p . e . timneh is restricted to the western part of this range , from guinea to ivory coast , with isolated populations in guinea - bissau and southern mali ( 3 ) ( 6 ) .\ngrey parrots usually bond with one person . they wouldn ' t do well with most children , as they are not very patient and will bite if they are being handled . mind you , which parrot wouldn ' t . . . for kids , i would always recommend parakeets and cockatiels .\nthe timneh , like most birds , are far more intelligent than humans realize . they are more than a pet . they are a permanent 3 year old dressed in feathers with an unending capacity to love and a need to learn . greys require a lot of attention and stimulation to be a happy healthy member of the family . they want to learn throughout their lifetime and are interested in expanding their knowledge on just about anything .\nfocus of future work : wpt ' s focus is to work with communities living within the jo\u00e3o vieira \u2013 poil\u00e3o national park in guinea - bissau to identify long - term solutions for the protection of these areas . ongoing support for law enforcement in the region will diminish the threat of illegal trade . in 2018 , wpt will support research focused on timneh ' s status and threats to their survival , being carried out in sierra leone .\nmuch of the grey\u2019s appeal comes from its talking ability . it is among the best talkers in the parrot family , able to repeat words and phrases after hearing them just once or twice . this bird reaches full talking ability around a year of age , and most individuals become capable mimics much earlier .\nthe study area covered the whole of the southern part of cameroon where rainforest exists ( figure 1 ) . sample points were selected randomly on each path in protected or nonprotected areas , to ensure that a cross - section of the major vegetation types in the geographical range of the grey parrot was sampled .\nif you notice any of this bird illnesses in your african grey , immediately provide a warm , draft free , secure environment kept at about 86\u00b0f ( 30\u00b0c ) . place food and water close to the perch where it is easily accessible . an ailing parrot should be taken to a avian veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment .\ngeographic coordinates ( longitude and latitude ) and altitude of each sampled site and all parrot detection points were registered with a global positioning system ( gps ) . this information was later downloaded into arcgis software and analysed for distribution on a topographic map of cameroon . satellite vegetation data on cameroon were obtained from various databases . the data consisted of aboveground vegetation biomass ( mg / ha biomass ) , cameroon ecoregions , and vegetation ( land cover ) datasets . each vegetation dataset was analysed and arranged on the cameroon topographic map in various layers . finally , the parrot detection points were arranged in a layer , which was superimposed on each vegetation map to come out with various distribution maps of the bird .\nthe research team was made up of five persons ( two wildlife biologists , an environmental geographer , a rural sociologist , and a driver ) . structured questionnaires ( open and closed ) , personal interviews , and focus group discussions were administered to a cross - section of the rural population on aspects of parrot distribution , forest exploitation , and wildlife conservation activities .\nbesides talking , african greys can and will make all the sounds they hear in the home . they can mimic all the other birds and pets , and of course , they can use any voice that they hear in the house as well . they can begin to mimic even before they are weaned , but not usually in clear sounds for some time . timneh african greys don ' t really start speaking until they reach a year of age or older . as you interact with them , they will talk and associate words with meanings ."]}
{"id": 284, "summary": [{"text": "the red rock rat , or red veld rat , ( aethomys chrysophilus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae native to southern africa . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "red rock rat", "paragraphs": ["together with the central rock - rat , it is listed as critically endangered on the iucn red list .\nlist of mammals - red rock lakes - u . s . fish and wildlife service\ndistribution range of laotian rock rat in pnkb np , quang binh province , vietnam .\nbiophysical mapping has played a crucial role in identifying the occurrence of central rock - rat habitat and it is the keystone in selection of potential central rock - rat sites .\nmammals are disappearing across northern australia ; the capentarian rock - rat is one of them .\nfemale red - necked wallaby showing distinctive red colouration against a blue - grey fur . ( image : pat o ' brien )\nhome \u00bb cyclura cychlura ssp . figginsi ( exuma island iguana , exuma island rock iguana , exuma rock iguana )\nrecovery plan for the central rock - rat ( zyzomys pedunculatus ) ( pdf - 94 . 5 kb )\nrecovery plan for the central rock - rat ( zyzomys pedunculatus ) ( rtf - 550 . 25 kb )\nlaonastes aenigmamus , laotian rock rat , phong nha - ke bang , khammouane , limestone forests , great annamite .\nhabitat and feeding ecology : the laotian rock rat was found only in limestone evergreen forest on karst slopes ( fig .\nwith a highly restricted distribution , the carpentarian rock - rat population was estimated to be fewer than 2 , 000 in 2006 . this includes an estimated population of 696 at moonlight gorge and 450 at banyon gorge . modelling of rock - rat home range sizes and habitat availability indicates there may be 782 home ranges for the carpentarian rock - rat in the area .\nred fox ( vulpes vulpes ) . found in the uplands and marsh edges .\n, of australia are often invaded by the black rat and are eventually occupied by only the black rat . when the abundances of these two rat species were compared in different\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ngapper ' s red - backed mouse ( clethrionomys gapperi ) . found in damp habitats .\nthe black rat also has a scraggly coat of black fur , and is slightly smaller than the brown ( norway ) rat .\nthe black rat , along with the brown rat , is one of the most widespread rats and animal species in the world .\nimages supplied by damian stanioch of the territory wildlife park , which has previously assisted in the carpentarian rock - rat recovery plan and captive breeding .\nthanks to karen brisbane for supplying data on rock - rat litter sizes and to her and other zookeepers at asdp for caring for the captive population .\nthe park has five species of macropods so you can potentially see eastern grey kangaroos , common wallaroos , swamp wallabies and brush - tailed rock - wallabies along with the red - necked wallaby .\nin order to know if the central rock - rat is secure in the wild we need to know if the sub - populations are increasing , decreasing or stable .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t569a115050345 .\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t573a114636514 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t568a115050232 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t571a115050521 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t5513a115072200 .\niucn ( 1996 ) . ' 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . ' iucn : gland , switzerland .\nbushy - tailed wood rat ( neotoma cinerea ) . historical account from 1942 .\nthere is currently no information on cat predation on the carpentarian rock - rat , but cats are suspected to cause the decline of other small mammals in the top - end .\nwhile this species ' relative , the brown ( norway ) rat prefers to nest near the ground of a building the black rat will prefer the upper floors and roof . because of this habit they have been given the common name roof rat .\nthe threats to the carpentarian rock - rat are common to other species of small mammal in the top end : changed fire regimes , and the effects of introduced animals and plants .\nbrush - tailed - rock - wallaby - petrogale - penicillata - recovery - plan - 080138 . pdf\njefferys , e . ( 1998 ) . the diet of the central rock - rat zyzomys pedunculatus ( rodentia muridae ) from central australia . sydney , the university of new south wales .\nas the source of the plague rather than the rat . according to epidemiological models ,\neager to learn more , the research team has offered $ 1 , 000 to study rat - plagued homes and businesses in the city . take that , pizza rat .\nprotection of habitat in which central rock - rats are known to be found . this will also benefit other species which use this habitat e . g . common brushtail possum , black - footed rock - wallaby\nit is physically very similar to the other species of rock - rat , and differs mainly in skull characteristics . its habitat consists of rainforest and vine thickets in rocky sandstone gorges and escarpments .\nalthough current threats are unknown it is thought that grazing by stock and feral herbivores may have contributed to the decline of the central rock - rat . feral predators ( cats and foxes ) could have a negative effect on the small , dispersed populations of the species . fire may have a limiting effect on the spread of the central rock - rat by limiting the availability of suitable habitat .\nmany arid zone mammals undergo large fluctuations in the size of their populations , usually associated with variations in rainfall . it is not unreasonable to assume that this is true for the central rock - rat .\ncolor varies slate grey , olive , brown , bluish grey with a yellow to orange ring around the neck . beautiful orange , red , yellow posterior with black spots and red to orange tail section . head is usually darker than the body . small slender snake .\niucn . 2004 . 2004 iucn red list of threatened species . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 23 november 2004 ) .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\n. smooth shiny scales . body is white , cream or light gray covered with wide red blotches outlined in black ; these same blotches are orange - red separated by a white , light gray or cream background color . young are patterned like adults , but colors are brighter .\nthe carpentarian rock - rat ( zyzomys palatalis ) is one of these declining mammals . it is one of five species of rock rats , and is only known from five gorges and escarpments on wollogorang pastoral station near the northern territory - queensland border . it was only described in 1989 , with the first specimens collected in 1986 .\nbehaviour and social organisation of the allied rock - wallaby petrogale assimilis . ramsay , 1887 ( marsupialia : macropodoidae ) .\nthe brush - tailed rock - wallaby ( petrogale penicillata ) is a distinctively marked medium sized wallaby and one of the larger rock - wallabies . it is listed in schedule 1 of the nsw threatened species conservation act 1995 as endangered .\n) . the interviewees also reported the occurrence of the laotian rock rat in limestone forest extending from thuong hoa and hoa son communes to two neighboring communes , trung hoa and hoa hop . cage traps and box traps were set up in 12 localities within these communes for a total of 9 , 050 trap - nights in april and may 2014 . only one live specimen of the laotian rock rat was caught in thuong hoa commune (\ndespite the black rat ' s tendency to displace native species , it can also aid in increasing species population numbers and maintaining species diversity . the bush rat , a common vector for spore dispersal of\nthe central rock - rat meets iucn red list category ' critically endangered ' under criteria b1 + 2a , b ( iucn 1994 ) . lee . ( 1995 ) listed it as endangered and critical using the earlier criteria of mace and lande ( 1991 ) . the proposed anzecc threatened fauna list 1999 lists z . pedunculatus as critically endangered using 1994 iucn guidelines .\ninterviews of local villagers indicated that the laotian rock rat has been found at 35 localities in thuong hoa commune ( 24 localities ) , hoa son commune ( 9 localities ) and dan hoa commune ( 2 localities ) ( fig .\nalso known as the ship rat ( 2 ) , the black rat was introduced to britain with the romans ( 4 ) . generally smaller than the brown rat ( rattus norvegicus ) , the black rat is typically a uniform black to tawny brown colour , with lighter underparts ( 1 ) . the tail , which is longer than the head and body , is hairless , and is used for balance ( 2 ) .\ngeographic distribution of the red - necked wallaby represented by coverage of 1 : 250 , 000 map sheets of australia ( see urltoken for australian maps ) .\ncoulson g ( 1999 ) monospecific and heterospecific grouping and feeding behavior in grey kangaroos and red - necked wallabies . journal of mammalogy 80 , 270 - 282 .\nthe black rat is a complex pest , defined as one that influences the environment in both harmful and beneficial ways . in many cases , after the black rat is introduced into a new area , the population size of some native species declines or goes extinct . this is because the black rat is a good generalist with a wide dietary\ntrampling and grazing of sensitive vegetation by feral herbivores may also cause a decline in the habitat and abundance of carpentarian rock - rats .\nthe specific origin of the black rat is uncertain due to the rat ' s disappearance and reintroduction . evidence such as dna and bone fragments also suggests that rats did not originally come from europe , but migrated from southeast asia .\nhe\u2019s offering up to a $ 1 , 000 \u201creward\u201d for access to a viable rat - infested location in manhattan .\ndespite the central rock - rat having been described over 100 years ago , almost nothing is known about its life history or ecology . captive animals have bred and have had litters of 3 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 1 , 1 and 4 ( karen brisbane pers . comm . ) juveniles have been captured in the wild in june . dietary analysis performed on scats has shown the central rock - rat to be primarily granivorous with leaf , fern sporangia and insects being taken in smaller quantities ( jefferys 1998 ) .\nthe west macdonnell range national park has a fire management strategy in place to protect areas that contain rare plant species . this fire management strategy will help to protect the presumed refugia of the central rock - rat which generally correspond to areas containing rare plant assemblages .\njohnson cn ( 1986 ) philopatry , reproductive success of females , and maternal investment in the red - necked wallaby . behavioral ecology and sociobiology 19 , 143 - 150 .\n, has been extirpated from many micro - habitats of australia . in the absence of a vector , the diversity of truffle species would be expected to decline . in a study in new south wales , australia it was found that although the bush rat consumes a diversity of truffle species , the black rat consumes as much of the diverse fungi as the natives and is an effective vector for spore dispersal . since the black rat now occupies many of the micro - habitats that were previously inhabited by the bush rat , the black rat plays an important ecological role in the dispersal of fungal spores . by eradicating the black rat populations in australia , the diversity of fungi would decline , potentially doing more harm than good .\ncoenen , c . 1995 . observations on the bahamian rock iguana of the exumas . bahamas journal of science . 2 : 8 - 14 .\nthe carpentarian rock - rat is a species with a highly restricted distribution , leading to its critically endangered status . targeted research is required to address the declines of many small mammal species in australia\u2019s top end . we need to understand fire and feral species management better .\nsubsequently spread it throughout the world . the black rat is again largely confined to warmer areas , having been supplanted by the\npopulations were common in great britain , but began to decline after the introduction of the brown rat in the 18th century .\njohnson cn ( 1987 ) macropod studies at wallaby creek . v . home range and movements of the red - necked wallaby . australian wildlife research 14 , 125 - 137 .\ni wish to thank the rock - rat recovery team members : keith morris , andrew burbidge , ann jelinek , graham phelps , colleen o ' malley , tim hall and sean moran , for their input into this interim recovery plan and theresa nano for her helpful comments .\nactive from march to november . young born in late summer or fall ; litters are large , varying from 4 - 85 . also known as the red - sided garter snake .\npoison control methods are effective in reducing rat populations to nonthreatening sizes , but rat populations often rebound to normal size within months . besides their highly adaptive foraging behavior and fast reproduction , the exact mechanisms for their rebound is unclear and are still being studied .\n. the black rat shows preference for snails with larger shells ( greater than 10mm ) , and this led to a great decline in the population of snails with larger shells . a lack of prey refuges makes it more difficult for the snail to avoid the rat .\nlapidge , s . j . ( 2001 ) . reintroduction biology of yellow - footed rock - wallabies . ph . d . thesis , university of sydney .\nthe central rock - rat is a small native rodent weighing about 50 - 120 g . it has harsh , long , yellow - brown fur above and cream or white fur below . adults are strongly built and have a distinctive ' roman nose ' and a fat , carrot - shaped tail ( watts and aslin 1981 ) . rock - rats are known to lose their tails , fur and skin very easily and are , therefore , difficult to handle .\ncree , h . , daugherty , c . h . and hay , j . m . 1995 . reproduction of a rare new zealand reptile , the tuatara sphenodon punctatus , on rat - free and rat - inhabited islands . conservation biology 9 : 373 - 383 .\na fire management strategy developed to protect the rare plants , fire sensitive plant communities and fire shadow areas in the macdonnell ranges will be implemented to protect central rock - rat refugia . a fire management strategy such as this will not only protect central rock - rat habitat , it will also afford protection to other rare and fire sensitive plant communities and species which inhabit them e . g . common brushtail possums . any off - park fire management will require the permission of the landowner . the bushfires council of the northern territory will be available to facilitate off - park burning if this is required .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brush - tailed rock wallaby ( petrogale penicillata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brush - tailed rock wallaby ( petrogale penicillata )\ntitle =\narkive species - brush - tailed rock wallaby ( petrogale penicillata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nknapp , c . 1995 . a flora and fauna survey of guana cay with emphasis on its rock iguana . bahamas journal of science . 2 : 2 - 7 .\nkangaroos are marsupials and belong to the family macropodidae ( i . e . big feet ) that is grouped with the potoroidae ( potoroos , bettongs , rat - kangaroos ) and hypsiprymnodontidae ( musky rat - kangaroo ) in the super - family , macropodoidea . this comprises around 50 species in\nthe black rat serves as prey to cats and owls in domestic settings . in less urban settings , rats are preyed upon by weasels , foxes , and coyotes . these predators have little effect on the control of the black rat population because black rats are agile and fast climbers . in addition to agility , the black rat also makes use of its keen sense of hearing to detect danger and quickly evade mammalian and avian predators .\nuntil the 1996 capture , the central rock - rat had not been seen since 1960 when a single specimen was caught raiding a stockman ' s tuckerbox near mt liebig , . since that time several species - specific searches in the former locations and general fauna surveys had been conducted in the west macdonnell ranges without success .\nnpws . ( 2008 ) recovery plan for the brush - tailed rock - wallaby ( petrogale penicillata ) . department of environment and climate change , new south wales , australia .\n) , are commonly distributed via aerial spray by helicopter as a method of mass control on islands infested with invasive rat populations . bait , such as\non september 3 , 1996 australian trust for conservation volunteers trapped an animal which was later identified from photographs as the central rock - rat . since that time sub - populations have been found at 15 other sites over a small area of the west macdonnell ranges . the full range of the current distribution of the species is unknown .\nwindrow , s . l . 1977 . winter activity and behaviour of the exuman rock iguana , cyclura cychlura figginsi . msc thesis , rutgers university , new brunswick , new jersey .\nrecovery team meetings will be held once per year . the central rock - rat recovery team will meet as part of the arid zone recovery teams combined meeting to keep costs to a minimum . the operation of the recovery team will be administered by pwcnt as the lead agency . team members will meet their own costs to attend meetings .\na cross section of mammals associated with the life zones of the region is found on the red rock lakes national wildlife refuge . however , as man has inhabited this valley , some indigenous species have disappeared ; bighorn sheep are only memories while fisher have not been seen for a generation . for specific current information on the status and distribution of mammals on the refuge , contact the visitor ' s center .\nmunn , a . j . , and dawson , t . j . ( 2010 ) . mechanistic explanations for drought - related mortality of juvenile red kangaroos : implications for population modelling . in \u2018macropods . the biology of kangaroos , wallabies and rat - kangaroos\u2019 . ( eds g . coulson and m . eldridge . ) pp . 117\u2013126 . ( csiro publishing : melbourne . )\nbaillie , j . and groombridge , b . ( eds ) . 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . pp . 378 . international union for conservation of nature , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\nthe central rock - rat was first scientifically described in 1896 by edgar waite after the horn scientific expedition to central australia . the specimens were found at ' alice springs ' and illamurta in the james range ( spencer 1896 ) . h . h . finlayson ( 1961 ) expanded the range of the species by including the granites , hugh creek , napperby hills and davenport range although he described it as being rare . cave deposits of bones show central rock - rats to have been present in the cape range ( 1993 ) , ulu\nthe brush - tailed rock wallaby is endemic to australia , where it occurs in small , isolated populations dotted across south - eastern queensland , eastern new south wales and victoria ( 3 ) .\n, is found on all continents of the earth . although the species is believed to be native to india and possibly other indo - malayan countries , it has been introduced through human travel overseas to all continents . it is most common in coastal areas because it is a rodent that flourishes in areas inhabited by humans as well as on large ships . for this reason , these animals are often called ship rats . some other common names for this species include house rat , black rat , and roof rat .\nrackham , j ( 1979 ) .\nrattus rattus : the introduction of the black rat into britain\n. antiquity 53 ( 208 ) : 112\u201320 . pmid 11620121 .\nbased on the results of our village interview survey , 12 areas where local villagers have previously trapped the laotian rock rat were selected for targeted field surveys using cage traps and box traps . after taking morphological characters , all live - trapped animals were released back into the wild at the place where they were trapped . study of laotian rock rat habitat was carried out in the same 12 areas using transect survey and plot survey techniques . plots of 10 x 10 m were used for inventory of all trees with height more than 3m , plots of 4 x 4 m for inventory of bush trees of height from 0 . 5 m to 3 m , and plots of 1 x 1 m for inventory of herbs and tree seedlings less than 0 . 5 m high .\npopulation modelling indicates that the population is highly sensitive to the frequency of hot , late dry - season fires , and these fires could lead to the rat\u2019s extinction within 100 years .\nfound in south eastern , and west central colorado usually at elevations below 6000 feet . rat snakes prefer the grasslands , and lightly wooded forests , sometimes found on ranches and farmland .\noriginated outside of europe , which indicates that western and central europe have never had any natural rodent plagues . the modern black rat was probably spread across europe in the wake of the\n, both were found to be affected by micro - habitat disturbances , but the black rat was most abundant in areas of high disturbance ; this indicates it has a better dispersal ability .\npye , swain , and seppelt , 1999 . distribution and habitat use of the feral black rat ( rattus rattus ) on subantarctic macquarie island . journal of zoology , 247 : 429 - 438 .\npnkb np is located along the eastern slope of the great annamite range which has a wetter climate . the forest habitat of pnkb np is characterized by dense moist evergreen forest with different types such as evergreen forest on limestone above 700 m asl , montane evergreen forest on hills above 700 m asl , evergreen forest on limestone under 700 m asl , evergreen forest on hills under 700 m asl , degraded evergreen forest on hills , tree and scrub savanna on limestone , tree and scrub savanna on hills , agricultural land , and plantations and other land uses ( le et al . 2012 ) . however , the loatian rock rat was found only in evergreen forest on limestone karst under 400 m asl . these data indicate that the laotian rock rat has a very narrow habitat preference which is restricted only to limestone karst covered by evergreen forest , semi - evergreen forest , and mixed deciduous forests .\nthe reproductive biology of the red - necked wallaby is typical of the patterns found in the brush wallabies . the gestation period is about 30 d and oestrus is post - partum . pouch life is 9 months . breeding is aseasonal on the mainland but seasonal in the tasmanian sub - species .\nin an effort to bridge this critical knowledge gap , the scientists have urged others to start conducting robust studies into city rat behavior and movement patterns . to gain access to rat - infested homes and businesses , the scientists recommended \u201cincentivizing\u201d property owners so they\u2019re more willing to open their properties for study . local authorities could , for instance , provide discounts for pest extermination services in return for access , they said .\nthe captive breeding population will be maintained at the alice springs desert park . asdp staff will negotiate with other institutions interested in breeding central rock - rats , and will liaise with these institutions . data collected from the captive population will add to our knowledge of the biology of the species as well as producing sufficient central rock - rats to allow for a reintroduction if this is deemed necessary . captive animals may go on display at the alice springs desert park as part of the public education programme .\ngreat plains rat snakes are primarily nocturnal , active on the ground but will climb , they like to stay close to permanent water sources . females are thought to lay eggs in july and hatch 2 months later .\ndespite its name , the black rat exhibits several colour forms . it is usually black to light brown in colour with a lighter underside . in the 1920s in england , several variations were bred and shown alongside domesticated\nvery secretive snake , hardest snake in colorado to find . rock flipping near drainages , walking around after spring rains may produce . very squirmy , may try to poke you with the tail , doesn ' t hurt adaptation most likely used to confuse predators .\nthe red - necked wallaby shows pronounced sexual dimorphism with males larger ( ranging from 15 - 27 kg to female ' s 11 - 16 kg ) and move heavily muscled in the fore - arms than females . the back is grey - fawn grading to a bright rufous raiment on the neck and the rump . the undersides are white through to pale grey . light cheek and hip stripes are visible but indistinct . red - necked wallabies are of similar size to swamp wallabies but their rufous raiments are distinctive . eastern grey kangaroos do not have a cheek stripe and are grey through to chocolate with no reddish highlights .\nit is a terrestrial snake . the rat snake can grow up to 11 feet in length . colours varied due to different climatic conditions and change in habitats . the rat snake has black tear marks just below the labial . they have numerous cross bars near the tail . it is voracious feeder of rats and mice and frogs . their size and colour are similar to the cobras . rat snakes are found wherever rats and frogs / toads are prevalent . so , of course , they are often found in rice fields and in human habitation . the colour varies from jet black in the hills to yellowish or brown . the female lays about 8 to 16 eggs and the young start their diet on frogs .\nmafiana , c . , m . osho , s . sam - wobo . 1997 . gastrointestinal helminth parasites of the black rat ( rattus rattus ) in abeokuta , southwest nigeria . . journal of helminthology , 71 : 217 - 220 .\nand a preference for complex habitats ; this causes strong competition for resources among small animals . this has led to the black rat completely displacing many native species in madagascar , the galapagos , and the florida keys . in a study by stokes\njenkins et al . ( 2005 ) , vongsa ( 2010 ) , and khotpathoom ( 2011 ) reported that in spite of several forest habitat types occurring in phou hin poun nbca ( semi - evergreen forest , vine - bamboo forest , dry deciduous forest , mixed deciduous forest and wetlands ) , the laotian rock rat was found only in limestone holes and in the vicinity of limestone caves at elevations from 263 to 734 m asl . the slopes surrounding karsts formations are covered with both evergreen trees and deciduous trees with little ground vegetation .\nprolonged licking of the mouth of one individual by another has so far been reported for two species of rock - wallaby and the red kangaroo . it may occur in other macropodids . it is suggested that the primary function of lip - licking is the transfer of saliva to the fore - stomach of the licker so as to maintain water content of digesta at a sufficient level for efficient digestive fermentation . lip - licking may be a useful behavioural indicator that water intake from milk , vegetation or drinking water is inadequate . the occurrence of the behaviour outside the mother\u2013young relationship is indicative of the high level of cooperation that has evolved in petrogale assimilis .\nhome range refers to the area in which an animal travels and spends most of its time . it is thought that male and female rats have similar sized home ranges during the winter , but male rats increase the size of their home range during the breeding season . along with differing between rats of different gender , home range also differs depending on the type of forest in which the black rat inhabits . for example , home ranges in the southern beech forests of the south island , new zealand appear to be much larger than the non - beech forests of the north island . due to the limited number of rats that are studied in home range studies , the estimated sizes of rat home ranges in different rat demographic groups are inconclusive .\nthis is particularly concerning as northern australia has a human population density of one person per ten square kilometres . it also has extensive and largely natural vegetation cover . the red fox , responsible for much of the mammal decline further south , is absent from the area . currently we think the declines are a combination of changing fire frequencies , grazing , and cat predation .\nharmless . keeled scales . three yellow body stripes , those on each side of body situated on second and third scale rows ( counting from belly up ) ; pattern of black spots on a red background between the stripes on the back . belly is white , greenish or gray , with a row of small dark spots along edges . young look like miniature adults .\nthe red - necked wallaby occupies a wide range of habitats but does not travel far from some form of dense cover like tall tussock grasses , shrubs and the shrubby understorey of woodland and forest . however , they range out into clear pasture and grassland from this cover to forage . along the east coast of australia , it is present in a broad gradient of habitat and shares this generalist characteristic with the swamp wallaby . the two species are largely separated by the former ' s preference for the ecotone between dense and open vegetation and the latter ' s preference for dense vegetation . the red - necked wallaby frequently shares habitat with the larger eastern grey kangaroo but a study in victoria showed that the two species rarely associate while foraging .\nmerchant , j . c . ( 1989 ) . lactation in macropodid marsupials . in \u2018kangaroos , wallabies and rat - kangaroos\u2019 . ( eds g . grigg , p . jarman and i . hume . ) pp . 355\u2013366 . ( surrey beatty : sydney . )\nbut as lead author michael parsons warned , city - dwellers can\u2019t afford to indulge their ignorance about their rat neighbors any longer . as city populations continue to balloon worldwide , rodent - related risks and diseases are anticipated to go up and up in the coming decades .\nresearch shows that in new south wales , the black rat prefers to inhabit lower leaf litter of forest habitat . there is also an apparent correlation between the canopy height and logs and the presence of black rats . this correlation may be a result of the distribution of the abundance of prey as well as available refuges for rats to avoid predators . as found in north head , new south wales , there is positive correlation between rat abundance , leaf litter cover , canopy height , and litter depth . all other habitat variables showed little to no correlation .\na typical adult black rat is 12 . 75 to 18 . 25 cm ( 5 . 02\u20137 . 19 in ) long , including a 6 . 5 to 10 cm ( 2 . 6\u20133 . 9 in ) tail , and weighs 110 to 340 g ( 4\u201312 oz ) .\nnatural history : this species is diurnal , active during the day , and is very alert and fast moving . they seek shelter in rock outcrops , small mammal burrows , as well as in trees and shrubs . they lay 3 - 12 eggs , between the months of june and july , usually in an abandoned rodent burrow incubation is between 44 - 58 days .\nringneck snakes coil their tail and display the red coloration as a defense mechanism to ward off predators , also feigning death . very secretive nocturnal species rarely seen during the day . ringnecks have rear enlarged teeth with mild venom , little threat to humans . breeding occurs in the spring laying eggs under rocks or logs in loose soil early summer , hatching august or september . flipping rocks in spring seems to be a productive method of finding ringnecks .\nis a medium sized rat with relatively large ears and a tail that is nearly always longer than the body . individuals weigh between 70 and 300 g , and are between 16 and 22 cm in head and body length and a tail length of 19 cm or longer . males are longer and heavier than are females .\nbeal , a . m . ( 1989 ) . differences in salivary flow and composition among kangaroo species : implications for digestive efficiency . in \u2018kangaroos , wallabies and rat - kangaroos\u2019 . ( eds g . grigg , p . jarman and i . hume . ) pp . 189\u2013195 . ( surrey beatty : sydney . )\nthe red - necked wallaby expresses a matrilineal relationship in the females but is not particularly gregarious . thus the female kin may be well spaced out even though they share a home range . even so mothers and their sub - adult sons and daughters and adult female relatives are frequent associates . individuals resting in cover are usually on their own but small groups may form in open foraging habitat . these aggregations are typically much smaller than those of sympatric whiptail wallabies or eastern grey kangaroos .\njanssens , p . a . , and rogers , a . m . t . ( 1989 ) . metabolic changes during pouch vacation in macropods . in \u2018kangaroos , wallabies and rat - kangaroos\u2019 . ( eds g . grigg , p . jarman and i . hume . ) pp . 367\u2013376 . ( surrey beatty : sydney . )\nhabitat modification is believed to be one of the most significant threats to this vulnerable marsupial , with habitat clearance , exotic plant invasion , changed fire regimes , exotic herbivore grazing , and residential and tourist developments , all impacting and altering the brush - tailed wallaby\u2019s habitat ( 2 ) . predation by introduced red foxes ( vulpes vulpes ) is also considered to be one of the major reasons behind these declines , as these agile predators can reach the wallaby\u2019s once inaccessible refuges ( 2 ) .\nthe lesson we can learn from the red - necked wallaby and one which seems to be shared with a number of other macropod species living in the more predictable temperate and tropical climates , is that populations move to an equilibrium with their resources and self - regulate . when these populations are perturbed by lethal control measures the brakes are released from reproduction and recruitment may accelerate . likewise if resources are improved with fertilisers and irrigation / watering , the accelerator may be depressed for a time before a new equilibrium is reached .\ncox , mpg ; dickman , cr ; cox , wg ( 2000 ) .\nuse of habitat by the black rat ( rattus rattus ) at north head , new south wales : an observational and experimental study\n. austral ecology 25 ( 4 ) : 375\u201385 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1442 - 9993 . 2000 . 01050 . x . issn 1442 - 9993 .\nspecies impact : implicated in decline of native fauna in hawaii ( atkinson 1977 ) , though amarasekare ( 1994 ) found no evidence that this species is an important predator on honeycreepers on western mauna kea . rat control reduced predation on dark - rumped petrel on maui ( buxbaum 1973 ) . implicated as a contributor in the decline of the ancient murrelet and other burrow - nesting seabirds ( see bertram and nagorsen 1995 ) .\nto secure populations in the wild it is necessary to reduce or eliminate the threatening processes . although fire is implicated in the decline of the species there may be other factors that have also contributed . it has been suggested that horses and cattle may have had a detrimental effect on central rock - rats . predation by cats and foxes may also have had an effect , however , the density of these predators seems to be very low in the ranges . this study will attempt to determine potential threatening processes .\nonce one of the most widespread of the rock wallabies , this bushy - tailed species has been greatly reduced in both numbers and range ( 3 ) . in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , this species was valued for its skin , as well as being thought of as an agricultural pest , and as a result hundreds of thousands were killed ( 3 ) . today , numerous threats continue to impact populations , including predation , competition , exotic plant invasion , habitat modification , fire , drought and disease ( 2 ) .\nthis species was once widespread throughout britain until the brown rat was introduced ( 4 ) . it originates from asia , and today is widely distributed around the globe ( 4 ) . it has been restricted to largely transient populations in southwark , london and avonmouth since 1884 , and has undergone a drastic decline in range since the 1950s ( 4 ) . it also persists on lundy island in the bristol channel and the shaint islands in the outer hebrides ( 4 ) .\nwhen black rat populations are presented with a wide diversity of foods , they eat only a small sample of each of the available foods . this allows them to monitor the quality of foods that are present year round , such as leaves , as well as seasonal foods , such as herbs and insects . this method of operating on a set of foraging standards ultimately determines the final composition of their meals . also , by sampling the available food in an area , the rats maintain a dynamic food supply , balance their nutrient intake , and avoid intoxication by secondary compounds .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\naccording to mike griffin ( pers . comm . ) , all a . chrysophilus in namibia could be a . ineptus if recent research on karyotypes is confirmed .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is found from southern kenya to northern south africa , and eastwards to namibia and southern angola . it is found on plains and high plateau , but it is not found in montane areas .\nthe population density of this species is variable , it can be locally abundant .\nthis is typically a savanna species , but it is also found in cropland and secondary forests .\nthere are no major threats to this species . however , as this species relies on ground cover , overgrazing and imprudent fire management could cause local declines and should be avoided .\nthey occur in kruger national park ( north of the olifants river ) and kgalagadi transfrontier park .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) ver 3 . 1\nlisted as critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 100 km\u00b2 and its area of occupancy is probably less than 10 km\u00b2 , all individuals are in a single location , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat . surveys by government agencies have not revealed the presence of this species in other adjacent localities ( molur\n. 2005 ) . recent surveys located the species in 2013 to 2014 in the shervaroy hills ( kumar 2015 ) .\nthere is no population information available for this species , though it is presumed the population size is very small , because in a recent survey only 12 adults were recorded during four months of survey between september and december 2014 ( kumar 2015 ) .\nit is a nocturnal and fossorial species , which occurs in tropical dry deciduous scrub forest , where it is seen in rocky areas ( molur et al . 2005 ) . in a recent survey , populations of c . elvira were found in rocky habitat living in rocky clifts and the gaps between rocks , which were surrounded by sparse grass , herbs and tall trees ( kumar 2015 ) .\n2005 ) . the mining and dumping of debris in the foothills of small hillocks in the reserve forest boundary might cause severe damage to the habitat , as well as uncontrolled grazing in the rocky areas which might also have a negative impact on the habitat ( brawin kumar pers . comms . ,\nmonadjem , a . , taylor , p . j . , denys , c . and cotterill , f . p . d . 2015 . rodents of sub - saharan africa - a biogeographic and taxonomic synthesis . de gruyter , berlin / munich / boston .\naethomys , chromosomal , morphological and molecular evidence support the recognition of micaelamys as a distinct genus ( baker et al . 1988 , russo 2003 , chimimba 2005 , lecompte et al . 2008 ) . micaelamys namaquensis can be can be distinguished from m . granti on morphological and chromosomal grounds ( visser and robinson 1986 , 1987 ; chimimba et al . 1999 ) . in m . namaquensis the tail is relatively longer , the ventral pelage is often pure white , and there are only three pairs of nipples ; whereas , in m . granti , the ventral pelage is never pure white ( usually grey or greyish ) , and there are five pairs of nipples ( monadjem et al . 2015 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is generally found south of the caprivi strip throughout most of the southern cone of africa , excluding southern parts of mozambique .\nin northern parts of the range ( namibia ) , it is only found areas of shifting sand , otherwise it is found in most habitat types . this species shelters in rocky crevices , hollow trees or in burrows constructed under logs or dense shrubs . nests of this species have been found in trees up to 2 metres . it is a nocturnal and communal species . it is a human commensal , and is found houses and huts .\nthere are no conservation measures in place ; it is not known if the species is present in any protected areas .\nthis amended version of the 2016 assessment reflects the taxonomic change in the species name . the range map was accidentally left out of the previous published version of this assessment and that omission is also corrected in this amended version .\nthe range of this species covers at least all of northern coastal angola , including the cabinda enclave , and the adjacent escarpment zone , extending southwards to the vicinity of lobito ( hanha estate ) . it is also known to occur east of latitude 17\u00b0e , in the cassange lowland . this species is probably distributed throughout northwestern angola as it is largely associated with savannas interspersed with forest .\nthis species inhabits savannas , and also savanna interspersed with forest . it is not known if the species can persist in disturbed or modified habitats .\nthe population size and abundance of this species is not well known . the species was thought to be extinct ( no records between 1960 and 1996 ) , and was subsequently rediscovered in fourteen sites in 1996 - 2001 , with subsequent disappearance from most of these sites ( e . g . nano 2008 ; edwards 2013a ; dickman et al . 2014 ) . records since 2001 are restricted to a few sites , and the size of these subpopulations is unknown but probably very small ( mcdonald et al . 2013 , 2015a 2015b ; woinarski et al . 2014 ) . woinarski et al . ( 2014 ) considered that the population size was < 1 , 000 mature individuals , albeit with low reliability .\nthreats are not well resolved . recent evidence has shown predation by feral cats ( mcdonald et al . 2013 ) . other threats may include predation by dogs or foxes ; inappropriate fire regimes ; and habitat degradation due to weeds ( woinarski et al . 2014 ) .\nmost or the remaining known occurrences are within conservation reserves . the species is listed as threatened under australian legislation and on appendix i of cites . nonetheless , the species is probably undergoing ongoing decline because threats are not effectively managed . more information is required on distribution , population size and threats . formerly - held captive breeding populations have now been abandoned . intensive threat management and reintroductions will be needed for conservation security .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >"]}
{"id": 306, "summary": [{"text": "the western bristlebird ( dasyornis longirostris ) is a species of bird in the family dasyornithidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to the coastal heaths of western australia ( east and west of albany ) . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "western bristlebird", "paragraphs": ["mcnee , s . ( 1986 ) . surveys of the western whipbird and western bristlebird in western australia , 1985 . raou report series . 18 .\ninformation on the western bristlebird is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nwestern bristlebird ( dasyornis ( dasyornis ) longirostris ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\ncale , p . g . & a . h . burbidge ( 1993 ) . research plan for the western ground parrot , western whipbird and western bristlebird . australian national parks & wildlife service .\nconfined to the south west of western australia , populations of the western bristlebird occur between two peoples bay and waychinicup inlet , and also in fitzgerald national park .\nwith brownish upperparts that feature distinct pale mottling , and pale underparts with dark scalloping , the western bristlebird is a distinctive inhabitant of the heathlands of south - western australia .\nthe western bristlebird lays two dull - white , spotted eggs in a large domed nest of sedges , rushes and sticks .\nthe frequency of burning these habitats determines the structure of the component vegetation . the western bristlebird has been recorded in areas :\ncomer , s . & s . mcnee ( 2001 ) . surveys for the western bristlebird and western whipbird . unpublished report to the south coast threatened birds recovery team , albany .\nsmith , g . t . & l . a . moore ( 1977 ) . an extension of the range of the western bristlebird . western australian naturalist . 14 : 28 .\nbird not seen calling , but a western bristlebird had been seen disappearing into the heavy scrub immediately prior to the calling commencing .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - western bristlebird singing\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - western bristlebird singing\ntitle =\narkive photo - western bristlebird singing\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe area of occupancy of the western bristlebird is estimated , with low reliability , at 20 km 2 ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .\nbuller , k . g . ( 1945 ) . a new record of the western bristlebird . emu . 45 : 78 - 80 .\nthe western bristlebird is shy , elusive and seldom seen , though it is often heard ( mcnee 1986 ; smith 1987 ; whittell 1936 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - western bristlebird ( dasyornis longirostris )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - western bristlebird ( dasyornis longirostris )\ntitle =\narkive species - western bristlebird ( dasyornis longirostris )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe extent of occurrence of the western bristlebird is estimated at 600 km\u00b2 . this estimate is considered to be of medium reliability ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .\nmurphy , d . ( 1994 ) . capture , radiotracking and habitat utilisation of the western bristlebird : report on a feasibility study . wa dept conservation & land management .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . western bristlebird ( dasyornis ( dasyornis ) longirostris ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken bristlebird ( dasyornis ( dasyornis ) longirostris ) / occurrences\n. department of parks and wildlife , perth , western australia . available from :\nford , j . ( 1965 ) . new information on the distribution of birds of south - western australia . western australian naturalist . 10 : 7 - 12 .\nthe western bristlebird occurs in six subpopulations . the largest subpopulation occurs between two peoples bay and the waychinicup river , and is estimated to contain 1000 birds ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . the maximum population of the western bristlebird in the fitzgerald river national park is estimated at 300 birds ( higgins & peter 2002 ) . the subpopulation of the western bristlebird in two peoples bay nature reserve has apparently been increasing . up to 60 pairs were present in 1970 , 86 pairs were recorded there in a partial census in 1976 , the population was estimated at about 100 pairs in 1983 and 245 pairs in 1991 ( cale & burbidge 1993 ; smith 1987 ) .\nsmith , g . t . ( 1985 ) . fire effects on populations of the noisy scrub - bird ( atrichornis clamosus ) , western bristlebird ( dasyornis longirostris ) and western whipbird ( psophodes nigrogularis ) . in : ford , j . r . , ed . symposium on fire ecology and management in western australian ecosystems . page ( s ) 95 - 102 . wa institute of technology , perth .\nthe diet of the western bristlebird consists of invertebrates and seeds . known food items include the seeds of anarthria scabra , daviesia spp . and acacia spp . , as well as earthworms , snails and insects such as ants and beetles and their larvae ( buller 1945 ; chapman 1999 ; milligan 1902a ; smith 1987 ) . the western bristlebird forages on or close to the ground , probing leaf - litter or pecking the ground , or gleaning items from the foliage of plants ( smith 1987 ) .\nbaird , r . f . ( 1991 ) . holocene avian assemblage from skull cave ( au - 8 ) , south - western australia . records of the western australian museum . 15 : 267 - 286 .\nthough the overall population of the western bristlebird has declined since the late 19th and early 20th centuries ( mcnee 1986 ; smith 1977 , 1987 ) , the population is considered to be stable ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) or increasing ( chapman 1999 ) . the population of the western bristlebird at two peoples bay nature reserve has increased since 1973 , and it is considered that this has been due to the management policy of excluding fire from the area ( orr et al . 1995 ; smith 1985 , 1987 ) .\nglauert , l . ( 1945 ) . bristle - birds in western australia . emu . 44 : 334 .\nnapier , c . ( 2004 ) . kundip nature reserve . western australian bird notes . 110 : 15 .\nford , j . ( 1963b ) . branch report , western australia . emu . 63 : 90 - 92 .\nthe western bristlebird is unlikely to be confused with any other species within its range . however , the noisy scrub - bird has generally similar coloration and also skulks , but is readily identifiable by its barred upperparts and lack of scalloping on its underparts , and their calls are very different .\nbuchanan , b . ( 2004 ) . kundip nature reserve . western australian bird notes . 109 : 15 - 16 .\ntwo peoples bay nature reserve , fitzgerald river national park and waychinicup national park support populations of western bristlebirds ( mcnee 1986 ) .\nwhittell , h . m . ( 1936 ) . the bristlebirds of western australia . emu . 35 : 197 - 201 .\nour bird observatories in western australia may be a little off the track , but that\u2019s what makes them such magical places to see birds .\nserventy , d . l . & h . m . whittell ( 1962 ) . birds of western australia . paterson brokensha , perth .\ndepartment of the environment ( 2014pw ) . non - current approved conservation advice for dasyornis longirostris ( western bristlebird ) . canberra : department of the environment . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 11 - apr - 2014 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 14 - feb - 2018 .\nthe distribution of the western bristlebird is fragmented , with populations in fitzgerald national park separated from those in the hassell beach / waychinicup national park / two peoples bay nature reserve area ( barrett et al . 2003 ; higgins & peter 2002 ; mcnee 1986 ) . the distance between these areas is about 120 km and , although the intervening area has been extensively surveyed , no western bristlebirds have been recorded , despite the habitat being apparently suitable for the species ( gilfillan et al . 2007 ) .\nc . 17 cm ; 26\u201339 g . the smallest bristlebird ; stout body , short rounded wings , longish graduated and often ragged tail , and medium - length slightly decurved sturdy bill . . . .\nburbidge , a . h . ( 2007 ) . personal communication . principal research scientist , western australian department of environment and conservation . april 2007 .\nwhitley , g . p . ( 1971 ) . field notes on birds by thomas carter . western australian naturalist . 12 : 41 - 44 .\nthe former distribution of the western bristlebird is poorly known . the first specimen was collected in 1839 near perth ( mcnee 1986 ; serventy 1948 ; whittell 1941 ) , but has not been seen there since . the species was certainly at king george sound and near wilsons inlet ( mcnee 1986 ) . fossil remains are known from near augusta ( baird 1991 ) .\nthe western bristlebird has declined in the western part of its original range ( higgins & peter 2002 ; mcnee 1986 ; smith 1987 ) . it previously occurred near albany , at wilson inlet and king george sound between the late 1860s and 1912 ( glauert 1945 ; serventy 1948 ; smith 1987 ; whitley 1971 ; whittell 1936 ) . it was reported at beaufort inlet in april 1976 and october 1977 ( blakers et al . 1984 ; mcnee 1986 ) , but has not been seen there since ( mcnee 1986 ) .\nserventy , d . l . ( 1948 ) . the birds of the swan river district , western australia . emu . 47 : 241 - 286 .\nwhittell , h . m . ( 1941 ) . a review of the work of john gilbert in western australia . emu . 41 : 112 - 129 .\ntwo mitigation approaches have been adopted for the western bristlebird : translocation of bristlebirds ; and fire management strategies in concert with long - term population monitoring ( burbidge 2003 ; danks 2004 ) . however , the translocated population near walpole does not seem to have survived . it is unknown whether this was due to the fires that burnt the area in the autumn of 2001 or other factors .\nthe western bristlebird can survive ( or escape from ) a fire , provided there is adequate unburnt vegetation nearby ( burbidge 2003 ; garnett & crowley 2000 ; mcnee 1986 ) . after a fire unburnt swampy vegetation dominated by sedges and thickets may be important as a refuge habitat ( smith 1987 ) and western bristlebirds have been recorded setting up new home ranges in the nearest available unburnt habitat ( burbidge 2003 ; gilfillan et al . 2007 ) . in moist areas , vegetation may be colonised as soon as 2\u00963 years after burning ( burbidge 2003 ) .\nsmith , g . t . ( 1987 ) . observations on the biology of the western bristle - bird dasyornis longirostris . emu . 87 : 111 - 118 .\ngregory , p . ( 2018 ) . western bristlebird ( dasyornis longirostris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncoastal sw western australia between two peoples bay and waychinicup , and in fitzgerald river national park . small translocated population near walpole ( w of albany ) may now be extinct .\nthe western bristlebird occurs in three distinct locations : fitzgerald river national park , hassell ( cheynes ) beach / waychinicup national park / two peoples nature reserve , and a translocated population near walpole , though this last population may no longer occur there ( barrett et al . 2003 ; gilfillan et al . 2007 ; mcnee 1986 ) . there is also a record of two western bristlebirds at kundip nature reserve from december 2003 ( buchanan 2004 ; napier 2004 ) , but it is unknown whether this record represents a permanent subpopulation or was a record of vagrant or dispersing birds ( gilfillan et al . 2007 ) .\nburbidge , a . h . ( 2003 ) . birds and fire in the mediterranean climate of south - west western australia . in : abbot , i . , & n . burrows , eds . fire in ecosystems of south - west western australia : impacts and management . page ( s ) 321 - 347 . backhuys publishers , leiden , the netherlands .\nfire the main threat to the western bristlebird is extensive , or frequent , fire . fires at intervals of less than 5\u009610 years may lead to its local extinction ( smith 1987 ) . the optimum fire frequency for the species is unknown , however , the maximum fire frequency to maintain viable populations of the western bristlebird is not less than 20 years ( burbidge 2003 ) . severe or large scale fires have the potential to destroy all suitable habitat , including refuges ( gilfillan et al . 2007 ; mcnee 1986 ; smith 1977 , 1987 ) . fire frequency greater than every 5\u009610 years will lead to the extinction of a population , but what happens to its heath habitat in the absence of fire for 50 or more years is unknown . some areas of heath around mt . gardner have not been burnt for at least 45 years and the density of birds in these areas is less than in areas burnt 20 years ago ( smith 1987 )\nchapman , a . & k . r . newbey ( 1990 ) . a biological survey of the fitzgerald area , western australia . final report ( june 1987 ) part 1 . wa dept conservation & land management .\nbeing a \u2018skulking\u2019 species , western bristlebirds are seldom seen but often heard , as they are often difficult to see , generally staying concealed among the dense vegetation of coastal heathlands . their song is a distinctive , melodious whistle .\nwestern bristlebirds inhabit inhabit coastal heathlands with a diverse range of dense , low - growing shrubs . they occur in areas that have not been burnt for some years , but the time between burning and reoccupation varies between different sites .\nin the absence of fire at two peoples bay , home - ranges have remained stable over the last 30 years ( burbidge 2003 , 2007 , pers . comm . ) . here , the home - range of pairs of western bristlebirds , determined by mapping locations of singing birds , was estimated at 6 . 5 ha ( range 6\u00968 ha ) , with pairs spending at least 60 % of their time in a core area of 1\u00963 ha ( smith 1987 ) . one radio - tracked western bristlebird , at two peoples bay , had a home - range of 6 ha , and another had a home - range of 21 ha ( murphy 1994 ) . in the fitzgerald river national park , population densities of western bristlebirds have been estimated at 0 . 1 birds / ha ( smith & moore 1977 ) , and 0 . 3 birds / ha at two peoples bay ( higgins & peter 2002 ) . near mt gardner , at two peoples bay , 12 pairs were recorded in an area of about 80 ha ( smith 1987 ) .\nwestern bristlebirds forage on or close to the ground , taking mainly invertebrates , including worms , snails and insect and their larvae , as well as seeds . they constantly peck at the ground , using the bill to probe beneath the leaf litter or sweep fallen leaves aside .\nburbidge , a . h . , s . comer & a . danks ( 2005 ) . ' threatened birds and wildfire in south - west western australia ' in : fire and birds . fire management for biodiversity . wingspan ( supplement ) . 15 ( 3 ) : 18 - 20 .\na small population of western bristlebirds was translocated to near walpole , western australia ( burbidge 2003 ; garnett & crowley 2000 ) . eight birds were translocated in 1999 with a further seven being added in 2000 . a number of birds persisted after a fire in 2001 , with at least five heard calling in 2002 , but only one bird was heard calling between 2003 and 2005 , and none has been heard since 2005 ( burbidge 2003 ; gilfillan et al . 2007 ) . further translocations may be considered in the future , but need careful consideration as the success of this first translocation is uncertain ( gilfillan et al . 2007 ) .\neight western bristlebirds were translocated from two peoples bay nature reserve to near walpole , west of albany , in the spring of 1999 , and another seven were translocated in the spring of 2000 . although the area was burnt in a bushfire in the autumn of 2001 , at least seven birds persisted into the winter of 2001 ( burbidge 2003 ) , but there is no evidence of persistence since mid - 2005 ( gilfillan et al . 2007 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\n17 - 20 cm . medium - sized , sturdy , grey - brown passerine . sexes similar . dark brown upper back dappled pale grey . dark brown lower back . rich rufous - brown rump . rufous - brown upperwing - coverts . mostly rufous - brown uppertail . off - white centre of breast and belly with fine black - brown scalloping , sparser on belly . olive - brown sides of belly and flanks with fine black - brown scalloping . mostly olive - brown undertail . juvenile similar to adult , but upperparts without dappling .\nmale , high chortling call , very variable within and between individuals . female , replying with a sharp , usually three - noted whistle .\nthis species has been uplisted to endangered because it has a very small range , and a small population which is undergoing a decline , owing mainly to the effects of wildfires . large lightning - induced fires in 2005 and 2006 severely reduced the population , and ongoing habitat degradation from fires is likely .\n, from perth to ravensthorpe . it is now restricted to 14 sites in and around fitzgerald river national park and to a small area just east of albany at two peoples bay nature reserve , betty\u2019s beach , mt manypeaks to bluff creek . eighteen birds were translo\u00adcated in 1999\u20132000 and 2007 from two people\u2019s bay to near walpole , west of albany , but there was no evidence of breeding . a population of c . 620 pairs in 2001 was reduced by fires to c . 320 pairs in 2005 ( burbidge\n2010 ) , estimated to comprise c . 1 , 000 mature individuals ( garnett\n2011 ) . the density of birds is greater in the manypeaks - waychinicup areas than in the fitzger\u00adald river national park , but reasons for this are unknown . the albany to mt manypeaks area population declined from c . 500 pairs in 2001 to 200\u2013315 pairs in 2005 and 2006 , largely as a result of wildfires , although the cause for the decline in some areas is unclear . the fitzgerald river national park subpopulation numbered c . 125 pairs in 2005 ( burbidge\nin 2005 , the known breeding population was estimated at 300 - 450 pairs , probably equating to a total of 1 , 000 mature individuals ( a . burbidge\nat the turn of the century , the species was considered to be stable ; however , a series of fires in the two peoples bay - mt manypeaks area between december 2000 and december 2004 impacted the local population ( a . burbidge in litt . 2007 ) . numbers of calling males were reduced from about 500 in 2001 to 200 in 2005 , with similar numbers recorded in 2006 . thus , overall , the population is estimated to have declined over the last three generations .\nit is terrestrial and sedentary with a preference for dense , low heaths . in two peoples bay , it occurs in dense , closed heath 1 - 1 . 5 m high . near waychinicup river and in the fitzgerald river national park , it is found mainly in closed heath 0 . 5 m high , sometimes with scattered patches of mallee eucalypts . unburnt swampy vegetation , predominantly sedges and thickets , may be important refuges after fires . at two peoples bay , it can reoccupy heaths less than 3 years after fire , although breeding may not occur until later . it may not reoccupy heaths in drier areas until 11 - 14 years after fire . it was found in heaths 5 - 12 years after fire from boulder hill to east of waychinicup river , and 14 - 28 years after fire in the northern part of fitzgerald river national park .\nit is particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction and alteration . wildfire is the principal threat , particularly large - scale wildfires , the incidence and extent of which have been increasing in recent years , despite increased skills , capacity and effort to stop them . fires at less than 5 - 10 year intervals may lead to local extinctions , and such fires are almost certainly the main cause of its historical range contraction . at the other end of the scale , some coastal heath ( at least at two peoples bay ) remains suitable habitat for at least 50 years after fire , although the carrying capacity may be reduced with time . a series of fires in the two peoples bay - mt manypeaks area between december 2000 and december 2004 impacted the local population of this species ( a . burbidge\n. numbers of calling males were reduced from about 500 in 2001 to 200 in 2005 ( a . burbidge\n. while most of this decline was clearly attributable to large - scale wildfires , some of the decline was most likely due to other , unknown factors ( a . burbidge\n2009 ) . clearance for grazing and agriculture caused historical range contractions , but is no longer considered a threat as almost all bristlebirds now occur in protected areas .\nsurveys have been completed over the range of the species , and populations are protected from fire as much as possible , particularly in association with the other threatened taxa of the two peoples bay - manypeaks area . in 1999 - 2000 and 2007 , 18 birds were translocated to a site west of albany , but the translocation appears to have been unsuccessful and there was no evidence of breeding ( garnett\n. the population in the two peoples bay - mt manypeaks area is being monitored ( danks and comer 2006 , a . burbidge\n. the recovery of this species is being managed by the south coast threatened birds recovery team ( a . burbidge\nsurvey and monitor populations at five - year intervals and search for new subpopulations . maintain active fire protection and management at all sites . continue habitat management and threat abatement of all occupied areas within an adaptive management framework . further investigate habitat requirements , in particular in relation to fire age , vegetation structure and food availability . study the effect of\n, and the extent of predation by invasive species . establish populations throughout former range where appropriate habitat persists . continue the translocation programme . continue to support coordination of management by the south coast threatened bird recovery team ( garnett\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nby joining the biggest community of bird lovers in australia , you can help us make a positive impact on the future of our native birdlife . the members of birdlife australia , along with our supporters and partners , have been powerful advocates for native birds and the conservation of their habitats since 1901 .\nwe are also the meeting ground for everyone with an interest in birds from the curious backyard observer to the dedicated research scientist . it doesn\u2019t matter what your interest in birds is or how much you know about them , your membership will offer you the opportunity to increase your awareness and enjoyment .\nbirdlife australia would be delighted to welcome you as a new member and we look forward to sharing our news and achievements with you throughout the coming year .\nalthough birds are usually quite easy to see , often they are more difficult to identify . you may have had the briefest glimpse or heard a snatch of its song , or perhaps it was a bird you have never seen before . the best place to look for it is here . you will discover the remarkable variety of birds that occur across australia . with stunning images of featured species and some recordings of their songs and calls , you are sure to find that mystery bird , or learn more about species you already know .\nselect a bird group . . . birds of prey bush birds parrots sea birds water birds\nyou can participate and share in activities and projects with local experts all over australia .\nvisit us in sydney olympic park where you can learn about , see and engage with australian birds up close and personal .\nvisit birdlife australia\u2019s stunning conservation reserves and sanctuaries overflowing with native birdlife and other incredible flora and fauna .\nwant to know all about our native birds ? explore , learn , discover and enjoy australia\u2019s most comprehensive bird resource .\ndiscover and identify the urban birds in your backyard . get involved by helping us gather and share information about your local birdlife .\nfind places to watch birds in their native habitat . search our listing to find the next opportunity to see your favourite birds nearby and interstate .\nwe hold regular events and activities throughout the year and some have been taking place for decades . there are many ways for keen bird lovers to get involved .\njoin our community of dedicated volunteers that help monitor and collect important data on australia\u2019s birds . we always need more citizen scientists .\nthere are many ways you can help us help our native birds . join as a member , volunteer , make a donation or a bequest . your support makes a real difference .\nfrom urgent conservation activities to ongoing data recording , explore our vital projects that make a real difference to australia\u2019s birds .\nour policies , submissions and campaigns make us the leading voice for australia\u2019s birds by influencing decision makers and stakeholders .\nresearch , monitoring and evaluation underpin all our efforts . we have a long history of expertise in the science of bird conservation .\nour education programs share knowledge and experience in a friendly hands - on environment with staff and volunteers that know and love australia ' s birds and their habitats .\nbirdlife australia has a long and proud history of excellence in publishing . our members ' magazine , journals , newsletters , and reports are all world - class .\nthe h . l . white library is the most comprehensive ornithological library in australia , containing thousands of books , journals , and media about birds and related topics .\nthe atlas is one of birdlife australia ' s greatest resources , allowing us to track changes in birds across the country . since 1998 a dedicated band of . . . more >\nbirdlife australia\u2019s beach - nesting birds project works with community volunteers across australia to help raise awareness among beach users about . . . more >\nthe shorebirds 2020 program aims to reinvigorate and coordinate national shorebird population monitoring in australia . to report on the population . . . more >\nsince european settlement one - third of australia\u2019s woodlands and 80 % of temperate woodlands have been cleared . the woodland birds for biodiversity . . . more >\nthe top of the head , neck and upper back are all dark brown with distinct grey mottling , merging to rufous brown on the lower back and rump ; the uppertail is olive brown with rufous margins . the face is generally grey - brown , with a whitish chin and throat . the breast is light brownish - grey with fine , dark - brown scalloping , the belly is whitish , and the undertail is brownish grey . the eye is reddish .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i of cites ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dasyornis longirostris . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan required , included on the commenced list ( 1 / 11 / 2009 ) .\nsurvey guidelines for australia ' s threatened birds . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 2\n( department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) , 2010 ) [ admin guideline ] .\nsouth coast threatened birds recovery plan 2009 - 2018 ( department of environment and conservation , 2009v ) [ state recovery plan ] .\nthe action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson , 2011 ) .\nquantifying extinction risk and forecasting the number of impending australian bird and mammal extinctions . pacific conservation biology . ( geyle h . m . , j . c . z . woinarski , g . b . baker , c . r . dickman , g . dutson , d . o . fisher , h . ford , m . holdsworth , m . e . jones , a . kutt , s . legge , i . leiper , r . loyn , b . p . murphy , p . menkhorst , a . e . reside , e . g . ritchie , f . e . roberts , r . tingley & s . t . garnett , 2018 ) .\nlisted as endangered ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\na site just north of the fitzgerald river national park ( mcnee 1986 ) .\nsurveys have revealed their presence at 14 different sites in and near fitzgerald river national park ( gilfillan 2007 ) .\nthe species was not known from areas east of albany until 1945 , when it was discovered at two peoples bay ( buller 1945 ) ; it was subsequently recorded at waychinicup river ( ford 1963 ) , and in fitzgerald river national park in 1976 ( smith & moore 1977 ) .\nthe populations identified as being important for the species ' long - term survival are those located in the fitzgerald national park and in the area between hassell beach and two peoples nature reserve , including waychinicup national park ( cale & burbidge 1993 ; chapman & newbey 1990 ; garnett & crowley 2000 ; gilfillan et al . 2007 ; mcnee 1986 ; orr et al . 1995 ) .\nit also occurs in areas last burnt at least 50 years previously , but at a lower population density than it does in less mature vegetation ( smith 1987 ) .\nrecovery of its habitat after fire may take longer in relatively dry areas such as fitzgerald river national park than in moist areas such as two peoples bay ( mcnee 1986 ) .\n, all of which are listed as threatened taxa under australian or state government legislation ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; mcnee 1986 ; orr et al . 1995 ) .\nnothing is known of the role of each sex in nest building , incubation or feeding the nestlings ( smith 1987 ) .\nthe species is usually detected only by its vocalisations , usually between may and october . it has distinctive calls , which are most intense at dawn and , to a lesser extent , at dusk ( mcnee 1986 ; smith 1987 ; whittell 1936 ) . the song bouts are short and infrequent and large numbers of observations are needed to build up an adequate picture of the area used by the species . there are two song types and three call notes . the most frequently given song is a highly variable melodious whistle of five to eight notes ( smith 1987 ) .\nsmith ( 1987 ) provides details of many aspects of the species ' biology .\nmcnee ( 1986 ) provides information about a comprehensive survey conducted in 1985 , including the composition and structure of suitable vegetation at various sites .\nburbidge ( 2003 ) published the results of a study on the effects of bushfires on the species .\nbarrett , g . , a . silcocks , s . barry , r . cunningham & r . poulter ( 2003 ) . the new atlas of australian birds . melbourne , victoria : birds australia .\nblakers , m . , s . j . j . f . davies & p . n . reilly ( 1984 ) . the atlas of australian birds . melbourne , victoria : melbourne university press .\nchapman , g . ( 1999 ) . bristlebirds : see how they run . wingspan . 9 ( 1 ) .\ndanks , a . ( 2004 ) . south coast biodiversity . an overview of biodiversity values , threats and conservation in the south coast region . department of conservation and land management , albany .\ngarnett , s . t . & g . m . crowley ( 2000 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2000 . canberra , act : environment australia and birds australia . available from : urltoken .\nhiggins , p . j . & j . m . peter ( eds ) ( 2002 ) . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . volume 6 . pardalotes to spangled drongo . oxford university press , melbourne .\nhiggins , p . j . , j . m . peter & w . k . steele ( eds ) ( 2001 ) . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . volume five - tyrant - flycatchers to chats . melbourne : oxford university press .\nmagrath , m . j . l . , m . a . weston , p . olsen & m . antos ( 2004 ) . draft survey standards for birds : species accounts . melbourne , victoria : report for the department of the environment and heritage by birds australia .\nmilligan , a . w . ( 1902a ) . description of a new bristle bird ( sphenura ) . emu . 1 : 67 - 69 .\norr , k . , a . danks & k . gillen ( 1995 ) . two peoples nature reserve management plan 1995 - 2005 . perth : department of conservation and land management for national parks and nature conservation agency .\nschodde , r . & i . j . mason ( 1999 ) . the directory of australian birds : passerines . melbourne , victoria : csiro .\nsmith , g . t . ( 1977 ) . the effect of environmental change on six rare birds . emu . 77 : 173 - 179 .\ncommonwealth of australia ( 2000 ) . declaration under s178 , s181 , and s183 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of threatened species , list of threatened ecological communities and list of threatening processes . f2005b02653 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( 2006hg ) . dasyornis longirostris in species profile and threats ( sprat ) database . canberra : deh . available from : urltoken .\ngarnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson ( 2011 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2010 . csiro publishing . available from : urltoken .\ngeyle h . m . , j . c . z . woinarski , g . b . baker , c . r . dickman , g . dutson , d . o . fisher , h . ford , m . holdsworth , m . e . jones , a . kutt , s . legge , i . leiper , r . loyn , b . p . murphy , p . menkhorst , a . e . reside , e . g . ritchie , f . e . roberts , r . tingley & s . t . garnett ( 2018 ) . quantifying extinction risk and forecasting the number of impending australian bird and mammal extinctions . pacific conservation biology . urltoken\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . dasyornis longirostris in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 04 : 48 : 35 + 1000 .\nbird singing close by and visible for much of the time during which i made three recordings . it was missing the remiges of its left wing , the new incoming feathers with long sheaths . right wing was fully feathered . singing in both dead and live shrubs in heath , up to 1 m above ground . same individual as in xc393686 and xc393687 .\nbird singing close by and visible for much of the time during which i made three recordings . it was missing the remiges of its left wing , the new incoming feathers with long sheaths . right wing was fully feathered . singing in both dead and live shrubs in heath , up to 1 m above ground . same individual as in xc393686 .\nbird singing close by and visible for much of the time during which i made three recordings . it was missing the remiges of its left wing , the new incoming feathers with long sheaths . right wing was fully feathered . singing in both dead and live shrubs in heath , up to 1 m above ground .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nvocalizations loud and distinctive , throughout year , less frequent over summer and most intense in . . .\ndense closed coastal heathland , and more open heath where dense clumps or thickets present . heaths . . .\npoorly known , and few records . season jul\u2013oct / nov ; single - brooded . possibly pairs for life , partners spending much time together , but . . .\nsedentary ; some local movement , especially after bush fires . one pair colonized a site at two . . .\nendangered . cites i . restricted - range species : present in south - west \u00adaustralia eba . formerly categorized as endangered . after its initial discovery on swan r , near perth . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nmkennewell , bob humphries and sally robinson , keith and lynn youngs , rigdon currie .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 295 , 968 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nsearch is restricted to [ [ filters . class | getlabelfor : class _ choices ] ]\nautomatic vetting based on the ala & apos ; s & apos ; assertions & apos ; whereby observations were assessed as inappropriate for modelling ( ie . & apos ; zero _ coordinates & apos ; , & apos ; invalid scientific name & apos ; ) ;\ndetermining if the observations fell within expert - derived range polygons . these polygons were supplied by birdlife australia to represent , for each species , its core breeding habitat , non - breeding , historic , irruptive , or invasive ranges . records that fall outside these ranges were marked as inappropriate for modelling ; and\nhuman - derived classification of records after previous two assessments . through the edgar project ( urltoken ) , users were able to map all species observations and comment on the suitability of records for distribution modelling . this included records deemed inappropriate by other means .\nevery 6 months the occurrence record download file is updated to reflect recent vetting by experts . in the data download , sensitive records have been obfuscated by truncating the lat / long to two decimal places . obfuscated records will be indicated in the data file . access to the accurate data will need to be arranged with the original data owners - contact the ala for more information .\nthe resulting downloadable file of occurrence records reflects which records are suitable for species distribution modelling .\ncopy and paste a formatted citation or use one of the links to import into a bibliography manager .\n[ [ item . name | formatfacet ] ] ( [ [ item . value ] ] )\n[ [ item . name | formatfacet ] ] ( [ [ item . value ] ] )\nto filter your results by a time period enter a year range between [ [ earliest _ year ] ] and [ [ latest _ year ] ] inclusive . open ranges can be specified by leaving one of the fields blank . please note that adding a time period filter to your search will restrict your search to only those records in research data australia which contain temporal information .\n[ [ item . preflabel | totitlecase ] ] ( [ [ item . collectionnum ] ] )\nnote : adding a location filter will restrict your search to only records that have location information described .\n[ [ preresult . response . numfound ] ] result ( s ) found with these filters . hit search\nthe advanced search popout allows you to build / refine complex queries all in a single tabbed popout . from within the advanced search you can construct boolean searches and apply one or more filter categories to your search .\nnote that there is no defined order to the tabs in the advanced search and you can apply the filters in any order you choose . where there are multiple options for a filter category e . g . ( subjects ) the options & record counts displayed are based on your query . each time you switch tabs the available filter options and record counts are updated to reflect any changes on the previous tab .\nas you build / refine your search in the advanced search popout , you can review the entire search and the number of results which will be returned by selecting the \u2018review\u2019 tab . the tab also allows you to modify your search by removing filters .\nthe query constructor provides a way of searching for records using multiple search term combinations and boolean operators .\nthe advanced queries created using the query constructor are comprised of rows . each row consists of a field , condition operator and a value . the value tells the search what to look for , the field tells the search where to look , and the condition operator tells the search whether a record should \u2018contain\u2019 or \u2018exclude\u2019 the value .\nmultiple search terms entered into a single condition value are treated by the search as being separated by the boolean operator and .\nthe search terms are treated as case insensitive e . g . \u2018rain\u2019 is the same as \u2018rain\u2019 .\nexact phrases can also be entered into condition values by using quotes\ne . g .\nice sheets\nthe ? symbol can be used to perform a single character wildcard search . e . g . organi ? ations .\nthe * symbol can be used to perform multiple character wildcard search . e . g . extend *\nnote : wildcard characters can be applied to single search terms , but not to search phrases .\nthe query constructor supports the use of the boolean operators \u2018and\u2019 & \u2018or\u2019 between query rows . the operators are applied at the search level , meaning all query rows are separated by the same boolean value . changing the boolean value between two query rows will change the value between all query rows .\nhere we will step through constructing an advanced query where we would like to find all the records which contain \u2018rain\u2019 in the title , and \u2018flood\u2019 and \u2018weather\u2019 in the description .\nopen the advanced search popout and ensure you are on the \u2018search terms\u2019 tab . two query rows should be displayed by default .\nin the empty value field in the 1st query row enter the search term \u2018rain\u2019 .\nin the empty value field in the 2nd query row enter the search term \u2018flood\u2019 .\nin the empty value field in the 3rd query row enter the search term \u2018weather\u2019 .\nthe subject tab allows you to refine your search by selecting subjects which have been used to describe data records . the default subject vocabulary in research data australia , and the one which is used consistently by data providers , is the anzsrc field of research . other supported subject vocabularies are also available and can be selected by using the drop down displayed at the top of the tab ( note that these can take a little while to load ) .\nsubject vocabularies are displayed as browsable hierarchical trees . subject literals displayed as green links can be clicked to display or hide child subjects .\nsubjects can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each subject literal . multiple subjects can be selected within a single subject vocabulary and also across vocabularies .\nthe number of records with a subject will be displayed at the end of each subject literal e . g \u2018economics ( 30 ) \u2019 . note that because the relationships between records and subjects are many to many , the counts displayed with the subjects will not necessarily match the count of records returned by your search . for example you may see 3 subjects all showing a ( 1 ) beside them . this could resolve to a single record containing all 3 of the subjects . where no records exist with a subject value a ( 0 ) will be displayed with the literal .\nthe data provider tab allows you to limit your search to records published to research data australia by specific providers . the number of records available from providers will be displayed at the end of each provider literal e . g \u2018bond university ( 25 ) \u2019 .\ndata providers can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each data provider literal .\nthe access tab allows you to limit your search to records with specific access types . data records in research data australia fall into one of four access types :\ndata that is accessible and reusable , providing certain conditions are met ( e . g . free registration is required )\ndata access is limited in some way ( e . g . only available to a particular group of users or at a specific physical location )\nthe number of records available in each access type will be displayed at the end of the access literal e . g \u2018open ( 23 ) \u2019 .\naccess types can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each access literal .\nopen licence : a licence bearing broad permissions that may include a requirement to attribute the source , or share - alike ( or both ) , requiring a derivative work to be licensed on the same or similar terms as the reused material .\nnon - commercial licence : as for the open licence but also restricting reuse only for non - commercial purposes .\n: as for the open licence but also prohibits adaptation of the material , and in the second case also restricts reuse only for non - commercial purposes .\nrestrictive licence : a licence preventing reuse of material unless certain restrictive conditions are satisfied . note licence restrictions , and contact rights holder for permissions beyond the terms of the licence .\nno licence : all rights to reuse , communicate , publish or reproduce the material are reserved , with the exception of specific rights contained within the copyright act 1968 or similar laws . contact the copyright holder for permission to reuse this material ."]}
{"id": 331, "summary": [{"text": "gegeneophis primus is a species of caecilian discovered in wynad district in the western ghats of kerala , india .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the species was described in 2012 by ramachandran kotharambath , mark wilkinson , and colleagues . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "gegeneophis primus", "paragraphs": ["gegeneophis primus belongs to the indotyphlidae family comprising african , seychellean and indian varieties .\ngegeneophis primus belongs to the indotyphlidae family comprising african , seychellean and indian varieties . it is the first new species of gegeneophis reported from kerala since1964 . the species were collected from the sugandhagiri cardamom estate neighbouring an evergreen forest at vythiri in the northern district of wayanad .\naccording to the researchers , specimens of the novel caecilian - named gegeneophis primus - were collected during field works in two consecutive monsoons , first in october 2010 and then in august 2011 .\ngegeneophis primus is the scientific name of a caecilian ( limbless ) amphibian reported from kerala . a team of scientists from the university of kerala ; central university , kasaragod ; and natural history museum , london , have reported this discovery from the southern region of the western ghats in kerala .\ng . primus is only the third indotyphlid caecilian species reported from kerala after g . carnosus , described by beddome in 1870 and g . ramaswami by taylor in 1964 .\ngegeneophis primus kotharambath , gower , oommen , and wilkinson , 2012 , zootaxa , 3272 : 27 . holotype : bnhs 5536 , by original designation . type locality :\nsugandhagiri cardamom estate , near vythiri , pozhuthana gramapanchayath , vythiri taluk , wayanad district , kerala ( n 11\u00b0 33\u2032 e 076\u00b0 00\u2032 , 850 m a . s . l . )\n.\nspecies description : kotharambath r , gower dj , oommen ov , wilkinson m 2012 a third species of gegeneophis peters ( amphibia : gymnophiona ; indotyphlidae ) lacking secondary annular grooves . zootaxa 3272 : 26 - 34 .\ngiri , v . , gower , d . j . , gaikwad , k . , & wilkinson , m . ( 2011 ) .\na second species of gegeneophis peters ( amphibia : gymnophiona : caeciliidae ) lacking secondary annular grooves .\nzootaxa 2815 : 49 - 58 .\nkotharambath , r . , gower , d . j . , oommen , o . v . , & wilkinson , m . ( 2012 ) .\na third species of gegeneophis peters ( amphibia : gymnophiona : indotyphlidae ) lacking secondary annular grooves .\nzootaxa 3272 : 26 - 34 .\nthe team , including k . ramachandran from the university of kerala , oommen v . oommen from the central university and david j . gower and mark wilkinson from the natural history museum found that the species , unlike other gegeneophis , lacked scales and secondary annular grooves , as well as a well - developed terminal shield .\nit is the first new species of gegeneophis reported from kerala since1964 . the species were collected from the sugandhagiri cardamom estate neighbouring an evergreen forest at vythiri in the northern district of wayanad . measuring approximately 168 mm in length and pink in colour , the specimens were dug out from moist soil along the shrub - covered banks of a stream under a dense canopy .\nthe paper notes that the population of g . primus at the locality from where it was found was not likely to be under threat as long as the habitat was maintained . the team has proposed that the conservation status of the species be classified as data deficient under the iucn red list criteria . the paper suggests the common name of malabar cardamom geg for the species , indicating the northern part of the state and the cardamom estate from where it was discovered .\na uk - indian team of scientists have announced the discovery of a new species of limbless amphibian .\nthe animal was identified by accident in the western ghats area in the state of kerala , south india .\nthe specimens were found inside moist soil after digging the shrub - covered bank of a mountain stream .\nthe creature - about 168mm in length and pink in colour - belongs to an enigmatic , limbless group of amphibians known as the caecilians .\nramachandran kotharambath , lead author of the report , told the bbc tamil service that the animal was identified as a new species following extensive comparisons with other , similar examples from this amphibian group .\nthey were discovered at a valley on a plantation in the wynad district of kerala .\nthe new finding was made as part of a longstanding research collaboration between the department of zoology at the university of kerala and london ' s natural history museum . the central university at kasargod in kerala also contributed to of the discovery .\nthe finding has been reported in the latest edition of the academic journal zootaxa .\nthe wider distribution , natural history and habitat preferences of the species are yet to be determined .\nthe discovery of this species indicates that the caecilian amphibians might have great diversity all along the western ghats area said mr ramachandran .\nthe new species do not face any immediate threat as long as the habitat structure is maintained , according to the scientists .\nthey also say that they need to know how far and wide this species is distributed and what are the habitat requirements .\nco - author dr oommen says the discovery was significant since the finding ended a hiatus of almost half - a - century .\nit highlights the fact that the knowledge of caecilian amphibians of the western ghats remains incomplete and in need of further study .\nthe foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may\nneedless self - doubt\nis leading to\nsemi - brexit\n.\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nknown only from the type locality ( sugandhagiri cardamom estate , near vythiri , pozhuthana gramapanchayath , vythiri taluk , wayanad district , kerala , india ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\na team of scientists from the university of kerala ; central university , kasaragod ; and natural history museum , london , have reported the discovery of a new species of caecilian ( limbless ) amphibian from the southern region of the western ghats in kerala .\nmeasuring approximately 168 mm in length and pink in colour , the specimens were dug out from moist soil along the shrub - covered banks of a stream under a dense canopy .\nthe researchers stumbled upon the new species while on the trail of another caecilian spotted in kerala 142 years ago . after a second collection from the same location , the identification was confirmed by scientists at the natural history museum .\nthe finding has been reported in the latest edition of zootaxa , an international journal for zoological taxonomists . the wider distribution , natural history and habitat preferences of the species are yet to be determined .\ndr . oommen said the discovery was significant since the finding ended a hiatus of almost half - a - century . \u201cit highlights the fact that the knowledge of caecilian amphibians of the western ghats remains incomplete and in need of further study . \u201d\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 7 / 27 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 333, "summary": [{"text": "luteostriata abundans is a species of brazilian land planarian in the subfamily geoplaninae .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it is a common species in human-disturbed areas in brazil \u2019s southernmost state , rio grande do sul . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "luteostriata abundans", "paragraphs": ["\n' luteostriata abundans\n' is a species of brazilian land planarian in the subfamily geoplaninae .\nluteostriata abundans\nis a small to medium - sized land planarian with an elongate body and parallel margins .\nluteostriata ceciliae ( e . m . froehlich and leal - zanchet , 2003 )\nluteostriata ernesti ( leal - zanchet and e . m . froehlich , 2006 )\nluteostriata graffi ( leal - zanchet and e . m . froehlich , 2006 )\nthe neotropical land planarian obama anthropophila is a predator of luteostriata abundans , another neotropical land planarian . in this video , we can see an idividual of o . anthropophila trying to capture an individual of l . abundans , which manages to escape .\nhow can i put and write and define abundans in a sentence and how is the word abundans used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528abundans\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528abundans\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528abundans\u9020\u53e5 , abundans meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nprasniski met , leal - zanchet am ( 2009 ) predatory behavior of the land flatworm notogynaphallia abundans ( platyhelminthes : tricladida ) . zoologia 26 : 606\u2013612 . doi :\nspecimens with seven stripes instead of only five were considered a variety of\ngeoplana marginata\nand named\ngeoplana marginata\nvar .\nabundans\nbecause of the\nabundant\nnumber of stripes .\nthe present work was undertaken with the following objectives in view : ( 1 ) to determine prey preference and predation frequency of notogynaphallia abundans ( graff , 1899 ) based on laboratory experiments , and ( 2 ) to analyze species predation behavior .\n( of geoplana abundans ( graff , 1899 ) ) graff , l . von . ( 1899 ) . monographie der turbellarien . ii . tricladida terricola vol 1 : xii + 574 pp . engelmann , leipzig , 574 pp page ( s ) : 306 [ details ]\ntwenty specimens of n . abundans , between 20 and 40 mm long when extended , were collected from under fallen logs , leaves and bricks , in leaf litter or under other material on the ground , within fragments of native forest , and in gardens , in s\u00e3o leopoldo , brazil .\n( of notogynaphallia abundans ( graff , 1899 ) ) carbayo , f . ( 2010 ) . a new genus for seven brazilian land planarian species , split off from notogynaphallia ( platyhelminthes , tricladida ) . belgian journal of zoology , 140 : 91 - 101 ( supplement ) page ( s ) : 96 [ details ]\nnotogynaphallia abundans presented diverse strategies for capturing and immobilizing prey . a similar plasticity in predatory behavior , thereby enabling predator adaptation to various prey - responses , has also been demonstrated in polyclads and rhabdocoels by koopowitz et al . ( 1976 ) and wrona & koopowitz ( 1998 ) . here we demonstrated plasticity in an additional group of flatworms , suggesting such plasticity may be wide - spread .\nthe predatory behavior of n . abundans includes the encounter , capture and immobilization of prey , bringing the prey to the level of the pharynx , and feeding . the trials conducted to examine this behavior showed a mean time span between capture and end of feeding of ca . 28 min 45 s \u00b1 15 min 47 s ( mean \u00b1 s . d . , n = 5 ) .\nthere are several other cup fungi with hairy exteriors that may be confused with\nh . hemisphaerica\n.\njafnea semitotsa\nis larger ( 2 & ndash ; 5 cm diameter ) with a brown interior and a short stipe .\ntrichophaea boudieri\nand\ntrichophaea bullata\nare smaller ( 1 & ndash ; 6 mm diameter ) .\ntrichophaea abundans\nis another small species that prefers to grow in burned areas .\nthe first experiment showed that n . abundans ubiquitously accepted all five species of land isopods as prey , and did not accept any other additional item offered . the second experiment showed that the mean weekly consumption of all flatworms was 3 . 4 isopods with a maximum of eight isopods consumed per week and of 25 isopods consumed in five weeks . after five weeks , seven flatworms , which eat an average of 4 . 1 isopods per week , presented an average increase of 21 . 3 mg in body mass , which corresponds to 34 . 2 % of the average body mass of those specimens . five flatworms , which consumed an average of 3 . 0 isopods per week , showed an average decrease of 42 . 0 mg in body mass , corresponding to - 43 . 3 % of their average body mass . there was a positive relationship ( r 2 = 0 . 52 , f = 10 . 816 , d . f . = 1 , 10 , p = 0 . 008 ) between the number of preyed isopods and the increase / decrease in body mass ( fig . 1 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzoologia ( curitiba , impr . ) vol . 26 no . 4 curitiba dec . 2009 epub dec 04 , 2009\nprograma de p\u00f3s - gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em biologia , universidade do vale do rio dos sinos . avenida unisinos 950 , 93022 - 000 s\u00e3o leopoldo , rio grande do sul , brasil\nkey words : diet ; isopods ; planarians ; prey preference ; weekly consumption .\nland flatworms are carnivorous , preying upon slugs , snails , earthworms , nemerteans , land isopods , insect larvae , termites , springtails , mites and other arthropods , besides other land planarians ( ( du bois - reymond marcus 1951 , froehlich 1955 , dindal 1970 , ogren 1995 , jones & cumming 1998 , winsor et al . 1998 , ohbayashi et al . 2005 ) . some species may feed on velvet worms , large insects and harvestmen ( graff 1899 , froehlich 1955 , carbayo & leal - zanchet 2003 ) .\nonce in the laboratory , the flatworms were kept individually in terraria ( 13 . 0 x 6 . 6 x 3 . 5 cm or 9 . 0 x 5 . 5 x 2 . 6 cm , depending on the size of each specimen ) . each terrarium contained moist soil and leaves and was sheltered from direct sun - light .\nto examine the predatory behavior , in order to describe mainly the phases from capture to feeding , three specimens of flatworms were used and five trials were conducted . for each trial , a flatworm and 2 to 5 isopods were placed together in a petri dish with a slightly moistened bottom . the predatory events were recorded on video and subsequently described after computer analysis of the video records . isopod exoskeletons were examined under the stereomicroscope .\nthe flatworm crept with the anterior extremity raised and waving slightly from side to side showing sensory behavior . in some observations on the process , the isopod , when exploring the environment , collided with the anterior or median regions of the body of the flatworm ( figs 2 , 6 - 7 and 10 ) , and was then very quickly captured ( see below ) . in other observations , the isopod moved close to the anterior extremity or the median region of the body of the flatworm , touching it softly ( figs 14 - 16 ) , then being quickly captured . in another observation , the isopod moved to the side of the planarian , apparently touching it slightly ( figs 21 and 22 ) . muscular wave - movements were observed on the margin of planarian body , and when the isopod was at the level of the posterior third of the planarian body , it was captured .\nprey capture was achieved by quickly moving the anterior or posterior region onto the prey , immediately enveloping it ( figs 3 and 23 ) . during entrapment the ventral surface of the flatworm made initial contact with the dorsum or side of the prey , pressing it against the substratum or against the median region of the planarian body ( figs 8 and 17 ) . in order to hold the prey against its body , the flatworm bent the anterior or the posterior third of the body laterally , so that the ventral surface was perpendicular to the ground . another type of capture was performed with the anterior region ( ca . 1 / 5 of the body length ) rapidly encircling the prey , so that it was lifted from the ground ( fig . 11 ) .\nwhen capture was achieved using the anterior portion of the body , after immobilizing the prey , the flatworm turned the ventral surface to the ground and glided over the prey ( fig . 19 ) , until the prey was at the level of the mouth , which is located on ventral surface approximately at the end of the median third of the body . when capture occurred with the posterior extremity , after immobilizing the prey , the flatworm , bending the body posteriorly , gradually moved the anterior extremity towards the prey , freeing the posterior end to regain contact with the ground ( figs 26 - 28 ) . afterwards , the flatworm crept over the prey ( fig . 29 ) to bring it into contact with its mouth . the time for bringing the prey to the mouth ranged from 10 s to 2 min 42 s ( 1 min 31 s \u00b1 1 min 6 s , mean \u00b1 s . d . , n = 5 ) , with median of 2min3s .\nfor external digestion and subsequent ingestion of prey tissues , the flatworm kept the body in a hairpin or s - shaped bend , with the median third of the body flattened ( figs 20 and 30 ) . it stayed motionless while it sucked the prey , although the anterior end sometimes made slow side - to - side movements . during this process , the flatworm was observed to change position probably in order to have access to other parts of the prey ' s body . the time for external digestion and ingestion ranged from 12 min 50 s to 51 min 20 s ( 27 min \u00b1 14 min 50 s , mean \u00b1 s . d . , n = 5 ) , with median of 25 min 7 s . examination of the isopod exoskeleton after being sucked showed that the ventral surface of the isopod body is ruptured , and that the soft tissues had been consumed with the exception of the intestine , which remained with the exoskeleton .\nland flatworms seem to manifest oriented - search behavior to locate prey , as was demonstrated by fiore et al . ( 2004 ) for bipalium adventitium , which detects and follows chemical trails from earthworms . in the present work , we did not investigate the behavior for locating prey . the ability to search for and track prey and the role of chemo - receptors in the process of prey location remain open topics for most land flatworm species .\nalford , d . v . ; b . boag ; p . m . johns & g . w . yeates . 1998 . report on the oecd workshop on terrestrial flatworms . pedobiologia 42 : 385 - 388 . [ links ]\naraujo , p . b . 1999 . subordem oniscidea ( is\u00f3podos terrestres ,\ntatuzinhos\n) , p . 237 - 256 . in : l . buckup & g . bond - buckup ( eds ) . os crust\u00e1ceos do rio grande do sul . porto alegre , ufrgs , 503p . [ links ]\nball , i . r . & t . b . reynoldson . 1981 . british planarians . cambridge , cambridge university press , 125p . [ links ]\nbarker , g . m . 1989 . flatworm predation of terrestrial molluscs in new zealand and a brief review of previous records . new zealand entomologist 12 : 75 - 79 . [ links ]\nblackshaw , r . p . 1990 . studies on artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) ( tricladida : terricola ) , a predator of earthworms . annals of applied biology 116 : 169 - 176 . [ links ]\nblackshaw , r . p . 1991 . mortality of the earthworm eisenia fetida ( savigny ) presented to the terrestrial planarian artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) ( tricladida : terricola ) . annals of applied biology 118 : 689 - 694 . [ links ]\nblackshaw , r . p . 1997 . the planarian artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) feeding on earthworms in soil columns . soil biology and biochemistry 29 : 299 - 302 . [ links ]\nblackshaw , r . p . & v . i . stewart . 1992 . artioposthia triangulata ( dendy ) ( tricladida : terricola ) , a predatory terrestrial planarian and its potential impact on lumbricid earthworms . agricultural zoology review 5 : 201 - 219 . [ links ]\ncarbayo , f . & a . m . leal - zanchet . 2003 . two new genera of geoplanid land planarians ( platyhelminthes : tricladida : terricola ) of brazil in the light of cephalic specialisations . invertebrate systematics 17 : 449 - 468 . [ links ]\ncarbayo , f . ; j pedroni & e . m . froehlich . 2007 . colonization and extinction of land planarians ( platyhelminthes , tricladida ) in a brazilian atlantic forest regrowth remnant . biolological invasions 10 : 1131 - 1134 . [ links ]\nchristensen , o . m . & j . g . mather . 2001 . long - term study of growth in the new zealand flatworm arthurdendyus triangulatus under laboratory conditions . pedobiologia 45 : 535 - 549 . [ links ]\ndindal , d . l . 1970 . feeding behavior of a terrestrial turbellarian bipalium adventitium . american midland naturalist 83 : 635 - 637 . [ links ]\ndu bois - reymond marcus , e . 1951 . on south american geoplanids . boletim da faculdade de filosofia , ci\u00eancias e letras da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e9rie zoologia , 16 : 217 - 255 . [ links ]\nducey , p . k . & s . noce . 1998 . succesful invasion of new york state by the terrestrial flatworm , bipalium adventitium . northeastern naturalist 5 ( 3 ) : 199 - 206 . [ links ]\nducey , p . k . ; m . messere ; k . lapoint & s . noce . 1999 . lumbricid prey and potential hepetofaunal predators of the invading terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . american midland naturalist 141 : 305 - 314 . [ links ]\nducey , p . k . ; l - j . west ; g . shaw & j . delisle . 2005 . reproductive ecology and evolution in the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium across north america . pedobiologia 49 : 367 - 377 . [ links ]\nducey , p . k . ; m . mccormick & e . davidson . 2007 . natural history observations on bipalium cf . vagum jones and sterrer ( platyhelminthes : tricladida ) , a terrestrial broadhead planarian new to north america . southeastern naturalist 6 ( 3 ) : 449 - 460 . [ links ]\nfiore , c . ; j . l . tull ; s . zehner & p . k . ducey . 2004 . tracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium ( tricladida , platyhelminthes ) . behavioural processes 67 : 327 - 334 . [ links ]\nfroehlich , c . g . 1955 . on the biology of land planarians . boletim da faculdade de filosofia , ci\u00eancias e letras da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e9rie zoologia , 20 : 263 - 271 . [ links ]\ngraff , l . von . 1899 . monographie der turbellarien . ii . tricladida terricola . leipzig , engelmann . 574p . [ links ]\njennings , j . b . 1959 . observations on the nutrition of the land planarian orthodemus terrestris ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) . biological bulletin 117 : 119 - 124 . [ links ]\njones , h . d . & m . s . cumming . 1998 . feeding behaviour of the termite - eating planarian microplana termitophaga ( platyhelminthes : turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) in zimbabwe . journal of zoology 245 : 53 - 64 . [ links ]\nkoopowitz , h . ; d . silver & g . rose . 1976 . primitive nervous systems . control and recovery of feeding behavior in the plolyclad flatworm , notoplana acticola . biological bulletin 150 : 411 - 425 . [ links ]\nleal - zanchet , a . m . & e . m . froehlich . 2006 . a species complex in the genus notogynaphallia ogren and kawakatsu ( platyhelminthes : tricladida : terricola ) with a taxonomic revision of homonyms of geoplana marginata schultze & m\u00fcller and a reinterpretation of notogynaphallia caissara ( froehlich ) anatomy . belgian journal of zoology 136 : 81 - 100 . [ links ]\nmacarthur , r . h . & e . r . pianka . 1966 . on optimal use of a patchy environment . american naturalist 100 : 603 - 609 . [ links ]\nogren , r . e . 1955 . ecological observations on the occurrence of rhynchodemus , a terrestrial turbellarian . transactions of the american microscopical society 74 : 54 - 60 . [ links ]\nogren , r . e . 1995 . predation behaviour of land planarians . hydrobiologia 305 : 105 - 111 . [ links ]\nohbayashi , t . ; i . okoshi ; h . sato & t . ono . 2005 . food habit of platydemus manokwari de beauchamp , 1962 ( tricladida : terricola : rhynchodemidae ) , known as predatory flatworm of land snails in the ogasawara ( bonin ) islands , japan . applied entomology and zoology 40 : 609 - 614 . [ links ]\nolewine , d . a . 1972 . further observations in georgia on the land planarians , bipalium kewense and geoplana vaga ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . association of southeastern biologists bulletin 19 : 88 . [ links ]\nwinsor , l . 1983 . a revision of the cosmopolitan land planarian bipalium kewense moseley , 1878 ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 79 : 61 - 100 . [ links ]\nwinsor , l . ; p . m . johns & g . w . yeates . 1998 . introduction , and ecological and systematic background , to the terricola ( tricladida ) . pedobiologia 42 : 389 - 404 . [ links ]\nwrona , f . j . & h koopowitz . 1998 . behavior of the rhabdocoel flatworm mesostoma ehrenbergii in prey capture and feeding . hydrobiologia 383 : 35 - 40 . [ links ]\nyeates , g . w . ; b . boag & p . m . johns . 1998 . field and laboratory observations on terrestrial planarians from modified habitats in new zealand . pedobiologia 42 : 554 - 562 . [ links ]\nzaborski , e . r . 2002 . observations on feeding behavior by the terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( platyhelminthes , tricladida , terricola ) from illinois . american midland naturalist 148 : 401 - 408 . [ links ]\neditorial responsability : pedro gnaspini netto 1 corresponding author . e - mail : zanchet @ urltoken\ncaixa postal 19020 81531 - 980 curitiba pr brasil tel . / fax : ( 55 41 ) 3266 - 6823 sbz @ urltoken\ngraff , l . von . ( 1899 ) . monographie der turbellarien . ii . tricladida terricola vol 1 : xii + 574 pp . engelmann , leipzig , 574 pp [ details ]\ntyler , s . , artois , t . ; schilling , s . ; hooge , m . ; bush , l . f . ( eds ) ( 2006 - 2018 ) . world list of turbellarian worms : acoelomorpha , catenulida , rhabditophora .\n( of geoplana ( geoplana ) marginata schultze & m\u00fcller , 1857 ) schultze , max ; m\u00fcller , f . ( 1857 ) . beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntniss der landplanarien nach mittheilungen des dr . fritz m\u00fcller in brasilien und nach eigenen untersuchungen von dr . max schultze . abhandl . d . naturforschenden gesellschaft in halle . , 4 ( 1 ) : 19 - 38 , 61 - 74 [ 1856 ] page ( s ) : 24 [ details ]\ntyler , s . ; schilling , s . ; hooge , m . ; bush , l . f . ( comp . ) . ( 2006 - 2016 ) . turbellarian taxonomic database . version 1 . 7 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturbellarian taxonomic database , 1 . 7 , database ( version 1 . 7 )\ntyler s , schilling s , hooge m , and bush lf ( comp . ) ( 2006 - 2016 ) turbellarian taxonomic database . version 1 . 7 urltoken ( data licensed under creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 2 . 0 ; material adapted : formatted and edited )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\npierre _ and _ marie _ by _ piterkeo - d4j6rn2 _ 0 . jpg\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\ncarbayo , f . ( 2010 ) . a new genus for seven brazilian land planarian species , split off from notogynaphallia ( platyhelminthes , tricladida ) . belgian journal of zoology , 140 : 91 - 101 ( supplement ) [ details ]\ncarbayo , fernando , marta alvarez - presas , cl\u00e1udia t . olivares , fernando p . l . marques , et al .\na woodlouse ( plural woodlice ) is an isopod crustacean with a rigid , segmented , long exoskeleton and fourteen jointed limbs . mostly they feed on dead plant material , and they are usually active at night . woodlice form the suborder oniscidea within the order isopoda , with over 5 , 000 known species .\ncommon names for woodlice vary throughout the english - speaking world . a number of common names make reference to the fact that some species of woodlice can roll up into a ball . other names compare the woodlouse to a pig .\nthe woodlouse has a shell - like exoskeleton , which it must progressively shed as it grows . the moult takes place in two stages ; the back half is lost first , followed two or three days later by the front . this method of moulting is different from that of most arthropods , which shed their cuticle in a single process .\non the underside of her body until they hatch into offspring that look like small white woodlice curled up in balls . the mother then appears to\ngive birth\nto her offspring . females are also capable of reproducing\n, woodlice are said to have an unpleasant taste similar to\nstrong urine\n.\nboth of these groups of terrestrial segmented arthropods are about the same size . they live in very similar habitats , and they can both roll up into a ball . pill millipedes and pillbugs appear superficially similar to the naked eye . this is an example of\npill millipedes can be distinguished from woodlice on the basis of having two pairs of legs per body segment instead of one pair like all isopods . pill millipedes have twelve to thirteen body segments , with a large shield - like posterior segment , whereas woodlice have eleven , and small posterior segments . in addition , pill millipedes are smoother , and resemble normal millipedes in overall colouring and the shape of the segments .\nhemilepistus reaumuri lives in\nthe driest habitat conquered by any species of crustacean\n.\n- like lungs in their paddle - shaped hind legs ( pleopods ) , called pleopodal lungs . woodlice need moisture because they rapidly lose water by\na few woodlice have returned to water . evolutionary ancient species are amphibious , such as the marine - intertidal sea slater ( ligia oceanica ) , which belongs to family ligiidae .\nproducing compost and overturning the soil , they have also been known to feed on cultivated plants , such as ripening strawberries and tender seedlings .\nwoodlice can also invade homes en masse in search of moisture and their presence can indicate dampness problems .\nthey are not generally regarded as a serious household pest as they do not spread disease and do not damage sound wood or structures .\nwhere the people are : language and community in the poetry of w . s . graham\nhow now , sow bug ? ,\ndiscover , august 1999 , 68 . available from : urltoken\nrod preston - mafham & ken preston - mafham ( 1993 ) .\ncrustacea . woodlice , crabs\n.\nprasniski , m . e . t . ; leal - zanchet , a . m . ( 2009 ) .\npredatory behavior of the land flatworm\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 30 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\ncompendium of all the terrestrial and freshwater flatworms ( tricladida ) . last indexed october 17 , 2015\nweissius capaciductus . zma v . pl . 3059 . 1 . dorsal view of whole . . .\nthe subfamily geoplaninae ( geoplanidae ) includes land planarian species of the neotropical region . in argentina , the knowledge about land planarian diversity is still incipient , although this has recently increased mainly in the atlantic forest ecosystem . however , other regions like chacoan forests remain virtually unexplored .\nthis is the first report of the genus notogynaphallia in argentina ( chacoan subregion , neotropical region ) which increases its geographic distribution in south america . also , as a consequence of features observed in species of the genus , we propose an emendation of the generic diagnosis .\nland planarians are free - living flatworms that live in humid environments . they cannot endure desiccation since they have not developed mechanisms for water conservation ( kawaguti\n) . therefore , they hide from the sunlight ( under fallen logs and leaf litter ) and exhibit greater activity at night , predating on soil invertebrates such as earthworms , snails , slugs , insects and arachnids ( negrete et al .\nso far have been described for brazil ( over 70 % of the species ) and also for colombia , panama , paraguay and peru ( tyler et al .\n) . this genus groups geoplaninae species of small and medium - sized body ( 16\u201370 mm in length ) , with a reproductive system that includes a dilated intrabulbar prostatic vesicle opening broadly into a richly folded male atrium , in which folds form an eversible penis . also , the distal ascending portions of the ovovitelline ducts are arranged laterally to the posterior portion of the female atrium , joining each other behind it . additionally , the female genital canal is dorso - anteriorly flexed , arising from the posterior region of the female atrium ( ogren and kawakatsu\nin argentina , where the land planarian diversity is still incipiently known , there are no records of this genus . recently , the research about land flatworms has increased , mainly in the atlantic forest ecosystem ( negrete and brusa\n) . however , other regions , such as the chacoan forests , remain virtually unexplored . there are few old records of land planarians in the chacoan province ( neotropical region ) in asunci\u00f3n , paraguay ( graff\n) . unfortunately , the original landscape has suffered changes since then , mainly by deforestation and population growth , and there are no recent records of land planarians in this region .\nin this paper , we describe a new species of land planarian , which represents the first land planarian species from this ecosystem in argentina and the first record of notogynaphallia in this country . also , as a result of new features observed in species of the genus , we propose an emendation of its diagnosis .\nland planarians were collected between 2007 and 2012 in native forests within la marcela farm ( 26\u00b017\u203235\u2033s , 59\u00b006\u203267\u2033w ) in formosa province , north - eastern argentina . the ecosystem belongs to the chacoan province , chacoan subregion ( neotropical region ) , which extends through southern bolivia , western paraguay , a small portion of southern brazil and north central and eastern argentina ( morrone\n) . however , in this region , the native forests are highly fragmented and reduced to small patches due to farming . the specimens were manually collected during the day beneath fallen logs in these forest fragments . some animals were directly fixed in 10 % formaldehyde , and others were killed in boiling water and then fixed in 10 % formaldehyde and conserved in 70 % ethanol . land planarians were sectioned in fragments , dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol and embedded in paraplast\u00ae . sagittal and transverse serial sections ( 6\u20138 \u03bcm thick ) of the anterior region , transverse sections of the pre - pharyngeal region ( 6\u20138 \u03bcm thick ) and sagittal serial sections of the pharynx and copulatory apparatus ( 6\u20138 \u03bcm thick ) were performed with a microtome and stained with masson\u2019s trichrome and haematoxylin\u2013eosin methods ( bancroft and gamble\nthe type specimens were deposited in the invertebrate collection at museo de la plata ( mlp ) , argentina .\nnotogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : b36a4c5f - d452 - 4502 - 8af5 - 774460dcf61a\nholotype : mlp - he 6807 . formosa , argentina , 17 september 2012 ; anterior region 1 : transverse sections on 14 slides ( 6\u20138 \u03bcm thick ) ; anterior region 2 : sagittal sections on 32 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 6 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 47 slides ( 7 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 1 : mlp - he 6808 . formosa , argentina , 17 september 2012 ; anterior region 1 : transverse sections on 12 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; anterior region 2 : sagittal sections on 42 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 6 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 56 slides ( 7 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 2 : mlp - he 6808 . formosa , argentina , 17 september 2012 ; anterior region : sagittal sections on 29 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 7 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 25 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 3 : mlp - he 6809 . formosa , argentina , 3 october 2007 ; anterior region : sagittal sections on 18 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 8 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 24 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 4 : mlp - he 6809 . formosa , argentina , 3 october 2007 ; anterior region : sagittal sections on 18 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 8 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 42 slides ( 8 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 5 : mlp - he 6809 . formosa , argentina , 3 october 2007 ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 23 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 68 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 6 : mlp - he 6809 . formosa , argentina , 3 october 2007 ; anterior region 1 : transverse sections on 22 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; anterior region 2 : sagittal sections on 16 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 21 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 26 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 7 : mlp - he 6809 . formosa , argentina , 5 october 2007 ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 6 slides ( 7 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 23 slides ( 7 \u03bcm thick ) .\nparatype 8 : mlp - he 6809 . formosa , argentina , 5 october 2007 ; anterior region 1 : transverse sections on 16 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; anterior region 2 : sagittal sections on 18 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; pre - pharyngeal region : transverse sections on 5 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) ; pharynx and copulatory apparatus : sagittal sections on 18 slides ( 6 \u03bcm thick ) .\nspecies of notogynaphallia with dorsal surface black and ventral surface dark grey with a thin longitudinal whitish line along the body ; eyes dorsal , with clear halos ; glandular margin absent ; prostatic vesicle intrabulbar , with two regions : a tubular proximal portion and a globose distal portion with narrow lumen ; common glandular ovovitelline duct and female genital canal constituting a \u201cc\u201d ; female atrium tubular proximally and wide distally .\ntype locality . la marcela farm , piran\u00e9 department , formosa province , argentina .\nhabitat . the flatworms were found on the ground under fallen logs and palm leaves in environments with native vegetation .\netymology . the specific name derives from the language of toba indigenous people that inhabit the chacoan region ; nawe\u0129 means black , which refers to the colour of the dorsal surface of this species .\nthe body is elongated with parallel margins . in live specimens , the anterior end is pointed , becoming rounded after fixation . the posterior end narrows abruptly , ending sharp - edged . the colour pattern of the dorsal surface of live specimens is black ( fig .\n) . the ventral surface is dark grey with a whitish and thin median longitudinal line along the body ( fig .\n) , which becomes weaker behind the gonopore . the eyes , with small clear halos , surround the anterior tip uniserially in an irregular row , and they extend toward both body margins for 2\u20135 mm in two and three longitudinal rows . further back , they spread to both sides of the dorsal surface , forming various rows ( 15\u201320 ) at the end of the first third of body . at the level of the pharynx , the eyes are still dorsal ( 6\u20138 rows of eyes ) . they become less numerous in the copulatory apparatus region , and a few reach the posterior end ( fig .\nphotograph of a live specimen of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . ( holotype ) . dorsal view\nschematic drawing of the external appearance of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . a ventral view of the first 4 mm of the body ( paratype 6 ) . b distribution pattern of eyes along the body , in dorsal view ( paratype 3 )\nafter fixation , body length of the specimens ranged between 19 and 42 mm . the maximum width was 2 . 4\u20138 . 3 mm and maximum height 1 . 2\u20132 . 4 mm . the mouth was located at a distance of 54\u201362 % from the anterior tip and the gonopore at 69\u201379 % ( table\nmeasurements of external characters of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . all the measurements ( mm ) were obtained from fixed specimens\nthere are no musculo - glandular specializations . the dorsal epidermis is ciliated from the anterior tip until 1 . 9\u20132 . 5 mm ( fig .\n) . the creeping sole on the ventral epidermis is narrow ( 30\u201340 % of body width ) and progressively widens ( fig .\n) . the epidermis receives abundant secretions from xanthophil glands of two types ( amorphous and fine granular secretions ) and erythrophil and cyanophil glands with granular secretions . also , rhabditogen secretions are abundant both in dorsal ( rhammites ) and ventral ( small rhabdites ) epidermis ( fig .\n) . sensory pits , as simple invaginations ( 25\u201340 \u03bcm deep ) , surround the anterior tip ( fig .\n) . they spread along the ventral body margins in a single row forming the sensory border until ~ 6 mm from the anterior tip ( fig .\ntransverse sections of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . a detail of the cephalic region ( paratype 6 ) . b , c anterior tip ( paratype 1 ) . d , e pre - pharyngeal region , in dorsal ( d ) and ventral ( e ) view ( paratype 4 ) . the arrow indicates the dorsal ciliated epidermis and the head arrows indicate rhabditogen secretions\nthe cutaneous musculature , consisting of the three typical layers of geoplaninae ( see below ) , exhibits the same arrangement at the pre - pharyngeal region , and its thickness relative to the body height ( varying between 5 and 7 % ) is similar to that of the pre - pharyngeal region . the parenchymatic musculature is ill - defined , being composed by intermingled fibres in the surrounding parenchyma .\nthe dorsal epidermis is 20\u201340 \u03bcm high , and ventrally , it is 25\u201340 \u03bcm high . the ventral epidermis is ciliated on the creeping sole , which is approximately 90\u201395 % of the body width ( fig .\n) . rhabditogen cell bodies are located in the parenchyma , below the cutaneous musculature ( fig .\n) . their glandular secretions are abundant in the dorsal epidermis and the body margins ( rhammites ) and in the ventral epidermis partially occupy its height ( small rhabdites ) ( figs .\n) . numerous glands with fine and coarse granular erythrophil secretion and glands with fine granular and amorphous cyanophil secretion , whose cell bodies are located into the parenchyma , open through the entire epidermis . the creeping sole receives openings of abundant cells with erythrophil coarse granular secretion and cyanophil amorphous secretion and less numerous cells with erythrophil fine granular secretion and erythrophil amorphous secretion . there is no glandular margin .\nschematic drawing of a transversal section of the pre - pharyngeal region of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . ( holotype ) . for simplicity , only the cutaneous longitudinal muscle layer was drawn\nthe cutaneous musculature is composed of a subepithelial circular layer followed by a diagonal layer with decussate fibres and a longitudinal layer arranged in bundles . cutaneous muscular index ( cmi ) varies between 3 and 7 % ( table\n) . the parenchymatic musculature is composed by ill - defined supra - intestinal and subintestinal transverse layers and dorso - ventral fibres located between the intestinal branches ( fig .\n) . the thickness of the parenchymatic musculature ( pmi ) represents 1 . 5\u20132 % of the body height ( table\nthe pharynx ( 1 . 5\u20135 . 1 mm in length ) is cylindrical , with the dorsal insertion posteriorly displaced ( 0 . 5\u20131 . 1 mm ) ( fig .\n) . the mouth is located in the middle of the pharyngeal pouch ( 2 . 1\u20135 . 7 mm in length ) . the epithelial lining of the outer surface of the pharynx is cuboidal and ciliated . the outer pharyngeal musculature is arranged in a thin longitudinal subepithelial layer ( 2 . 5\u20135 \u03bcm thick ) followed by a thicker circular layer ( 7 . 5\u201320 \u03bcm thick ) . the pharyngeal lumen is lined with a columnar and ciliated epithelium . the inner pharyngeal musculature consists of a thick layer of circular fibres ( 85\u2013200 \u03bcm thick ) and a subjacent longitudinal thin layer ( 5\u201310 \u03bcm thick ) . the pharynx receives secretion from abundant glands , the cell bodies of which are located both laterally and anteriorly to the pharynx , and their cell necks extend to the pharyngeal epithelium . four types of pharyngeal glands occur : abundant glands with ( 1 ) erythrophil , fine granules and ( 2 ) xanthophil amorphous secretion , as well as less numerous glands with ( 3 ) erythrophil and ( 4 ) cyanophil amorphous secretion . the oesophagus ( 150\u2013350 \u03bcm in length ) is lined with a columnar and ciliated epithelium . its subjacent musculature ( 40\u2013125 \u03bcm thick ) is continuous with the internal pharyngeal musculature , but it is thinner than the latter . the oesophagus : pharynx ratio varies from 5 to 10 % .\nsagittal sections of the pharynx of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . a holotype . b paratype 2 . c paratype 3 . d paratype 5 . the head arrow indicates the outer pharyngeal musculature and the arrow indicates the inner pharyngeal musculature\nthe testes are arranged in two or three irregular rows on each side of the body , situated dorsal to the intestinal branches and just below the supra - intestinal transverse parenchymatic layer ( figs .\n) . they begin before the ovaries and extend to the pre - pharyngeal region , slightly before the pharyngeal root . they are located at a distance between 10\u201317 % and 47\u201354 % of the body length from the anterior end ( table\n) . sperm ducts run among the fibres of subintestinal parenchymatic muscle layer , located slightly dorsal , medially displaced , to ovovitelline ducts ( fig .\n) . their distal portions are expanded with their lumen full of spermatozoa . they bend slightly toward the dorsum and the sagittal plane , going through the common muscle coat , and open , close to each other , into the proximal portion of the prostatic vesicle ( fig .\n) . the intrabulbar prostatic vesicle is composed by a tubular and sinuous proximal portion ( ~ 1 mm in length on average ) followed by a globose part with narrow lumen ( figs .\n) . the prostatic vesicle broadly communicates with the male atrium . the ejaculatory duct is absent . the male atrium possesses richly folded walls , and thus , the communication with the female atrium occurs through a narrow lumen ( figs .\n) . the male atrium is longer than the female atrium ( 1 . 8 times on average ) .\nsagittal schematic reconstruction of the copulatory apparatus of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . ( holotype )\nsagittal sections of the reproductive system of notogynaphallia nawei sp . nov . a copulatory apparatus ( holotype ) . b proximal portion of the prostatic vesicle ( paratype 5 ) . c distal portion of the prostatic vesicle ( paratype 4 ) . d male atrium ( holotype ) . e ovary ( paratype 3 ) . f detail of the female reproductive system ( holotype ) . ( * ) spermatozoa\nsperm ducts are lined with a ciliated squamous epithelium , and they are enveloped by a thin circular muscle layer ( 2 . 5 \u03bcm thick ) . the prostatic vesicle , both the sinuous portion as the globose one , is lined with a ciliated columnar epithelium traversed by erythrophil fine and coarse granular secretion and scarce erythrophil amorphous secretion arising from cell bodies located in the vicinity of the prostatic vesicle and in the surrounding parenchyma . these glandular secretions are more abundant and strongly stained in the globose portion ( fig .\n) . a thin muscular layer composed by interwoven circular , longitudinal and oblique fibres ( 5\u201315 \u03bcm thick ) surround the prostatic vesicle . the male atrium is lined with a columnar epithelium , taller in the distal portion of the male atrium than in its proximal portion . the epithelium of the male atrium is only ciliated in its proximal portion , in the transition with the prostatic vesicle ( fig .\n) . its muscularis is composed by a thin subepithelial circular layer ( 5\u201320 \u03bcm thick ) followed by a thicker longitudinal subjacent layer ( 15\u201340 \u03bcm thick ) ( fig .\n) ; it is thicker distally than proximally . the proximal part of the male atrium receives granular secretion from abundant cyanophil glands and less abundant erythrophil glands . the distal part receives openings from erythrophil glands with granular secretion and less abundant cyanophil glands with amorphous and coarse granular secretions . the cell bodies of these glands are located internally to the common muscle coat . the lumen of prostatic vesicle and male atrium of some specimens present spermatozoa . around the male organs , the common muscular coat is mainly composed by longitudinal fibres , with some circular and oblique fibres , thicker dorsally ( 30\u201340 \u03bcm thick ) than ventrally ( 20 \u03bcm thick ) .\n) . they are ventral , situated just below the intestine , and ovoid in shape ( fig .\n) . the ovovitelline ducts emerge dorsally from the middle of the ovaries and pass along their dorsal side . the proximal portions of the ovovitelline ducts are full of spermatozoa ( fig .\n) . the ovovitelline ducts run backward , and at the level of the proximal portion of the female atrium , they ascend almost vertically , bending a short track toward the sagittal plane to join above the female genital canal and form the common glandular ovovitelline duct ( fig .\n) . the common glandular ovovitelline duct is short ( 100\u2013200 \u03bcm in length ) which , together with the female genital canal ( 100\u2013300 \u03bcm in length ) , constitutes a \u201cc\u201d ( fig .\n) . the proximal portion of the female atrium is tubular , and its lumen progressively widens to form a cavity with scarcely folded walls ( figs .\nthe ovovitelline ducts are lined with a ciliated cuboidal epithelium , and they are enveloped by a circular muscle layer ( 2 . 5\u20135 \u03bcm thick ) . the distal ascending portions of the ovovitelline ducts receive scarce secretion of the shell glands . the lining epithelium of the common glandular ovovitelline duct is ciliated and columnar , receiving abundant secretion of the shell glands ( figs .\n) . the musculature of the common glandular ovovitelline duct is formed by intermingled circular and longitudinal fibres ( 5\u201315 \u03bcm thick ) . the female genital canal is lined with a ciliated columnar epithelium followed by a subjacent musculature composed by intermingled circular and longitudinal fibres ( 10\u201330 \u03bcm thick ) . the epithelium of the female genital canal receives erythrophil granular secretion and cyanophil amorphous secretion from glands located below the musculature . the female atrium is lined with a columnar epithelium , and the subjacent muscularis is composed by two layers , a circular subepithelial ( 10\u201325 \u03bcm thick ) and a longitudinal subjacent ( 15\u201340 \u03bcm thick ) . abundant erythrophil granular secretion and scarce cyanophil amorphous secretion , from glands situated outward of its muscularis , open into the female atrium . spermatozoa were observed in the lumen of the female genital canal and female atrium of the holotype ( fig ."]}
{"id": 368, "summary": [{"text": "neocyema erythrosoma is a species of pelagic fish , a deep-water bobtail snipe eel in the family cyematidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is the only member of its genus , neocyema .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was first described by peter castle in 1978 after two specimens were caught at great depths in the south atlantic ocean in 1971 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "further specimens have since been caught in the north atlantic . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "neocyema", "paragraphs": ["neocyema cf . erythrosoma ( zmub 21865 ) : ( a ) neocyema from south - east . . . | download scientific diagram\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\nneocyema erythrosoma castle , 1978\n.\nhow can i put and write and define neocyema erythrosoma in a sentence and how is the word neocyema erythrosoma used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528neocyema erythrosoma\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528neocyema erythrosoma\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528neocyema erythrosoma\u9020\u53e5 , neocyema erythrosoma meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\npunanuoliankerias\nto\nneocyema erythrosoma castle , 1978\n.\nwith the discovery of\nneocyema erythrosoma\nin the northern atlantic the distance barrier was also overcome and they considered that there was little doubt that\nleptocephalus holti\nwas indeed the larval form of\nneocyema erythrosoma\n.\nthe similarly named bobtail snipe eel is actually in a different family and represented by two species , the black\ncyema atrum\nand the bright red\nneocyema erythrosoma\n.\n\n' neocyema erythrosoma\n' is a species of first described by peter castle in 1978 after two specimens were caught at great depths in the south atlantic ocean in 1971 .\nfig . 1 . neocyema cf . erythrosoma ( zmub 21865 ) : ( a ) neocyema from south - east greenland in 2013 , showing deep red colour fresh out of the water ; ( b ) after 30 min in salt water , with red pigments leaking from the dead specimen ; ( c ) specimen free suspended in salt water showing long dentaries and free - floating , semi - transparent torn integument ; ( d ) alcohol preserved ; ( e ) digital radiograph image of neocyema showing completely ossified vertebral column , including neural and haemal spines . arrows show the abrupt elongation of the haemal spines at the origin of the caudal vertebrae , and posterior pre - vent myomere ; ( f ) illustration of neocyema based on the new greenland specimen . ( g ) cyema atrum ( ams i . 18570 - 001 ) : digital radiograph image of c . atrum , showing weakly ossified vertebral column including the outgrowths ; ( h ) illustration of c . atrum .\nfound in the depths between 2 , 000 and 2 , 500 meters , this bizarre , elongated orange animal has been identified as a neocyema , one of only five specimens ever caught . it is the only one found along the mid - atlantic ridge .\nneocyema specimen , caught in the denmark strait off the coast of south - east greenland , provides a north atlantic range expansion for the genus and is compared to all four previous records . due to taxonomic issues with both adults and larvae , the new specimen from waters near greenland is tentatively referred to as\nneocyema eels are apparently very rare denizens of the deep sea . these striking fish are a vibrant red - orange in life , fading to white in alcohol . only four ( possibly five ) specimens are known ever to have been collected . neocyema adults are short - bodied and laterally compressed , with long , delicate jaws , small teeth , and small eyes . the general morphology gives them the appearance of a larval eel ( leptocephalus ) . it is possible that these eels represent the adult form of one of the enigmatic larval forms ( apparently actually representing several different species ) described as leptocephalus holti . ( devaney et al . 2010 )\nsaccopharyngids are most abundant and diverse in the atlantic ocean . eurypharynx pelecanoides is well known from the atlantic and central and eastern pacific oceans , and the monognathids are about equally diverse in the atlantic ( six species ) and pacific oceans ( seven species ) . among the cyematidae , cyema atrum is widespread in the atlantic , pacific , and indian oceans , while neocyema erythrostoma is only known from the eastern south atlantic . saccopharyngiformes have not been reported from the mediterranean .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ngreek , neos = new + greek , kyema , - atos = foetus ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; bathypelagic ; depth range 2000 - 2200 m ( ref . 6593 ) . deep - water\nsoutheast atlantic : known only from two specimens taken west of cape town , south africa .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6593 )\nbody somewhat arrow - shaped and bright red in color ( ref . 6593 ) .\ncastle , p . h . j . , 1986 . cyemidae . p . 192 - 193 . in m . m . smith and p . c . heemstra ( eds . ) smiths ' sea fishes . springer - verlag , berlin . ( ref . 6593 )\n) : 1 . 7 - 2 . 5 , mean 1 . 8 ( based on 3 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 2500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00102 ( 0 . 00046 - 0 . 00225 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( assuming tmax > 3 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nby : bryan nelson on jan . 25 , 2010 , 9 : 30 a . m .\ntry our newsletter for optimistic innovations , seasonal recipes , strong communities and the smartest ways to lead a sustainable lifestyle .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nmy beatport lets you follow your favorite djs and labels so you can find out when they release new tracks . log in or create an account today so you never miss a new release .\nmy beatport lets you follow your favorite djs and labels so you can find out when they release new tracks . so go follow someone !\nwelcome to the jungle , vol . 2 : the ultimate jungle cakes drum & bass compilation\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nthis browser doesn ' t support spotify web player . switch browsers or download spotify for your desktop .\nlisten to all your favourite artists on any device for free or try the premium trial .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nshannon c . devaney , karsten e . hartel , and daphne e . themelis\n\ufeff 59 eagle hill road , p . o . box 9 steuben , me 04680 phone : 207 . 546 . 2821 fax : 207 . 546 . 3042 office @ urltoken\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\njoin researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications \u2013 all in one place .\nrecognition and distribution of two north atlantic gadiculus species , g . argenteus and g . thori ( gadidae ) , based on otolith morphology , larval pigmentation , molecular evidence , morphometrics and meristics\nidentification keys to halosaurs and notacanthids ( notacanthiformes , elopomorpha ) in the subarctic atlantic ocean including three new distributional records and multiple molecular otus of notacanthus cf . chemnitzii\nelteck - break & enter ! - melting pot records buy link : https : / / meltingpot - records . bandcamp . c . . . melting pot records urltoken follow us : urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken this lo - fi version of this song / video is currently displayed via the symphonic distribution youtube with full permission from the record label distributing the release . the label and its artist retain all ownership and hereby agree to all of the terms & conditions placed by symphonic distribution , the hosting party of this video , and all other terms as listed on their agreement . please support the label and its artist ( s ) by purchasing this release via itunes , emusic , rhapsody , and many more of the retailers located worldwide . if you are a label or artist and you are interested in getting your music out there , visit www . symphonicdistribution . com .\nkhalid - otw ( official video ) ft . 6lack , ty dolla $ ign\nwe use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .\nthis article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .\njackson , laura m fernando , pasan c hanscom , josh s balhoff , james p and mabee , paula m 2018 . automated integration of trees and traits : a case study using paired fin loss across teleost fishes . systematic biology ,\npoulsen , jan y . thorkildsen , solveig and arboe , nanette h . 2017 . identification keys to halosaurs and notacanthids ( notacanthiformes , elopomorpha ) in the subarctic atlantic ocean including three new distributional records and multiple molecular otus of notacanthus cf . chemnitzii . marine biodiversity ,\ngaemers , pieter and poulsen , jan 2017 . recognition and distribution of two north atlantic gadiculus species , g . argenteus and g . thori ( gadidae ) , based on otolith morphology , larval pigmentation , molecular evidence , morphometrics and meristics . fishes , vol . 2 , issue . 3 , p . 15 .\nand represents the largest specimen ever recorded . morphological and molecular data are included for future comparisons . distributional and morphological differences exist between specimens , although the present rarity of these fishes precludes an evaluation of diversity within\npreliminary notices of deep - sea fishes collected during the voyage of the h . m . s . \u201cchallenger\n) narrative report : anton bruun cruise 6 . us program in biology . international indian ocean expedition .\non the occurrence of leptocephali ( larval muraenoids ) in the atlantic w . of europe\nemail your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .\nfull text views reflects the number of pdf downloads , pdfs sent to google drive , dropbox and kindle and html full text views .\n* views captured on cambridge core between september 2016 - 9th july 2018 . this data will be updated every 24 hours .\nsorry , there are no images or audio / video clips available for this taxon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndodatkowe przyk\u0142ady dopasowywane s\u0105 do hase\u0142 w zautomatyzowany spos\u00f3b - nie gwarantujemy ich poprawno\u015bci .\nis the larval form , a stage strikingly different from the adult form the eels will grow into .\nlarval stage , but only metamorphosed ( after reaching the fully grown stage ) specimens have been available .\nshrinks as it develops into a larva ; the most shrunken larva , stage two , develops by day 70 .\n, commonly known as blackfoot polypore , is an inedible species of mushroom in the genus polyporus .\nspecimen which was collected from between ecuador and the galapagos islands , in the central eastern pacific ocean .\n( coloconger giganteus ) is an eel in the family colocongridae ( worm eels / short - tail eels ) .\n( meaning\nslim head\n) is the flat and transparent larva of the eel , marine eels , and other members of the superorder elopomorpha .\n) have telescopic eyes , meaning that there is a tubular eye with a sphere - shaped lens on the top .\n, the redfin , is a species of cyprinid fish found in eastern asia where it occurs in the countries of russia , mongolia and china .\nis a genus that was used for species of larval eels , called leptocephali , that were thought to be new fish species , or whose adult eel species were not known .\n) all have laterally compressed bodies that contain transparent jelly - like substances on the inside of the body and a thin layer of muscle with visible myomeres on the outside .\n, is a goby from the western pacific : indonesia to new caledonia , north to the yaeyama islands , south to northwestern australia , also tonga .\nthe saccopharyngiformes are divided into two suborders , the cyematoidei , with the single family cyematidae ( with two monotypic genera ) , and the saccopharyngoidei , which contains the other three families . of these three families , the monognathidae is the most diverse , with 14 identified species in the genus monognathus . the saccopharyngidae has 11 species in the single genus saccopharynx ; the closely related family eurypharyngidae is monotypic . there is still controversy over the inclusion of the cyematidae in this order , but they are placed here on the basis of reduction of skeletal features that are common among all four families . systematists consider the saccopharyngiformes to be quite different from anguilliform eels . the order is thought to consist of highly specialized fishes . all four families share numerous common features , most of which have to do with extreme loss of skeletal features , presumably the result of the extremely energy poor environment .\nwithin the saccopharyngoidei , the eurypharyngids and saccopharyngids are superficially most similar in appearance and are considered the closest in taxonomic relationship . the monognathidae represent a more advanced and highly specialized family , as evidenced by even greater reduction in skeletal components , that is , the loss of the upper jaw . the first fossil evidence for this order is reported to be from the middle cretaceous .\nthe loss of skeletal structures has resulted in fishes that are among the most unusual and striking in their appearance . among other characteristics , all are scaleless , lack pelvic fins , and have very long dorsal and anal fins . all are rather\nflabby\nto the touch and presumably are very poor swimmers . in members of the saccopharyngoidei , the mouths are very large to enormous , with distensible pharynges and stomachs , to allow for the capture of very large prey . dentition varies among the families . well - produced , posteriorly curved teeth are found in the saccopharyngidae , with the other three families possessing small to minute teeth in the jaws .\nexcept for the enlarged head and mouth structure , the rest of the body of these fishes is elongated and very slender ( filamentous in eurypharyngids and saccopharyngids ) . the body coloration varies from scattered pigment patches to a light uniform brown in monognathids , with dark brown to solid black in cyematids , eurypharyngids , and saccopharyngids . thin white lines of unknown function extend from the head to the tail along the upper body in the saccopharyngids and eurypharyngids , and individuals in both families have luminous bulbs at the very tip of the filamentous tail . the filament may constitute 50 % or more of the overall length of the fish . overall lengths of the substantial part of the body in all saccopharyngiforms is small , not exceeding 19 . 6 in ( 50 cm ) .\nthese are primarily bathypelagic inhabitants , with the majority of adult specimens being collected at depths greater than 3 , 280 ft ( 1 , 000 m ) . larvae and juveniles live in shallower waters , even into the upper mesopelagic zone below 656 ft ( 200 m ) .\nowing to the extreme depths at which these fishes live , there are few reports of any behavior .\nall saccopharyngiform species are poor swimmers at best . there have been no reports on feeding in the cyematids , but it is thought that eurypharyngids and saccopharyngids draw prey close to them by means of luminescent lures on their tails and then quickly open their mouths to suck food in . saccopharyngids are piscivorous ( eat only other fish ) ; eurypharyngids take a broader range of fish and invertebrate prey . an even more unusual form of feeding has been postulated for monognathids . it is thought that their prey ( crustaceans ) may be lured by scent released from glands around the mouth ; when they come close enough , the fish bite them by means of a hollow fang in the mouth that injects venom , much like a rattlesnake . the fish then swallows the dead or dying shrimp whole . little is known about the predators that feed in members of this order .\nthere are no known conservation measures specific to these families . no species from either family is listed on the iucn red list .\nowing to their rarity and poorly studied biological characteristics , no significance can be attributed to saccopharyngiforms . they are objects of curiosity because of their extreme body specializations .\ncyema atrum g\u00fcnther , 1878 , south pacific , challenger station 1 , 770 ft ( 539 m ) ; antarctic , challenger station 948 ; 9 , 000 ; and 10 , 800 ft ( 289 ; 2 , 743 ; and 3 , 292 m ) .\nenglish : bobtail eel , deepwater eel ; danish : korthalet \u00e5l ; finnish : nuoliankerias .\nthis species has a rather striking appearance that is quite different from that of other saccopharyngiforms . adults are black in coloration . this species is scaleless , like all members of the order . the eyes are very small . the jaws are thin and long , with numerous very fine teeth , and the jaws curve slightly away from each other at their tips . the dorsal and anal fin rays become progressively more elongated toward the rear of the body and extend well past very short caudal rays ; the effect is that in side view the fish looks like an arrow ! it is a small species , with a maximum reported size of about 6 . 3 in ( 160 mm ) .\nit has been reported from all oceans between about 70\u00b0 north and 55\u00b0 south . most collections have been from the atlantic and pacific oceans .\nthe species is oceanic , lower mesopelagic to bathypelagic . although it has been reported from collections made as shallow as 1 , 148 ft ( 350 m ) , most records are from depths exceeding 4 , 921 ft ( 1 , 500 m ) .\nthere has been little research on the feeding habits of this eel . because of its jaw structure , it is suggested that the species feeds on comparable prey types and in a fashion similar to that of the anguilliform eels of the family nemichthyidae , commonly known as snipe eels . nemichthyids use their thin , recurved jaws to feed on crustacean shrimps , especially those in the family sergestidae . predators of this species are unknown .\nunlike the other saccopharyngiforms , there is no apparent sexual dimorphism in adults . no other reproductive data have been reported for this species . the leptocephalus stage is rather distinctive ; the deep oval body has a very small pointed head and a pointed caudal extension . these features grow a bit larger than in other saccopharyngiform leptocephali , with a maximum recorded total length of 2 . 8 in ( 70 mm ) .\neurypharynx pelecanoides vaillant , 1882 , off new england , united states , about 40\u00b0n , 68\u00b0w , 3 albatross stations , 2 , 334\u20138 , 802 ft ( 711\u20132 , 683 m ) .\nenglish : big mouth gulper eel , pelican gulper , pelican gulper fish , pelican fish , deep - sea gulper , umbrella mouth gulper ; french : grand - gousier pelican ; german : pelikanaal ; spanish : pez pelicano ; danish : pelikan\u00e5l ; finnish : pelikaaniankerias ; icelandic : gapaldur ; japanese : fukuro - unagi ; polish : polykacz .\nsuperficially similar to species in the genus saccopharynx , with which it shares the closest taxonomic relationship within the order , this species is coal black overall , except for a tiny white region on the caudal organ . it is scaleless . probably the most striking differences between the pelican eel and saccopharynx species are that the jaw length is extreme , almost 50 % of the distance to the anus ; the jaw teeth are very small ; and there is a gradual narrowing of the body posterior to the abdomen . other similarities to saccopharynx species include small eyes that detect light rather than form visual images , the presence of a presumably luminous caudal organ at the end of a very long filamentous tail , an expansible stomach , and a weakly ossified and poorly muscled body . because the delicate tail is usually broken , the maximum size is uncertain , but the largest intact specimen ever collected measured 25 . 9 in ( 750 mm ) in total length .\nthis a circumglobal species , found in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans . it is best known from the atlantic and eastern and central pacific oceans .\nthe species is oceanic and bathypelagic . although there are some shallow - water capture records at less than 1 , 640 ft ( 500m ) , most individuals are collected between 3 , 281 and 9 , 842 ft ( 1 , 000\u20133 , 000 m ) .\nthis species takes in a wider range of prey than do species in the genus saccopharynx . prey items include fishes , various crustaceans ( especially caridean decapod shrimps ) , and cephalopod mollusks . in addition , there have been several reports of benthic prey items in the stomachs of pelican eels . predators are unknown .\nreproduction is similar to that of species in the genus saccopharynx , in that sexually mature males have greatly expanded nasal structures , accompanied by stomach atrophy , loss of dentition , and reduction in jaw structure . reproduction is apparently a terminal event . leptocephalus larvae are oval and deep - bodied , like saccopharynx species , but they are smaller , with a maximum length of about 1 . 6 in ( 40 mm ) . they have several greatly elongated larval teeth in the upper jaw .\nmonognathus rosenblatti bertelsen and nielsen , 1987 , central north pacific , 31\u00b0n , 159\u00b0w , 14 , 300\u201317 , 300 ft ( 4 , 853\u20135 , 266m ) \u2014bottom is 19 , 000 ft ( 5 , 800 m ) .\nas with others in this genus , this species is found in oceanic , deep bathypelagic habitats . the shallowest record for m . rosenblatti is 6 , 889 ft ( 2 , 100 m ) . due to their habitat , this family is exceptionally rare . all 14 species are known form a combined total of fewer than 80 individuals , about 50 % of which belong to m . rosenblatti .\nno stomach contents have been reported from any m . rosenblatti specimens , but prey from other monognathid species have all been crustacean shrimps . all of the shrimps were quite large relative to the body size of the fish . it has been hypothesized that these weak fish inject their prey with venom using the rostral fang , in much the same fashion as certain venomous snakes overcome their prey . predators are unknown .\nas with the other saccopharyngoids , the sexually mature collected specimens of monognathids ( none of which were m . rosenblatti ) exhibit dimorphism and evidence that spawning is a one - time terminal event . males possess greatly enlarged nasal structures , suggesting that locating of mates takes place by scent . although it is believed that the larval form is a leptocephalus , as yet none has been positively identified as belonging to this family .\nophiognathus ampullaceus harwood , 1827 , nw atlantic ocean , 32\u00b020 ' n , 30\u00b016 ' w , 0\u20136 , 234 ft ( 0\u20131 , 900 m ) . neotype : ish 3288 / 79 . original locality 62\u00b0n , 57\u00b0w . neotype selected by nielsen and bertelsen ( 1985 ) .\nenglish : pelican fish ; danish : slug\u00e5l ; finnish : ahmattiankerias ; icelandic : pokakjaftur ; polish : gardzielec .\nthe body is attenuated and very flabby , with poorly ossified bones and weakly developed muscles . the most striking attributes are tiny eyes that function as light detectors ; a greatly enlarged mouth with numerous slightly recurved teeth ; an elongated stomach region , with the posterior end of the abdomen clearly demarcated from the tail , and an extremely long tail ( about 75 % of body length ) , with an elongated caudal filament that terminates in a\ncaudal organ\nbelieved to be luminescent . because of the delicacy of the body , the filaments often are broken off in captured specimens . the body is scaleless . the largest intact specimen measured 5 . 2 ft ( 1 . 6 m ) , although much of the body length consists of the elongated whiplike tail and caudal filament .\nthis species is the best known of the genus . it has been collected only from the north atlantic ocean between 10\u00b0 and 65\u00b0 north latitude .\nthe gulper eel is oceanic and bathypelagic . only juveniles have been captured at depths of less than 2 , 624 ft ( 800 m ) . it is believed that adults typically reside deeper than 6 , 561 ft ( 2 , 000 m ) .\nbecause of the great depths of its habitat , aspects of the behavior of this species are largely the subject of conjecture .\nthe species is piscivorous . relatively few saccopharyngids have been recovered with intact stomach contents , but in all cases various fish species were the prey . the gulper eel has an extremely distensible stomach , allowing it to ingest very large prey . because of its weak skeleton and body muscles , it is believed to be a very poor swimmer . it is thought to lure prey within range by means of the luminescent caudal organ , which it may suspend in the water near its mouth . the jaw muscles are the only well - developed muscles and probably allow the gulper eel to suck its prey into the large mouth by quickly opening the jaws . predators are unknown .\nmales and females are sexually dimorphic . sexually mature males show extreme degeneration of the jaws , along with a loss of teeth and reduction in abdominal size . in addition , the eyes become somewhat enlarged , and the nasal apparatus is significantly enlarged . it has been suggested that males locate females by tracking pheromone ( scent ) trails released by the females . as with numerous eel species as well as some other deep - sea fish species , reproduction is thought to be a terminal event . as with eels in general , larval gulper eels have a leptocephalus , a ribbon - like transparent stage . relatively few leptocephali have been collected , but all are deep - bodied and small , with a total length of 1 . 47\u20131 . 9 in ( 40\u201350 mm ) .\nbertelsen , e . , j\u00f8rgen nielsen , and david g . smith .\nfamilies saccopharyngidae , eurypharyngidae , and monognathidae .\nin fishes of the western north atlantic , edited by eugenia b . b\u00f6hlke . part 9 . new haven : sears foundation for marine research , 1989 .\nnelson , joseph s . fishes of the world . 3rd edition . new york : john wiley and sons , 1994 .\nsmith , david g .\norder saccopharyngiformes , family cyematidae .\nin fishes of the western north atlantic , edited by eugenia b . b\u00f6hlke . vol . 9 , part 1 . new haven : sears foundation for marine research , 1989 .\n\u2014\u2014 .\nfamilies cyematidae , saccopharyngidae , eurypharyngidae , and monognathidae : leptocephali .\nin fishes of the western north atlantic , edited by eugenia b . b\u00f6hlke . vol . 9 , part 2 . new haven : sears foundation for marine research , 1989 .\nbertelsen , e . , and j\u00f8rgen g . nielsen .\nthe deep - sea eel family monognathidae ( pisces , anguilliformes ) .\nsteenstrupia 13 , no . 4 ( 1987 ) : 141\u2013198 .\ngartner , john v . jr .\nsexual dimorphism in the bathypelagic gulper eel eurypharynx pelecanoides ( lyomeri : eurypharyngidae ) , with comments on reproductive strategy .\ncopeia 2 ( 1983 ) : 446\u2013449 .\nnielsen , j\u00f8rgen g . , and e . bertelsen .\nthe gulper - eel family saccopharyngidae ( pisces , anguilliformes ) .\nsteenstrupia 11 ( 1985 ) : 157\u2013206 .\nfishbase : a global information system on fishes .\n7 nov . 2002 ( 12 nov . 2002 ) . < urltoken >\nsaccopharyngiformes ( swallowers and gulpers ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nsaccopharyngiformes ( swallowers and gulpers ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list ."]}
{"id": 376, "summary": [{"text": "prolita princeps is a moth of the gelechiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by august busck in 1910 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california , washington , montana , oregon , new mexico , utah and british columbia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 16.5 \u2013 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the scales on the costal half at the base and the costal margin on the forewings are buff white with brown tips , while the scales on the area costad and distad of the medial brown streak are white to buff white with pale brown apices , and the scales dorsad of the brown streak are pale yellow .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "a few buff tipped scales are found on the outer margin .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous , with the veins slightly darker . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "prolita princeps", "paragraphs": ["gnorimoschema princeps busck , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 4 ) : 175 ; tl : california\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n: the scales on the costal half at the base and the costal margin on the forewings are buff white with brown tips , while the scales on the area costad and distad of the medial brown streak are white to buff white with pale brown apices , and the scales dorsad of the brown streak are pale yellow . a few buff tipped scales are found on the outer margin . the hindwings are fuscous , with the veins slightly darker .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\ncalifornia , colorado , arizona , new mexico , texas , wyoming , utah . see [ maps ]\ngelechia barnesiella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 875 ; tl : colorado , gelnwood springs\nlita deoia hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 20 ; tl : smokey valley , 6000ft , tulare co . , california\nlita dialis hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 21 ; tl : paradise , cochise co . , arizona\nlita geniata hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 18 ; tl : la puerta valley , so . california\nlita incicur hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 17 ; tl : smokey valley , 6300ft , tulare co . , california\nutah , arizona , california , colorado , oregon , new mexico . see [ maps ]\ngelechia invariabilis kearfott , 1908 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 16 ( 3 ) : 184 ; tl : stockton , utah\nwashington , california , colorado , idaho , montana , utah . see [ maps ]\nlita jubata hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 34 ; tl : satus creek , yakima co . , washington\nlarva on chrysothamnus viscidiflorus hodges , 1966 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 34\nlita maenadis hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 23 ; tl : blanco ' s corral , white mts , mono co . , california , 10150ft\ncalifornia ; new mexico , nevada , washington , colorado . see [ maps ]\nlita nefrens hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 35 ; tl : sonora pass , tuolumne co . , california\nlarva on chrysothamnus nauseosus hodges , 1966 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 36\nlita obnubila hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 22 ; tl : fort davis , texas , 5000ft\nlita pagella hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 21 ; tl : fort valley , 7350ft , 7 . 5mi flagstaff , coconino co . , arizona\ncalifornia , washington , montana , new mexico , utah , washington , british columbia . see [ maps ]\ngelechia puertella busck , 1916 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 18 ( 2 ) : 148 ; tl : la puerta , california\ncalifornia , colorado , montana , new mexico , washington , british columbia . see [ maps ]\nlita recens hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 31 ; tl : mt . shasta , california\nlarva on stenatopsis linearifolius , ericameria cuneata hodges , 1966 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 31\ncalifornia , arizona , colorado , utah , montana , washington , alberta . see [ maps ]\ngelechia rectistrigella barnes & busck , 1920 ; contr . nat . hist . lepid . n . am . 4 ( 3 ) : 229 ; tl : west riverside , california\nneu , siberia , alps , austria , . . . , alaska , washington , california , utah , wyoming , canada . see [ maps ]\nlita sironae hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 27 ; tl : san diego , california\nlarva on sarothamnus scoparius hodges , 1966 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 12 , genista tinctoria , cytisus [ me3 ] , 174\nlita thaliae hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 28 ; tl : eureka , utah\nlarva on chrysothamnus nauseosus hodges , 1966 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 29\ncalifornia , colorado , arizona , california , connecticut , massachusetts , montana , nevada , new mexico , washington , british columbia , manitoba , saskatchewan . see [ maps ]\ngelechia variabilis busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 871 ; tl : california ; colorado\nlita veledae hodges , 1966 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 119 ( 3547 ) : 24 ; tl : dixieland , imperial co . , california\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on images to enlarge .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en"]}
{"id": 410, "summary": [{"text": "theretra lycetus , the white-edged hunter hawkmoth , is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from south-east asia , including malaysia , thailand , india , sri lanka and indonesia . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "theretra lycetus", "paragraphs": ["theretra lycetus is not as common on the t . oldenlandiae for your location , but the pink suffusion supports this idea . see below for a picture :\nas mattdmo suggested , this is a hawk moth . given your location and season , this is why i thought it was either the impatiens hawkmoth ( theretra oldenlandiae ) or the white - edged hunter hawkmoth ( theretra lycetus ) . and finally , why i now think it is the brown - banded hunter ( theretra silhetensis ) .\ned note : august 26 , 2011 after an exchange of comments , we now agree that this is not a yam hawkmoth , but the closely related theretra lycetus from the same genus .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . theretra lycetus cramer , 1775 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\nalmost positive it ' s the impatiens hawkmoth , ( theretra oldenlandiae ) , which is common in india . site for reference\nwhen it comes down to it , that solid single white line is the biggest indicator it is a t . silhetensis over a t . oldenlandiae or t . lycetus .\ntheretra oldenlandiae was my original instinct , since it is a more common in your area and the banding / stripe pattern matches to a t .\nsuperficially similar to hippotion geryon but immediately distinguishable by the shape of the pale postmedian band and crenulated forewing outer margin . distinguished from centroctena imitans by the broader forewing , with a less crenulated and angulate outer margin with the tooth on m2 the same size as that on m1 . forewing upperside with postmedian lines much more strongly undulate between the apex and m3 than in centroctena imitans uncus rather narrow and obviously curved , apically slightly sinuate . gnathos apically rounded . valve with about 12 large stridulatory scales . harpe a long , slender , horizontal , cylindrical process , slightly upcurved apically . aedeagus superficially similar to theretra clotho group in having a large patch of erect , somewhat curved , deciduous spines , their tips pointing distad ; differing , however , in the spines being curved ( not straight ) and having only a single point , rather than multiple ( caltrops ) points sterigma similar to theretra lycetus , but more triangular . ostium bursae asymmetrical , but not so prominent as in theretra lycetus\nthe theretra silhetensis exhibits a solid white line along the upperside of its abdomen , and more of a faded banding pattern on the forethat corresponds with your picture . these moths are also common in india .\ntheretra oldenlandiae , the impatiens hawkmoth or taro hornworm , is a member of the family sphingidae found in india , sri lanka , china , borneo , japan , the philippines , thailand , and australia .\nwingspan : 70 - - 90mm . immediately distinguishable from all other species of theretra by the white forewing costa and discal spot , and a narrow white dorsal line restricted to the thorax . forewing upperside purplish - brown with only serrate postmedian line clearly visible ; discal spot a small white dot ; costa highlighted with white . hindwing upperside orange with a slightly darker , diffuse marginal band . head and thorax chestnut - brown ; thorax with a white dorsal stripe and a similar lateral stripe from tip of palpus to end of thorax ; abdomen with first two segments chestnut - brown , rest brownish - pink , paler on the sides . opening at apex of labial palp segment one partly covered by single long scales from the first and second segments ( as in theretra castanea ) . thorax with a white medial line . forebasitarsus with external row of spines doubled and trebled .\ntheretra oldenlandiae oldenlandiae ( from sri lanka and southern india north to northern pakistan , northern afghanistan , nepal , bhutan and myanmar . then northeastwards through china to taiwan , south korea and japan , and then southeastwards through south east asia as far as the andaman islands , the solomon islands and the philippines . strongly migratory northward to northeastern china ( heilongjiang , liaoning and jilin ) , eastern russia ( primorskiy kray ) and northern japan )\nlarval hostplants . recorded in china only on aporosa octandra , from both guangdong ( mell , 1922b - - as aporosa leptostachys ) and hong kong ( waring et al . , 1994 - - as aporosa chinensis ) . in india and burma / myanmar theretra pallicosta also feeds on species of aporosa ( fellowes - manson , 1909 ; bell & scott , 1937 ) , while in pakistan it has been recorded on vitis ( fletcher , 1920 ) . a record from camellia sinensis in india ( andrews , 1921 ) is erroneous .\nthe species differs from lycetus in being greyish brown without pink suffusion and the two dorsal lines on abdomen silvery white . there are also oblique stripes on forewing and the sides of abdomen is ochreous , not golden . hindwing with the submarginal band ochreous and narrow . larva is pale purplish brown in color . there is a yellow subdorsal line and white spots with a pale lateral line below them on the thoracic somites . black - ringed ocelli can be seen on 4th to 10th somites , where the first two centered with blue , and posterior with purple . in the early instars , posterior ocelli are centered with crimson color with dorsal bands of yellow specks . the species is found in open lowland habitats .\nchaerocampa pallicosta walker , 1856 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . 8 : 145 . type locality : [ bangladesh , ] silhet [ sylhet ] ; [ china , ] hong kong .\nin the male genitalia , uncus weakly sinuate . gnathos rather narrow , pointed . valve with about ten large stridulatory scales . harpe long , slender , horizontal , apex rounded in dorsal view , flattened . aedeagus with apical edge dorsally rounded - produced , symmetrical ; on left and right sides are dentate processes pointing anteriorly , the left more slender and slightly longer than the right .\naccording to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in southern india the moth does not emerge and lay its eggs till the monsoon is well established , about july , but in myanmar ( burma ) eggs and larvae were found before the end of april . they did not see the moth feeding or come to light .\nchina : iii - xi ( hong kong ) ; v ( yunnan ) ; vii ( xizang / tibet ) .\novum : green , oval , surface smooth and shiny . usually found on small bushy plants , close to the ground , and even on seedlings with only a few leaves showing above the ground ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nlarva : full - fed 60 - - 85mm , width 12mm , horn 5mm . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , in the first instar head and body yellowish - green , dorsum of segments 2 to 4 dark green ; horn long , thick at base , tapering gently to a strongly bifid tip , the two arms thick at base and shortly conical , shiny black with small black tubercles . towards the end of this instar the whole body becomes pale grass - green . there are dorso - lateral eye - spots on segments 5 to 11 , that on 5 large , round , white with a crescent of black below ; these decreasing in size backwards , the white reduced in size in each successive eye - spot until it has disappeared altogether on that of 11 .\nin the second instar , head orange , and an orange band along front margin of 2 ; rest of body yellowish - green . eye - spot on 5 nearly round , pupil enamel - white with a narrow crescent of purple below , the whole edged fairly broadly above and below , narrowly at sides , with black . remaining eye - spots smaller , longitudinally oval , colour the same as that on 5 , but the white pupil oval and oblique ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nin the third instar , segments 4 and 5 slightly tumid ; head grass - green ; body bluish - green dotted obscurely with yellow on 6 to 12 . there is a narrow , obscure , dark bluish - green dorsal stripe , and a faint - yellowish subdorsal stripe on 3 and 4 . a large round eye - spot is present on 5 , its pupil sap - green with broad yellow iris edged narrowly with dark green ; the pupil bears a longitudinal oval marking of electric - blue edged narrowly with paler blue , and within the yellow iris are two crescents , one at the top of electric - blue , and a purple one at the bottom . remaining eye - spots smaller , oval , the oblique , very pale blue pupil edged narrowly above with dark green , below by a purple crescent and then dark green . these eye - spots lying on obscure pale yellowish oblique stripes . horn long , thin , tapering gently to near tip where it thickens slightly to a bifid tip , the two arms shortly conical ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nby the fourth instar segments 4 and 5 much swollen ; head grass - green ; body pale grass - green covered with a chalk - like bloom , segments 6 to 11 with short thick grass - green stripes around the secondary rings ; a narrow dark green dorsal stripe is present . eye - spot on 5 large , nearly round , coloured as in the third instar , but the pupil of a darker shade ; other eye - spots smaller , elongate - oval , very oblique , lying at the same angle as the oblique lateral stripes , pale yellow with a crescent of purple below , the whole edged narrowly above and below with sap - green . the obscure yellowish oblique lateral stripes are interrupted by the oblique eye - spots , except that on 11 and 12 , which runs forwards and downwards from base of horn . horn long , thick at base , tapering evenly to tip , which is slightly , thickened ; basal two - thirds straight , distal third gently up - curved ; basal third orange , rest translucent pale green , surface shiny and covered with self - coloured , spine - like tubercles .\nin the fifth and final instar , head with vertex depressed ; true clypeus between one - third and one - half length of head , triangular ; false clypeus hardly visible ; labrum and ligula large , ligula broad kidney - shaped ; surface of head smooth and dull . body smooth and dull , shaped as in others of the genus , with segment 5 much swollen . horn short , tapering gently to near tip , then abruptly to a blunt point , gently down - curved ; surface dull and sparsely tuberculate ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nthere are also dark - coloured forms of the larva in which the green is replaced by pinkish - chocolate and dark chocolate , or by purplish ; the eye - spots are as above but darker in shade ; those on 6 to 11 sometimes indistinct ; horn brown with yellowish tip ; spiracles fuscous with a broad border of pale dull ochreous .\nas with the eggs , the larva is also found close to the ground or among the thicker parts of the foliage , near the stem ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\npupa : 45 - - 60mm , width 13mm . colour of head , tongue - case and wing - case nearly black ; segments 2 and 3 dark wood - brown , 3 and dorsum of abdomen paler wood - brown . abdomen with a broad faint greenish dorsal stripe . sides bone - colour mottled and speckled with brown ; hind bevels of 8 to 10 greenish ; front bevels of 9 to 11 rusty ; 12 to 14 blackish ventrally , 13 and 14 also blackish dorsally ; venter pale with a narrow black ventral stripe ; spiracles and cremaster black , the tips of the teeth white ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\ntongue - case projecting somewhat frontad and more ventrad , the edge flattened . antenna equal to fore leg , which reaches to more than one - half the distance to tip of wing - case , mid - leg to three - quarters that distance ; there is a narrow coxal piece . surface dull ; sides of tongue - case , head and thorax coarsely irregularly transversely corrugate ; with a very shallow palpal depression . costa of fore wing tumid and , together with the veins , set with lines of rounded tubercles . abdomen finely shagreened ; front bevels of 9 to 11 superficially pitted ; five narrow ante - spiracular ridges on 9 ; hind margin of 11 tumid and undercut , the front margin of 12 fitting into it telescopically . spiracle of 2 at the bottom of a very deep triangular depression ; remaining spiracles slightly convex ovals , the central slit widening at the ends and with a thick rim ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\ncremaster with the sides nearly parallel in basal half , then curving inwards , ending in two conical simply pointed diverging teeth , their bases touching ; dorsal surface convex and coarsely striate , ventral concave with an irregular mesial ridge . under the base of cremaster a deep funnel - shaped depression running forwards into 14 , the surface of the hollow very rugose .\nin thailand , also recorded from polyalthia cerasoides ( eitschberger & ihle , 2010 ) .\nchina : shaanxi ( xi ' an ) ; yunnan ( changning co . , songzhishanding , 2800m ; gaoligong shan ) ; xizang / tibet ( xiachayu , zayu county ) ; fujian ( jianyang ) ; guangdong ( guangzhou ; nankunshan ) ; hong kong ; hainan .\nfrom sri lanka and india , east through nepal ( haruta , 1992 ) , bangladesh and burma / myanmar to hong kong and taiwan , and south through thailand , laos and vietnam to peninsular malaysia and indonesia ( sumatra , java ) . the shaanxi record is well north of the rest of the known range of this species and probably represents a vagrant .\nno part of this website or any of its contents may be reproduced , copied , modified or adapted , without the prior written consent of the author .\nshubhalaxmi , v , r c kendrick , alka vaidya , neelima kalagi , and alaka bhagwat . 2011 . inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india . journal of the bombay \u2026 108 , no . 3 : 183 - 205 . urltoken\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\ninventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india .\nnotes on hawk moths ( lepidoptera \u2014 sphingidae ) in the karwar - dharwar transect , peninsular india : a . . .\na list of hawkmoth species ( lepidoptera : sphingidae ) of india , nepal , bhutan and sri lanka , incl . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nmell , r . 1922 , pp . xxii + 331 pp . , atlas 35 pls , 10 figs , 1 map , r . friedlander & son , berlin\nwalker , f . 1856 ,\nsphingidae\n, list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . 8 , pp . 1 - 271\nbutler , a . g . 1875 ,\ndescriptions of thirty - three new or little - known species of sphingidae in the collection of the british museum\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 1875 , pp . 3 - 16 , pls 1 - 2\naustaut , l . 1892 ,\ndeux sphingides nouveaux de l ' asie orientale\n, le naturaliste , vol . 1892 , pp . 68 , 69\nbutler , a . g . 1875 ,\ndescriptions of several new species of sphingidae\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 621 - 623\ngehlen , b . 1941 ,\nneue sphingiden\n, entomologische zeitschrift , vol . 55 , no . 23 , pp . 185 - 186\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 49e4e523 - 4d71 - 4a1b - b1b8 - 1628d0f3d2f6\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6e219979 - 6cbe - 45b8 - 8dc1 - d7e4e45db884\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f9f3295c - 092b - 42a3 - 8703 - 237b21ae687c\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 405572\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\ntransferred to centroctena by rothschild & jordan , 1903 , novit . zool . 9 ( suppl . ) : 790\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nstack exchange network consists of 174 q & a communities including stack overflow , the largest , most trusted online community for developers to learn , share their knowledge , and build their careers .\nthis site uses cookies to deliver our services and to show you relevant ads and job listings . by using our site , you acknowledge that you have read and understand our cookie policy , privacy policy , and our terms of service . your use of stack overflow\u2019s products and services , including the stack overflow network , is subject to these policies and terms .\nit is approx 1 . 5 inch ( 3 cm to 4 . 5 cm ) long\njust few hours ago ( around night 10 to 10 . 30 pm local time ) , this insect entered into our home , flying in high - speed and hitting to wall , objects , and to us . to keep it calm we turned the room - light off . then it became steady on my father ' s shirt even after the light again turned on , and it was a beautiful moth - like insect . after taking photo it gently freed out of the room .\np . s . i ' ve very very little - experience in practical - zoology , however after few hours google search it seems to match with those moths tagged as\nhawk - moths\n, and another notable feature when it was flying it looked like a hummingbird or a small bird , that was written in the description of some\nhawk - moths\nin different sites . initially we ' re taking time to decide whether it is an insect or a bird .\nit looks like urltoken urltoken , ; urltoken , urltoken , and urltoken . etc .\nif i able to identify it by someone , i ' ll upload it here . thanks .\nit is differs from t . oldenlandiae in being very much paler in color and with white line down center of abdomen .\nwhile my final answer is the brown - banded hunter hawkmoth , below are the original two species i suspected it was and why . i ' ve included them below simply for reference / alternative comparisons .\nyour specimen exhibits pink suffusion , especially on the back edge of the fore wing .\nfor these two reasons i think it is not the impatiens hawkmoth and thought it was more likely the . . .\nthis still doesn ' t explain the double vs . single white stripe along the upper abdomen . which is why i know believe it is the . . .\nas an aside , this could be an example of polymorphism vs . identifying characters . welcome to the world of taxonomic lumpers and splitters . . .\nthanks . also i don ' t know , how - frequent posting of identification question is considered as ok , ( i . e . is there any limit on it ) in this se community , however i posted this - one because this - insect was very surprising to us . . . it looked like a tiny bird when it was flying .\nno problem at all . i think as long as you do not spam posts you should be in the clear ( although i ' m not the final say in the matter ) . as for confusing a moth for a bird , you aren ' t the first one ! this moth in the same sphingidae family was posted just last week ! and thank you to your post ! very clear picture of the moth with a good explanation\nthis page gave me the clue , and the link to the page above . like i said , i ' m not an entomologist : )\nprobably this one you ' re telling about urltoken . however our - one contains very bold long mark on back . however like our - one , yours also contain the black dot on 2 wings .\n@ dgruenewald i think you ' re right . go ahead and write up an answer .\nby clicking\npost your answer\n, you acknowledge that you have read our updated terms of service , privacy policy and cookie policy , and that your continued use of the website is subject to these policies .\nnot the answer you ' re looking for ? browse other questions tagged species - identification entomology or ask your own question .\nneed help to identify a bug location : bangalore , india august 22 , 2011 7 : 39 am i took snaps of this bug which was sitting on my terrace . i found the shape of the wing very interesting , so i would appreciate if you could help me identifying this . signature : rajesh ranjan\nmy friend\u2019s moth looking very smiliar posted on inw was identified by dr . ian kitching , nhm , uk urltoken\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nnotify me of followup comments via e - mail . you can also subscribe without commenting .\nbuggy life cycles edible insects : tasty morsels wtb ? down under bug mysteries 10 most beautiful spiders gems from our archives goldenrod meadow unnecessary carnage virginia the big 5 snow bugs food chain buggy accessories wtb ? mt . washington household pests top 10 virginia beach countdown 10 000 worst bug stories ever ! ! ! northern california bug of the month bug love aquatic bugs nasty reader award tomato bugs buggy vocabulary words bug humanitarian award what ' s on my woody plant ? make my day gift shop gardening blog unidentified invasive exotics calendar 2011 milkweed meadow fanmail\nplease enter your username or e - mail address . you will receive a new password via e - mail .\nthey are often considered a pest on both busy lizzie ( impatiens wallerana ) and fuchsias ( fuchsia sp . ) . caterpillars of this species have also been seen feeding on arum lily ( zantedeschia aethiopica ) , argentine trumpet vine ( clytostoma callistegioides ) , climbing guinea flower ( hibbertia scandens ) , billy goat plum ( planchonia careya ) , godetia ( clarkia amoena ) , star cluster ( pentas lanceolata ) , australian native violet ( viola hederacea ) and slender grape ( cayratia clematidea ) . the larvae are black with yellow dots , they have a small spine on their tails and use it as a mimicked head . before pupating the caterpillar will reach a length of about 70 mm .\nthe adult is brown with light brown stripes down the thorax . the stripes are mimicked on the inner margin of the forewing ."]}
{"id": 445, "summary": [{"text": "the desert musk shrew ( crocidura smithii ) is a species of mammal in the family soricidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in ethiopia , senegal , and possibly somalia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is dry savanna . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "desert musk shrew", "paragraphs": ["the desert musk shrew is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\ndesertusa is a comprehensive resource about the north american deserts and southwest destinations . learn about desert biomes while you discover how desert plants and animals learn to adapt to the harsh desert environment . find travel information about national parks , state parks , blm land , and southwest cities and towns located in or near the desert regions of the united states . access maps and information about the sonoran desert , mojave desert , great basin desert , and chihuahuan desert .\ncommunication : the desert shrew often leads a solitary , nocturnal existence , and its processes of communication with potential mates or adversaries are little understood . if threatened the animal , like other shrew species , emits a foul odor from musk glands on its hindquarters , presumably warning would - be predators that it is not a desirable meal . it may also use the glands to mark territory .\nthe desert shrew ' s major predator is the owl , a nocturnal hunter with a weak sense of smell ( hence it is presumably not bothered by the shrew ' s foul musk gland odor ) . although the shrew has lost habitat in some areas and is regarded as a threatened species in mexico , it is listed as a species of\nleast concern\nby the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources :\nthere are no major threats to the widespread species .\nappearance : although the desert shrew looks something like a house mouse , it is only about a fourth the size . it has a more narrow and elongated snout . the desert shrew feeds primarily on insects , while the mouse consumes primarily plant material . the shrew has 28 teeth with sharp pincerlike incisors and single cusp molars that are suitable for catching and chewing its prey . the mouse has 16 teeth with incisors designed for gnawing on plant and other material . the shrew has five clawed digits on its feet , the mouse , four .\ndesert adaptations : as a species , the desert shrew has developed specialized behavioral and biological adaptations to life in an arid environment , oftentimes without a free source of water for prolonged periods . their primary source of moisture is their food . they are idle during the heat of the day , saving energy and water . biologically , the desert shrew has a lower metabolic rate than other shrews , reducing its water requirements , and it has highly efficient kidneys and a specially adapted respiratory system , which minimize its water losses .\nin 16th century england , the word\nshrew\noften referred to an evil - tempered person , typically a woman , which led shakespeare to write\nthe taming of the shrew .\nthe desert , or crawford ' s gray , shrew belongs to the broadly distributed taxonomic family called\nsoricidae ,\nwhich includes some 250 species of shrews worldwide and more than 30 species in the united states and canada .\nhead : in addition to its pointed snout , the desert shrew has tiny eyes and conspicuous rounded ears . it has long tactile bristles on its muzzle , giving it a means for feeling its way through passageways in total darkness .\nadult size and weight : an adult desert shrew measures an inch or two in length , with its tail accounting for half its length . it weighs about 0 . 1 to 0 . 2 ounces , approximately as much as a copper penny .\nthe desert shrew ranges across much of the southwest quarter of the united states and the northernmost states of mexico . somewhat misnamed , it occupies a range of habitats well beyond desert basin scrubs and sand dunes , including various shrublands , prairie grasslands , streamside wetlands and mountain flank forestlands . in lower elevations , they may habitate in relatively humid locations such as in burrows or under rocks .\nthe desert shrew may eat prey at once or cache it for later . if it attacks a grasshopper , for instance , it may bite off the legs and bite into the head , leaving the segmented and now immobilized body alive and fresh for later consumption . if it attacks a scorpion , the shrew will nip off the stinger before disabling and eating the creature .\nthe desert shrew , say davis and schmidly in the mammals of texas ,\nis thought to feed largely on both larval and adult insects ; captive specimens have eaten a wide variety of food including mealworms , cutworms , crickets , cockroaches , houseflies , grasshoppers , moths , beetles , earwigs , centipedes , the carcasses of skinned small mammals and birds , and dead lizards .\nbecause of its lower metabolic rate , the desert shrew consumes relatively less food \u2013only about 75 percent of its body weight per day \u2013 than many other shrews .\nby comparison , the egyptians believed the shrew to be the spirit of darkness , likely because of its quick and aggressive predation , voracious appetite and pugnacious nature .\nthe zuni people , said schmidt , regard the shrew as a\nbeast god ,\nwhich provides\nprotection for stored grains from raids by rats and mice .\nthe desert shrew , specially adapted to an arid environment , is the smallest of the mammals of our southwestern deserts . it is also one of the smallest homeotherms in the world . ( a homeotherm is an animal , like a human , for instance , that maintains its body temperature within a narrow range , independent of the surrounding environment . by comparison , an endotherm is an animal , like a snake , that maintains its body temperature by absorbing heat from the surrounding environment . )\ncoat and color : the shrew , with a short dense coat , has a grayish brown back , sides and head , and it has a light gray belly , throat , legs and paws . its tail is darker on top than on the bottom .\nthe shrew ' s courtship and mating practices are largely unknown . the breeding season may range from spring to fall , or all year . the male and female build a nest of shredded plant materials in a secluded spot such as a packrat midden or a dead agave , and about three weeks after mating , the femaie gives birth to three to five naked and pink offspring , each about as big as a pinto bean . for the first two or three weeks , she nurses her charges , able to produce milk although she has not had access to water . she then changes them over to regurgitated prey , then to live prey . at about five to six weeks the juveniles will reach adult size , leave the nest and parental care and begin an independent life . the mother may produce another litter in the course of the year . typically , the desert shrew will live for about a year or , possibly , two in the wild .\nlike shrews , the hummingbird \u2013 the lilliputian of the bird world \u2013 also has an extremely high metabolic rate , with a resting heart rate of perhaps 500 beats per minute . it has been suggested that if human beings burned energy at the same rate , relatively , as a shrew or a hummingbird , our body temperatures would rise so high we could erupt in flame .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nthere are two very isolated populations which may be distinct at the species level .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category . more research is needed on the taxonomy of this species .\ncrocidura smithii occurs in arid regions of senegal , ethiopia and possibly somalia ( where suitable habitat exists ) . the two known populations are distinct subspecies that are extremely isolated from one another .\nthe natural history of this species is not well known . c . smithii has been recorded from dry sahelian savanna .\nthere are no direct conservation measures in place for this species . it is not known if the species is present within any protected areas . additional details are needed on the natural history of this species and its possible presence in somalia .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t41358a115181556 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npicture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution sharealike license original source : base map derived from file : blankmap - world . png . distribution data from iucn red list author : chermundy\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ncomments : revised by hutterer ( 1986a ) . specimens reported from somalia by heim de balsac ( 1966a ) represent macarthuri ; see under that species . includes debalsaci as a distinct subspecies ; see hutterer ( 1981b )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsenses : equipped only with poor vision , the animal relies , like a bat , on echolocation , emitting high pitches squeaks and interpreting the echoes to determine the direction and distance of objects such as potential prey . it also uses its highly developed senses of hearing and smell to locate and track down prey .\nrobert h . schmidt , assistant professor , department of fisheries and wildlife utah state university , internet center for wildlife damage management .\nkerry r . foresman , the wild mammals of montana , special publication no . 12 , american society of mammalogists , published 8 june 2001 .\nwilliam b . davis and david j . schmidly , the mammals of texas - online edition , 1997 texas tech university .\nrandall d . babb , arizona wildlife views ,\na penny ' s worth of terror ,\nmarch\u2013april 2009 .\ndavid allen , university of michigan museum of zoology animal diversity web , national science digital library .\ndesertusa newsletter - - we send articles on hiking , camping and places to explore , as well as animals , wildflower reports , plant information and much more . sign up below or read more about the desertusa newsletter here . ( it ' s free . )\nthe female black widow spider is the most venomous spider in north america , but it seldom causes death to humans , because it only injects a very small amount of poison when it bites .\nthe bobcat despite its pussycat appearance when seen in repose , the bobcat is quite fierce and is equipped to kill animals as large as deer . however , food habit studies have shown bobcats subsist on a diet of rabbits , ground squirrels , mice , pocket gophers and wood rats . join us as we watch this sleepy bobcat show his teeth .\nthe mountain lion the mountain lion , also known as the cougar , panther or puma , is the most widely distributed cat in the americas . it is unspotted - - tawny - colored above overlaid with buff below . it has a small head and small , rounded , black - tipped ears . watch one in this video .\ncopyright \u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken and digital west media , inc . - -"]}
{"id": 447, "summary": [{"text": "ophthalmitis rufilauta is a moth in the geometridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in borneo in lowland and lower montane rainforests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the species is distinguished by the brown shading between the hindwing antemedial line and the discal mark . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "ophthalmitis rufilauta", "paragraphs": ["ophthalmitis rufilauta ; [ mob11 ] : 228 , f . 455 , 466 , pl . 15\nophthalmitis clararia ; [ mob11 ] : 227 , f . 458 , pl . 15\nophthalmitis punctifascia ; [ mob11 ] : 228 , f . 463 , pl . 15\nophthalmitis exemptaria ; [ mob11 ] : 230 , f . 457 , pl . 15\nophthalmitis pertusaria ; sato , 1995 , trans . lepid . soc . japan 46 ( 4 ) : 225\nophthalmitis viridior holloway , 1993 ; [ mob11 ] : 228 , f . 462 , pl . 15 ; tl : sarawak , gunung mulu nat . park\nophthalmitis cordularioides holloway , 1993 ; [ mob11 ] : 229 , f . 461 , pl . 15 ; tl : sarawak , gunung mulu nat . park\nophthalmitis satoi holloway , 1993 ; [ mob11 ] : 229 , f . 460 , pl . 15 ; tl : sarawak , gunung mulu nat . park\nophthalmitis basiscripta holloway , 1993 ; [ mob11 ] : 230 , f . 464 , pl . 15 ; tl : sarawak , gunung mulu nat . park\nophthalmitis variegata holloway , 1993 ; [ mob11 ] : 227 , f . 424 , 459 , pl . 15 ; tl : sarawak , gunung mulu nat . park\nyou appear to have javascript disabled or are using a browser that does not support it . please enable javascript to experience all features of the site !\nan unbranched vein thought to have resulted from the fusion of anal veins 1a and 2a into a single vein . it is the most posterior vein on the forewing in many moths and is located near the posterior margin . this is the common state in the superfamily noctuoidea .\nthe third and posterior - most tagma ( body region ) of an insect . the ancestral abdomen is believed to have consisted of 11 segments , though most modern insects have fewer .\nthe male copulatory organ . characteristics of the aedeagus are often used to separate and identify species . the aedeagus is not visible without dissection .\nthe posterolateral corner of the wing , where the posterior and outer margins meet .\na longitudinal , unbranched vein that extends from the base of the insect wing to the outer margin . the most posterior of the longitudinal veins of a wing .\na sclerotized supporting structure that surrounds the base of the aedeagus . the anellus is modified in a few moth species and can be useful for identification ( see lacinipolia pensilis and l . vicina ) .\nthe portion of the wing that is located between the basal and antemedial lines .\na thin transverse line found on the basal third of the forewing , between the median and basal lines . this line is located medial to the orbicular and claviform spots when these are present . in the noctuoidea this line is often double , with the darkest and thickest component bordering the median area , and zigzag in shape .\nthe\nhead\nend of an organism , as opposed to the posterior or\ntail\nend of an organism .\nrefers to a part of a structure at the furthest distance from the base .\na part of the internal female genitalia . the portion of the corpus bursae that is not connected to the ductus bursae in species in which the bursa copulatrix is bilobed .\nthe point of an appendage closest to its attachment to the body . sometimes referred to as proximal .\na typically short and broad line at the mid - basal area of the forewing .\na transverse line extending across the forewing near its base . the most basal of the forewing transverse lines . this line is usually present on the anterior half of the wing , and is darker than the surrounding wing in most moths .\nresembling a string of beads . usually referring to an antenna . the mid - portion of each segment of a beaded antenna is slightly expanded .\na structure with comb - like or teeth - like structures on both sides . usually referring to an antenna . each segment of a bipectinate antenna has elongate distal processes .\nsawlike or toothed on both sides of a structure . usually referring to an antenna . each segment of a biserrate antenna is triangular in shape .\nthe immatures that hatch from eggs laid by a single female at the same time .\na membranous pouch of the female genital system that receives the intromittent organ ( aedeagus ) of the male during copulation . it is usually divided into a posterior sclerotized tube ( the posterior ductus bursae ) and an anterior membranous sac ( the corpus bursae ) . the bursa copulatrix is useful for identification purposes but is not visible without dissection\na portion of a wing that is surrounded by veins . for example , discal cells are large cells found on both wings of many moths , including all of the species that are included on this site .\na movable sclerotized structure located on the medial surface of the male valve , usually near its mid - point . the shape of the clasper can be useful for identification .\nan elongate spot or mark extending laterally from the antemedial line through the median area , toward and sometimes reaching the postmedial line . this spot is usually darker than the surrounding wing , often black .\na covering of silk or silk incorporated with other materials such as pieces of leaves and twigs that covers the pupa .\nneck ,\na structure between the head and the thorax . in the noctuoidea this term refers to the arched array of scales of the dorsal prothorax . the collar is often in a contrasting color from the head and remaining thorax and is frequently striped with dark transverse lines\na slender , heavily sclerotized spine or spines on the surface of the vesica of the male aedeagus . these structures are useful for identification , but are not visible without dissection .\na row of mesially - directed claw - like sclerotized setae located on the cucullus of the male valve . used for grasping the female during mating .\nthe membranous pouch of the female genital system . a spermatophore is deposited into the corpus bursae by the male during mating . the corpus bursae attaches to the anterior end of the ductus bursae and can be single ( unisaccate ) or be divided ( bisaccate ) . the ductus seminales attaches to the corpus bursae . the shape of the corpus bursae is often useful for identification , but is not visible without dissection .\nrefers to a species that is found throughout all or most of the world , in the appropriate habitat .\nwith activity periods at dusk and / or dawn . many frequently - seen moths , such as the white - lined sphinx moth ( hyles lineata ) , are crepuscular .\ncubital - anal vein 1 . generally arising from the distal cubitus vein and extending to the margin . this vein arises near the posterior end of the discal cell in most members of the noctuoidea .\ncubital - anal vein 2 . generally arising approximately midway on the wing cubitus vein and extending to the outer margin .\nalso called the cubitus . a wing vein arising approximately at the middle of the base of the wing and extending ( branched or unbranched ) to the wing margin . this vein forms the posterior boundary of the discal cell in the noctuoidea .\nthe terminal part of the valve in male genitalia . this structure is often broadened and may bear one or more rows of claw - like setae forming a structure called a corona .\na sclerotized , usually elongate , structure located on the distal third of the valve of the male genitalia of some moths . the presence of a digitus and its shape are useful for identification .\na broad contrastingly - colored spot found at the end of the discal cell in some moths . the forewing discal spot is usually referred to as the reniform spot in noctuid moths .\nthe process of removing certain internal organs - usually the male and female genitalia - from an insect specimen , in order to examine their structure .\nactive during daylight . unlike butterflies , which are diurnal , most moths are active at night and referred to as nocturnal . a few moth species are strictly diurnal and have adaptations to daytime flight , such as brightly - colored hindwings and reduced eye - size ( ellipsoid eyes ) .\nrefers to the back or the upper side of an organism . for example , a dorsal view would be looking at the animal from above .\nthe duct in the female genital system that extends from the ostium bursa to the bursa copulatrix . this structure is commonly sclerotized . the ductus bursae cannot be observed without dissection .\noblong , oval , with equally rounded ends . commonly refers to reduced eye - size in day - flying moths . the eyes appear small and oval when viewed from the front , rather than large and hemispherical as in most night - flying species . in most of these day - flying species , the sum of the width of the eyes is less than the width of the frons between them .\nconvex , with the apex of the curve directed toward the outer margin . usually refers to the shape of a wing marking .\nbent or curved , sickle - shaped . this adjective is commonly applied to the apex of the forewing .\nthe third segment of the insect leg . often a large and elongate segment , sometimes with some ornamentation or identifying structures .\na projecting ridge or collar that provides support . a flange is present on the tips of the ovipositor lobes ( papillae anales ) of some female moths , likely as an adaptation for laying eggs in hard soil .\na term traditionally used for a longitudinal part of the posterior forewing of moths in the superfamily noctuoidea that is bordered anteriorly by the cubital vein and its branch cua2 and posteriorly by 1a + 2a . this area lacks supporting veins and is therefore relatively weak . it is sometimes colored differently than the surrounding areas ( usually paler ) and contains the claviform spot and / or median dash when these markings are present .\nthe front wing of an insect . the wing attached to the second thoracic segment ( the mesothorax ) . characteristics of the forewing are often important in identification .\nthe scales , setae , or hairs that extend beyond the edge of a wing membrane .\nthe area of the face that is dorsal to ( above ) the antennae .\na raised , sclerotized structure arising from the frons of many moth species . this structure is thought to be used to escape from underground after hatching from the pupa , and is most commonly found in species that live in arid environments . the frontal tubercle has been lost secondarily in some species that pupate in sand .\nthe sexual organs , including associated structures . characters of the genitalia are often used for identification purposes . some structures of the genitalia are visible in intact specimens , but most characters require dissection for visualization .\nlong , paired , brush - like pheromone - emitting organs located at the base of the ventral abdomen in males of some moth species .\na rod - shaped sclerotized structure on the mesial valve of the male genitalia of some moths , arising from the dorsal distal sacculus . the shape of the harpe - especially in relation to the saccular extension - is useful for identification in the genus euxoa .\none of the second pair of wings that is attached to the third segment of the thorax ( the metathorax ) .\nthe zoogeographic region that includes most of the northern hemisphere - africa north of the sahara desert , north america including the northern two - thirds of mexico , all of europe , and asia south to the himalayan mountains . the holarctic is divided into the nearctic and palearctic .\n( plural : larvae ) . the immature stage between the egg and the pupa . in moths , usually referred to as a caterpillar .\nthe insect leg consists of a series of segments . starting from most basal they are the coxa , trochanter , femur , tibia , and tarsus .\nmedial vein one , the most anterior branch of the medial vein . on the forewing of the noctuoidea , this vein extends from the anterior end of the discal cell to the outer margin , between r5 and m2 .\nmedial vein two , the second branch of the medial vein . on the forewings of the noctuoidea , this vein extends from the posterior end of the discal cell to the outer margin , between veins m1 and m3 .\nmedial vein three , the third branch of the medial vein . on the forewing of the noctuoidea , this vein extends from the posterior end of the discal cell near the cubitus vein to the outer margin , between veins m2 and cua1 .\na dark , broad , band along the outer margin of the hindwing . this term is usually reserved for a broad marking that is much darker than the ground color , or has a sharply - defined medial margin .\nthe portion of the wing between the antemedial and postmedial lines . technically , this area includes the median and postmedial areas , but this distinction is rarely made because these areas are usually colored similarly .\na thickened , short line located medially in the lower half of the forewing .\na , transverse line located in the median area of the forewing , usually near the mid - wing . the median line is typically darker than the surrounding wing , single , thicker and less well - defined than the other transverse lines in the noctuoidea .\na longitudinal vein between the radius and cubitus . the portion of this vein proximal to the end of the cell of the forewing has been lost during the course of evolution in the moths included on this site , but its distal branches extend from the end of the cell to the outer margin .\ntoward the midline . a synonym of basal , and the opposite of lateral and distal .\na subregion of the holarctic zoogeographic region that includes north america , the northern two - thirds of mexico and greenland .\nthe zoogeographic region that includes southern mexico , central america , the west indies , and south america .\na common name used for most members of the families erebidae , euteliidae , nolidae , and noctuidae , but usually excluding the subfamilies arctiinae and lymantriinae of the erebidae . this common name is based on the fact that these moths were arranged together in the family noctuidae until recently . synonymous with owlet moth .\nactive at night . most moths are active at night and are referred to as nocturnal .\na term that refers to the presence of a central dark spot ( pupil ) within another spot . usually used for the orbicular spot of noctuid moths .\na round or oval spot located in the middle of the discal cell of the forewing , between the antemedial and median lines . this spot is present in most noctuid moths . the outline of the spot is usually darker than the surrounding wing and its center may contain a darker spot called an ocellus .\nthe posterior external opening of the female ductus bursae which receives the male intromittent organ ( aedeagus ) during copulation . the ostium bursae is located at the ventral aspect of the posterior eighth abdominal segment .\nthe egg - laying structure of the female . often a cylindrical tube used to deposit eggs in specific locations .\na pair of sclerotized processes at the posterior apex of the female abdomen used to deposit eggs . these are most often conical and are often covered by short or hair - like setae , but can be modified in shape or bear additional flanges or other structures . these are the only part of the female genitalia that are visible without dissection . also called papillae anales .\na common name used for most members of the families erebidae , euteliidae , nolidae , and noctuidae , but usually excluding the subfamilies arctiinae and lymantriinae of the erebidae . this common name is based on the fact that these moths were arranged in the family noctuidae until recently . synonymous with noctuid moth .\nthe zoogeographic region that is the old world part of the holarctic region . it includes africa north of the sahara desert , all of europe , and asia north of the himalayan mountains\na pair of sclerotized processes at the posterior apex of the female abdomen , used to deposit eggs . these are most often conical , and are often covered by short or hair - like setae , but can be modified in shape or bear additional flanges or other structures . these are the only part of the female genitalia that are visible without dissection . also referred to as ovipositors or ovipositor lobes .\na lobe - like structure arising from the prothorax that overlaps the base of the forewing . see tegula .\nwith branches or tooth - like structures . often referring to an antenna or the tarsal claws .\na graph depicting the seasonal pattern of capture dates of a species , with the date on the x - axis and number of records on the y - axis .\nthe life history or life cycle of an organism as it relates to development over time within a single generation or several generations over a season .\na thumb - like ventral projection from the distal valve of some moths in the tribe noctuini - notably in the genus xestia . this structure resembles a digitus but is considered to be separately derived .\nthe\ntail\nend of an organism , as opposed to the anterior or\nhead\nend of an organism .\nthe hind margin of the forewing , opposite the costal margin . also referred to as the trailing margin .\na thin , transverse line located lateral to the discal spot , typically on distal third of the forewing . this line is usually darker than the surrounding wing . it is often double , with a darker medial component , and is scalloped between the veins in the noctuoidea . the portion of this line lateral to the discal spot is usually convex toward the outer margin ( excurved ) .\nan abdominal leg found on lepidoptera larvae . they are fleshy legs that occur in pairs , with rows of hooked spines at the tip called crochets .\nnear to the body or the base of an organism , as opposed to distal .\nthe stage between larva and adult in insects with complete or holometabolous metamorphosis . it is a non - feeding and non - mobile stage that , in moths , is often surrounded by a cocoon .\na term that describes a specific branching pattern of the hindwing veins , in which the distal cubitus vein appears to have four branches : m2 , m3 , cua1 , and cua2 . this branching pattern is present in the family erebidae and some subfamilies of the noctuidae ( which are referred to as\nquadrifid noctuids\n) . see trifid .\na comb - like structure consisting of four projections per unit . usually refers to an antenna .\na branched vein located near the anterior margin of the wing . this vein typically has five branches , numbered r1 - r5 , in the noctuoidea .\na broad c - shaped or kidney - shaped discal spot found at the end of the discal cell in some moths . this spot is usually outlined in a dark color and filled with a lighter color .\na distal , spine - like process of the ventral sacculus of the male genitalia , typically found in the genus euxoa of the noctuidae . the ends of the saccular extensions can often be observed without dissection if the scales are removed from the distal abdomen .\na flattened , cuticular extension that covers the body and wings of members of the order lepidoptera (\nlepidos\nmeans\nscale\nin greek ) . these scales are often overlapping and contain pigment , providing for the distinctive color patterns found on the wings .\nhardened . usually referring to a section of the exoskeleton or a specific structure that is hardened as opposed to soft and membranous .\n( plural : setae ) a hair - like projection of the epidermis or living layer of the exoskeleton .\na moveable spine . often refers to an enlarged or otherwise modified spine on the legs of some moths .\na dark band located near the margin of the hindwing of some moths . differs from a marginal band in that a submarginal band does not extend to the outer margin .\na spot located in the median area posterior to (\nbelow\n) the reniform spot in a few noctuid moths . examples are found in papaipema and catocala .\nthe portion of the wing that is located between the postmedial and subterminal lines .\na thin , often zigzag or patterned , transverse line situated near the distal end of the forewing between the postmedial and terminal lines . it is single , usually paler than the wing ground color , and often preceded by a dark shade or wedge - like spots in the noctuoidea .\nin insects and other arthropods , a group of segments that have become fused to form a functional unit ( body region ) . for example , an insect body is composed of three tagmata : the head , thorax , and abdomen .\nthe fifth and final leg segment , distal to the tibia . often consists of several segments and ends with a pair of claws .\na small , flap - like structure that overlaps the base of the forewing . this structure is colored or patterned differently from the forewings and / or thorax in some moths .\nreferring to the end of a structure that is farthest from its base of attachment .\na thin , transverse line situated at the margin of the forewing , at the base of the fringe . this line is often comprised of a series of dark spots between the veins in many members of the noctuoidea\nthe second , or middle , tagma of an insect . an insect is composed of three tagmata : the head , thorax , and abdomen . the thorax itself is composed of three segments called the prothorax , mesothorax , and metathorax . the wings and legs of moths are attached to the thorax .\nthe fourth segment of the insect leg . often a large and elongate segment with some ornamentation or identifying structures .\na common name for the species in the tribe arctiinae of the erebidae , many of which are boldy - patterned with bright colors .\nthe posterior margin of the wing , opposite the costal margin . also called the posterior margin .\na term that describes a specific branching pattern of the hindwing veins , in which the distal cubitus vein appears to have three branches : m3 , cua1 , and cua2 . this branching pattern is present in many subfamilies of the noctuidae ( which are referred to as\ntrifid noctuids\n) . see quadrifid .\na group or bunch of setae arising from a group of very closely associated bases .\na common name for the species in the subfamily lymantriinae of the erebidae . this name refers to the hair pencils and tufts that are found on many larvae in this subfamily .\na long , hook - shaped midline process of the tegumen ( the dorsal distal abdominal segment ) present in many male moths that is used to hold the female during mating . its shape is sometimes useful for identification .\nin males , the broad paired paddle - like organs developed from the lateral ninth abdominal segment . the valves are articulated at the base , and are used to grasp the end of the female abdomen during mating they are typically modified in shape and bear additional structures , such as the clasper , digitus , and corona . the valve structure is often important for identification and their ends are usually visible without dissection after brushing the scales from the tip of the abdomen .\nrefers to the belly , or underside of an organism . for example , a ventral view would be looking at the animal from below .\nthe membranous , terminal part of the aedeagus . the vesica is collapsed inside the aedeagus prior to mating , and is everted inside the female during copulation . it is visible only after dissection , and must be inflated in order to observe its shape .\nthe production of a certain number of generations by a species during a given year . for example , univoltine , bivoltine , or multivoltine are categories of voltinism . while most species are restricted in the number of generations that they produce during a year , the number of generations sometimes varies , depending on geographic location or the favorable weather of a given year .\na relatively common sideways w - shaped feature of the subterminal line in many species of noctuid moths , in which the line is zig - zagged , with teeth extend to or near the outer margin on veins m3 and cua1 .\nan old or otherwise damaged moth specimen , from which many of the scales have been lost . worn specimens are more difficult to identify than fresh ones .\nforbes wtm . 1954 . lepidoptera of new york and neighboring states . cornell university agricultural experiment station . memoir 329 . 433 pp .\ngordh , g . and d . h . headrick . 2001 . a dictionary of entomology . cabi publishing , new york , ny . ix + 1032 pp . ( 2010 addition available )\ntriplehorn , c . a . and n . f johnson . 2005 . borror and delong\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s introduction to the study of insects , seventh edition . thomson books / cole . belmont , ca . x + 864 pp .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 4 . 0 international license\nthis species is best distinguished by the brown shading between the hindwing antemedial and the discal mark . there is brown suffusion elsewhere particularly in association with the fasciae ; the fasciae are rather weakly defined on the forewing . in the male genitalia the valves have three spur - like processes : central , basal ; distal , saccular ; subcostal , central .\nsumatran material has the male genitalia distinct : the saccular process is more distal , longer : the uncus is more robust , the apical portion shorter , blunter ; the aedeagus has a massive lateral spine . in the female the sterigma is more complex , more heavily sclerotised . the differences are such as to indicate specific status . peninsular malaysian material may be more referable to that from sumatra .\nthe majority of specimens taken in recent surveys were from lowland rainforest , the highest being a male from 1000m in the lower montane forest zone of g . mulu and a female from 1200m on g . kinabalu .\nophthalmodes herbidaria guen\u00e9e , 1857 ; hist . nat . ins . , spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . 9 : 283 ; tl : india\nophthalmodes punctifascia holloway , 1976 ; moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : 81\nborneo , sumatra , singapore , peninsular malaysia ( penang ) . see [ maps ]\nboarmia pertusaria felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 5 ) : pl . 125 , f . 17\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . volume 9 . uranides et phal\u00e9nites\n( uranides & phalenides ) : pl . 1 - 10 , ( uranides ) pl . 1 ( 1858 ) ,\n( uranides , phalenides , siculides ) : pl . 12 - 22 , ( 1858 ) pl .\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nwarren , 1900 new genera and species of drepanulidae , thyrididae , epiplemidae and geometridae from the indo - australian and palaearctic regions novit . zool . 7 : 98 - 116\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nmalaysia , n borneo , sabah , keningau distr . , ivo trus madi mt . , 1150 m . , lower montane dipterocarp forest .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook"]}
{"id": 465, "summary": [{"text": "sainfoin ( 1887 \u2013 october 1911 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse that was the winner of the 1890 epsom derby and was the sire of rock sand , the tenth winner of the triple crown in 1903 . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sainfoin ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["sainfoin is a premium forage alternative to lucerne and grass . \u2018sainfoin\u2019 means ' healthy hay\u2019 in french and this is exactly what it is ! sainfoin pellets are also non - bloating .\nsainfoin is suitable for all horses , and can be very beneficial when fed with hay and grass as a nutritious alternative and to add a variety of flavour . sainfoin is particularly suitable for horses requiring a nutritious diet , including :\na handsome , good - sized chestnut horse , sainfoin was of sturdy make with a good shoulder . existing photographs suggest that he was sickle - hocked . his form tailed off badly at 4 and 5 for unknown reasons .\npeter davy , who has supplied fresh sainfoin test samples to the legumeplus project has grown a small acreage of sainfoin for a number of years . last year he planted a few acres on a neighbours field - mr . & mrs . phillips from shelvin , in kent - to try sainfoin on british warmblood colts from their ukeuro stud ( seen pictured to the right ) .\nforage legumes are attractive to farmers these days . free nitrogen and extra protein content certainly meet current farming needs . sainfoin offers this and a lot more besides . until now there has been little information on sainfoin , but that is changing . the eu sainfoin research project known as \u2018 healthy hay \u2019 is now completed and we are in the process of publishing the results online .\nno horse less of longevity or number of foals has affected the modern quarter racehorse to the degree of domino .\nour sainfoin pellets are rich in natural minerals and trace elements . they are a good source of condensed tannins , which aid digestion of protein . sainfoin is also a source of naturally occurring copper , which can aid the health of bones , tendons and joints .\nunfortunatly no official crest was given to these l . s . i . ( l ) ' s , so the crest to the right was made up from sainfoin ' s\nhistory\n. h . m . s . sainfoin was named after the winner of the 1890 derby\ninterestingly , there are some differences within sainfoin varieties which we may be able to take advantage of . these opportunities are to be explored further this year .\nundefeated in ten races st . simon in all probability is the greatest horse of all time . unfortunately st . simon was not tested in the classic races of england because rules in effect at the time stipulated that if the person who had nominated a particular horse to a classic died before the race , the horse was inelgible to run in the race . as the breeder of st . simon had died the horse was denied the opportunity to become a classicist . nevertheless he did run against some very good horses and dealt with them summarily .\nanthelmintic over the years we have heard from many of you about the remarkable effect that sainfoin has on wormy lambs . the \u2018healthy hay\u2019 project has demonstrated that the anti - parasitic benefits are very real indeed . early results confirm that parasitic worm control is effective when sainfoin is fed , are their lifecycles are disrupted .\nbloat free & methane an animal blown up as a result of grazing clover is a distressing experience and is the main reason given by farmers for not growing legumes . sainfoin never causes bloat , one of its great attributes . recent work in australia lead to the conclusion that as little as 20 % of sainfoin in the diet can offset the risk of bloat to near zero . work with beef steers in canada showed the same when small quantities of sainfoin were mixed with lucerne . rumen activity is important in other ways . from an environmental perspective the eu project has been studying rumen gas production with a particular interest in how sainfoin reduces methane production .\nby the time of his death , sainfoin was considered of so little account as a stallion that his death was not reported to the press for over a year .\nman o ' war passed away on november 1 , 1947 after suffering a heart attack . more than two thousand people attended the funeral , which was broadcast by radio . the great stallion was the first horse to be embalmed , and is now buried at the kentucky horse park in lexington .\nand the good sprinters elmstead and amphora , all by amphion . sainfoin is also a half brother to 1902 jockey club cup and cesarewitch handicap winner black sand ( by melanion ) .\nevery year , thousands of visitors flocked to faraway farm in kentucky to see the legendary horse and hear his famous stud groom , will harbut , tell stories about the champion . he always introduced his charge as\nthe mostest horse that ever was\nand insisted that man o ' war had never been beaten . when a guest asked about\nwe never lifted a jockey to his back that we didn ' t tell to hold the horse down , so as not to win by too wide a margin .\nby the early 1950\u2019s two thoroughbred stallions had already begun their ascension within the quarter\u00b7three bars and top deck . the dam of three bars was by a horse decending from domino ,\nin direct descent the tetrarch has influenced the quarter horse through gray dream . gray dream is , of course , the maternal grandsire of lena\u2019s bar , the dam of easy jet . ,\nroots , soil & drought a sainfoin crop is capable of growing on the thinnest of alkaline soils . it is extremely drought - resistant and never stops growing even in prolonged dry spells . its root structure leaves soil in excellent condition and sainfoin can be considered an invaluable part of the light land rotation . it penetrates soil and rock to a great depth where it seems able to extract nutrients better than any other species . it grows best on stony brash or chalks , but does not like wet soils where red clover should be chosen in preference . sainfoin will grow well on alkaline soil and should not be sown on land below 6 . 2ph .\nthis was a four year project involving 12 partners from europe . these include three from britain : reading university , niab and cotswold seeds . the network , which completed its work in 2010 , has produced some interesting results . it seems that the role for sainfoin is about to be reinvented . in short , sainfoin offers farmers an attractive fodder crop for naturally alkaline , free draining soils . some of the findings so far are detailed here .\nsainfoin haylage cut late summer was tried on the young horses and some brood mares this spring . referring to mr . & mrs . phillips ' comments mr . davy says\nyes his horses loved it and he said they looked better almost straight away . he was very pleased and said he was going to plant 8 acres of it there and then , though the field he had in mind turned out to be too acidic so he couldn ' t . he has many horses all set stocked ( no rotation system ) with a worm problem including , he thinks , wormer resistance . so potentially it ' s a good site for an experiment in the benefits of sainfoin which we are sort of trying in our little way - with a plan to feed / supplement a group of young horses through the year with sainfoin to compare with the other groups . we have talked about grazing them on my sainfoin this year but are in two minds as we want to have enough sainfoin as a daily supplement through the year so we can compare that with the controls . however we are thinking of grazing some if it as opposed to second cut of hay .\nhe was purchased by sir james miller just a few days before being entered for the derby and was ridden by a jockey named j . watts . his racing colours were white and gold , and the derby is known as the blue ribbon race , hence the ribbon overlaying the horse shoe sainfoin later sired the colt ' rocksand ' the tripple crown winner some thirteen years later . sadly , being a gelding there were no further issue .\nsainfoin is inbred 3x3 to the \u201cemperor of stallions , \u201d 1852 dual english classic winner stockwell , and has a cross of stockwell ' s full brother rataplan at the fourth generation , making him inbred 4x5x4 to the baron and pocahontas . he is also inbred 5x5x5 to the baron ' s sire birdcatcher and 5x5 to 1834 st . leger stakes winner and four - time english leading sire touchstone . sainfoin is a full brother to sierra , dam of 1911 english leading sire\nsainfoin has deep penetrating roots making it highly suitable for the dry , alkaline soils of england . in these times of fluctuating feed and veterinary drugs prices , alongside increased environmental demands , there are few crops that tick as many boxes .\nno one dared challenge him in the lawrence realization . mrs . jeffords finally agreed to enter a horse , provided he was not beaten too badly . samuel riddle didn ' t consider this a problem , saying :\nsainfoin ( gb ) ch . h , 1887 { 2 - g } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf - 11 starts , 4 wins , ? places , ? shows\nthere are few crops like sainfoin . it is a high - yielding , drought - resistant plant which needs no nitrogen fertiliser and little phosphate . it won\u2019t cause bloat , is a natural anthelmintic and with rumen protected protein produces top quality meat and milk .\nman o ' war acted up at the start , allowing sir barton to break on top , but the older horse held his lead for only sixty yards before man o ' war passed him . as the new york times reported :\nthe author could find little evidence that quarter horse breeders had attempted to incorporate the lineage of st . simon into their operation . however , rocket bar is out of a mare whose sire goes in direct decent to st . simon .\nprotein , animal growth & tannins protein , the essential element for growth , can be poorly utilised in ruminant animals as it can be rapidly broken down in the rumen . this is inefficient and leads to slower growth rates and increased nitrogen losses in the urine . sainfoin contains tannins ( complex chemical structures ) which bind with protein molecules , protecting them as they pass through the rumen so that they can be absorbed efficiently as they pass further down the digestive tract . this doesn\u2019t happen with other legumes and largely explains why stock fed sainfoin have faster liveweight gain when compared to any other forage .\nas with any new feed , introduce gradually over a week . sainfoin pellets are ideally fed soaked . if appropriate , feed singly as treats or mixed with twice their volume of soaked purabeet or twice their volume of chop and well dampened . use as part of the forage ration or in addition . start with 100g per 100kg of bodyweight per day , increase as required up to a maximum of 5kg per day . for example , for a 500kg horse start with 500g per day ( dry weight , before soaking ) and increase as required . feed according to requirement & condition .\ni ' m putting common and isinglass back - to - back because . . . well , how many times do you see two triple crown winners in three years sired by the same horse ? not a bad run for isonomy by producing two horses to sweep the honors .\nsanda , the dam of sainfoin , failed to win on the flat but was a winner over hurdles . she is a half sister to 1876 coronation stakes winner footstep ( by see saw ) and is out of the stockwell mare sanda , whose dam lady evelyn ( by don john ) won the 1849 oaks stakes .\nan obscure footnote to the career of galtee more : a man named marcus daly , an american sportsman known as the\nmontana copper king\nat that time , offered the owner of galtte more $ 125 , 000 for the horse , roughly $ 3 . 2 million in current dollars .\nas lochsong began dominating the sprint division another kingsclere horse , selkirk , was making his mark as a miler . he won the queen elizabeth stakes at ascot in 1991 en route to being crowned champion miler , before taking the lockinge , the celebration mile and the challenge stakes in 1992 , all by more than two lengths . the finish was much closer in the sussex stakes at glorious goodwood , where selkirk went down by a head to marling , but he finished the year as champion older horse in britain , and retired to stud where he was a highly successful stallion until his death in 2013 .\nat 3 : won derby s . ( eng , epsom , 2414m = 12f , now g1 ) , esher s . ( eng , sandown ) , dee s . ( eng , chester ) sainfoin had a full sister , sierra ( ch f 1889 ) , who is prominent in many modern pedigrees through the full stakes winning siblings ( close )\non june 6 , 1919 , man o ' war began his racing career with a six length win at belmont park . it later seemed appropriate that the great horse made his first start there , since the historic track was built by his breeder , who named it in honor of his father , august belmont i .\nthe so - called\nrace of the century ,\nrun on october 12 , 1920 , was a weight for age event , contested over a mile and a quarter . being the older horse , sir barton carried 126 pounds , while man o ' war carried 120 . during the week leading up to the race , the condition of each horse was questioned . louis feustel worried about a slight filling in man o ' war ' s tendon while rumors spread that sir barton was training poorly . in response to an article in chicago ' s evening post , sir barton ' s trainer h . guy bedwell issued the following statement :\n355 sainfoins collected almost one for every day of the year ! from a plant breeding point of view , the \u2018healthy hay\u2019 project has been extremely productive . through the involvement of niab a great number of sainfoin accessions have been collected . these have come from around the world and include some very interesting sub - species from armenia . in total 170 have been planted , monitored and classified over the last three years . now that the initial collection has been completed , it is hoped that this resource can be exploited by plant breeders . we are also compiling the results of biochemistry research which is providing helpful information on the effects of sainfoin on meat and milk quality . for full details of the work visit urltoken ( from spring 2011 ) .\nteddy has influenced the quarter racehorse at the highest level of competition . in fact , his son bull dog can be found in the pedigree of all american futurity winners hot idea , three oh\u2019s , timetothinkrich and savannah , jr . in direct descentteddy has influenced the quater horse through jackstraw , spotted bull , everett , jr . and others .\nsainfoin won the first four races of his career , ending his streak with a win in the derby stakes over a rain - soaked course . after that , it was all downhill for his racing career . the one bright spot in his stud career was 1903 english triple crown winner rock sand , who successfully maintained the male line and also wielded marked influence in the united states through his daughters .\nman o\u2019war , of course , has had a phenomenal impact upon the quarter horse . two direct descendants have won the all american futurity , namely timetothinkrich and hot idea , both by aforethought . man o\u2019war is also in the pedigree of top deck and moolah bux , which has made a significant contribution to the quarter runner through his daughters , is out of a mare\nainfoin ' s only notable runner was 1903 english triple crown winner rock sand , although his daughter bromus won the important seaton delaval plate as a juvenile and gained greater fame later on as the dam of two - time english leading sire phalaris . sainfoin ' s only other notable contribution was tout suite , whose unbeaten son hurry on led the english general sire list in 1926 and continued the male line of unbeaten barcaldine .\na full brother to fairway , pharos was a very good horse winning 14 of 30 races . this was an unduly large number of starts for a top class english horse of pharos\u2019 era . pharos had just failed to win the english derby and his connections left him in training in the hopes that he would win a race commiserate with his ability . their patience was well rewarded because in the last start of his career pharos was victorious in the champion stakes . this race , run at newmarket in october , is a group 1 race * this writer\u2019s opinion a good performance in this race forecasts an adaptability by a horse\u2019s descendants to the american style of race more so than any race in europe . the champion stakes has often been the last race of a horse\u2019s career and at one and one\u2022fourth mile is shorter than the more prevalent european distance of one and one\u2022 half miles . the ability to revert successfully to a shorter distance tends to indicate first class speed . pharos1 _ r at stud first in england , pharos spent much of his career in france . it was in this latter country that pharos had his best success , as he sired nearco and pharis while there . perhaps it is also worthy of note that pharos sired ei greco , the maternal grandsire of ribot . as stated earlier pharos was a full brother to fairway . in no other instance in history have two brothers been so successful at racing and at stud and their influence so far reaching . hal k . may , elements of speed\nafter the stuyvesant , man o ' war was once again challenged by a horse from the payne whitney stables , this time in the form of whisk broom ii ' s son john p . grier . the trainer from payne whitney , james rowe , jr . , referred to man o ' war as\nthat red lobster\nand refused to believe that he , or any other horse , was invincible . he had been aiming john p . grier at the dwyer stakes , and was hoping to beat the champion again . john p . grier stayed with man o ' war for over a mile , even pulling ahead once , and when big red caught grier and drew clear to win in record time , he broke his game opponent ' s heart . the pole\ncolor : ch ( gb ) at 2 : won astley s . ( eng , lewes ) at 3 : won derby s . ( eng , epsom , 2414m = 12f , now g1 ) , esher s . ( eng , sandown ) , dee s . ( eng , chester ) sainfoin had a full sister , sierra ( ch f 1889 ) , who is prominent in many modern pedigrees through the full stakes winning siblings ( close )\nwe have a couple of paddocks that need re - seeded . has anyone any experience of including some sainfoin in a seed mix ? i understand that it can take a year to establish and doesn ' t withstand heavy grazing but that horses love it ? our soil is alkaline and not normally prone to waterlogging ( excepting this winter ! ) . any info from the uk or other countries with using it in grazing would be helpful . thanks !\nthe first time johnny loftus got on him , man o ' war threw the jockey about forty feet . but according to his owner ,\ntossing johnny was the last bad move man o ' war ever made ,\nfor once he began galloping with the stable pony , major trent , and the other yearlings , man o ' war quickly became the most highly regarded horse in the barn .\nmost effective at around a mile , phalaris won sixteen of twenty - four races . as witnessed by the fact that he was the number one sire in england on two occasions , phalaris was a good sire of winners . however it is the strength of phalaris\u2019 male line which places him among the elite horses in history . in fact , phalaris has founded the strongest male line of any horse of this century .\nthe day of the big race , j . k . l . ross , the owner of sir barton , replaced his regular rider , earl sande , with frank keogh , explaining that sande had developed a nervous stomach , but many speculated that he was taken off the older champion because he had stated that man o ' war was the best horse he had ever ridden after substituting for clarence kummer in the miller stakes that summer .\nfoaled in 1905 , fair play was owned and bred by major august belmont ii , and during his racing career he was trained by andrew joyner . he was best known for his rivalry with colin , to whom fair play finished second in many game efforts , including the 1908 belmont stakes . colin was the last american champion to retire undefeated until ogden phipps ' personal ensign duplicated the accomplishment in 1988 , and fair play was the only horse to ever challenge him .\nthe next time he ran , chicago o ' brien expressed his confidence in man o ' war ' s greatness by betting $ 100 , 000 against tom shaw ' s $ 1 , 000 that once again the big chestnut colt would prevail .\nit ' s a crazy bet , i don ' t mind giving you a grand , but any horse can fall down ,\nsaid shaw . even with an impost of 135 pounds , man o ' war managed\nthe great turf writer joe palmer , of the blood - horse , called him\nas near to living flame as horses get ,\nand most american horsemen consider him to be the greatest racehorse in american turf history . when samuel riddle was offered a million dollars for man o ' war , he answered that\nlots of men have a million dollars , but only one can own man o ' war .\noffered a blank check , he again declined , saying :\nlouis feustel , who had galloped hastings , had worked for august belmont ii under andrew joyner during fair play ' s racing career , and had trained mahubah himself , became man o ' war ' s trainer . ex - jockey harry vitotoe broke him to saddle . man o ' war proved to have inherited some of hastings ' fire , and was said to be a very difficult horse to break , fighting every step and repeatedly dumping harry . as samuel d . riddle recalled :\nlike all horses , the great man o ' war had his quirks . his grandsire hastings , who won the 1896 belmont stakes , was said to be one of the most unmanageable horses in history , and was famous for biting other horses during races . although some of hasting ' s fiery temperament was passed on to his grandson , man o ' war refrained from biting his competition , and he chose to chew his hooves instead , a habit which baffled those associated with the legendary horse .\nthe actual bid was made by riddle ' s friend ed buhler , the uncle of the great artist richard stone reeves . one of the finest painters of thoroughbreds in racing history , reeves was always awed by the fact that his uncle had bought man o ' war , and when he was commissioned to paint the great horse , he said ,\ni had gathered reference material since i was a boy . it was almost as if i had been practicing all my life for that one painting .\nmatthew dawson trained many classic horses as well as st . simon . st . simon was thought by dawson to be far superior to any other horse he had ever seen . going further , dawson said that st . simon was as good at one furlong as he was at three miles . dawson\u2019s claims can be substan - tiated by reviewing a few of the performances of st . simon . as a two year old st . simon had a matched race of six furlongs against duke of richmond which ranked among the best of his age . the jockey of duke of richmond had been instructed to break in front and attempt to make all the running . yet at the end of a quarter mile st . simon was ahead by fifty yards . later st . simon won the ascot goldcup at two and one - half miles . after the ascot gold he was able to successfully revert back to a mile . both dawson and archer had a predilection against allowing a horse to exert any more energy than that necessary to win . yet st . simon won races by twenty lengths while under severe restraint .\nmore group 1 success came in 1989 when jeff smith\u2019s dashing blade won the dewhurst . that same year silver fling took the prix de l\u2019abbaye for george strawbridge , but it was a kingsclere sprinter of jeff smith\u2019s , lochsong , who was to capture the nation\u2019s hearts in the following years . slow to reveal her talent , lochsong blossomed as a 4 year old , taking the stewards cup , the portland handicap and the ayr gold cup in 1992 \u2013 the first time all three of these big sprint handicaps had been won by the same horse in the same year . the following year she stepped up again , running away with the group 1 nunthorpe at york before recording a startling four - length victory in the prix de l\u2019abbaye . she was crowned champion sprinter and cartier horse of the year in 1993 . racing on in 1994 , she took the temple stakes , the king\u2019s stand and the prix de l\u2019abbaye , retaining her title as champion sprinter . she retired to stud and her offspring have been trained successfully from park house , whilst her half - sister lochangel was trained by ian to win the nunthorpe in 1998 .\nthe riddles and jeffords shared a training track between their two farms in maryland , and every year the two stables matched their most promising young horses against each other in order to give them some racing experience before their first season on the track . that year , man o ' war met golden broom in the trials and the high priced saratoga yearling won the short sprint . man o ' war , being the bigger horse , had trouble breaking fast enough to beat the smaller , quicker colt , but once the big chestnut learned how to handle his long legs , it was an entirely different story .\nthe kenilworth gold cup was not only the\nrace of the century ,\nbut it was also the first entire race to be filmed . photographer edward muybridge , the man who had taken the first film of a running animal forty years before , used fourteen cameras to record the event , and the film was shown on broadway . even though the great horse had outrun the triple crown winner , set numerous track records , and set world records that still stand today , man o ' war had never been fully extended , and he was retired without ever having the opportunity to display his full potential .\nlegend , fact and disbelief become one when reviewing the career of the horse which is still regarded as america\u2019s best . his speed and stamina were extraordinary \u2013 few horses have combined these attributes in a more spectacular manner . man o\u2019war won twenty of twentyone starts . his one loss can be attributed to the american style of racing in that he was boxed in between the rail and outside horses . contemporary reports stated that man o\u2019war was fully extended only once in all his races . though a top sire , the stud career of man o\u2019war was compromised because he stood as a private stallion and the few outside mares he received were usually of inferior credentials . man o\u2019war sired triple crown winner war admiral and his influence today is carried on mainly by in reality and olden times . through his daughters , the name of man o\u2019war appears in the internal parts of many pedigrees . in fact , in 1973 his name appeared in the pedigree of four of five divisional champions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis title is currently out of print . it will be re - published shortly .\n( 1939 , the thoroughbred owners and breeders association ; reprinted in 1974 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\nt . j . comerford , assistant trainer for aidan o ' brie . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npremium forage alternative to lucerne and grass , rich in natural minerals and trace elements .\nall products are natural and seasonal variations can occur , the packaging of each product will detail the typical analysis which is relevant to the batch / cut within the bag . below are this product\u2019s specification ranges to give an indication of the seasonal variations that can occur for this product .\nwe do not add vitamins as the forages themselves have them naturally occurring , often in their precursor form . we have averaged the analysis of different batches for this product to provide the following vitamin & mineral figures .\nprof . irene mueller - harvey of reading university also asked if mr davy had any information on faecal egg counts ( nematodes ) and mr . davy replied\nyes we have done one lot and the idea is to track through the year with some more tests\n.\nthank you for visiting british eventing . to enhance the security of our site we have made some changes which your browser will not support . to continue using our site please upgrade your browser .\ncookies are small text files held on your computer . they are used so that you can place orders and we can provide a better service . continue to use the site as normal if you ' re happy with this , or find out how to manage cookies .\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you will need to register before you can post on the forum : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below . you can also switch from viewing the ' full site ' ( desktop ) , or the ' mobile ' device version via the drop - down menu ( bottom / left of this page ) , and vice versa . to report a problem please use the contact us form at the foot of the full site version of the forum page .\nnot for horses but we are about to grow some for cattle this year . i would be concerned about the protein levels for horses unless they were in hard work or growing . also i think horses would graze it too close to the ground and would kill it which would make it an expensive annual plant ! try cotswold seeds for advice , i have always found them very helpful .\nmany thanks for your help . the horses here are a greedy bunch so grazing it to ground level might be a problem unless we can grown some at one end of the field and fence it off before it gets totally eaten away ! i ' m mostly just trying to introduce a wider range of grasses , herbs etc as some of the paddocks were previously used for grazing cattle . i ' ll talk with cotswold seeds as i see they have quite a wide range of seed mixes available .\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 3 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . all rights reserved .\nwest australian , the first winner of the english triple crown in 1853 . ( photo : 1853 painting by harry hall )\nthe names of the american triple crown winners are fairly common to most of us - secretariat , affirmed , citation , seattle slew , gallant fox , etc . while we might not know the intimate details of the career of every winner , most racing fans are familar with the horses themselves .\nacross the atlantic our friends in great britain are on the cusp of their first triple crown winner ( camelot ( gb ) ) since the great nijinsky ( or nijinky ii in the u . s . ) in 1970 . and while most of us are familiar with nijinsky , the other english champions are a bit more obscure . to help get you up to speed , i ' ve cultivated and summarized a summary of the winners of the english triple crown , from west australian to nijinsky .\nwest australian began his racing career by running in two races within a week in october of his juvenile season . he lost his debut but came back to win the glasgow stakes just days later . he began his three - year - old campaign in the 2 , 000 guineas at newmarket , winning by a half - length over sittingbourne . in the epsom derby , west australian faced a field of 28 horses winning by a neck over sittingbourne .\ngladiateur is the only french - bred winner of the english triple crown , and one of only three horses to sweep the series that weren ' t bred in great britain . sporting a career record of 19 - 16 - 0 - 1 , gladiateur is considered one of the best throgoubreds of his time . in addition to the english triple crown , gladiateur also won the grand prix de paris and the ascot gold cup .\ni don ' t have anything particularly interesting to add about lord lyon , but check out the newspaper summary of the 1866 epsom derby entitled the race for\nthe derby\n.\none of the great champions in thoroughbred racing history , ormonde never tasted defeat in 16 career races . so feared was ormonde that only two opponents entered to run against him in the st . james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot and he was sent to post as the 3 / 100 favorite . 3 / 100 . i wonder if there were any bridge - jumpers that day ?\normonde was devastating over any distance , winning races from six to 16 furlongs during his career . in addition to the english triple crown , ormonde won the champion stakes , the st . james ' s palace and the dewhurst .\ncommon was one of the more obscure winners of the triple crown in that he only raced five times in his career , winning four races and finishing third in the other . unraced as a two - year - old , the 2 , 000 guineas was the first race of his career , followed by the derby . after sweeping the first two legs of the triple crown , common went to royal ascot and won the st . james ' s palace stakes but tasted his first defeat in his next start , the eclipse stakes at sandown . common would finish his career by winning the st . leger and was retired shortly after the race .\nisinglass sported a sparkling 12 - 11 - 1 - 0 record in his career and won the princess of wales ' s stakes , eclipse stakes and ascot gold cup , in addition to the triple crown .\nthe sire of flying fox , orme , was sired by prior triple crown winner ormonde .\nfollowing his racing career , flying fox was a three - time leading sire in france ( 1904 , 1905 and 1913 ) .\nunlike many of his counterparts , diamond jubilee had one of the more uneven records of any triple crown winner at 16 - 6 - 4 - 1 . diamond jubilee was bred and owned by the prince of wales ( later king edward vii ) .\nrock sand sports one of the more distinguished careers of any english triple crown winner . in addition to his victories in the 2 , 000 guineas , epsom derby and st leger stakes , rock sand won the dewhurst , the st . james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot , the princess of wales ' s stakes and the jockey club stakes .\n1915 - pommern ( gb ) by polymelus ( gb ) out of a st . hilaire ( gb ) mare ( merry agnes ( gb ) )\npommern , gay crusader and gainsborough are the three winners of the english triple crown during world war i , when the series was altered significantly due to the ongoing hostilities in europe . all the races were run at newmarket and the conditions for the derby and st . leger differed from their historical norms . as a result , these three winners are generally not considered\ntrue\nwinners of the triple crown .\none of three non - great britain - bred horses to win the english triple crown ; bahram was bred by hh aga khan iii at the curragh in ireland .\nin addition to the triple crown , bahram won the st . james ' s palace stakes at royal ascot .\n1970 - nijinsky ( can ) ( or\nnijinsky ii\nin u . s . ) by northern dancer ( can ) out of a bull page mare ( flaming page ( can ) )\nnijinsky was one of the great race horses in the 20th century and one of the most important stallions in the last 50 years . in addition to the triple crown , nijinsky won the irish derby , the dewhurst and the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes .\nnijinsky sired 1986 kentucky derby and 1987 breeders ' cup classic winner ferdinand , along with 1982 epsom derby winner golden fleece , 1986 epsom derby winner shahrastani , breeders ' cup mile winner royal academy , 2 , 000 guineas winner shadeed , and french derby winner caerleo n . that is one impressive resume .\nthis article has a component height of 41 . the sidebar size is long .\n\u00a9 2018 vox media , inc . all rights reserved sports data \u00a9 stats 2018\nthe term \u201cupset\u201d has been used in all sports . it i . . .\nman o\u2019 war , regarded as one of the two or three be . . .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthe legendary man o ' war , informally christened big red by racing fans , was foaled at the nursery stud in lexington , kentucky , shortly before midnight on march 29 , 1917 .\nhis dam was mahubah , a bay daughter of the english triple crown winner rock sand . bred in england , rock sand won that country ' s most coveted trio of races , the epsom derby , the 2 , 000 guineas , and the st . leger stakes , in 1903 , and then made headlines again in 1906 with his $ 125 , 000 pricetag when purchased by august belmont ii , who imported him into the united states .\nman o ' war ' s sire was the leading sire fair play , a golden chestnut sired by hastings , the infamously bad tempered belmont stakes winner of 1896 , and out of fairy gold . winner of england ' s woodcote stakes for two - year - old fillies , fairy gold was a daughter of the 1880 epsom derby winner bend or .\nwhen the two retired to stud , it was colin who found himself to be overshadowed , for his stud record paled in comparison to that of his old rival . in addition to man o ' war , fair play sired the accomplished horses display , mad play , chance shot , chance play , mad hatter , my play , ladkin , chatterton , stromboli , masda , sands of pleasure , and countless others , leading the american sires list in 1920 , 1924 , and 1927 .\nman o ' war was so dubbed by mrs . eleanor robson belmont , who traditionally named all of her husband ' s horses , including mahubah , whose name is arabic for ' good tidings ' . mrs . belmont originally wanted to call mahubah ' s colt\nmy man o ' war\nin honor of her husband ' s participation in world war i . when she sent the registration to new york , the first word was dropped and he was officially named man o ' war .\nmajor belmont had planned on racing the colt in his own colors , as he usually raced the horses he bred , but in 1918 belmont decided to sell his yearlings , feeling that his involvement in the war in europe would prevent him from racing them . therefore , after an attempt to sell them as a package failed , man o ' war and the other nursery stud youngsters were sent to saratoga ' s sale in august of 1918 .\nthe highest priced yearling at saratoga that summer was a blaze faced chestnut colt named golden broom , purchased by mrs . walter m . jeffords for $ 15 , 600 . her cousin , samuel doyle riddle , a textile manufacturer and former rider on the northeastern hunt circuit , paid a moderate $ 5 , 000 for man o ' war .\nthe reasons for riddle ' s purchase have been greatly debated , with numerous individuals claiming to have influenced the decision . what is known is that trainer louis feustel wanted a fair play colt , and also admired man o ' war ' s dam , mahubah , having trained her for belmont . it was said , probably with at least some truth , that riddle felt that man o ' war would surely make an excellent hunter , if he was not a successful racehorse .\nit was also said that sam riddle liked the way the colt ' s coat shone\nlike gold in the afternoon sunlight ,\nalthough this poetic legend seems at odds with claims that man o ' war was not prepared for the sale as carefully as his stablemates . belmont had considered holding man o ' war back from the sale , but had decided that keeping the best colt for himself might make a bad impression on potential buyers .\nhe fought like a tiger . he screamed with rage , and fought us so hard that it took several days before he could be handled with safety .\nwhile this description was very possibly an exaggeration , it was well known that man o ' war threw his rider while still at saratoga , and enjoyed at least fifteen minutes of freedom before he was captured .\nthree days after breaking his maiden the first time out , man o ' war went on to win the keene memorial , beating colin ' s son on watch by three lengths . he covered the sloppy five and a half furlongs in 1 : 05 3 / 5 .\nnext came the youthful stakes at jamaica . once again , on watch failed to catch him , and man o ' war was the two and a half length winner . it was only two days later that he went to post at aqueduct in the hudson stakes , and despite an impost of 130 pounds the story was no different . the big chestnut son of fair play won by a length and a half , and was quite obviously not running his hardest . in the july 5 tremont stakes , also at aqueduct , and also under 130 pounds , an extra furlong proved no challenge . man o ' war easily beat ralco by a length .\nafter a month off , man o ' war went to post at saratoga for the u . s . hotel stakes . for the third time he carried 130 pounds . big red wired the field , and h . p . whitney ' s upset could only get within two lengths of him . man o ' war ' s brilliance in these early juvenile stakes prompted comparisons to colin and sysonby .\nthen , on august 13 , 1919 man o ' war met payne whitney stable ' s upset and his old rival golden broom , who had since won the saratoga special , in saratoga ' s sanford memorial stakes . after a substitute starter sent the field off while he had his hindquarters to the barrier , man o ' war was working to make up lost ground when his rider , johnny loftus , sufferd an error in judgment , going to the inside , and the champion was boxed in . when he finally found racing room , it was a moment too late . the living legend had been upset by upset , losing by less than a half length and carrying fifteen pounds more than the winner , who in the race of his life had covered the six furlongs in 1 : 11 1 / 5 . willie knapp , who rode upset , described the race :\nwe ' d passed the quarter pole and were going to the eighth pole , i guess it was , and i heard something right behind me and i knew it was big red coming at me now . i looked back and there he was . johnny loftus was riding like a crazy man and he yelled at me , ` move out , willie ! i ' m coming through ! ' so i yelled back at him , ` take off ! take off me , bum , or i ' ll put you through the rail ! ' then i set down to riding and we won .\nstable employees claimed that man o ' war had nightmares for weeks after his only defeat , and he never lost again . golden broom developed a quarter crack , and was retired for the year after finishing third in the sanford memorial .\nman o ' war got even in the grand union hotel stakes , beating upset by a length with the highly regarded blazes third . he also won the hopeful stakes by four lengths and finished the season with a two and a half length victory over john p . grier in the belmont futurity .\nin 1920 , johnny loftus was denied a renewal of his jockey ' s license , possibly as a result of the controversy following the sanford memorial , and therefore man o ' war had a new regular rider in clarence kummer .\nman o ' war ' s three - year - old career began with a win over upset and wildair in the 1920 preakness stakes . to the great disappointment of racing fans , he had been kept out of the kentucky derby because samuel riddle disapproved of three - year - olds being asked to run a mile and a quarter so early in may . after setting a new american record of 1 : 35 4 / 5 for the mile in the withers stakes , big red took the belmont stakes by a stunning twenty lengths , breaking sir barton ' s american record in the process . man o ' war ' s time for the mile and three eighths was 2 : 14 1 / 5 .\nto keep his footing and rewarded the faithful gambler by easily scoring an eight length victory in the stuyvesant handicap . he had successfully given 32 pounds to runner up yellow hand .\nwhere man o ' war passed grier was preserved at aqueduct , called the\nman o ' war pole\nin honor of the event . man o ' war ' s time of 1 : 49 1 / 5 for the mile and an eighth was a new american record .\njohn p . grier did at least partially recover , and later beat the champion filly cleopatra in the aqueduct handicap while giving her sixteen pounds . he also won the edgemere and annapolis handicaps , and was widely considered the second best three year old of 1920 .\nafter the dwyer , man o ' war won the miller stakes by six lengths and in the travers stakes he beat upset by two and a half lengths , with john p . grier third , and covered the mile and a quarter in 2 : 01 4 / 5 without any difficulty , despite high weight of 129 pounds . the whitney horses carried 123 and 115 , respectively ."]}
{"id": 496, "summary": [{"text": "the spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) is a rare australian fish from the family brachionichthyidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is classified as critically endangered on the iucn red list 2002 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is a benthic fish usually found at depths of 5 to 10 m , with overall sightings varying from a minimum of 2 to a maximum of 30 m deep .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the spotted handfish is unusual in that it has highly adapted pectoral fins , which appear like hands ( hence the name ) and allow it to walk on the sea floor .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it has a highly restricted range , being found only in the estuary of derwent river , tasmania , and nearby areas . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "spotted handfish", "paragraphs": ["spotted handfish recovery team ( 2002 ) . draft spotted handfish recovery plan . department of primary industries , water and environment , hobart .\nthese unique spotted handfish are the ambassadors for csiro ' s captive breeding program .\nspotted handfish use their fins like hands and feet , walking rather than swimming .\nthe spotted handfish uses its hand - like fins to \u2018walk\u2019 along the seafloor .\nthe pattern of spots on the spotted handfish\u2019s body is unique to each individual .\nbody of spotted handfish is covered with small , tooth - like scales called denticles .\ndr tim lynch wants to stop the spotted handfish going the same way as the thylacine .\nspotted handfish has hand - shaped pectoral fins that are used for walking on the sea floor , hence the name\nhandfish\n.\nthe spotted handfish is currently listed as critically endangered under the commonwealth and as endangered in tasmania .\neach spotted handfish has unique pattern of spots on the body ( like fingerprints in humans ) .\na female spotted handfish her eggs are behing her around the ascidian . image courtesy \u00a9 mark green\nscallop dredging is no longer permitted in the range of the spotted handfish ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . danish seine fishing is prohibited in the derwent estuary and within one nautical mile of the shore ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . in the mid - 2000s , there was only one danish seine fishing licence holder operating out of hobart ( pullen 2005 , pers comm . ) . whilst these restrictions on danish seine fishing provide some protection to known spotted handfish populations , danish seine fishing still occurs within the historic range of spotted handfish ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nfront dorsal fin of spotted handfish is modified into long filament ( called illicium ) with worm - like , fleshy structure ( called esca ) which dangles above mouth . spotted handfish uses esca to lure the prey . when prey approaches close enough , spotted handfish swallows it in a blink of an eye .\nit is believed that spotted handfish eat small crustaceans such as amphipods , small molluscs and polychaete worms .\nany form of fishing that degrades the benthic habitat can be considered to pose a threat to handfish species ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nthe spotted handfish has three close relatives listed as vulnerable on the tasmanian threatened species list : the red handfish , ziebell\u2019s handfish , and the waterfall bay handfish . these species are found only in restricted habitats in south eastern tasmania .\nthe cause of the decline of the spotted handfish is yet to be accurately determined . suggested threats include :\nmeanwhile dr lynch and mr fountain will look for more spotted handfish to breed in their artificial river derwent .\nthe spotted handfish has a small lure just above its mouth , which might be used to attract prey .\nthe spotted handfish is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\navailability of suitable spawning substrate appears to be critical to the reproduction capacity of spotted handfish . due to their limited distribution and observed decline , all of the areas within which spotted handfish are found are considered important habitat .\nsculpture of the handfish , known to all as \u201cjessica the handfish\u201d or ogoh - ogoh .\nrose , the mother spotted handfish , will protect her pole of eggs until they hatch in six to eight weeks .\nthe spotted handfish is one of the world\u2019s most endangered marine fish , having undergone a massive decline in recent decades .\nthe endangered spotted handfish are found on sandy sediments at the bottom of tasmania ' s derwent estuary and adjoining bays .\nspotted handfish rarely swim , but when they do , they use anal and tail fins to propel themselves in the water .\nbruce , b . ( 1998 ) . progress on spotted handfish recovery . on the brink ! . 11 : 9 .\nbrachionichthys hirsutus ( spotted handfish , spotted - hand fish ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014sl ) [ state action plan ] .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - spotted handfish reproduction\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - spotted handfish reproduction\ntitle =\narkive video - spotted handfish reproduction\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nspotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) are a type of anglerfish that prefer to walk on their fins along the seabed rather than swim .\nspotted handfish have creamy - white skin on the back covered with brown or yellowish - brown spots and white skin on the belly .\nspotted handfish has pear - shaped body with crest on the back made of skin that stretches between the second and third dorsal spine .\nspotted handfish is a carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on shrimps , amphipods , worms and small fish .\nrecovery plan for the following species of handfish : spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2005u ) [ legislative instrument ]\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - spotted handfish in courtship\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - spotted handfish in courtship\ntitle =\narkive video - spotted handfish in courtship\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n[ the spotted handfish ] have the dubious distinction of being the first marine fish to be listed as critically endangered back in 1996 .\nspotted handfish are born fully developed ( they do not have larval stage ) . young fish settle on the sea floor immediately after hatching .\nreductions in prey abundance , possibly related to decreases in benthic cover of seagrasses and alga that provide habitat for invertebrates , may impact upon handfish survival and reproduction ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nspotted handfish are bottom dwelling and live on sandy or silty sediments at depths of between 2 and 30 metres . within their range , the handfish live in colonies , groups of fish that breed together .\nthe spotted handfish is a critically endangered species that lives in tasmania . it has an extremely restricted distribution due partially to its unusual life cycle .\nalmost totally hidden in the background , behind a pole , is a juvenile spotted handfish , collected at the same time as the two adults .\nspotted handfish feed by sucking in prey items ( 5 ) , including shrimps , small fish and small crustaceans such as amphipods ( 3 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus )\ntitle =\narkive species - spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe spotted handfish used to be found in waters around the state but is now restricted to the lower reaches of the river derwent and surrounding bays .\nthree spotted handfish were collected from the river derwent off the shore of battery point and taken to a tank at the csiro a few metres away .\nthe draft recovery plan for three handfish species ( 2014pb ) outlines a range of recovery strategies for the conservation of spotted handfish . the following recovery strategies have been designed to achieve the overarching objective of the recovery plan ; to \u2018ensure an ecologically functional wild population of spotted handfish that , with limited site - specific management , has a high likelihood of persistence in nature :\nscientists have begun a captive breeding program for the spotted handfish , 11 years after it became the first australian marine animal to be listed as critically endangered .\nspotted handfish are endemic to south - east tasmania . currently , the only known populations of spotted handfish are located within the lower derwent estuary , with the only other recent sightings of spotted handfish consisting of the identification of two individuals in the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel in 2013 ( green 2014 , pers . comm . ) . populations have previously been recorded in fredrick henry bay , the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel and the northern regions of storm bay ( bruce et al . 1998 ) .\nthe bottom - dwelling spotted handfish is found on coarse to fine sand and silt , in coastal waters from depths of 2 to 30 metres ( 3 ) .\nthe most recent survey of the spotted fish that prefers walking to swimming raises alarms among conservationists .\none of the newly named species , the pink handfish , is known from only four specimens and was last recorded off the tasman peninsula in 1999 . the pink handfish will feature in a photographic exhibition of australia\u2019s marine biodiversity that opens today ( 21 may ) at questacon in canberra . the spotted handfish is listed as endangered under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 and the red handfish and ziebell\u2019s handfish are listed as vulnerable .\nthe joint csiro / utas team is about to get back into the water and help the spotted handfish by planting 1000 artificial spawning habitats . these are inedible to the starfish and provide much needed places for the handfish to attach their eggs .\nwithin the derwent estuary the estimated extent of occurrence for spotted handfish is approximately 70 km\u00b2 , however the species area of occupancy is likely to be considerably less ( tss 2014sl ) . in frederick henry bay in 1999 , the area of occupancy was estimated at 0 . 3 km\u00b2 ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) , however no handfish were located in this area during surveys in 2005 ( green 2005 ) .\nthreatened species section ( tss ) ( 2014sl ) . brachionichthys hirsutus ( spotted handfish , spotted - hand fish ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link . department of primary industries , parks , water and environment , tasmania . available from : urltoken .\ndr lynch said spotted handfish were at high risk as they were only found in a handful of spots in the river derwent and one spot in the d ' entrecasteaux channel .\nmigration rates of spotted handfish between the ralphs bay population and other populations in the derwent estuary are likely to be low ( green 2005 ) . there is some thought that the ralphs bay population of spotted handfish is genetically unique , given the apparent isolation of this population and the large size of specimens observed there ( aquenal pty ltd , 2008 ) .\n\u200bthe spotted handfish is endemic \u200bto tasmania and is found in parts of the derwent estuary , frederick henry , ralphs and north west bays . spotted handfish are small ( up to 120 mm long ) slow moving fish which appear to walk on their pectoral and pelvic fins rather than swim . the spotted handfish is white , cream or brown covered in many dark brown , orange or black spots and sometimes stripes . the first dorsal fin is prominent over the head and the second dorsal fin is long extending back down to the tail .\nspotted handfish do not go through a larval stage , but hatch from their eggs as juvenile fish 6 - 7mm in length . juvenile spotted handfish do not move far from the site of their spawning . this habit , combined with the lack of larval stage , has led to the very restricted range of the fish and increases its vulnerability to threatening processes .\nspotted handfish have a low breeding capacity . surveys conducted in the late 1990s concluded that the female lays 80 - 200 eggs that are held together in a vertical structure by threads ( last & bruce 1996\u201397 ) . in 2002 the species ' was found to attach their eggs to small , vertical , semi - rigid structures on the sea floor ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . this included stalked ascidians ( sycozoa sp . ) , seagrasses , sponges , small macrophytic algae and polychaete worm tubes ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\ngreen , m . a . p . and b . d . bruce ( 2002 ) . spotted handfish recovery plan 1999 - 2001 : year 3 . environment australia , canberra .\nprotected in tasmania since 1994 , the spotted handfish has the dubious distinction of becoming the first marine fish to be listed as endangered under the commonwealth endangered species protection act in 1996 .\nthis species occurs in benthic ( seafloor ) environments in association with coarse to fine sand and shell grit or silt ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) . the species was recorded from depths between 2 - 30 m in 2002 , but observations around this time suggested that they are most common in depths of 5 - 10 m ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) .\nthe spotted handfish is endemic to south - eastern australia , occurring in the lower derwent river estuary , frederick henry bay , d ' entrecasteaux channel and the northern regions of storm bay .\nnever mind the tassie tiger \u2014 hobart ' s spotted handfish are super rare , found nowhere else on the planet and are really rather cute , in a weird - looking fishy way .\ngreen , m . a . & b . d . bruce ( 2000 ) . spotted handfish recovery plan : final report : year 1 ( 1999 ) . environment australia , canberra .\nthe species has also been called the prickly - skinned handfish and tortoiseshell fish .\nspotted handfish are currently protected under the recovery plan for four species of handfish ( deh 2005v ) . the 2005 recovery plan was reviewed in 2013 by an expert panel that included representatives from department of the environment ( cwth ) , department of primary industries , parks . water and environment , commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation , university of tasmania and derwent estuary program . this review noted that there had been a sustained effort to implement recovery actions for the spotted handfish in the derwent estuary and recovery plan objectives had been partially met for this species . however , the review concluded that threats to handfish species remained largely unchanged and known handfish populations had not demonstrably increased in size . the review identified a number of relatively simple actions that could be implemented to boost the survival of the spotted handfish , and recommended that a new recovery plan be developed for the three handfish species . the outcome of this review led to the development of the draft recovery plan for three handfish species ( department of the environment 2014pb ) .\nthere are survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened fish that include survey protocol fordetecting fish listed under the epbc act . this document contains information relevant to the surveying of spotted handfish ( dsewpac 2011i ) .\nanecdotal evidence from the early\u2013mid 2000s suggests that some handfish species are more active at night , but the species are still likely to be seen and / or collected during the day ( green 2003 , pers comm . , cited in ambs 2004 ) . spotted handfish breed in spring ( september to november ) . there were some indications in the early 2000s that during breeding time spotted handfish are more abundant in areas where there is spawning substrate ( green 2003 , pers comm . , cited in ambs 2004 ) .\nenvironment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - section 269a - instrument revoking and jointly making a recovery plan ( spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) , red handfish ( brachionichthys politus ) , ziebell ' s handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t6 . 01 ] ) , waterfall bay handfish ( sympterichthys sp . [ csiro # t1996 . 01 ] ) and jointly makes , with the tasmanian minister for the environment , the ' recovery plan for three handfish species ' ( 01 / 03 / 2016 ) ( commonwealth of australia , 2016b ) [ legislative instrument ]\nendemic to tasmania , the spotted handfish or brachionichthys hirsutus looks like a tadpole in the late stages of development , with a fin atop its head to lure unsuspecting prey and the sour expression of a british bulldog .\nspotted handfish were bred successfully in captivity in the late 1990s ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . spotted handfish were initially bred in captivity in 1996 , however all of the juveniles in that trial died within 29 days of hatching ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . the cause of hatchling mortality was not fully understood but coincided with critical stages in the life history of the species ( bruce et al . 1997 ) .\nbarrett , n . , b . d . bruce , & p . r . last ( 1996 ) . spotted handfish survey . report to endangered species unit , anca . csiro div . fisheries , hobart .\ngreen , m . a . & b . d . bruce ( 2001 ) . spotted handfish recovery plan 1999 - 2001 : progress report , end of year 2 ( 2000 ) . environment australia , canberra .\nthe longevity of spotted handfish is still yet to be determined ( bruce et al . 1999 ) , however there was some information made available on growth rate in the early 2000s . spotted handfish in the derwent estuary at two years old are approximately 70 mm in length ( green & bruce 2001 ) . in their third year of growth , specimens attain a further 5 - 10 mm in length , and approximately 2 mm every year thereafter ( green & bruce 2001 ) . this suggests that when spotted handfish in the derwent estuary are 100 mm long , they are 12 - 16 years of age ( green & bruce 2001 ) . however , most of the spotted handfish found at sites surveyed in the derwent estuary in the late 1990s to early 2000s were 81 - 90 mm in length , making them between 4 - 10 years of age ( green & bruce 2001 ) .\nthe aquarium mr fountain built for the handfish looks gloomy compared to a pet fish aquarium .\nthe pattern of spots on each spotted handfish appear to be unique , meaning we can identify individuals . they are members of the group of fish including deep sea anglerfish . there are a number of handfish species found in australian waters , with the majority of these being rare and restricted to the south - east .\nbruce , b . d . and green , m . a . ( 1998 ) the spotted handfish 1999 - 2001 recovery plan . department of the environment , water , heritage , and the arts , canberra , australia .\nthe spotted handfish , a tiny , bottom - dwelling creature that walks , after a fashion , on its fins on the sea floor , is in deep trouble , with just 79 left , according to a recent survey .\ndue to their distribution in shallow coastal habitats in close proximity to urban and industrial areas handfish , particularly spotted handfish , are exposed to numerous impacts from anthropogenic activities ( dep 2013 ) . impacts to handfish populations from coastal developments can arise as a result of increased top soil runoff and sedimentation in surrounding waterways , while impacts from marine developments can occur due to the loss or modification of habitat ( dep 2013 ) .\ncommon throughout the lower derwent estuary and adjoining bays prior to the mid 1980s , the spotted handfish has suffered a serious decline in distribution and abundance . only a handful of populations are now found around the mouth of the derwent estuary .\nendemic to the lower derwent river estuary in tasmania , the spotted handfish was a relatively common species until the 1980s . the species has declined massively , however ; only three breeding colonies were known to exist in 1998 ( 3 ) .\nthe spotted handfish , which is the subject of a captive breeding program , used to be found in waters around tasmania but is restricted to the lower reaches of the river derwent and surrounding bays . photograph : auscape / uig via getty images\nthe spotted handfish is endemic to tasmania and is only found in the derwent estuary and adjoining bays in the south east of the state , close to hobart . see the distribution map on the tasmanian department of primary industries and water website .\njust two spotted handfish were reported between 1990 and 1994 ; this dire state of the population led to the formation of the spotted handfish recovery team in 1996 ( 3 ) . the recovery team consists of a number of government agencies concerned with saving this rare , and bizarre , fish . research into existing wild populations and the development of captive breeding techniques are some of the priorities of the recovery plan ( 3 ) . initial work has been encouraging , with successful breeding attempts from two adult pairs of spotted handfish at the tasmanian department of primary industry and fisheries aquaculture ( 2 ) . a captive population may be used in a future re - introduction programme to restore these fish to some of their previous range ( 6 ) .\nbruce , b . d . and green , m . a . ( 1998 ) the spotted handfish 1999 - 2001 recovery plan . department of the environment , water , heritage , and the arts , canberra , australia . available at : urltoken\nbruce , b . d . and green , m . a . ( 1998 ) the spotted handfish 1999 - 2001 recovery plan . department of the environment , water , heritage , and the arts , canberra , australia . available at : urltoken\nthe relative age and growth of spotted handfish surveyed at frederick henry bay in the early 2000s has made it difficult to draw conclusions about the lifespan of the species generally . at this site , the spotted handfish appeared to grow larger and faster than at derwent estuary sites ( green & bruce 2001 ) . one specimen observed three times in 12 months had grown from 60 to 93 mm , which far exceeded growth rates observed at sites in the derwent estuary ( green & bruce 2001 ) .\nbruce , b . d . , m . a . p . green & p . r . last ( 1997 ) . developing husbandry techniques for spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) and monitoring the 1996 spawning season . environment australia , canberra .\ndepartment of the environment ( 2014pb ) . draft recovery plan for three handfish species . canberra . urltoken\ncollection of spotted handfish is an offence in tasmania unless a permit has been issued under the living marine resources management act 1995 ( tasmania ) . however , the tasmanian department of primary industries , water and environment have never issued a permit for the take of handfish other than for the purpose of scientific research ( pullen 2005 , pers comm . ) .\nbruce , b . d . & m . a . green ( 1998 ) . non - current spotted handfish recovery plan 1999 - 2001 . ea . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 16 - jul - 2000 .\nthe spotted handfish is pinkish above and white below , with darker orange , brown or blackish spots . it has a high first dorsal fin originating on the snout and a long based soft rayed dorsal fin . there is a long illicium on the snout .\nthe spotted handfish has a very restricted and patchy distribution , low population density , limited dispersal capabilities and a reproductive strategy of producing low numbers of demersal eggs that are susceptible to disturbance ( bruce & green 1998 ; green 2014 , pers comm . ) .\nclimate change and warming ocean temperatures also pose a potential threat to all handfish species . increased water temperature may impact upon handfish survival and reproductive capacity both directly , as handfish held in aquaria appeared distressed at temperatures above 18 \u00b0c ( gledhill & green , unpub . ) , and indirectly , through the creation of conditions favourable to the growth of filamentous alga and the spread of native urchins . furthermore , climate change driven increases in severe weather events may dislodge spawning substrate and degrade habitat ( gowlett - holmes 2014 , pers comm . ) . at the frederick henry bay site during the early 2000s , storms during the breeding season of the spotted handfish over successive years could have threatened the population ( spotted handfish recovery team 2002 ) as seagrass , which formed a part of the primary spawning substrate at this site , was susceptible to storm damage .\nthe spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) is a small fish that lives on the sea bed in the cool , sheltered waters of south - east tasmania . it has modified pelvic fins that look like \u201chands\u201d , hence the name . while the handfish can swim when required , it usually uses the \u201chands\u201d to \u201cwalk\u201d across the seabed in search of food such as mysid shrimps .\nthe spotted handfish , with its unusually large overgrown pectoral fins that look like hands , is the darling of the derwent estuary and the hero of hobart . we\u2019re not being hyperbolic . this bizarre fish is an icon in tassie , so much so that renowned winter art festival\nit takes a village to raise a child , and it takes a number of organisations to raise a handfish .\nso far we\u2019ve found handfish at all of the known sites , many with higher than expected numbers . this is great news . however , at several sites the handfish don\u2019t appear to be as densely populated as we once thought .\nfemales reach sexual maturity at the age of 2 to 3 years . low number of eggs , removal of sea squirts and prolonged period of incubation ( north pacific seastars have enough time to collect all eggs ) are responsible for drop in the number of spotted handfish in the wild .\nthere are nine known areas in the lower derwent estuary ( seaward of the tasman bridge ) where spotted handfish have been found and surveyed ( green 2005a , 2007a , 2009a ) . analysis of survey data in 2009 suggested a total abundance of 1500\u20132700 adult spotted handfish ( green 2009b ) , however there may have been decreases in total abundance within key populations since this time ( green 2014 , pers comm . ) . the calculated density of fish at a location in frederick henry bay during spring 1999 was about 45 per hectare ( green & bruce 2000 ; green 2005a ) , which would have represented an estimated abundance of 180\u2013250 adult handfish ( green 2007b ) ; however surveys at this location failed to detect any spotted handfish in 2005 ( green 2005a ) . a reliable report was made with a photograph of a single specimen at a location in north west bay , at the northern end of the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel ( deh 2005u ) , but the presence of a viable population has not been verified .\nhandfish are small , bottom - dwelling fishes that would rather ' walk ' on their pectoral and pelvic fins than swim . they are native to australia and five of the eight identified handfish species are found only in tasmania and bass strait .\na handfish in hand . meet the enemy . the north pacific sea star is an introduced species , and it is causing havoc for the handfish\u2019s habitat . off for a trot . those handfish are made for walking . don\u2019t make the handfish angry , you wouldn\u2019t like it when it\u2019s angry ! give us a smile , this is your close - up after all . it\u2019s a cold and murky job . lincoln wong ( utas ) takes a sediment core next to a handfish to assess habitat preferences . you can see the joy in their eyes . tim lynch ( csiro ) and lincoln wong ( utas ) hanging at the safety stop .\nwith time , improvements in the water quality within the derwent should flow through to improved habitat for the spotted handfish , and perhaps to a reduced threat from introduced pest species as more natural assemblages of species return . meanwhile , monitoring and artificial egg sticks offer the best chance of avoiding the loss of the species .\nthe small overall numbers and low population density means that the spotted handfish is vulnerable to disturbance . threats may be predation by the exotic pacific seastar , loss of spawning habitat through scouring of seabed , e . g . by boat mooring chains , and water quality issues from industrial pollution , urban effluent and siltation . \u200b\u200b\ngreen , m . ( 2007 ) . implementing handfish recovery plan 2006 / 7 . report to biodiversity conservation branch dpiwe , tasmania .\nthere are three species of handfish endemic to tasmania , one of which has not been seen by divers in the wild for several years .\nbruce , b . d . , m . a . green & . p . r . last ( 1997 ) . developing captive husbandry techniques for spotted handfish brachionichtys hirsutus , and monitoring the 1996 spawning season . page ( s ) 22pp . repor to endangered species unit , env . aust . csiro div . marine research , hobart .\nthe spotted handfish is a member of the family brachionichthyidae ( handfishes ) , and are closely related to anglerfish . they are a small fish , growing to around 12cm in length , white or cream in colour with numerous small orange or brown spots . the arrangement of these spots is unique to each fish , and can be used to identify individuals .\nsurveys indicate that the majority of spotted handfish now persist as small fragmented populations within the historic range of the species ( last & gledhill 2009 ) . an apparently healthy population was once present in great oyster bay on the east coast but specimens have not been recorded from this area since the 1950s ( last & gledhill 2009 ) . similarly , at primrose sands ( fredrick henry bay ) a population numbering several hundred spotted handfish was recorded in 1999 ( green & bruce 2000 ) but no handfish were located during surveys in 2005 ( green 2005 ) and anecdotal evidence from dive groups suggests the species has not been present in the area since the early to mid 2000\u2019s . within the d\u2019entrecasteaux channel only two individuals have been observed , on two separate occasions , in the vicinity of howden in north west bay ( green 2014 , pers comm . ) .\nhandfish were once abundant around the globe but are now only found in waters off south - east australia , with most species endemic to tasmania .\ngreen , m . ( 2009 ) . handfish 08 - 09 . nrm south final report . report to biodiversity conservation branch dpiwe , tasmania .\nthe age structures of three known spotted handfish colonies were assessed during surveys undertaken from 1998 to 2001 ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . at one of the two sites in the lower derwent estuary , the number of adult spotted handfish ( those greater than 71 mm in length ) had declined over this period ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . at another site in the lower derwent estuary , a three - fold increase in mature fish was observed in spring 1999 ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . the reason for this increase is unknown but it is considered likely that fish may have moved into the area to breed ( green & bruce , 2002 ) . the ratio of juvenile to adult handfish in the two regularly surveyed sites in the lower derwent estuary varied annually from 2011 to 2014 ( green , pers comm . , 2014 ) .\nspotted handfish are protected under tasmanian law and the commonwealth ' s environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . over the last five years , the commonwealth government , through the natural heritage trust , has contributed over $ 390 000 to help ensure the survival of the handfish . these projects , which have included researching and monitoring existing populations ; public education and awareness raising ; and identifying threats , have been undertaken in conjunction with the tasmanian department of primary industries , water and the environment and the csiro .\nthreatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2012bw ) . commonwealth listing advice on brachionichthys hirsutus ( spotted handfish ) . department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . canberra , act : department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 11 - oct - 2012 .\nhandfish are like rare jewels when you find them on the sea floor and , besides their beauty , they can tell us a thing or two about resilience and survival \u2013 it is in our best interests to make sure they thrive and remain a talisman for hobart and handfish aficionados around the world .\ntraditional block and chain swing moorings can have significant localised impacts on benthic habitat in sensitive areas ( seq catchments 2014 ) . in the derwent estuary a large number of traditional boat moorings are located in known , historic or potential spotted handfish habitats due to the deliberate positioning of moorings in shallow and sheltered estuarine embayments ( green 2014 , pers comm . ) . traditional moorings consist of a concrete block ( or other dump weight ) with a heavy chain attached and are designed to allow boats to move in response to winds and currents , often resulting in the slack chain dragging across the seabed and scouring the surrounding substrate ( dpi 2014 ) . scientists conducting spotted handfish surveys at battery point in the derwent estuary have observed damage to artificial spawning habitat caused by boat mooring chains dragging across the substrate and noted an absence of handfish in these disturbed areas ( green et al . 2014 ) .\nthe introduction of artificial spawning substrate was tested at two sites in the derwent estuary in the late 1990s after trials in aquaria showed that spotted handfish would use plastic rods as spawning substrate ( green & bruce 2000 ) . these rods were buried in the sand to form vertical structures on the seafloor that spotted handfish may use as alternative spawning substrate to stalked ascidians ( green & bruce 2001 ) . during the breeding season at one of the two sites , 52 egg masses were observed attached to the artificial spawning substrates , with only two egg masses attached to stalked ascidians ( green & bruce 2000 ) . the artificial spawning substrate at the other site was not as successful , with most lost due to heavy weather ( green & bruce 2000 ) .\nthe markings on spotted handfish are unique so it is possible to identify individuals within populations ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . individual patterns of spots do not change with season , substrate type or behaviour although some changes in pattern can be observed over time as individuals grow ( i . e . larger spots may break in two ) ( bruce et al . 1999 ) .\nhale said the handfish\u2019s ungainly appearance could go some way to explaining why it remains relatively unknown , despite being one of the most endangered animals in australia .\nhandfish of all types abounded around the world 50 million years ago but are now only found in waters south - east of australia , mainly around tasmania .\nissues paper : population status of an threats to four handfish species listed as threatened under the environmental protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( deh 2005u ) .\nthe endangered spotted handfish is a small , unusual fish that is slow - moving and prefers to ' walk ' on its pectoral and pelvic fins rather than swim . the pectoral or side fins are leg - like and resemble a human hand \u2013 hence their common name . their body is white or cream and is covered in numerous small , closely set orange , brown or blackish spots .\nwhitley , g . p . 1949 ,\nthe handfish\n, australian museum magazine , vol . 9 , no . 12 , pp . 398 - 403\nnine new species of handfish have been described by csiro in research that highlights an urgent need to better understand and protect the diversity of life in australia\u2019s oceans .\nresearchers theorize the critically endangered fish ' s perilous situation is due to a seastar wreaking havoc with its habitat and reproduction efforts . the handfish uses its habitat to camouflage its eggs , and then it watches over them . but the seastar is eating away at the scenery , leaving the handfish and its eggs vulnerable to predators .\nthe handfish survives today only in tasmanian waters , in the hobart ' s derwent estuary . the hand count has researchers considering urgent methods to keep the species alive .\nspotted handfish occur in limited numbers in colonies and are usually found on soft substrates often in shallow depressions or near rocks or other projections . they are found in depths of 2 to 30 m below the surface . \u200b they eat small molluscs , crustaceans and marine worms . spawning is from september to october , eggs are attached to objects on the substrate and the female remains in attendance until they hatch .\nin 1997 / 98 eighteen juvenile spotted handfish were spawned , hatched and raised in captivity to an age of seven months ( green & bruce 2000 ) . these fish were hatched from two egg masses that totalled approximately 200 eggs ( green & bruce 2000 ) . the total survival rate from these egg masses was approximately 9 % of spawned eggs and 34 % of hatchlings ( green & bruce 2000 ) .\nthe new species are described in a review of the handfish family by hobart - based fish taxonomists from the csiro wealth from oceans flagship , daniel gledhill and peter last .\nthe spotted handfish was common in the lower derwent river estuary until the mid 1980s , when the species underwent a catastrophic decline ( 2 ) . although unproven , it is thought that the introduction of the northern pacific seastar ( asterias amurensis ) to tasmania at this time may be the key to the decimation of the handfish population ( 3 ) . these seastars are voracious predators of shellfish and it is thought that they may also eat the eggs of handfish or the sea squirts upon which the eggs are attached ( 2 ) . the deterioration of coastal habitats due to development may also be involved in the decline ( 3 ) . this species is under added threat from its vastly reduced population , limited dispersal , restricted distribution and low reproductive rate ( 3 ) .\nspotted handfish are often found in shallow , shell - filled depressions or near rocks of low relief projecting from the substrate ( bruce et al . 1998 ) . unspoilt shallow , benthic , sandy habitats with suitable spawning substrates ( e . g . primarily stalked ascidians sycozoa sp . , but also sponges , and seagrasses ) are believed to be critical to the survival of this species ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) .\nbruce , b . d . , m . a . green & p . r . last ( 1999 ) . aspects of the biology of the endangered spotted handfish brachionichthys hirsutus ( lophiiformes : brachionichthyidae ) off southern australia . in : seret , b . & j . y . sire , eds . proceedings of the 5th indo pacific fish conference , noumea 1997 . page ( s ) 369 - 380 . societe francaise d ' ichthyologie , paris .\nthe spotted handfish is a bottom dwelling fish that lives in coarse to fine silt and sand at depths of 2\u201330 metres . they spawn from september to october and lay an interconnected egg mass of 80\u2013250 eggs on objects attached to the sea bottom . the female remains with the egg mass for 7\u20138 weeks until hatching . their diet includes small crustacea and worms and they are often found in shallow , shell - filled depressions near low relief rocks projecting from the sand .\nour team popped on some fluffy onesies underneath our thick dry suits and proceeded to dive into the cool winter waters of the derwent estuary . there , we conducted the first ever survey of all nine local populations of the spotted handfish . battling what could only be described as ice cream - like headaches , we completed multiple daily dives at each of the sites for the last three months , to get up close and personal \u2013 close enough for a high - five .\nthe spotted handfish was common throughout the lower derwent estuary and adjoining bays prior to the mid 1980s , but subsequently suffered a decline in distribution and abundance ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . anecdotal reports ( cited in bruce et al . 1999 ) from the late 1990s , suggest that the population around the hobart region declined relatively rapidly in the 1980s . this decline appears to have coincided with the introduction of the northern pacific seastar ( bruce et al . 1999 ) . this species is believed to have been introduced in the 1970s or early 1980s as larvae in ballast water , or as juvenile or adult seastars on the hulls of international ships ( csiro 1998 ) . the exact cause of the decline in spotted handfish populations is not fully understood ( bruce et al . 1999 ) , however there are known to be several threats operating ( as outlined below ) which result in a reduction in the quality and quantity of available habitat , in particular spawning substrate .\nthere are a number of reasons the handfish is listed as endangered . a small population , restricted distribution and vulnerable life cycle are key . habitat degradation and pest species have contributed to the species\u2019 decline .\nthe pectoral fins of handfish bear a resemblance to a human hand , hence their common name . they move by slowly \u2018walking\u2019 along the sea floor with the pectoral fins and pelvic fins rather than swimming .\nthe greatest threats to the handfish appear to be siltation and invasive species . the derwent estuary where the fish lives is highly urbanised and industrialised , and a range of marine pests have been introduced through shipping .\nbruce , b . d . , green , m . a . & p . r . last . 1999 . aspects of the biology of the endangered spotted handfish , brachionichthys hirsutus ( lophiiformes : brachionichthyidae ) off southern australia . pp . 369 - 380 in s\u00e9ret b . & j . - y . sire , ( eds ) proceedings of the 5th indo - pacific fish conference , noumea , new caledonia , 3 - 8 november 1997 . paris : societe fran\u00e7aise d ' ichtyologie . pp . 888 .\nspawning was found to generally occur from september to october , during early spring ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ; last & bruce 1996\u201397 ) . in the late 1990s spotted handfish in aquaria were observed performing what appears to be courtship behaviour prior to spawning ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . after laying the egg mass , the female guards the eggs for 6\u20137 weeks until they hatch ( bruce 1998 ) . eggs were approximately 4 mm in diameter and are contained in ' flasks ' that are inter - connected in a single mass by fine tubules ( last & bruce 1996\u201397 ) . eggs observed in aquaria began hatching 51 days after spawning and had finished hatching 57 days after spawning ( bruce et al . 1997 ) . the spotted handfish was not found to have a pelagic larval phase in 2002 , with the eggs hatching into fully formed juveniles ( pogonoski et al . 2002 ) . hatchlings were observed settling in the immediate area surrounding the location of the egg mass in the late 1990s ( bruce et al . 1997 ) .\nartificial sticks for attaching eggs have been developed by csiro and planted throughout the estuary . there is some evidence that the handfish are already using the sticks , although it is unknown whether the eggs survive to hatching .\nspotted handfish are small , colourful , slow moving benthic ( sea - floor dwelling ) fish that are easily approached and photographed . adults are typically 70\u201390 mm tl ( last et al . 2007 ) and grow to a maximum size of 143 mm ( last & gledhill 2009 ) . they use their illicium ( modified dorsal fin ray ) to attract food ( edgar et al . 1982 ) and to probe egg masses ( deh 2005u ) , sometimes extending and resting it on the seafloor ( bruce et al . 1998 ) .\nunlike other fish , handfish care for their eggs during the gestation period . these protective parents guard their eggs , which cling to stalked ascidians for up to six weeks , keeping a close eye on them till they hatch . sadly , stalked ascidians are a favourite food of an introduced species , the north pacific sea star . the handfish\u2019s ongoing battle for survival will continue as long as these villainous sea stars live in the estuary .\nhobart has already began to adopt the species as its own : a giant papier - mache handfish , dubbed jessica by its creator , the balinese artist ida bagus oka , was burned in effigy at the dark mofo festival in june .\nvisual census techniques are non - destructive and during the early 2000s ( green 2003 , pers comm . , cited in ambs 2004 ) were the most appropriate method for the detection of handfishes in depths within safe scuba diving range ( i . e . to approx . 40 m ) . given that spotted handfish are rare and cryptic in nature , an estimated six hours of searching at each site , and a minimum team of three persons ( one boat person and two divers ) , was recommended ( green 2003 , pers comm . , cited in ambs , 2004 ) .\nwe thought with the decline of the handfish , at this moment while there ' s still some , it would be prudent to get some captive populations going for insurance purposes ,\ndr lynch told ryk goddard on abc radio hobart .\ndepartment of the environment and heritage ( deh ) ( 2005u ) . issues paper : population status of an threats to four handfish species listed as threatened under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . canberra . available from : urltoken .\nhandfish lack a larval stage and hatch as fully formed juveniles ( 6\u20137mm in length ) which move straight to the sea floor and appear to remain in the vicinity of spawning throughout their lives . this has two important consequences . first , colonies may be relatively isolated ( ie mixing between them is restricted ) and a reduction in spawning success may seriously impact on a colony . second , the ability for handfish to recolonise areas from which they have been displaced is likely to be low .\none of the first strategies to conserve the handfish was to give them full protection under fisheries legislation , preventing collection for aquariums . the species\u2019 restricted distribution has worked in its favour , encouraging interest from the local community to clean up the estuary .\nin 1998 / 1999 , 158 ( 37 % ) of 423 hatchlings survived in captivity to an age of 6 months ( green & bruce 2000 ) . all of these handfish were tagged and the surviving 155 ( three died after tagging ) were released at the site from which their parents had been captured ( green & bruce 2000 ) . however , in surveys post october 1999 no sightings of these tagged handfish were made , which suggests high mortality post release ( green & bruce 2001 ) .\nthe csiro has been conducting an annual survey of handfish numbers for two years and this month collected its first specimens \u2013 an adult male named harley , an adult female named rose and an as yet unnamed juvenile \u2013 to begin a captive breeding program .\none key pest is the northern pacific seastar ( asterias amurensis ) , a particularly large and voracious predator that is now abundant in the estuary . studies by csiro show that the seastars eat the stalked ascidians that the handfish use to attach their eggs .\nin recent decades considerable effort has been put into improving water quality in the derwent estuary , including site works to reduce heavy metal discharge at the zinc smelter , expansion of the wastewater treatment plant at the paper mill , introduction of effluent reuse schemes for sewage from metropolitan hobart and improvements to storm water management ( whitehead et al . 2013 ) . sediment samples taken in 2011 indicate that concentrations of heavy metals have decreased at some sites in the derwent since 2000 , however levels vary across the estuary and copper , arsenic , zinc and cadmium concentrations increased in some spotted handfish locations ( whitehead et al . 2013 ) .\nspotted handfish spawn during september and october ( 3 ) , the male enticing the female by his courtship display ( 5 ) . compared to many other fish , the female produces a relatively small number of eggs ; around 80 to 250 eggs are spawned and these are often positioned around the base of a sea squirt ( a jelly - like invertebrate ) ( 3 ) . the female guards the eggs for seven to eight weeks until the fully - formed juveniles hatch . these tiny young measure a mere six to seven millimetres and when they emerge , move straight to the bottom of the seabed , instead of dispersing ( 3 ) .\nthe spotted handfish ( brachionichthys hirsutus ) is one of the world ' s most endangered marine fish . this extremely distinctive fish is almost pear - shaped ( 2 ) and unusually , has hand - like ' paired fins ' that enable it to ' walk ' along the seafloor ( 3 ) ; both the pectoral and ventral fins are used in this locomotion ( 4 ) . when swimming through the water , the unpaired or ' median ' fins ( such as the tail and anal fin ) are used ( 4 ) . these fish are cream in colour with a myriad of dusky brown , and occasionally yellow - brown spots ( 4 ) , the pattern of which is unique to each individual ( 3 ) . some individuals also have orange markings on their fins . handfish have a small lure just above their mouth which may serve to entice prey , although its exact function is unknown ( 4 ) ."]}
{"id": 528, "summary": [{"text": "the fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) , previously known as the fairy warbler , is a species of bird in the family acanthizidae native to new guinea and queensland . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "fairy gerygone", "paragraphs": ["fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) is a species of bird in the acanthizidae family .\nfairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\nthe fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) is a species of bird in the acanthizidae family .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) / occurrences\nmurphy , s . ( 2002 ) . why do male fairy gerygones gerygone palpebrosa burst into song on hearing predators or loud noises ? sunbird 32 : 62 - 66 .\nthis dataset includes observations of fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :\nthe white - throated gerygone is found in open eucalypt woodlands and forests and in vegetation along watercourses .\nuntil relatively recent years , fairy gerygone was not known to occur south of the gin gin - childers region . whether it has spread southward or was overlooked in the past is not known ; this is one of several essentially tropical species which appears to be extending its range south . in the sunshine coast littoral scrubs , it occurs side by side with mangrove gerygone . more rarely in the hinterland , it may be in the same habitat as brown gerygone , which is absent from the coastal scrubs .\ngregory , p . ( 2018 ) . fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ngerygone , the gerygones or peep - warblers , is a genus of bird in the acanthizidae family . the . . .\nthe fairy gerygone , g . palpebrosa differs from the white - throated gerygone in that it does not have the white tail tips , and some males have a black chin and / or throat . it also only overlaps in the queensland part of the white - throated gerygone ' s range , from tropic of capricorn to northern cape york . the smaller weebill , smicrornis brevirostris , can resemble young white - throated gerygones , but does not have a red eye , lacks the white throat and forehead and is generally paler above , with a shorter , paler bill .\nford j ( 1986 ) phylogeny of the acanthizid warbler genus gerygone based on numerical analyses of morphological characters . emu 86 : 12\u201322 .\nthe white - throated gerygone ranges from south - eastern australia through queensland and across northern australia to the kimberley region , western australia .\nthis fairy gerygone was singing today at mudjimba on the sunshine coast . there are six pairs of this species in a 3 - km stretch of coastal vine scrub in the vicinity . i ' ve also seen the bird elsewhere along the coast including noosa national park and coolum . occasionally in turns up in the hinterland - at ninderry , kenilworth and bli bli - but it does not appear to be resident there .\nthe white - throated gerygone mates for life . it builds an oval or pear shaped nest of bark bound with spiders ' silk , which is hung in the outer foliage of trees .\n10\u201311\u00b75 cm ; 8 g . medium - small gerygone with distinctive male plumag\u00ades . male nominate race has forehead , side of head and throat to upper breast black , crown . . .\ncitation : ny\u00e1ri \u00e1s , joseph l ( 2012 ) evolution in australasian mangrove forests : multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the gerygone warblers ( aves : acanthizidae ) . plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e31840 . urltoken\ndespite ford ' s ( 1986 ) pioneering attempt to analyze gerygone phylogenetically , the conservative morphology of the group has inhibited development of a comprehensive phylogenetic framework . this in turn has complicated interpretations of biogeographic patterns . a recent phylogenetic study of the largest radiation of australasian songbirds , the meliphagoidea [ 8 ] , was the first molecular analysis of acanthizids that included gerygone . the eight species of gerygone analysed there comprised a monophyletic group , which , together with the monotypic fernwren oreoscopus gutturalis , was basal to all other acanthizids . support for the monophyly of the eight species was high but relationships within the genus were not well resolved .\ncomplex evolutionary and biogeographic scenarios in the history of gerygone are clearly apparent from our results . they identified g . chrysogaster and g . mouki as a sister clade to the rest of gerygone , consistent with an australo - papuan center of diversity for the group . the geographic distributions of these two taxa correspond to australo - papuan tropical lowland ( irian ) and subtropical - montane rainforest ( tumbunan ) avifaunas [ 3 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 49 ] .\npicture of an australian brood parasite and its host : ( a ) little bronze - cuckoo nestling ( left ) and egg ( right ) ; ( b ) large - billed gerygone nestling ( left ) and egg ( right ) .\nthe white - throated gerygone is a very small grey brown bird with a white throat and spot on forehead , distinctive bright yellow underparts and a white - tipped tail . it has a red eye . most often heard during breeding season , it is not obvious at other times .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : gerygone palpebrosa . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ng . cinerea was consistently recovered by all loci as not closely related to other ingroup species , rendering gerygone paraphyletic ( figure 1 , 2 ) . analysis of our 13 - locus dataset placed this species among the three outgroup members , and specifically with the species we used of acanthiza \u00b8 a . apicalis .\nthe white - throated gerygone mates for life . it builds an oval or pear shaped nest of bark bound with spiders ' silk , which is hung in the outer foliage of trees . breeding season : september to november ; longer in north of range . clutch size : 2 to 3 incubation : 12 days time in nest : 15 days\nthe most novel relationship that we recovered is the exclusion from gerygone of g . cinerea , which clearly belongs in acanthiza ( figure 2 and 3 ) . based on plumage and biogeography , ford ( 1986 ) suggested that g . cinerea was closely related to g . chloronota . we conclude that g . cinerea should be assigned to acanthiza vigors and horsfield , 1827 , and so be known as a . cinerea ( salvadori , 1876 ) .\nthe species tree inferred from all 13 loci mirrored closely the consensus among the underlying gene trees and the analysis of the concatenated and partitioned dataset . topologies obtained throught the best and * beast algorithms were congruent . again , gerygone was not monophyletic and the sister species relationships of g . chrysogaster / g . mouki , and g . igata / g . modesta were strongly supported ( figure 2 ) . similarly , the three mangrove specialists were not a monophyletic group , and their constrained monophyly constitutes a significantly worse likelihood under the au test . the majority of nodes in the species tree received strong support ; however , several low - to - moderately supported nodes prevailed , especially in the recently evolved clades sister to g . magnirostris .\nthus , gerygones colonized mangroves on several occasions and those that occur in mangroves are not each other ' s closest relatives within the genus gerygone . this lends further support for case - by - case exploration of the rich australo - papuan mangrove avifauna . phylogeographic analysis of diversity within and among the three gerygones adapted to mangroves and their closest relatives especially g . fusca , will bring additional insights to levels of intraspecific genetic diversity , influence of geographic barriers , and the history of any hybridization events . contrasting these molecular findings with data based on morphology , plumage , song and ecological niche will broaden our understanding of historical biogeography within this group . in particular , it should clarify the importance of the mangroves of australia and new guinea in the evolution of the region ' s avifauna and its ecological diversity .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe ioc world bird list is an open access resource of the international community of ornithologists . our goal is to facilitate worldwide communication in ornithology and conservation based on an up - to - date classification of world birds and a set of english names that follows explicit guidelines for spelling and construction ( gill & wright 2006 ) .\nthe ioc editorial team and advisors update the web - based list quarterly . the updates include changes of recommended names or classification , additions of newly described species , corrections of nomenclature , and updates of species taxonomy .\nthe ioc world bird list complements other primary world bird lists that differ slightly in their primary goals and taxonomic philosophy , i . e . the clements checklist of the birds of the world , the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world , 4 th edition , and hbw alive / bird life international . improved alignment of these independent taxonomic works is a goal of the newly structured international ornithologists union , including a round table discussion at the 2018 meeting in vancouver , british columbia .\nioc world bird list 8 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 8 . 1\nioc world bird list 8 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 8 . 2\nioc world bird list 7 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 1\nioc world bird list 7 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 2\nioc world bird list 7 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 7 . 3\nioc world bird list 6 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 4\nioc world bird list 6 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 3\nioc world bird list 6 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 2\nioc world bird list 6 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 1\nioc world bird list 5 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 4\nioc world bird list 5 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 3\nioc world bird list 5 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 2\nioc world bird list 5 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 5 . 1\nioc world bird list 4 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 4\nioc world bird list 4 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 3\nioc world bird list 4 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 2\nioc world bird list 4 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 4 . 1\nioc world bird list 3 . 5 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 5\nioc world bird list 3 . 4 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 4\nioc world bird list 3 . 3 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 3\nioc world bird list 3 . 2 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 2\nioc world bird list 3 . 1 doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 3 . 1\ngill f & d donsker ( eds ) . 2016 . ioc world bird list ( v 6 . 2 ) . doi 10 . 14344 / ioc . ml . 6 . 2\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\nwarblers ( aves : acanthizidae ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : 10 . 1371 / annotation / 2e9dfd8d - 413c - 47bd - 84c2 - d7df5db7859c .\neditor : robert c . fleischer , smithsonian institution national zoological park , united states of america\ncopyright : \u00a9 2012 ny\u00e1ri , joseph . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : csiro ecosystems science ( ces ) , atlas of living australia provided funding for laboratory work , consumables and travel within australia . the university of kansas biodiversity institute provided funding for laboratory consumables , sequencing fees and data analysis . the american museum of natural history frank m . chapman memorial fund provided funding for laboratory consumables and sequencing fees . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nseveral molecular phylogenetic studies have now documented the importance of island radiations in diversification of continental avifaunas [ 9 ] \u2013 [ 11 ] . they have led to the conclusion that islands are not necessarily evolutionary dead ends , but rather that they can be sources of biological diversity for mainland groups through back - colonization events . by analogy , the role of mangrove forests as ecological islands for closed - canopy - dwelling birds , especially during australia ' s long history of aridification [ 12 ] , might also be tested .\ncomplementary gene sequence contigs derived from all 13 loci for all taxa were aligned using clustalx 2 . 0 . 7 [ 25 ] , and scrutinized further by eye in mesquite 2 . 74 [ 26 ] . separate data matrices of 19 taxa ( 16 ingroup and 3 outgroup ) were assembled for each of the 11 nuclear loci , while the two mitochondrial genes ( nd2 and nd3 ) were combined in a single dataset . subsequent analyses examined individual loci and a partitioned dataset through model - based phylogenetic algorithms under both maximum likelihood ( ml ) and bayesian analysis ( ba ) approaches . modeltest 3 . 7 [ 27 ] was used to determine the most appropriate model of sequence evolution via the akaike information criterion ( aic ) .\nadditionally , a species tree was estimated from the joint distribution of individual gene trees via the program best 1 . 6 [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] . the dataset was again partitioned by locus , each with an appropriately specified model of evolution . we assigned default settings for the parameter values of the bayesian search , as recommended by the authors : flat priors , inverse gamma distribution with values of \u03b1 = 3 and \u03b2 = 0 . 003 for priors of population size , and a uniform distribution with bounds of 0 . 5 and 1 . 5 for priors of the mutation rates . two runs with four separate chains ( one heated and three cold ) were run simultaneously for 10 8 generations , sampling every 1000 generations . a consensus topology from the two separate runs was obtained after discarding an initial burn - in of 50 % of the sampled topologies . additionally , we also used the species tree reconstruction options in the program * beast 1 . 6 [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] using the same set of model parameterizations and number of generations as for the best run .\nalignment of sequence data derived from all thirteen loci was straightforward , resulting in a total of 8124 base pairs ( bp ) . overall sequence length ranged from 279 bp to 1350 bp for nuclear loci , whereas the two mitochondrial genes were 1041 bp and 351 bp in length ( table 2 ) . among the nuclear loci , mameal - 23 , musk , and tgfb2 were the most variable ; however , mameal - 16 , cdc132 and fib5 had the highest percentage of informative sites ( table 2 ) . the two mtdna protein - coding genes nd2 and nd3 had no insertions , deletions , or anomalous stop - codons . base composition was typical of avian mtdna ( table 2 ) , consistent with true mitochondrial origin as opposed to nuclear pseudogenes [ 40 ] . information content in the two mitochondrial loci was significantly higher than in the nuclear loci : out of the total number of variable sites , nd2 and nd3 had over 70 % and 64 % parsimony informative sites , respectively ( table 2 ) .\nphylogenetic estimates of gene trees obtained via bayesian and maximum likelihood analysis of individual loci .\nlocus acronyms follow table 2 and references therein . nodal support is indicated by circles , where the upper half corresponds to bayesian posterior probabilities ( bpp ) and the lower half depicts ml bootstrap values ( mlbv ) . bpp support values greater than 95 % are given in bold above branches , and indicated by dark upper half - circles . mlbv greater than 80 are in bold below branches , and indicated by dark lower half - circles . support values below these thresholds are in regular font and depicted with an open circle half . values below 50 % bpp and 50 mlbv are denoted by double dashes or not at all where both algorithms failed to recover that value at a node . the mitochondrial protein coding genes nd2 and nd3 have been combined in a single partition , indicated as \u201cmtdna\u201d . mangrove specialists are highlighted in bold .\nall gene trees indicated clearly that the three mangrove - inhabiting species g . magnirostris , g . tenebrosa , and g . levigaster , do not form a monophyletic group . strong support was evident in all gene trees for two sister species relationships , one between g . chrysogaster and g . mouki , and the other between g . igata and g . modesta . the mtdna dataset further indicated strong support for sister species relationships between g . chloronota and g . palpebrosa ( also supported by fib5 ) , between g . inornata and g . albogularis ( also supported by musk , hmg2 , al16 ) , and between g . fusca and g . levigaster ( also supported by rag2 , tgfb2 , hmg2 , cdc132 ) .\nextended taxon sampling included in the analysis of g . cinerea within the acanthizidae . all samples are listed in gardner et al . ( 2010 ) and include genbank accession numbers from multiple sources used in building a multilocus dataset for testing relationships within the meliphagoidea .\nconceived and designed the experiments : an lj . performed the experiments : an . analyzed the data : an . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : an lj . wrote the paper : an lj .\nford j ( 1982 ) origin , evolution and speciation of birds specialized to mangroves in australia . emu 82 : 12\u201323 .\nschodde r , mason ij ( 1999 ) the directory of australian birds . collingwood : csiro publishing .\nschodde r , mason ij , gill hb ( 1979 ) the avifauna of the australian mangroves : a brief review of composition , structure and origin . in : clough bf , editor . structure , function , and management : mangrove ecosystems in australia . australian institute of marine science and australian national university press . pp . 141\u2013150 .\nschodde r ( 2006 ) australia ' s bird fauna today \u2013 origins and evolutionary development . in : merrick jr , archer m , hickey gm , lee msy , editors . evolution and biogeography of australasian vertebrates . new south wales : australian scientific publishing . pp . 413\u2013458 .\nj\u00f8nsson ka , bowie rck , moyle rg , christidis l , filardi ce , et al . 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( 2008 ) birth of a biome : insights into the assembly and maintenance of the australian arid zone biota . molecular ecology 17 : 4398\u20134417 .\nloynes k , joseph l , keogh js ( 2009 ) multi - locus phylogeny clarifies the systematics of the australo - papuan robins ( family petroicidae , passeriformes ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 53 : 212\u2013219 .\nedwards sv , jennings bw , shedlock am ( 2005 ) phylogenetics of modern birds in the era of genomics . proceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 272 : 979\u2013992 .\nhackett sj , kimball rt , reddy s , bowie rck , braun el , et al . ( 2008 ) a phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history . science 320 : 1764\u20131768 .\nli c , ort\u00ed g , zhao j ( 2010 ) the phylogenetic placement of sinipercid fishes ( \u2018perciformes ) revealed by 11 nuclear loci . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 56 : 1096\u20131104 .\ntoon a , hughes j , joseph l ( 2010 ) multilocus analysis of honeyeaters ( aves : meliphagidae ) highlights spatio - temporal heterogeneity in the influence of biogeographic barriers in the australian monsoonal zone . molecular ecology 19 : 2980\u20132994 .\n\u201d brush - finches and near relatives ( aves , emberizidae ) from individual gene trees . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 58 : 297\u2013303 .\ndegnan jh , rosenberg na ( 2006 ) discordance of species trees with their most likely gene trees . plos genetics 2 : 762\u2013768 .\nliu l , edwards sv ( 2009 ) phylogenetic analysis in the anomaly zone . systematic biology 58 : 452\u2013460 .\nliu l , pearl dk ( 2007 ) species trees from gene trees : reconstructing bayesian posterior distributions of a species phylogeny using estimated gene tree distributions . systematic biology 56 : 504\u2013514 .\nedwards sv , liu l , pearl dk ( 2007 ) high - resolution species trees without concatenation . proceedings of the natlional academy of sciences usa 104 : 5936\u20135941 .\nthompson jd , gibson tj , plewaniak f , jeanmougin f , higgins dg ( 1997 ) clustal _ x windows interface : flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools . nucleic acid research 25 : 4876\u20134882 .\nmaddison wp , maddison dr ( 2010 ) mesquite : a modular system for evolutionary analysis . version 2 . 74 . available :\nposada d , crandall ka ( 1998 ) modeltest : testing the model of dna substitution . bioinformatics 14 : 817\u2013818 .\nzwickl d ( 2008 ) garli , a program that performs phylogenetic searches on aligned sequence datasets using the maximum - likelihood criterion ( version 1 . 0 ) . available from : <\nronquist f , huelsenbeck jp ( 2003 ) mrbayes 3 : bayesian phylogenetic inference under mixed models . bioinformatics 19 : 1572\u20131574 .\nrambaut a , drummond aj ( 2007 ) tracer v1 . 4 . available :\nshimodaira h , hasegawa m ( 2001 ) consel : for assessing the confidence of phylogenetic tree selection . bioinformatics 17 : 1246\u20131247 .\nliu l ( 2008 ) best : bayesian estimation of species trees under the coalescent model . bioinformatics 24 : 2542\u20132543 .\nliu l , pearl d , brumfield r , edwards sv ( 2008 ) estimating species trees using multiple - allele dna sequence data . evolution 62 : 2080\u20132091 .\ndrummond aj , rambaut a ( 2007 ) beast : bayesian evolutionary analysis by sampling trees . bmc evolutionary biology 7 : 214 .\nheled j , drummond ja ( 2010 ) bayesian inference of species trees from multilocus data . molecular biology and evolution 27 : 570\u2013580 .\nweir jt , schluter d ( 2008 ) calibrating the avian molecular clock . molecular ecology 17 : 2321\u20132328 .\nnorman ja , rheindt fe , rowe dl , christidis l ( 2007 ) speciation dynamics in the australo - papuan meliphaga honeyeaters . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 42 : 80\u201391 .\nflycatcher diversification using phylogenetic and paleogeographic data . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 53 : 961\u2013971 .\ndrummond aj , ho syw , phillips mj , rambaut a ( 2006 ) relaxed phylogenetics and dating with confidence . plos biology 4 : e88 .\nsorenson md , quinn tw ( 1998 ) numts : a challenge for avian systematics and population biology . auk 115 : 214\u2013221 .\nfregin s , haase m , olsson u , alstr\u00f6m p ( 2009 ) multi - locus phylogeny of the family acrocephalidae ( aves : passeriformes ) \u2013 the traditional taxonomy overthrown . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 52 : 866\u2013878 .\nmcguire ja , witt cc , altshuler dl , remsen jv jr ( 2007 ) phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of hummingbirds : bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses of partitioned data and selection of an appropriate partitioning strategy . systematic biology 56 : 837\u2013856 .\npasquet e , pons j - m , fuchs j , cruaud c , bretagnolle v ( 2007 ) evolutionary history and biogeography of the drongos ( dicruridae ) , a tropical old world clade of corvoid passerines . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 45 : 158\u2013167 .\nwright tf , schirtzinger ee , matsumoto t , eberhard jr , graves gr , et al . ( 2008 ) a multilocus molecular phylogeny of the parrots ( psittaciformes ) : support for a gondwanan origin during the cretaceous . molecular biology and evolution 25 : 2141\u20132156 .\nlovette ij , p\u00e9rez - em\u00e1n jl , sullivan jp , banks rc , fiorentino i , et al . ( 2010 ) a comprehensive multilocus phylogeny for the wood - warblers and a revised classification of the parulidae ( aves ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 57 : 753\u2013770 .\nschodde r ( 1982 ) origin , adaptation and evolution of birds in arid australia . in : baker wr , greensdale pjm , editors . evolution of the flora and fauna of arid australia . adelaide : peacock publications . pp . 191\u2013224 .\nschodde r , calaby jh ( 1972 ) the biogeography of the australo - papuan bird and mammal faunas in relation to torres strait . in : walker d , editor . bridge and barrier , the natural and cultural history of the torres strait . canberra : australian national university press . pp . 257\u2013300 .\nvoris hk ( 2000 ) maps of pleistocene sea levels in southeast asia : shorelines , river systems and time duration . journal of biogeography 27 : 1153\u20131167 .\njohnstone re ( 1990 ) mangroves and mangrove birds of western australia . records of the western australian museum suppl 32 .\nnoske ra ( 1996 ) abundance , zonation and foraging ecology of birds in mangroves of darwin harbour , northern territory . wildlife research 23 : 443\u2013474 .\nford j ( 1983 ) taxonomic notes on some mangrove - inhabiting birds in australasia . records of the western australian museum 10 : 381\u2013415 .\nbackstr\u00f6m n , fagerberg s , ellegren h ( 2008 ) genomics of natural bird populations : a gene - based set of reference markers evenly spread across the avian genome . molecular ecology 17 : 964\u2013980 .\nmarini m , hackett sj ( 2002 ) a multifaceted approach to the characterization of an intergeneric hybrid manakin ( pipridae ) from brazil . auk 119 : 1114\u20131120 .\n: a new world representative of \u2018old world suboscines\u2019 . proceedings of the royal society series biology ( suppl . ) 270 : 238\u2013241 .\nprimmer cr , borge t , lindell j , saetre gp ( 2002 ) single - nucleotide polymorphism characterization in species with limited available sequence information : high nucleotide diversity revealed in the avian genome . molecular ecology 11 : 603\u2013612 .\nbarker fk , barrowclough gf , groth gf ( 2002 ) a phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds : taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis f nuclear dna sequence data . proceedings of the royal society of london series biology 289 : 295\u2013308 .\nsorenson md , ast jc , dimcheff de , yuri t , mindell dp ( 1999 ) primers for a pcr - based approach to mitochondrial genome sequencing in birds and other vertebrates . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 12 : 105\u2013114 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nrecorded at dawn ; campsite twelve mile lagoon , lakefield np . background : white - throated honeyeater ( 0 : 07 ) ; yellow honeyeater ( 0 : 02 , 3 calls ) ; rainbow lorikeet ( 0 : 28 ) ; blue - faced honeyeater ( from 0 : 38 onwards ) .\nrecording at dawn in iron range np . a lot of species in the background ( some in the front ) , for instance :\nyellow - spotted honeyeater ( song ) at 0 : 06 ; white - eared monarch ( buzzing call ) from 0 : 20 ; little shrikethrush at 0 : 24 ; dusky myzomela ( call ) at 0 : 29 ( can be heard more often ) ; lovely fairywren ( song , faint recording ) at 0 : 27 ; graceful honeyeater ( ' plik ' song ) at 0 : 39 .\nthere ' s an unknown bird calling at 0 : 10 and 0 : 59 , possibly also graceful honeyeater . a possible yellow - breasted boatbill ( short shong ) at 0 : 44 , although lovely fairywren might also be possible .\nrecording was modified slightly : amplifying , some noise removal , high pass filtering ( < 1000 hz ) , some low pass filtering ( > 5500 hz to muffle insects a bit ) ; interval shortened at 0 : 19 .\nthe usual quiet\ntip tip\nfeeding calls from mid - stratum , generally by a pair or family group feeding together .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\ntwo views of a foraging female in a tree , the second one repeated in slow motion .\njohn o ' malley , holger teichmann , lindsay hansch , aviceda , nick athanas , rhonda hansch .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 31b7981a - a45e - 46a6 - 9702 - 67dfb17cb744\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 366f0a2c - af42 - 4ce9 - aa57 - 1a68b692798a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : de1db06a - 1a36 - 4e91 - a835 - 916d91274032\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 361284\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 289 , 593 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmale of northern race personata - & apos ; black - throated warbler & apos ; .\n* * direct email link protected by javascript . enable javascript or email ' ian ' ( at symbol ) ' urltoken ' . * *\naperture : f4 . 0 shutter speed : 1 / 125 sec focal length : 500 . 0 mm\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\n( a . b . meyer , 1899 ) \u2013 yapen i and n new guinea ( e to n coast of se peninsula to the kumusi r ) .\nrand , 1941 \u2013 s new guinea from morehead r e to fly r .\ne . p . ramsay , 1878 \u2013 se new guinea e from upper fly r .\ngould , 1866 \u2013 ne queensland ( cape york peninsula s to mitchell r and townsville area ) , in ne australia .\noften located by quiet but insistent , rather nasal \u201ctt tt\u201d contact note . song , by male . . .\nedges of tropical rainforest and ecotone between that and other habitats , vine thickets ( e . g . at 40 . . .\ninsectivorous ; no details of items . seen mostly singly , in pairs or in small parties of up to five individuals , probably family groups . . . .\nbirds in breeding condition in oct ( at end of dry season ) in new guinea ; breeding recorded in jul\u2013may in australia . nest reported as . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\n( w new guinea , w papuan islands and aru is . . sw of new guinea . )\nsearch is restricted to [ [ filters . class | getlabelfor : class _ choices ] ]\nautomatic vetting based on the ala & apos ; s & apos ; assertions & apos ; whereby observations were assessed as inappropriate for modelling ( ie . & apos ; zero _ coordinates & apos ; , & apos ; invalid scientific name & apos ; ) ;\ndetermining if the observations fell within expert - derived range polygons . these polygons were supplied by birdlife australia to represent , for each species , its core breeding habitat , non - breeding , historic , irruptive , or invasive ranges . records that fall outside these ranges were marked as inappropriate for modelling ; and\nhuman - derived classification of records after previous two assessments . through the edgar project ( urltoken ) , users were able to map all species observations and comment on the suitability of records for distribution modelling . this included records deemed inappropriate by other means .\nevery 6 months the occurrence record download file is updated to reflect recent vetting by experts . in the data download , sensitive records have been obfuscated by truncating the lat / long to two decimal places . obfuscated records will be indicated in the data file . access to the accurate data will need to be arranged with the original data owners - contact the ala for more information .\nthe resulting downloadable file of occurrence records reflects which records are suitable for species distribution modelling .\ncopy and paste a formatted citation or use one of the links to import into a bibliography manager .\n[ [ item . name | formatfacet ] ] ( [ [ item . value ] ] )\n[ [ item . name | formatfacet ] ] ( [ [ item . value ] ] )\nto filter your results by a time period enter a year range between [ [ earliest _ year ] ] and [ [ latest _ year ] ] inclusive . open ranges can be specified by leaving one of the fields blank . please note that adding a time period filter to your search will restrict your search to only those records in research data australia which contain temporal information .\n[ [ item . preflabel | totitlecase ] ] ( [ [ item . collectionnum ] ] )\nnote : adding a location filter will restrict your search to only records that have location information described .\n[ [ preresult . response . numfound ] ] result ( s ) found with these filters . hit search\nthe advanced search popout allows you to build / refine complex queries all in a single tabbed popout . from within the advanced search you can construct boolean searches and apply one or more filter categories to your search .\nnote that there is no defined order to the tabs in the advanced search and you can apply the filters in any order you choose . where there are multiple options for a filter category e . g . ( subjects ) the options & record counts displayed are based on your query . each time you switch tabs the available filter options and record counts are updated to reflect any changes on the previous tab .\nas you build / refine your search in the advanced search popout , you can review the entire search and the number of results which will be returned by selecting the \u2018review\u2019 tab . the tab also allows you to modify your search by removing filters .\nthe query constructor provides a way of searching for records using multiple search term combinations and boolean operators .\nthe advanced queries created using the query constructor are comprised of rows . each row consists of a field , condition operator and a value . the value tells the search what to look for , the field tells the search where to look , and the condition operator tells the search whether a record should \u2018contain\u2019 or \u2018exclude\u2019 the value .\nmultiple search terms entered into a single condition value are treated by the search as being separated by the boolean operator and .\nthe search terms are treated as case insensitive e . g . \u2018rain\u2019 is the same as \u2018rain\u2019 .\nexact phrases can also be entered into condition values by using quotes\ne . g .\nice sheets\nthe ? symbol can be used to perform a single character wildcard search . e . g . organi ? ations .\nthe * symbol can be used to perform multiple character wildcard search . e . g . extend *\nnote : wildcard characters can be applied to single search terms , but not to search phrases .\nthe query constructor supports the use of the boolean operators \u2018and\u2019 & \u2018or\u2019 between query rows . the operators are applied at the search level , meaning all query rows are separated by the same boolean value . changing the boolean value between two query rows will change the value between all query rows .\nhere we will step through constructing an advanced query where we would like to find all the records which contain \u2018rain\u2019 in the title , and \u2018flood\u2019 and \u2018weather\u2019 in the description .\nopen the advanced search popout and ensure you are on the \u2018search terms\u2019 tab . two query rows should be displayed by default .\nin the empty value field in the 1st query row enter the search term \u2018rain\u2019 .\nin the empty value field in the 2nd query row enter the search term \u2018flood\u2019 .\nin the empty value field in the 3rd query row enter the search term \u2018weather\u2019 .\nthe subject tab allows you to refine your search by selecting subjects which have been used to describe data records . the default subject vocabulary in research data australia , and the one which is used consistently by data providers , is the anzsrc field of research . other supported subject vocabularies are also available and can be selected by using the drop down displayed at the top of the tab ( note that these can take a little while to load ) .\nsubject vocabularies are displayed as browsable hierarchical trees . subject literals displayed as green links can be clicked to display or hide child subjects .\nsubjects can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each subject literal . multiple subjects can be selected within a single subject vocabulary and also across vocabularies .\nthe number of records with a subject will be displayed at the end of each subject literal e . g \u2018economics ( 30 ) \u2019 . note that because the relationships between records and subjects are many to many , the counts displayed with the subjects will not necessarily match the count of records returned by your search . for example you may see 3 subjects all showing a ( 1 ) beside them . this could resolve to a single record containing all 3 of the subjects . where no records exist with a subject value a ( 0 ) will be displayed with the literal .\nthe data provider tab allows you to limit your search to records published to research data australia by specific providers . the number of records available from providers will be displayed at the end of each provider literal e . g \u2018bond university ( 25 ) \u2019 .\ndata providers can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each data provider literal .\nthe access tab allows you to limit your search to records with specific access types . data records in research data australia fall into one of four access types :\ndata that is accessible and reusable , providing certain conditions are met ( e . g . free registration is required )\ndata access is limited in some way ( e . g . only available to a particular group of users or at a specific physical location )\nthe number of records available in each access type will be displayed at the end of the access literal e . g \u2018open ( 23 ) \u2019 .\naccess types can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each access literal .\nopen licence : a licence bearing broad permissions that may include a requirement to attribute the source , or share - alike ( or both ) , requiring a derivative work to be licensed on the same or similar terms as the reused material .\nnon - commercial licence : as for the open licence but also restricting reuse only for non - commercial purposes .\n: as for the open licence but also prohibits adaptation of the material , and in the second case also restricts reuse only for non - commercial purposes .\nrestrictive licence : a licence preventing reuse of material unless certain restrictive conditions are satisfied . note licence restrictions , and contact rights holder for permissions beyond the terms of the licence .\nno licence : all rights to reuse , communicate , publish or reproduce the material are reserved , with the exception of specific rights contained within the copyright act 1968 or similar laws . contact the copyright holder for permission to reuse this material .\nthe number of records available in each licence filter group will be displayed at the end of the licence literal e . g \u2018no licence ( 57 ) \u2019 .\nlicence groups can be added or removed from your search by using the checkbox displayed with each licence literal .\nthe time period tab allows you to restrict your search to only records which contain temporal coverage * information which falls within a specific year range . the filter has been implemented as a pair of text fields which allow you to enter a \u2018from year and \u2018to year\u2019 . the placeholder text shown in the text fields indicates the available temporal range you can search within .\nto filter your results by a time period : open the advanced search popout and ensure you are on the \u2018time period\u2019 tab . enter a time period range by using the from year and to year fields . click the \u2018search\u2019 button to execute the search .\nnote : where the records in your search contain no temporal information the following message will be displayed on the tab :\nsearch results contain no time period information .\nthe location tab will allow you to filter your search results to only records that have mappable location information described , which falls within a specified region .\nuse the map navigation tools on the left hand side of the map until you have the required map view .\nrelease the mouse to finish . if there are records with location information available for your selection a red marker will be displayed for the first 15 records .\nnote to change or redraw a region simply carry out the above steps again .\nresearch data australia is the data discovery service of the australian national data service ( ands ) . ands is supported by the australian government through the national collaborative research infrastructure strategy program . read more about ands . . .\nother names description similar species behaviour diet calls reproduction distribution / habitat . . .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\ntaxonomy : psilopus olivaceus gould , 1838 , new south wales , australia . three subspecies recognized ( source : handbook of the birds of world )\n* cinerascens sharpe , 1878 - se new guinea ( around port moresby area and gulf coast ) , and ne australia ( n & c cape york peninsula ) . * rogersi mathews , 1911 - n australia from western australia ( roebuck bay ) e to se corner of gulf of carpentaria . * olivacea ( gould , 1838 ) - e australia from base of cape york peninsula s ( extending inland to w slopes of great dividing range ) to se & sc victoria ; scattered records in extreme e coastal south australia .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution , non - commercial , share alike cc by - nc - sa licence .\nthis small bird can be occasionally seen in the thickly vegetated areas on the eastern part of the douglas campus . the male has a blackish throat with a white stripe , then yellow underparts , female yellow underparts , both sexes are brownish - green on the back . legs and feet black , eyes red , bill grey . photograph courtesy ian montgomery , urltoken\nwe acknowledge australian aboriginal people and torres strait islander people as the first inhabitants of the nation , and acknowledge traditional owners of the lands where our staff and students live , learn and work .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 466 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nctx _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & rft ; _ val _ fmt = info % 3aofi % 2ffmt % 3akev % 3amtx % 3adc & rfr ; _ id = info % 3asid % 2fands & rft . title ; = catchment restoration / coommonderry swamp / habitat restoration & rft . identifier ; urltoken ; = atlas of living australia & rft . description ; = the project will protect and enhance coommonderry wetlands by removing environmental weeds and re - establishing native vegetation within the catchment on both public and private lands . & rft . creator ; = anonymous & rft . date ; = 1970 & rft ; _ rights = & rft . type ; = dataset & rft . language ; = english\nthe project will protect and enhance coommonderry wetlands by removing environmental weeds and re - establishing native vegetation within the catchment on both public and private lands .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nit is found in australia , indonesia , and papua new guinea . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 ."]}
{"id": 531, "summary": [{"text": "the stippled darter ( etheostoma punctulatum ) is a species of darter found in missouri and white river drainages in ozark uplands of missouri and arkansas .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "isolated population occurs in upper castor river of southeastern missouri .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it inhabits rocky pools of headwaters and creeks .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 10.0 cm ( 3.9 in ) . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "stippled darter", "paragraphs": ["this is a correction made after further review . please add stippled darter and arkansas saddled darter can be deleted . thanks .\nearly development of the stippled darter , etheostoma punctulatum and a\nby kathleen m . allen\nallen , kathleen m . ,\nearly development of the stippled darter , etheostoma punctulatum and arkansas darter , etheostoma cragini\n( 1988 ) . msu graduate theses . 191 . urltoken\nearly developmental stages of the stippled darter ( etheostoma punctulatum ) and the arkansas darter ( e . cragini ) were compared . the arkansas darter had a smaller egg ( 1 . 5 mm average diameter ) and prolarva at hatching ( 4 . 0 mm ) than the stippled darter , which had an average egg diameter 1 . 7 mm and newly hatched prolarvae 5 . 4 and 6 . 0 mm tl . the smallest stippled darter juvenile was 14 . 6 mm tl and the smallest arkansas darter juvenile measured 13 . 5 mm tl . several characters were found that helped separate the larvae in field samples . larval habitats were sampled and darter larvae were found to be distributed throughout the habitats sampled . a hybrid was produced and raised to the juvenile stage . lateral line length and number of dorsal fin spines in the hybrid were intermediate relative to the parent species .\nhotalling , d . r . , and c . a . taber . 1987 . aspects of the life history of the stippled darter etheostoma punctulatum . american midland naturalist 117 : 428 - 434 .\nhubbs , c . 1985 . darter reproductive seasons . copeia 1985 : 56 - 68 .\ndiet primarily crustaceans and aquatic insect larvae ( hotalling and taber 1987 ) . mainly ephemeropteran naiads and chironomid larvae in oklahoma ( sunburst darter ) ( vives 1987 ) .\ndata on dispersal and other movements generally are not available . though larvae of some species may drift with the current , turner ( 2001 ) found no significant relationship between a larval transport index and gene flow among several different darter species . separation distances are arbitrary but reflect the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than several kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality . occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 10 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied generally represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that an occupied habitat occurrence for a particular population does not artificially separate spawning areas and nonspawning areas as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the fairly large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , apparently stable trend , and lack of major threats .\nrange includes drainages of the missouri river system in missouri : osage ( sac , pomme de terre , niangua ) and gasconade river systems and massie creek , a northern tributary of the missouri river in warren county , missouri ( mayden 2010 ) . the record of e . punctulatum from the castor river system in bollinger county , missouri , has been reidentified by w . f . pflieger as e . caeruleum ( mayden 2010 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species is common ( page and burr 2011 ) . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable .\nhabitat might be characterized as small , spring - fed creeks with a gravel or rubble substrate , generally with some leaf litter or debris . individuals were captured in both riffles and pools , and were occasionally captured from emergent aquatic vegetation or beneath undercut banks . ( mayden 2010 ) .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , etheo = to strain + greek , stoma = mouth ; rafinesque said\nvarious mouths\n, but jordan and evermann suggest the name might have been intended as\nheterostoma ( ref . 45335 )\nnorth america : found in missouri and white river drainages in ozark uplands of missouri and arkansas in the usa . isolated population occurs in upper castor river ( mississippi river tributary ) of southeastern missouri .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 10 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 5 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )\noccurs in rocky pools of headwaters , creeks , and less often in small rivers ; near springs and debris .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston . 432 p . ( ref . 5723 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00501 ( 0 . 00201 - 0 . 01253 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 36 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tmax = 4 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 22 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmayden , r . l . 2010 . systematics of the etheostoma punctulatum species group ( teleostei : percidae ) , with descriptions of two new species . copeia 2010 : 716 - 734 .\nmayden ( 2010 ) redescribed e . punctulatum and described two new species ( e . autumnale and e . mihileze ) that formerly were included in e . punctulatum .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ntotal adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species is common ( page and burr 2011 ) .\ntrend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable .\n( 5000 - 200 , 000 square km ( about 2000 - 80 , 000 square miles ) ) range includes drainages of the missouri river system in missouri : osage ( sac , pomme de terre , niangua ) and gasconade river systems and massie creek , a northern tributary of the missouri river in warren county , missouri ( mayden 2010 ) . the record of e . punctulatum from the castor river system in bollinger county , missouri , has been reidentified by w . f . pflieger as e . caeruleum ( mayden 2010 ) .\nbeaver reservoir ( 11010001 ) , james ( 11010002 ) , bull shoals lake ( 11010003 ) , middle white ( 11010004 ) , buffalo ( 11010005 ) , north fork white ( 11010006 ) , current ( 11010008 ) , eleven point ( 11010011 ) , little red ( 11010014 ) , lake o ' the cherokees ( 11070206 ) , spring ( 11070207 ) , elk ( 11070208 ) , lower neosho ( 11070209 ) , illinois ( 11110103 ) , robert s . kerr reservoir ( 11110104 ) , frog - mulberry ( 11110201 ) , dardanelle reservoir ( 11110202 )\nspawns february - may in missouri and arkansas , late winter - early spring in oklahoma . missouri : males mature at 1 year , females also at 1 year if larger than 49 mm ; eggs hatch in 11 days at 16 c ; apparently 2 clutches per year ; maximum lifespan about 3 - 4 years ( hotalling and taber 1987 , vives 1987 , hubbs 1985 ) . age range of breeding females is 2 - 4 years ( bart and page 1992 ) .\noccurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nbart , h . l . , jr . , and l . m . page . 1992 . the influence of size and phylogeny on life history variation in north american percids . pages 553 - 572 in r . l . mayden , editor . systematics , historical ecology , and north american freshwater fishes . stanford university press , stanford , california . xxvi + 969 pp .\nkuehne , r . a . , and r . w . barbour . 1983 . the american darters . university press of kentucky , lexington , kentucky . 177 pp .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .\npflieger , w . l . 1997a . the fishes of missouri . revised edition . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city . vi + 372 pp .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .\nvives , s . p . 1987 . life history of etheostoma punctulatum ( pisces : percidae ) in northeastern oklahoma . southwestern naturalist . 32 : 439 - 447 .\npage , l . m . 1983a . handbook of darters . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey . 271 pp .\npflieger , w . l . 1975 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation . columbia , missouri . viii + 343 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us ."]}
{"id": 554, "summary": [{"text": "rinconsaurus is a genus of dinosaur from the late cretaceous .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was a titanosaurid sauropod which lived in what is now argentina .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the type species , rinconsaurus caudamirus , was described by calvo and riga in 2003 , and is based on three partial skeletons . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "rinconsaurus", "paragraphs": ["skeletal reconstruction showing known parts of rinconsaurus caudamirus . from calvo & gonzalez riga , 2003 .\nwithout the ability to grind food ,\nrinconsaurus\n, like other sauropods , would have stripped foliage .\nsin la capacidad de moler el alimento ,\nrinconsaurus\n, como otros saur\u00f3podos , habr\u00eda pelado el follaje .\nread ebook rinconsaurus 6139233828 by oscar sundara\npdf | over 1 , 000 , 000 free ebook titles available .\nrinconsaurus was a relatively small titanosaur that lived in south america during the late cretaceous period . \u202d \u202cnot too much is known about rinconsaurus other than it appears to have had a more gracile\u202d ( \u202clightweight\u202d ) \u202cbuild than some titanosaurs . \u202d \u202cteeth associated with the type specimen are also termed chisel - like which means that rinconsaurus probably snipped off fronds of vegetation rather than stripping it between peg - like teeth like some sauropods . \u202d \u202crinconsaurus is thought to be closely related to aeolosaurus which has sometimes seen it described as a member of the aeolosaurini . another titanosaur from the same formation as rinconsaurus is antarctosaurus .\nthis video is about\nrinconsaurus\n. here ' s the entire dinosaur names playlist . this will play all the dinosaur names .\nrinconsaurus is a dinosaur from the late cretaceous period . it was a titanosaurian sauropod which lived in what is now argentina . unlike its relatives brachiosaurus and diplodocus rinconsaurus was very slender . it was a herbivorous animal that fed on plants like cycads and fern . its egg , possibly the rinch egg is featured in dino run\ntext - fig . 2 . skeletal reconstruction of rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . , showing preserved bones ( estimated total length : 11 m ) .\nrevista geol\u00f3gica de chile - rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . , a new titanosaurid ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) from the late cretaceous of patagonia , argentina\ntext - fig . 1 . map of neuqu\u00e9n basin ( patagonia , argentina ) showing the locality where the holotype of rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . sp . nov . was found .\nlike all sauropods , rinconsaurus was a large long - necked quadrupedal animal , with a long , whip - like tail and four pillar - like legs . although fossil discoveries are incomplete , and no complete necks or heads have been found , fully grown rinconsaurus are estimated to have been 11 meters ( 36 ft ) long and approximately 2 . 5 meters ( 8 ft ) high at the shoulder . though only a portion of one skull has been recovered , rinconsaurus may have had a long , narrow skull , based on fossil evidence of the skulls of related titanosaurs .\nrodrigo m . santucci y antonio c . de arruda - campos ( 2011 ) en su an\u00e1lisis clad\u00edstico encontr\u00f3 que\naeolosaurus\n,\ngondwanatitan\n,\nmaxakalisaurus\n,\npanamericansaurus\ny\nrinconsaurus\nson aeolos\u00e1uridos .\nrodrigo m . santucci and antonio c . de arruda - campos ( 2011 ) in their cladistic analysis found\naeolosaurus\n,\ngondwanatitan\n,\nmaxakalisaurus\n,\npanamericansaurus\nand\nrinconsaurus\nto be aeolosaurids .\nrinconsaurus information tells us about its characteristics , diet , habitat etc . rinconsaurus diet tells us whether it is carnivorous , herbivorous or omnivorous . herbivores feed on plants and grass , whereas the carnivores feed on other animals or even other dinosaurs . omnivores eat both animal and plants . depending on its diet , we can say that it is herbivore . the meaning of the name will also tell you something about that dinosaur . the correct pronunciation of it is rin - con - sore - us .\ntext - fig . 4 . cladogram determined by cladistic analysis ( 68 steps ; ci 0 . 79 ; ri 0 . 78 ) showing the phylogenetic relationships of rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . synapomorphies supporting each node are listed and discussed in the text .\nj . o . calvo and b . j . gonz\u00e1lez riga . 2003 . rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . , a new titanosaurid ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) from the late cretaceous of patagonia , argentina . revista geol\u00f3gica de chile 30 ( 2 ) : 333 - 353 .\nfull reference : j . o . calvo and b . j . gonz\u00e1lez riga . 2003 . rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . , a new titanosaurid ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) from the late cretaceous of patagonia , argentina . revista geol\u00f3gica de chile 30 ( 2 ) : 333 - 353\nlos titanosaurios fueron un linaje diverso de dinosaurios herb\u00edvoros que incluye desde las especies m\u00e1s peque\u00f1as , como rinconsaurus o saltasaurus de alrededor de 6 toneladas ( el equivalente aproximado en tama\u00f1o a un elefante adulto ) , hasta las m\u00e1s grandes conocidas , tales como argentinosaurus o puertasaurus , especies de m\u00e1s de 60 toneladas .\ntext - fig . 3 . rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . a , right ischium in lateral view , mrs - pv 101 . b , left ilium in lateral view , mrs - pv 96 , c , right femur in posterior view , mrs - pv 49 . scale bars equal 10 cm .\nfurther reading - rinconsaurus caudamirus gen . et sp . nov . , a new titanosaurid ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) from the late cretaceous of patagonia , argentina . - revista geol\u00f3gica de chile 30 ( 2 ) : 333 - 353 . - j . o . calvo & b . j . gonz\u00e1lez riga - 2003 .\nrinconsaurus belongs to the family of titanosaurid sauropod that has been found existed in the turonian to coniacian age of late cretaceous period . the fossil remains of this species was first recovered in argentina , neuqu\u00e9n province - neuqu\u00e9n formation . this herbivore species comes under the classification of chordata , reptilia , dinosauria , saurischia , sauropodomorpha , sauropoda , titanosauria .\n' aeolosaurus rionegrinus belongs to aeolosaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' alamosaurus sanjuanensis belongs to alamosaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' andesaurus delgadoi belongs to andesaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' antarctosaurus brasiliensis is a nomen dubium ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' baurutitan britoi belongs to baurutitan ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' baurutitan belongs to titanosauridae ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' epachthosaurus sciuttoi belongs to epachthosaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' gondwanatitan faustoi belongs to gondwanatitan ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' laplatasaurus araukanicus is recombined as titanosaurus araukanicus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' lirainosaurus astibiae belongs to lirainosaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' mendozasaurus neguyelap belongs to mendozasaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' opisthocoelicaudia skarzynskii belongs to opisthocoelicaudia ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' pellegrinisaurus powelli belongs to pellegrinisaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' rinconsaurus caudamirus belongs to rinconsaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' saltasaurus loricatus belongs to saltasaurus ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' titanosaurus australis is recombined as neuquensaurus australis ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005 ' titanosaurus colberti is recombined as isisaurus colberti ' according to a . w . a . kellner et al . 2005\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrevista geol\u00f3gica de chile , vol . 30 , no . 2 , p . 333 - 353 , 4 figs . , 3 plates , 1 appendix , 2 tables , december 2003 .\nlaboratorio de paleovertebrados , ianigla - cricyt , centro regional de investigaciones cient\u00edficas y tecnol\u00f3gicas , avda . r . leal s / n , parque gral . san mart\u00edn ( 5500 ) , mendoza , argentina ( bgonriga @ urltoken ) .\nhas preserved short articulated posterior caudal series with amphicoelous , opisthocoelous and biconvex centra . this unusual morphology represents the first such occurrence in sauropod dinosaurs . from the systematic point of view , this discovery is important because titanosauridae were traditionally defined , among other characters , by strongly developed procoelia in their caudal vertebrae .\nkey words : dinosauria , sauropoda , titanosauridae , late cretaceous , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina .\ngen . et sp . nov . , un nuevo titanos\u00e1urido ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) del cret\u00e1cico tard\u00edo de patagonia , argentina .\ngen et sp . nov . ( dinosauria , saurpoda ) es un nuevo y esbelto titanosauridae proveniente de la formaci\u00f3n r\u00edo neuqu\u00e9n , cret\u00e1cico superior de rinc\u00f3n de los sauces , provincia de neuqu\u00e9n , patagonia , argentina . sus restos est\u00e1n integrados por 13 v\u00e9rtebras caudales articuladas y materiales craneales , cervicales , dorsales y apendiculares desarticulados , que pertenecen a tres individuos , dos adultos y un juvenil . este nuevo tax\u00f3n se caracteriza por la siguiente asociaci\u00f3n de autapomorf\u00edas : ( 1 ) v\u00e9rtebras dorsales medioanteriores con espinas neurales inclinadas posteriormente m\u00e1s de 60 grados con respecto a la vertical , ( 2 ) v\u00e9rtebras caudales medias con procesos \u00f3seos que sostienen las carillas articulares de las poszigap\u00f3fisis y ( 3 ) v\u00e9rtebras caudales proc\u00e9licas con intercalaciones de series con centros anfic\u00e9licos y bioconvexos , o con centros anfic\u00e9licos , opistoc\u00e9licos y biconvexos . un an\u00e1lisis filogen\u00e9tico cladista permite incluir a\npresenta dos cortas secuencias caudales posteriores articuladas con centros anfic\u00e9licos , opistoc\u00e9licos y biconvexos . esta inusual morfolog\u00eda se registra por primera vez en dinosaurios saur\u00f3podos . es importante desde el punto de vista sistem\u00e1tico , ya que titanosauridae ha sido tradicionalmente definido , entre otros caracteres , por la presencia de fuerte procelia en sus v\u00e9rtebras caudales .\npalabras claves : dinosauria , sauropoda , titanosauridae , cret\u00e1cico tard\u00edo , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina .\n) . in south america the record of titanosauridae is particularly abundant . they are known since the xix century (\n) . during the late cretaceous , titanosaurids were important primary consumers in the ecosystems of patagonia , as the ornithischians were in the north america . this difference has been explained by the gradual isolation of south america during most of the late cretaceous (\nin the last five years , extraordinary titanosaurid fossils were found in the region of rinc\u00f3n de los sauces , northern neuqu\u00e9n province . some of these discoveries include articulated specimens (\n) . the excavations of these discoveries were coordinated by investigators of the national university of comahue and they have been partially supported by the local town hall .\n) . they were extracted by the paleontologist j . calvo and his team of the paleontology museum of the national university of comahue . fossil remains are housed at the laboratory of rinc\u00f3n de los sauces museum under the abbreviation mrs - pv .\n( pl . 1 , a - h ; pl . 2 , a - c ; pl . 3 , a - b ; text -\n( latin ) , astonishing , amazing , in reference to the unusual morphology of posterior caudal vertebrae ; freely ' the dinosaur from rinc\u00f3n with amazing tail ' .\nmrs - pv 26 , 13 articulated anterior - middle and middle - posterior caudal vertebrae and two ilia .\nthe following bones associated with the holotype are included : teeth ( mrs - pv 117 , 263 ) , prefrontal ( mrs - pv 102 ) , angular and surangular ( mrs - pv 112 ) , cervical vertebrae ( mrs - pv 2 , 3 , 8 , 4 and 21 ) , dorsal vertebrae ( mrs - pv 5 , 6 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 16 , 17 , 18 and 19 ) , anterior caudal vertebrae ( mrs - pv 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 and 27 ) , middle caudal vertebrae ( mrs - pv 27 , 28 and 31 ) , posterior caudal vertebrae ( mrs - pv 29 , 30 , 32 - 40 ) , haemal arches ( mrs - pv 20 , 42 , 93 ; 99 , 109 , 113 ) , scapula and coracoid ( mrs - pv 43 ) , sternal plates ( mrs - pv 46 , 103 , 104 ) , humerus ( mrs - pv 47 ) , metacarpals ( mrs - pv 98 ) , ischia ( mrs - pv 94 , 101 ) , ilia ( mrs - pv 96 ) , pubes ( mrs - pv 97 , 100 ) , femora ( mrs - pv 49 , 92 ) and metatarsal ( mrs - pv 111 ) .\ncorrespond to three individuals , two adults and one juvenile . all fossil remains ( dorsal vertebrae , articulated caudal vertebrae and appendicular bones of different sizes ) were found associated , exhibit similar morphologies and constitute a monospecific assemblage . the best preserved bones , the articulated caudal series mrs - pv 26 , were associated ' in life position ' with two ilia . moreover , associated with them , several articulated dorsal vertebrae ( mrs - pv 05 ) were preserved that probably correspond to the same specimen , as well as several limb bones . in the same fossil assemblage were found several articulated vertebrae and limb bones that correspond to other two specimens . duplicate bones represented by caudal vertebrae , ilia , sternal plates , ischium and femur exhibit the same morphological characters . these paleontological evidences confirm the presence of a monospecific assemblage . for this reason , all bones recovered were included in the same type series ( holotype and paratypes ) such as the\n) . a cranial fragment , one mandible and teeth have been recovered . the right prefrontal ( mrs - pv 102 ) is small and anteroposteriorly elongated . its posterior end is transversally wide and it is arched posteroventrally . the anterior end is acute in its exposed portion . the articular surface for the nasal is extensive . its posterior border is concave and of triangular shape . the lateral border of the prefrontal contributes to the skull roof and the posterodorsal border of the orbit . its rugose surface contains small grooves .\n) . the surangular is a delicate and elongated bone lamina . posteriorly , the ventral border is slightly convex in lateral view and it becomes concave anteriorly . in medial view , the angular forms a weakly concave surface .\n) . one of them ( mrs - pv 117 ) has a suboval section , and has two crests that allow us to differentiate slightly convex lingual and more convex labial surfaces . its apex is incomplete . the other tooth ( mrs - pv 263 ) , more complete and bowed lingually , presents the same features as the anterior one but in more marked form . the worn surface is parallel to the tooth axis . it is remarkable with respect to the development of sharp crests forming the anterior and posterior borders . in general , titanosaurid teeth are pencil - chisel like (\n) with a sharp worn surface placed almost parallel to the tooth axis . some have oval section with rounded borders depending the position in the jaws . the suboval teeth with labial and lingual faces well differentiated by crests present in\n) is an unusual character for derived titanosaurids . however , a similar morphology , with some differences in the cross - sectional shape , is also present in the basal titanosaurid\n) . two anterior cervical vertebrae were recovered ( mrs - pv 08 , 21 ) . they possess relatively short , opisthocoelous centra , wider than high . in their lateral side is a deep , acute depression that defines the pleurocoels . the parapophyses are located at the base of the centra . laterally , the centroprezygapophyseal and centrodiapophyseal laminae are inclined strongly forward . this inclination differs considerably from that of the saltasaurinae (\n) , but it is very similar to the inclination observed in the titanosauridae indet . ' series b ' from brazil (\nposteriorly , the opisthocoelous centra increase in length . this character is observed in the middle cervical vertebra mrs - pv 02 and in the posterior cervical vertebrae mrs - pv 03 and mrs - pv 04 , the last one not complete (\n. the ventral face is wide and smoothly concave anteroposteriorly . in the lateral face of the centum there is a long anteroposterior depression with small pleurocoels . this depression is divided by a posteroventrally directed lamina . the parapophyses are laminar and subtriangular . they are located in the anterior half of the vertebral body and extend lateromedially . in anterior view , the spinodiapophyseal and spinoprezygapophyseal laminae reach each other at the level of the postzygapophysis , defining a subtriangular depression . the diapophysis is located on the anterior half of the body , at the level of the prezygapophysis . it is reinforced by the anterior and posterior centrodiapophyseal laminae , the prezygadiapophyseal lamina and the postzygadiapophyseal lamina . in this way , these laminae form four deep depressions around the diapophysis . the prezygapophyses are relatively long , extending beyond the anterior end of the vertebral body ; the postzygapophyses do not extend beyond the center . the opposite is observed in\n) . the articular surfaces of the prezygapophyses are elongated anteroposteriorly and inclined toward the medial plane . the prezygapophyses are reinforced by two centroprezygapophyseal laminae that in anterior view define a deep depression . the neural spine is low and distally expanded .\n) . the authors have collected three articulated anteromedial dorsal neural arches ( mrs - pv 05 ) . the neural arches are wider than long and have suffered dorsoventral compression . the prezygapophyseal facets are reduced and have an oval outline . the centroprezygapophyseal lamina is absent . in contrast ,\n) . in the most anterior dorsal , an accessory centrodiapophyseal lamina extends parallel to the centrodiapophyseal lamina . at this level , the anterior and posterior centrodiapophyseal laminae are not forked as they occur in the middle - posterior dorsal arches ( mrs - pv 06 ) . the prezygadiapophyseal lamina presents a straight border in dorsal view . the almost horizontal postygadiapophyseal lamina has a concave border in dorsal view .\nthe neural spine is reduced and transversely expanded distally . it is reinforced ventrally by a spinopostzygapophyseal lamina . the neural spines is strongly inclined posteriorly . in spite of that , in most of titanosaurs an inclination of the neural spine in anterior dorsal vertebrae is present (\nthe prespinal lamina extends to the base of the neural arch . the accessory spinodiapophyseal laminae are not present . in contrast , these laminae are present in\nthe authors have also recovered an isolated middle - posterior dorsal neural arch ( mrs - pv 06 ) . in lateral view , there is a bifurcation of the centrodiapophyseal lamina . the neural spine is reinforced by a prespinal and postspinal laminae . in dorsal view , the spinodiapophyseal and spinoprezygapophyseal laminae form a wide and deep cavity .\n) . in their lateral faces , they have well developed , eye - shaped pleurocoels . the pleuro coels are elongated and deep , and they occupy 60 percent of the centrum length . the hyposphene - hypantrum articulation is absent . in only few posterior dorsal vertebrae the neural arch is partially preserved . the neural arch has a wide lateral base , which occupies more than 60 percent of the centrum . the transverse process is relatively thin . the diapophyses are directed laterally and upward . they are reinforced ventrally by centrodiapophyseal , postygadiapophyseal and paradiapophyseal laminae , and are supported dorsally by the spinodiapophyseal lamina . the distal end of the diapophysis present a horizontal and plane surface , similar to that in\n) . the parapophyses are not well preserved but they are reinforced ventrally by robust anterior and slender posterior centroparapophyseal laminae . the last one unites to the inferior portion of the centrodiapophyseal lamina , similar to that of\n. the articular surface of the postzygapophysis prolongs as the postzygadiapophyseal laminae . the postzygapophyses are well separated . the neural spine is undivided . it is composed by the spinodiapophyseal , spinopostzygapophyseal , prespinal and postspinal laminae ; all unite in the transversal broadening of the distal end . the prespinal lamina is well developed , extending to the base of the neural spine . besides the described materials we have collected 6 dorsal centra , some with incomplete neural arches ( mrs - pv 9 , 11 , 13 , 16 , 19 ) .\ntwo fused centra have been preserved ( mrs - pv 41 ) without any diagnostic character .\n. the authors have collected several caudal vertebrae ; some are isolated , but others are articulated . below , the authors describe their shape and morphology in different parts of the tail . all the caudals collected belong to two individuals of\n. the first part of the tail is represented by two poorly preserved centra and neural arches . the ? first caudal ( mrs - pv 22 ) has thin , laminar and laterally directed transverse processes . at the base of the postzygapophyses , the transverse processes possess two foramina . the second caudal ( mrs - pv 23 ) is strongly procoelous and has smaller lateral expansion than the first one . in lateral view , the centrum presents a depression with the shape of a pleurocoel .\nthe series of anterior caudals is not complete . three articulated series have been collected . mrs - pv 23 is represented by five vertebrae , mrs - pv 24 by six vertebrae and mrs - pv 25 by three vertebrae . the holotype (\n) includes an articulated series of caudals ( mrs - pv 26 ) represented by four anterior caudals , eight middle caudals and five posterior ones .\n) . the holotype ( mrs - pv 26 ) preserves eight middle caudal vertebrae and five posterior ones . there is also an articulate series of three middle caudals ( mrs - pv 27 ) , two incomplete disarticulated middle caudals ( mrs - pv 28 ) and an isolated one ( mrs - pv 31 ) .\nmiddle caudals are similar to the anterior caudals except for the neural spine , that is directed posteriorly , and for the absence of transverse processes . middle caudal centra are strongly procoelous , as high as wide . the lateral faces are flat , slightly concave anteroposteriorly . the ventral face of the centra is narrow and flat , with a strong compression in its middle part . the prezygapophyses are directed horizontally or slightly upward . both prezygapophyses fuse proximally , developing a small platform .\nthe articular faces of the postzygapophyses are inclined lateroventrally . they are placed at the level of the posterior border of the centra . as in anterior caudals , the articular faces of the postzygapophyses are separated from the neural spine by a bony process which can be seen clearly in dorsal view (\n) . the postzygapophyses and the prezygapophyses are well separated from the axial plane due to the development of the postzygapophyseal processes .\n) . there is an articulated section of five posterior vertebrae that are part of the holotype ( mrs - pv 26 ) . there are also two series of three articulated caudals each one ( mrs - pv 29 , 30 ) and several isolated posterior caudals ( mrs - pv 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ) . all these posterior caudals are similar to the middle caudals in having the typical procoelous centrum . the bony process of the postzygapophysis is not present .\nin contrast to the caudals described above , the authors have recovered two articulated series with an unusual centrum . one of the series ( mrs - pv 29 ) is composed of a procoelous vertebra , an amphicoelous vertebra and a biconvex vertebra (\na ) . the centrum , dorsoventrally compressed , is wider than high . the lateral faces are convex laterodorsally . the ventral border is slightly convex . the posterior border of the neural arch is placed in the posterior half of the centrum . the postzygapophyses are placed at the level of the posterior border of the centra . the distal ends of the neural spine reach the posterior border of the centra . the anterior border of the neural spine is at a lower level than the posterior one . the processes for the chevrons are not present . the prezygapophyses fuse in their proximal end , developing a small platform as in anterior and middle caudal vertebrae . measurements of the caudal mrs - pv 29 / 2 : length , width and height of the centrum : 104 , 82 and 38 mm , respectively .\n) . they present characteristics similar to the anterior series , although their neural spines are more reduced due to their more posterior position in the sequence .\n) . this unusual morphology can be interpreted as an autapomorphy of this new taxon . as indicated\n, the finding of non - procoelous isolated caudal vertebrae in the late cretaceous must be interpreted carefully because they can belong to a titanosaurid .\nmeasurements of the caudal mrs - pv 30 / 1 : length , width and height of the centrum : 114 , 57 and 33 mm , respectively .\n. there are several haemal arches ; some are deformed and others are incomplete ( mrs - pv 20 , 42 , 93 ; 99 , 109 , 113 ) . in general , they are relatively long and thin , open proximally , and lack strong articular faces .\n. the authors have collected a complete right scapula ( mrs - pv 43 ) . it is a relatively long and laminar bone with its external face convex . the scapular blade is thin and slender . the contact between the scapular blade and the proximal end is narrow and there is a crest that separates both of them . the ventral border is straight up to its union with the proximal end , forming an angle of approximately 140 degrees . the supraglenoid process is prominent . the supracoracoid depression is wide because the diagonal acromion coincides with the border of the acromial process . the proximal end of the scapula contacts the coracoid . the distal end , although incomplete , has a convex border . the coracoid has a square shape . its posteromedial border forms a 90 degree angle with the anteromedial border of the scapula . the coracoid foramen , in the external face , is surrounded by a depression directed toward the anteromedial border . measurements : length : 820 mm ; proximal width : 440 mm ; distal width : 215 mm ; minimum width of the blade : 130 mm .\n) . three sternal plates have been preserved ( mrs - pv 46 , 103 and 104 ) . the right sternal plate mrs - pv 46 is relatively complete . it is laminar and it has a semilunar shape . the concave external border is very thin , while the internal one is convex . measurements : length : 560 mm ; width : 260 mm . the other sternal plates are not well preserved .\n) . the incomplete left humerus is relatively slender ( mrs - pv 47 ) . its anterior face presents a prominent deltopectoral crest anteriorly projected . in its distal end , the radial condyle is well developed . measurements : estimated length : 790 mm ; preserved length : 740 mm ; proximal width : 260 mm ; distal width : 210 mm ; perimeter and diameter of the diaphysis : 300 and 120 mm , respectively .\n. the authors have recovered five isolated metacarpals with their ends eroded . their lengths range between 260 and 240 mm .\nmrs - pv 98 / 5 ) exhibits a robust proximal end of subtriangular shape . one of its lateral sides is slightly rounded . its distal end is relatively reduced and it has been crushed .\n( mrs - pv 98 / 4 ) presents a subtriangular shape at the distal end . both extremities are well developed .\n( mrs - pv 98 / 1 ) presents an incomplete proximal end of subtriangular shape . it is characterized by slender shape . the diaphysis has two flat faces , with the sharp angle directed toward the posterior side .\n( mrs - pv 98 / 2 ) exhibits a very robust distal end of subtriangular shape . the proximal end is incomplete .\n( mrs - pv 98 / 3 ) , strongly crushed , is characterized by having the distal end more developed than the proximal one .\n) . the authors have recovered four incomplete ilia corresponding to two individuals . one pair ( mrs - pv 26 ) is associated with a series of caudal vertebrae . the other pair is incomplete ( mrs - pv 96 ) .\nspecimen mrs - pv 96 possesses a left ilium that preserves the acetabulum and great part of the preacetabular lamina . this lamina is wide , and it is directed upward and outward . the incomplete right ilium also preserves the acetabulum , and the lower part of the preacetabular and postacetabular laminae .\nspecimen mrs - pv 26 possesses a right ilium that preserves the preacetabular lamina , most of the postacetabular one , and also the complete acetabula and their peduncles . the preacetabular lamina exhibits a straight ventral border and a curved anterodorsal border . the left ilium lacks part of the iliac lamina , but it is complete in the lower part of the postacetabular and preacetabular laminae , the acetabulum and their peduncles . the length of the left ischium is 480 mm and the diameter of the acetabulum is 110 mm . the postacetabular lamina presents a rounded posterior border . the pubic peduncle is wide transversally .\n) . the authors have collected three pubes . one specimen has both pubes preserved ( mrs - pv 97 ) , and the other specimen has just the right pubis ( mrs - pv 100 ) .\nthe right pubis of mrs - pv 97 is a relatively thin and laminar bone . the oval pubic foramen is closed . the pubic blade is wide and flattened , with its thick lateral border concave . the medial border is thin , and not well preserved . the distal end becomes wider anteroposteriorly . the acetabulum is reduced . measurements : length : 770 mm ; pubic foramen : 70 x 35 mm ; distal with : 255 mm .\nthe incomplete pubis mrs - pv 100 lacks its distal end , part of the proximal one in the area of the pubic foramen and part of the pubic lamina ; it corresponds to a smaller specimen than the one describe above .\n) . two ischia have been collected ( mrs - pv 94 and 101 ) corresponding to two individuals . specimen mrs - pv 101 is an almost complete right ischium of small size . it lacks only a small central portion of the contact region with the pubis . this contact occupies 50 percent of the total length of the ischium . the acetabulum is complete and the thin iliac pedicel is well developed ; it is as large as that of\n) . the distal lamina of the ischium is relatively wide with regard to the width of the ischiac articulation . measurements : length : 360 mm , width 130 mm .\nspecimen mrs - pv 94 , from larger animal , is not well preserved .\n) . two femora have been collected ; the right one is complete and the left one is incomplete ( mrs - pv 49 and 92 ) . the most complete is relatively slender . the anteroposterior diameter of the traverse section at the level of the diaphysis is shorter than the posteromedial one . the fourth trochanter is well developed and it is 490 mm below the femoral head . the femoral head is placed at a right angle with respect to the axis . on the lateral margin , the lateral bulge is present as in\n) . measurements : length : 990 mm ; greatest diameter and perimeter of the diaphysis : 140 and 340 mm , respectively .\n. just one metatarsal has been recovered . it is probably metatarsal iii ? ( mrs - pv 111 ) . it is relatively slender and twisted . the proximal end , more developed than the distal one , has a subtriangular shape . the distal end presents a convex articular surface . measurements : length : 160 mm ; diameter of the diaphysis : 30 mm .\nmost of sauropod titanosaurs are represented by incomplete and fragmentary skeletal elements . in this context , the discovery of\ngen . et sp . nov . , integrated by cranial , vertebral and appedicular remains , is relevant from a systematic viewpoint .\n, in cladistic analyses already proposed by other authors . the authors have improved characters proposed by\n, and have added new characters according to the evidence presented by this new taxon . this paper does not comprise a phylogenetic reevaluation of the titanosauridae family , because more taxa and characters should be included . the phylogenetic relationships of\ngen . et sp . nov . ( this paper ) formed the ingroup .\n) with a length of 68 steps and high consistency and retention indices ( c . i . = 0 . 79 ; r . i . = 0 . 78 ) . the multi - state characters were considered unordered .\n, it presents differences due to the inclusion of new taxa and characters . they allow the authors to improve the knowledge of the relationships among\nand titanosauria and all of its descendants ' . the clade is supported by nine synapomorphies defined by delayed optimization : teeth with sharply inclined wear facets ( 2 . 1 ) , single ( non - bifurcated ) neural spine in cervical vertebrae ( 6 . 1 ) , elongate cervical centra ( 7 . 1 ) , single ( non - bifurcated ) neural spine in anterior dorsal vertebrae ( 10 . 1 ) , prespinal lamina present in the distal end of neural spines in dorsal vertebrae ( 12 . 1 ) , neural arches placed anteriorly in middle and posterior caudal centra ( 26 . 1 ) , pubic peduncle of the ilium perpendicular to the sacral axis ( 40 . 1 ) , preacetabular lobe of ilium expanded and dorsally directed ( 41 . 1 ) and lateral bulge of femur below the greater trochanter ( 46 . 1 ) .\n) . in the authors ' analysis it is united by five unambiguous synapomorphies : centroparapophyseal lamina in posterior dorsal vertebrae ( 13 . 1 ) , slightly forked centrodiapophyseal laminae in posterior dorsal vertebrae ( 14 . 1 ) , acuminate ( eye shaped ) pleurocoels in dorsal vertebrae ( 16 . 1 ) , bone internal structure of somphospondylous - camellate type ( 18 . 1 ) , and pubis longer than ischium ( 39 . 1 ) .\nsaltasaurinae and all of its descendants . in this analysis , it is supported by five synapomorphies defined by delayed optimization : presence of pencil - chisel like teeth ( 1 . 2 ) , absence of cervical pleurocoels divided by septa ( 5 . 1 ) , absence of hyposphene - hypantrum articulation in posterior dorsal vertebrae ( 15 . 1 ) , anterior caudal centra strongly procoelous with prominent posterior condyles ( 24 . 2 ) , and semilunar sternal plates ( 34 . 1 ) .\n) have ambiguous distributions in the authors ' analysis and might be excluded from the diagnosis of this clade . they are : middle and posterior caudal centra strongly procoelous with prominent condyles ( 25 . 1 ) , absent in\n, and six sacral vertebrae ( 19 . 1 ) , which is unknown in most of the analyzed taxa .\n) , show that the caudal procoelia was not a permanent and uniform character . in these sauropods , the mid and posterior section of the tail exhibit complex morphological variation that must be analyzed carefully . for example ,\nshows a typical strongly procoelous caudal sequence discontinued by amphicoelous , opisthocoelous , and biconvex centra . on the other hand , a new titanosaurid from mendoza province has slightly procoelous middle caudal centra with reduced posterior condyles , associated with typical strongly procoelous anterior caudal vertebrae (\nfrom the lower cretaceous of africa . it has strongly procoelous anterior caudal centra apparently associated with gently amphicoelous or platycoelous middle and posterior caudals (\n. it is united by three unambiguous characters : presence of prespinal lamina in posterior dorsal vertebrae up to the base of the neural spine ( 12 . 2 ) , middle caudal centra strongly procoelous with prominent condyles ( 25 . 1 ) , and slender and well - developed iliac pedicel of ischium ( 43 . 1 ) . the first two characters were cited by\n. the third is proposed in this paper . this character has allowed recognition of morphological variation in the ischium of titanosauridae .\nit is supported by two unambiguous characters : humerus with slightly curved proximal border ( 33 . 1 ) and coracoid of quadrangular shape ( 36 . 1 ) .\nit is supported by three characters defined by delayed optimization : teeth with cylindrical cross - section ( 3 . 1 ) , reduced neural spines on posterior dorsal vertebrae ( 17 . 1 ) , and absence of phalangeal articular facets on the metacarpals ( 38 . 1 ) . node 7 includes node 11 (\n. it is supported by three characters defined by delayed optimization : posteriorly inclined neural spines ( 20 to 50 degree from vertical ) on anterior and middle dorsal vertebrae ( 11 . 1 ) , 35 or fewer caudal vertebrae ( 21 . 1 ) , and metacarpal i longer than metacarpal iv ( 37 . 1 ) .\n+ saltasaurinae . this clade is supported by three unambiguous characters : the presence of depressed middle and posterior caudal centra ( 23 . 1 ) , prominent lateral crest in the base of the neural arch in middle caudals ( 27 . 1 ) and wide and well developed iliac pedicel of ischium ( 43 . 2 ) .\n) . it is diagnosed by two unambiguous synapomorphies : depressed anterior caudal centra ( 22 . 1 ) and the posterior orientation of the anterodorsal border of the neural spine in middle caudals ( 28 . 1 ) .\n) . it is supported by one character : the presence of relatively long prezygapophyses ( 29 . 1 ) . this character is not exclusive of these taxa , since it is also present in\nshows that the caudal morphology of titanosaurs is a complex subject to analyze . the inclusion of\namong titanosauridae is well recorded according to the morphological evidence . however , unique among sauropods ,\nhas procoelous posterior caudal centra with intercalation of a series of amphicoelous - biconvex or amphicoelous - opisthocoelous - biconvex centra . this unusual morphology is important because titanosauridae were usually defined , among other characters , by having procoelous caudal vertebrae .\nbonaparte , j . f . 1986 . history of the terrestrial cretaceous vertebrates of gondwana .\nbonaparte , j . f . 1999 . evoluci\u00f3n de las v\u00e9rtebras presacras en sauropodomorpha .\nbonaparte , j . f . ; powell , j . e . 1980 . a continental assemblage of tetrapods from the upper cretaceous beds of el brete , northwestern argentina ( sauropoda , coelurosauria , carnosauria , aves ) .\nbonaparte , j . f . ; kielan - jawoeowska , z . 1987 . late cretaceous dinosaur and mammal faunas of laurasia and gondwana .\nbonaparte , j . f . ; coria , r . a . 1993 . un nuevo y gigantesco saur\u00f3podo titanosaurio de la formaci\u00f3n r\u00edo limay ( albiano - cenomaniano ) de la provincia del neuqu\u00e9n , argentina .\nwild , with the description of a new sauropod from the tendaguru beds of tanzania and a discussion on the systematic value of procoelous caudal vertebrae in the sauropoda . palaeontographica , vol . 256 , p . 25 - 76 . [\ngen . n . sp . n . from the upper cretaceous of mongolia .\naspects of sauropod paleobiology ( lockley , m . g . ; santos , v . f . ; meyer , c . a . ; editors ) .\ncalvo , j . o . 1999 . dinosaurs and other vertebrates of the lake ezequiel ramos mex\u00eda area , nequ\u00e9n - patagonia , argentina .\nproceedings of the second gondwanan dinosaur symposium ( tomida , y . ; rich , t . h . ; vickers rich , p . ; editors ) .\ncalvo , j . o . ; bonaparte , j . f . 1991 . andesaurus delgadoi n . g . n . sp . ( saurischia , saur\u00f3podo ) dinosaurio tita nosauridae de la formaci\u00f3n r\u00edo limay ( albiano - cenomaniano ) , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina .\nsp . nov . , a new sauropoda from the albain - cenomanian of argentina ; new evidence on the origin of the diplodocidae .\ncalvo , j . o . ; coria , r . a . ; salgado , l . 1997 . uno de los m\u00e1s completos titanos\u00e1uridos ( dinosauria - sauropoda ) registrados en el mundo .\ncalvo , j . o . ; gonz\u00e1lez riga , b . j . 1999 . hallazgos de theropoda y titanosauridae , y su paleoambiente en una nueva localidad de rinc\u00f3n de los sauces , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina .\ncomisi\u00f3n internacional de nomenclatura zool\u00f3gica . 2000 . c\u00f3digo internacional de nomenclatura zool\u00f3gica . the international commision on zoological nomenclature editorial , versi\u00f3n en espa\u00f1ol de la 4\u00b0 edici\u00f3n .\ncope , e . d . 1877 . on a gigantic saurian from the dakota epoch of colorado .\ncoria , r . a . ; salgado , l . 1998 . nuevos aportes a la anatom\u00eda craneana de los saur\u00f3podos titanos\u00e1uridos .\ncurry rogers , k . ; foster , c . a . 2001 . the last of the dinosaur titans : a new sauropod from madagascar .\ngilmore , c . w . 1946 . reptilian fauna of the north horn formation .\ngim\u00e9nez , o . 1992 . estudio preliminar del miembro anterior de los saur\u00f3podos titanos\u00e1uridos .\ngoloboff , p . 1993 . nona , computer program and software . published by the author tucum\u00e1n , argentina . [\ngomani , e . m . 1999 . sauropod caudal vertebrae from malawi , africa .\ngonz\u00e1lez riga , b . j . 2002 . estratigraf\u00eda y dinosaurios del cret\u00e1cico tard\u00edo en el extremo sur de la provincia de mendoza , argentina : ph . d . thesis ( unpublished ) ,\ngonz\u00e1lez riga , b . j . ; calvo , j . o . 1999 . unusual caudal series of titanosauridae of the late cretaceous in the rio colorado formation , border between the neuqu\u00e9n and mendoza provinces , argentina .\ngonz\u00e1lez riga , b . j . ; calvo , j . o . 2001 . a new genus and species of titanosaurid sauropod from the upper cretaceous of rinc\u00f3n de los sauces , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina .\nhuene , f . von . 1929 . los saurisquios y ornitisquios del cret\u00e1cico argentino .\nhuene , f . von . 1932 . die fossile reptile - ordnung saurischia , ihre entwicklung und geschichte .\nhuene f . von . ; matley , c . a . 1933 . the cretaceous saurischia and ornithischia of the central province of india .\njacobs , l . l . ; winkler , d . a . ; downs , w . r . ; gomani , e . m . 1993 . new material of an early cretaceous titanosaurid sauropod dinosaur from malawi .\njain , s . l . ; bandyopadhyay , s . 1997 . new titanosaurid ( dinosauria : sauropoda ) from the late cretaceous of central india .\nleanza , h . a . ; hugo , c . a . 2001 . cretaceous red beds from southern neuqu\u00e9n basin ( argentina ) : age , distribution and stratigraphic discontinuities .\nlyddeker , r . 1893 . contributions to the study of the fossil vertebrates of argentina . i . the dinosaurs of patagonia .\nmarsh , o . c . 1878 . principal characters of american jurassic dinosaurs .\nthe dinosauria ( weishampel , d . ; dobson , p . ; osmolska , h . ; editors ) .\npowell , j . e . 1986 . revisi\u00f3n de los titanos\u00e1uridos de am\u00e9rica del sur . ph . d . thesis ( unpublished ) ,\npowell , j . e . 1987 . morfolog\u00eda del esqueleto axial de los dinosaurios titanos\u00e1uridos ( saurischia , sauropoda ) del estado de minas gerais , brasil .\nlos dinosaurios y su entorno bi\u00f3tico ( sanz , j . l . ; buscalioni , a . d . ; editors ) .\nsalgado , l . ; calvo , j . o . 1993 . report of a sauropod with amphiplatyan mid - caudal vertebrae from the late cretaceous of neuqu\u00e9n province ( argentina ) .\n( sauropoda - titanosauridae ) en la formaci\u00f3n allen ( campaniano - maastrichtiano ) de la provincia de r\u00edo negro , argentina .\nsalgado , l . ; calvo , j . o . 1997 . evolution of titanosaurid sauropods . ii : the cranial evidence .\nsalgado , l . ; coria , r . a . ; calvo , j . o . 1997a . evolution of titanosaurid sauropods . i : phylogenetic analysis based on the postcraneal evidence .\n( sauropoda , titanosauridae ) en la formaci\u00f3n los alamitos , cret\u00e1cico superior de la provincia de r\u00edo negro , argentina .\nsanz , j . l . ; powell , j . e . ; le loeuff , j . ; mart\u00ednez , r . ; pereda suberbiola , x . 1999 . sauropod remains from the upper cretaceous of la\u00f1o ( northcentral spain ) . titanosaur phylogenetic relationships .\n, vol . 14 , special issue 1 , p . 235 - 255 . [\nseeley , h . g . 1887 . on the classification of the fossil animals commonly called dinosauria .\nsowfford , d l . 1989 . paup : phylogenetic analysis using parsimony , version 3 . 0 . computer software and documentation distributed by illinois natural history survey . illinois . [\nwedel , m . j . ; cifelli , r . l . ; kent sanders , r . 2000 . osteology , paleobiology and relationships of the sauropod dinosaur\nwilson , j . a . ; sereno , p . 1998 . early evolution and higher - level phylogeny of sauropod dinosaurs . society of vertebrate paleontology , memoir 5 , journal of vertebrate paleontology , vol . 18 , no . 2 , p . 1 - 68 . [ links ] manuscript received : january 22 , 2002 ; accepted : november 25 , 2003 .\ntooth in transverse section ( c ) and lateral view ( d ) , mrs - pv 117 .\nanteromedial dorsal neural arch in lateral ( g ) and anterior ( h ) views , mrs - pv 05 / 3 .\nreferences : dp ; diapophysis , ne : neural spine , poz : postzygapophysis . scale bar equals 1 cm in figure d and 5 cm in the other figures .\narticulated series of anterior - middle caudal vertebrae in lateral view , mrs - pv 26 .\narticulated series of middle caudal vertebrae in lateral view , mrs - pv 27 .\nreferences : cc : caudal centrum , ne : neural spine , poz : postzygapohysis , pozp : process of the postzygapophysis . scale bars equal 5 cm .\narticulated posterior caudal vertebrae with procoelous , amphicoelous and biconvex centra , mrs - pv 29 .\narticulated posterior caudal vertebrae with opisthocoelous , biconvex and procoelous centra , mrs - pv 30 .\nleft pubis in dorsal view , mrs - pv 97 . scale bars equal 5 cm .\n) the distribution of 46 characters corresponding to 12 taxa of sauropods is shown . in this work , characters 32 and 43 are proposed , and characters 1 , 7 , 11 , 18 , 24 , 25 and 44 are redefined . the other characters have been proposed by the authors indicated on the list . the data matrix was analyzed with the computer programs paup ( swofford , 1989 ) and nona ( goloboff , 1993 ) . the application of heuristic method produced one most parsimonious tree with a length of 68 steps , c . i . = 0 . 79 and r . i . = 0 . 78 . the multi - state characters were considered unordered .\n7 . middle cervical centra , anteroposterior length / height of the posterior face : between 2 . 5 - 3 ( 0 ) ; more than 3 ( 1 ) ; less than 2 . 5 ( modified from\n32 . humerus , breadth of proximal end : less than 50 percent of total length ( 0 ) ; more than 50 percent of total length ( 1 ) .\n43 . iliac pedicel of ischium : short and poor developed ( 0 ) ; slender and well developed ( 1 ) ; wide and well developed ( 2 ) .\n45 . humerus / femoral ratio of 0 , 90 or more : absent ( 0 ) ; present ( 1 ) . (\n46 . lateral bulge of femur below the greater trochanter : absent ( 0 ) ; present ( 1 ) ( mcintosh , 1990 ; salgado , 1993 ; calvo and salgado , 1995 ; salgado et al . , 1997a ; wilson and sereno , 1998 ) .\n2 departments of palaeobotany and palaeozoology , swedish museum of natural history , se - 104 05 stockholm , sweden .\n3 centre of advanced study in geology , panjab university , chandigarh - 160014 , india .\nscience 18 nov 2005 : vol . 310 , issue 5751 , pp . 1177 - 1180 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1118806\ndepartments of palaeobotany and palaeozoology , swedish museum of natural history , se - 104 05 stockholm , sweden .\ncentre of advanced study in geology , panjab university , chandigarh - 160014 , india .\naaas login provides access to science for aaas members , and access to other journals in the science family to users who have purchased individual subscriptions .\nas a service to the community , this article is available for free . existing users log in .\ndownload and print this article for your personal scholarly , research , and educational use .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see this page from the science web site .\nsilica particles from grass in fossil dung from cretaceous sauropods suggest that grasses evolved earlier than had been thought , providing food for dinosaurs and early mammals .\n\u00a9 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter . science issn 1095 - 9203 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , as such its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\nis derived from\nrinc\u00f3n de los sauces\n( the area where its fossils were discovered ) and the greek\nsauros\n( lizard ) . the\n, is derived from the latin\ncauda\n( tail ) and\nmirus\n( amazing , wonderful , marvellous ) , in reference to the unusual shape of its tail vertebrae .\n( mrs - pv 26 ) is a series of 13 tail vertebrae and two ilia ( hip bones ) .\n\u2022 jorge o . calvo and b . j . g . riga ( 2003 )\ngen . et sp nov . , a new titanosaurid ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) from the late cretaceous of patagonia , argentina\nrevista geol\u00f3gica de chile , vol . 30 , no . 2 , p . 333 - 353 .\n\u2022 vandana prasad , caroline a . e . str\u00f6mberg , habib alimohammadian and ashok sahni ( 2005 )\nscience 18 nov 2005 : vol . 310 , issue 5751 , pp . 1177 - 1180 .\n\u2022 casal , g . ; mart\u00ednez , r . d . ; luna , m . ; sciutto , j . c ; and lamanna , m . c . ( 2007 )\ntime stands still for no man , and research is ongoing . if you spot an error , or want to expand , edit or add a dinosaur , please use\n. where applicable , these images link to the artist ' s credit page . please respect their conditions for re - use .\nyup , we use cookies . but it doesn ' t make us bad people .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nsee also calvo and gonz\u00e1lez riga 2003 , calvo et al . 2007 , calvo and porfiri 2010 , campos et al . 2005 , casal et al . 2007 , filippi and garrido 2008 , franco - rosas et al . 2004 , gonz\u00e1lez riga et al . 2009 , kellner et al . 2005 , kellner et al . 2006 , lopes and buchmann 2008 , mannion and otero 2012 , salgado and carvalho 2008 and santucci and bertini 2006\ntype specimen : mrs - pv 26 . its type locality is ca\u00f1ad\u00f3n r\u00edo seco , which is in a santonian fluvial - lacustrine sandstone in the bajo de la carpa formation of argentina .\naverage measurements ( in mm ) : femur length 900 . 0 , femur diameter 140 . 0 , femur circumference 340 . 0 , humerus length 790 . 0 , humerus diameter 120 . 0 , humerus circumference 300 . 0 , scapula 820 . 0 x 130 . 0\nestimated body mass : 3 . 59 tons based on femur circumference , femur length , and humerus circumference\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\ncredits - computer translations are provided by a combination of our statistical machine translator , google , microsoft , systran and worldlingo .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience . by continuing to visit this site you agree to our use of cookies . learn more .\nin reference to rinc\u00f3n de los sauces ( neuqu\u00e9n province , argentina ) where the dinosaur was found ; saurus ( greek ) , lizard ."]}
{"id": 561, "summary": [{"text": "wallace 's flying frog or the abah river flying frog ( rhacophorus nigropalmatus ) is a moss frog found at least from the malay peninsula into western indonesia , and is present in borneo and sumatra .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is named for the biologist , alfred r. wallace , who collected the first specimen to be formally identified .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "r. dennysii , r. maximus and polypedates feae were once contained within wallace 's flying frog as subspecies .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "similar frogs also occur in laos , vietnam , minnesota , thailand and southern china ; these may be r. nigropalmatus or an undescribed , closely related species . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "wallace ' s flying frog", "paragraphs": ["wallace ' s flying frog is named after alfred russel wallace , naturalist who described this species in the 19th century .\nwallace ' s flying frog can reach 4 inches in length . females are larger than males .\nbeautiful painting of wallace ' s flying frog ( rhacophorus nigropalmatus ) by the unique carel brest van kampen .\nwallace ' s flying frog is carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on various insects .\nwallace ' s flying frog\n( on - line ) . accessed ( date unknown ) at urltoken .\nthe flying frog has a diet that consists of insects , and other small invertebrates ( wallace ' s 1999 ) .\nwallace ' s flying frog is it jumping or gliding ? habitat a habitat is where an animal lives . my frog , the wallace ' s flying frog lives in dark asian rainforests and in china because of the wet grounds and trees . adaptations adaptations are characteristics an animal has to survive and live . the wallace ' s flying frog has adaptations like webbed feet to glide , sticky feet to hop from branch to branch if threatened or in search of prey . prey prey is an insect or animal another animal may eat but some animals are plant eater ( omnivore ) . the wallace ' s flying frog eats insects and some meat from what it finds off the ground . when it ' s getting insects predators predators are animals that eat other animals . the wallace ' s flying frog ' s predator is a tree snake . the tree snake gets to the wallace ' s flying frog because the tree snake lives it ' s life in trees and so does the wallace ' s wallace ' s flying frog my frog is the wallace ' s flying frog and it actually glides not flies but it can jump up to 50 feet in the air and can glide down .\nwallace ' s flying frog , also known as parachuting frog , is a type of asian frog that belongs to the family rhacophoridae . this frog can be found in the southeastern parts of asia . wallace ' s flying frog inhabits moist tropical rainforests of borneo and malaysia . habitat destruction ( as a result of increased deforestation ) and pet trade negatively affect number of wallace ' s flying frogs in the wild . despite that , population of wallace ' s flying frogs is still large and stable . these animals are not on the list of endangered species .\nwallace ' s flying frog has broad head with rounded snout , large eyes and eardrums . it has slender body and long legs .\nwallace ' s flying frog or the abah river flying frog ( rhacophorus nigropalmatus ) is a moss frog found at least from the malay peninsula into western indonesia . it is named for the biologist , alfred r . wallace , who collected the first specimen to be formally identified .\nwallace ' s flying frogs mate during the rainy season . they gather in large groups called armies .\npakcenter , * . 1999 .\nwallace ' s flying frog\n( on - line ) . accessed november 12 , 1999 at urltoken .\n1854 illustration of reinwardt ' s flying frog rhacophorus reinwardtii by jean gabriel pr\u00eatre . image in public domain .\ntiny but colorful wallace\u2019s flying frogs are bright green with yellow sides . they can grow up to four inches .\nwhere do they live ? wallace\u2019s flying frogs live in the tropical rain forests of malaysia and borneo . wallace\u2019s flying frogs stay in the trees almost all the time . they only come to the ground to mate and lay eggs .\nsubscribe for more bbc highlights : urltoken more about this programme : urltoken bill watches wallace ' s flying frog - with feet as parachutes - falling with style .\nwallace ' s flying frog spends its time in the trees where it can glide in the air due to the adaptations of its extremely webbed feet and skin folds along side of the body .\nthe webbing of the feet and skin folds helps catch the air like a small sail thus giving the ability to glide . this species has the ability to glide up to 50 ft . wallace ' s flying frog\nwallace ' s flying frogs are arboreal animals ( adapted to the life in the treetops ) . they move to the ground only to reproduce and lay eggs .\nwallace ' s flying frog does not fly - it glides through the air to escape from predators such as large snakes . this animal is able to travel distance of 50 feet and safely land on another branch or tree . wallace ' s flying frog glides diagonally ( at the angle of less than 45 degrees ) and gets closer to the ground with each gliding session . this type of movement is also known as\nparachuting\n.\nwallace ' s flying frog has extremely large feet with fully webbed toes and fingers . toe pads are oversized and disc - shaped . flap of loose skin ( on the sides of the body ) stretches between the limbs .\nwallace ' s flying frog is brightly green colored . lateral sides of the body , thighs , toes and snout are covered with yellow patches . throat and belly are white or pale yellow colored . skin is smooth or slightly granulated .\nalso known as parachute frogs , wallace ' s flying frogs inhabit the dense tropical jungles of malaysia and borneo . they live almost exclusively in the trees , descending only to mate and lay eggs .\nthe overachieving wallace ' s flying frog wasn ' t content to just hop and swim . thousands of years of watching birds navigate the rain forest and avoid predators by taking to the sky appears to have convinced this unique amphibian that air travel is the way to go .\nunusual feet and flap of skin serve as a parachute which facilitates movement through the air . soft , disc - like pads ensure gentle landing . wallace flying frog also uses large pads to stick to the surface of trees .\nwallace ' s flying frogs are not the only frogs who have developed this ability , but they are among the largest . the black color of their foot webbing helps distinguish them from their similarly aerial cousins .\na vanishing resource wallace\u2019s flying frogs prefer breeding and laying eggs in the smelly wallowing holes of the asian rhinoceros . however , the asian rhinoceros is almost extinct . this may harm the population of these frogs .\nwallace ' s flying frogs have external fertilization . female lays eggs into the foam and waits for male to cover them with sperm . foamy nests are then attached to the branches above the shallow pools of water .\nthe wallace ' s flying frog population is considered stable , and they have special status only in certain localities . however , they are partial to breeding and laying eggs in the fetid wallowing holes of the nearly extinct asian rhinoceros , and further decreases in rhino populations may negatively affect the species .\nfemales usually lay eggs above the wallowing holes of asian rhinoceros . unfortunately , asian rhinoceros are on the brink of extinction which means that survival of remaining wallace ' s flying frogs in the wild may be questioned also .\nepisode 2 of david attenborough\u2019s conquest of the skies was on tv the other day , and i watched it ( i livetweeted throughout , mostly because i wanted to talk about their portrayal of pterosaurs and mesozoic theropods ) . and hence i have rhacophorid frogs on my mind \u2013 the mostly tropical afro - asian group that includes the famous rhacophorus flying frogs , the best known member of which is wallace\u2019s flying frog r . nigropalmatus from indonesia , thailand and adjacent countries . as usual , flying frog were used by sir david to help illustrate the diversity of animals that have evolved a gliding ability .\nits back is bright shiny green and the underside is white to pale yellow . the upper sides of the inside toes , as well as the outer parts of the toe and finger webbing , are brilliant yellow . the base of the webs and one flank spot per side are jet black . overall , this frog looks much like the green flying frog ( r . reinwardtii ) and r . kio , which even if full grown do not reach the size of wallace ' s flying frog , though , and have more orange web fringes .\na moss - textured rhacophorid frog . specimens of vietnamese mossy frog or tonkin bug - eyed frog ( theloderma corticale ) . top photo by steven g . johnson , cc by - sa 3 . 0 . lower image by v\u00e1clav gvo\u017ed\u00edk , cc by - sa 2 . 5 .\nthe most famous illustration of a rhacophorid ever published : a gliding rhacophorus nigropalmatus from alfred russell wallace ' s 1869 the malay archipelago . wallace wrote about this species and illustrated it in his notes ( he didn ' t discover it though - that honour goes to charles hose ) .\ntapley , b . 2009 . aspects of captive husbandry of taylor\u2019s bug - eyed frog , theloderma stellatum ( taylor , 1962 ) . herpetological bulletin 108 , 31 - 33 .\nthis is the flying frog of borneo , mentioned by evolutionary biologist alfred russel wallace in his 19th century book on the malay archipelago . this emerald green frog is easy to recognize : the big eyes are pale yellow ; the hands and feet are huge and appear oversized . there is bright yellow color along arms and legs , contrasting with the black webbing . fingers and toes terminate in large adhesive pads .\na master falconer shows how his bird protects valuable u . s . crops ( hbo )\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\ndo they really fly ? when a predator threatens them or when they are looking for prey , wallace\u2019s flying frogs will leap from a branch . the membranes ( thin layer of skin ) between their toes and the loose skin flaps on their sides help them glide , sometimes 50 feet or more . their toe pads help provide a soft landing , and also help them stick to tree trunks .\nsize of adults : up to 90 mm in males , 100 mm snout - vent length in females . the largest tree frog on borneo .\nholotype specimen of philautus maia , showing eggs preserved in contact with ventral surface . did this frog really carry its eggs around like this ? illustration from g\u00fcnther ( 1876 ) .\nhertwig , s . t . , lilje , k . e . , min , p . y . , haas , a . & das , i . 2012 . molecular evidence for direct development in the rhacophorid frog , philautus acutus ( rhacophoridae , anura ) from borneo . the raffles bulletin of zoology 60 , 559 - 567 .\nbyrne , p . g . & whiting , m . j . 2011 . effects of simultaneous polyandry on offspring fitness in an african tree frog . behavioral ecology 22 , 385 - 391 .\nlittle is known about the habits of this frog because it lives high up in the canopy of primary lowland rainforest . it comes down from the trees to reproduce in forest ponds such as pig wallows .\nwallace\u2019s flying frog and the other gliding rhacophorus species are pretty remarkable . they\u2019re very big compared to most other members of the group , svls being 90 - 100 mm in females and 80 - 90 mm in males . their fully webbed hands and feet are enormous , but they also have flaps of skin \u2013 winglets , if you like \u2013 on the arms and legs , and sometimes on the body . glides of more than 15 m have been recorded . exactly how many rhacophorus species are true gliders is uncertain : the ability is confirmed for just a handful of species but more may have it ( inger & stuebing 2005 ) . several smaller ones ( including r . angulirostris , r . cyanopunctatus and r . gauni ) have only partial digital webbing and either lack those skin flaps or only have small versions .\nthe outsides of these foam nests dry to form a hard crust , thereby protecting the eggs within . however , monkeys , snakes and other predators will break into the nests and eat the eggs if they can . most surprisingly , fornasini\u2019s spiny reed frog afrixalus fornasini ( a member of hyperoliidae ) is a documented foam nest predator , though it can only eat from the nest before the foam has dried ( channing 2001 ) .\nmakes a long , low final approach to the ground in order to slow down and make a smooth landing . special bones help the frog snugly press the tiny suction pads on feet and toes against the surface of a tree , giving it a firm grip for landing .\nepisode 2 of david attenborough ' s conquest of the skies appeared on tv the other day , and i watched it ( in fact , i livetweeted throughout , mostly because i wanted to talk about their portrayal of pterosaurs and mesozoic theropods ) .\ngrosjean , s . , delorme , m . , dubois , a . & ohler , a . 2008 . evolution of reproduction in the rhacophoridae ( amphibia , anura ) . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 462 , 169 - 176 .\n- . , manamendra - arachchi , k . , schneider , c . j . & pethiyagoda , r . 2007 . new species amongst sri lanka\u2019s extinct shrub frogs ( amphibia : rhacophoridae : philautus ) . zootaxa 1397 , 1 - 15 .\nthis flying frog is about 90 - 100 mm in total length , with distinct large eyes . the tympanum is prominent , at 1 / 2 to 2 / 3 of the eye diameter . snout is rounded and is not projected outward . head is as broad as it is long , sometimes slightly broader . finger tips are expanded into large , oval discs with third finger wider than tympanum ( berry 1975 ) . hands and feet are fully webbed . toes discs are smaller than finger discs . there is an oval inner metatarsal tubercle present while the outer metatarsal tubercle is absent . no supratympanic fold is present ( berry 1975 ) .\nimages of the juvenile and the perching adult \u00a9 kurt - hock ping guek . metamorphs and juveniles look dramatically different from the adults . note that the webbing in the juvenile appears less extensive than the hand webbing of the adult . this might indicate a different microhabitat and different predation pressure in juveniles . flying adult from below by \u00a9 ch ' ien lee .\nrecords from northern thailand , lao people ' s democratic republic , viet nam and china are tentatively referred to rhacophorus reinwardtii for the purposes of this assessment , but further taxonomic work is needed . previously , r . maximus , r . dennysii and r . feae were considered to be subspecies of r . nigropalmatus .\na nice illustration of this is provided by meegaskumbura et al . \u2019s ( 2002 ) documentation of more than 100 new rhacophorid species on sri lanka alone ( just 18 sri lankan rhacophorid species were known prior to their work ) , a discovery that makes sri lanka on par with madagascar , new guinea and borneo in terms of anuran diversity .\nrhacophorids are sometimes called flying frogs , shrub frogs , bush frogs , moss frogs , old world treefrogs , or afro - asian treefrogs , and occur across sub - saharan africa , china , much of tropical asia , japan , the philippines and sulawesi . about 380 species are recognised as of early 2015 . the last time i wrote about this group \u2013 december 2008 \u2013 this number was more like 290 , so the rate at which new species are discovered and named is pretty impressive .\nhaas , a . , hertwig , s . t . , krings , w . , braskamp , e . , dehling , j . m . , min , p . y . , jankowski , a . , schweizer , m . & das , i . 2012 . description of three rhacophorus tadpoles ( lissamphibia : anura : rhacophoridae ) from sarawak , malaysia ( borneo ) . zootaxa 3328 , 1 - 19 .\nthe latter is most developed in the grotesque rough treefrog theloderma horridum of thailand , peninsula malaysia and borneo . indeed , this is one of several species ( most of which belong to theloderma ) that resemble moss or bark in external texture and colour [ adjacent photos of t . corticale by steven g . johnson and v\u00e1clav gvo\u017ed\u00edk ] . t . asperum \u2013 patterned in brownish and pale blotches \u2013 superficially resembles a bird dropping and is sometimes called the bird poop frog . vocal sacs are absent in some taxa ( like nyctixalus ) but big and obvious in others .\nexternal appearance is variable in rhacophorids . for all their fame as \u2018flying frogs\u2019 , it has to be said that the vast majority look \u2013 to those unenlightened in anuran diversity \u2013 like standard \u2018treefrogs\u2019 . they\u2019re generally small ( svls of 40 mm or less ) , wide - headed , big - eyed frogs with expanded digit - tips and a ( normally ) prominent tympanum . many are smooth - skinned but spiny tubercles cover the skin in some taxa , and others are notably warty , with a rough , bumpy skin that aids camouflage .\nthen there are those rhacophorids that manufacture arboreal foam nests [ adjacent nest photos by alpsdake and brian gratwicke ] . the females exude a secretion that they ( and their male partners ) whip up with their legs to form a foam clump that\u2019s attached to leaves , branches or aerial roots . it seems that the production of this secretion is quite costly and that a female needs to take a break and re - hydrate herself by soaking up standing water before she can complete a single nest .\nthis strategy is present in the afro - asian foam - nest frogs chiromantis , most rhacophorus species , and members of polypedates . in some species \u2013 most famously the grey foam nest treefrog c . xerampelina of south - eastern africa \u2013 large numbers of these frogs sometimes choose to nest in the same place , meaning that branches or aerial roots can be festooned with whole lines of dripping foam nests . actually , it isn\u2019t just that the frogs \u2018choose\u2019 to nest in the same place \u2013 males will deliberately get in on the action if they see a pair working to make a nest , and the result is that single egg clutches are invariably fertilised by more than one male . byrne & whiting ( 2011 ) showed that this multiple paternity \u2013 technically , it\u2019s simultaneous polyandry \u2013 assists in the survival of the resulting offspring , so it\u2019s certainly in the interests of females to solicit as much male attention as possible during these breeding events . [ photos below by brian gratwicke , kapenta and chintan sheth . ]\nthe great paradox is that amphibians are in chronic global decline at the same time , and many species can no longer be located at all . despite meegaskumbura et al . \u2019s ( 2002 ) 100 + new rhacophorid species , they were unable to find many that had been described in the 19th century , a discovery which implies that the species concerned have gone extinct . as you should also know , amphibian species are currently being \u2018lost\u2019 on a regular and worrying basis \u2013 we don\u2019t talk of a \u2018global amphibian crisis\u2019 for nothing .\nthis flying frog is about 90 - 100 mm in total length , with distinct large eyes . the tympanum is prominent , at 1 / 2 to 2 / 3 of the eye diameter . snout is rounded and is not projected outward . head is as broad as it is long , sometimes slightly broader . finger tips are expanded into large , oval discs with third finger wider than tympanum ( berry 1975 ) . hands and feet are fully webbed . toes discs are smaller than finger discs . there is an oval inner metatarsal tubercle present while the outer metatarsal tubercle is absent . no supratympanic fold is present ( berry 1975 ) . skin is smooth or finely granulated above , coarsely granulated below except smooth on the throat . a broad flap of skin on outer edge of forearm and tarsus , and another is at the heel and above the vent . a narrow flap on the inner edge of the arm is present ( berry 1975 ) . body color is shiny green with minute white markings and a couple large white patches on the thighs . the flanks , the inside of the thighs , and the undersurfaces of the body are yellow . the interdigital membranes are jet black at the base . these membranes are yellow and veined with black towards the border . the upper surfaces of toes on to four are yellow . ventral surface of the head and body is whitish ( berry 1975 ) .\na really interesting thing that\u2019s been noted for rheophilous tadpoles is that their limb development seems to be offset , time - wise , relative to the condition in related , non - rheophilous species . this is presumably an evolutionary response to the fact that developing hindlimbs might affect their streamlining and ability to cling to rocks in fast - flowing water . they also keep sucker - like mouths and other features for longer than do other tadpoles ( nodzenski & inger 1990 ) . accordingly , it can be difficult to say reliable things about their age and estimated metamorphic stage .\n- . , grant , t . , faivovich , j . , bain , r . h . , haas , a . , haddad , c . f . b . , de s\u00e1 , r . o . , channing , a . , wilkinson , m . , donnellan , s . c . , raxworthy , c . j . , campbell , j . a . , blotto , b . l . , moler , p . , drewes , r . c . , nussbaum , r . a . , lynch , j . d . , green , d . m . & wheeler , w . c . 2006 . the amphibian tree of life . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 297 , 1 - 370 .\nfinally , there are yet other rhacophorids where egg clumps are laid in arboreal settings , but not in foam nests . in some theloderma species , egg clumps are laid in water - filled tree hollows , and the tadpoles complete their development here . in captivity , these frogs will lay their egg clumps attached to the bark , just above the hollow , the hatching tadpoles then dropping into the water ( tapley 2009 ) . oh , there are also a few foam - nesting rhacophorus species that lay their eggs in tree hollows , the most famous of which is r . vampyrus from vietnam ( after hatching inside a foam nest , the tadpoles drop into a water - filled tree hollow ) . this species saw international stardom a couple of years ago when it was revealed that the tadpoles have black , hooked fangs on the lower jaw that \u2013it ' s presumed \u2013 are used when feeding on unfertilised eggs provided by their mother : these tadpoles , it seems , practise obligate oophagy , eating r . vampyrus eggs and nothing else ( vassilieva et al . 2013 ) .\nwhen threatened or in search of prey , they will leap from a branch and splay their four webbed feet . the membranes between their toes and loose skin flaps on their sides catch the air as they fall , helping them to glide , sometimes 50 feet or more , to a neighboring tree branch or even all the way to the ground . they also have oversized toe pads to help them land softly and stick to tree trunks .\nthey are generally bright green with yellow sides and grow to about 4 inches . they survive mainly on insects .\nwe tried amazon key . the strangers it let in our door wasn ' t the worst part .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmating takes place on the ground , during the night . females produce liquid substance and stir it with hind legs until it becomes foamy .\nwhen embryonic development completes , foamy nests fall apart and tadpoles fall directly into the water where they can finish metamorphosis and turn into adult frogs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 7 july 2014 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis species is known from mainland southeast asia with certainty from the thai - malay peninsula from ranong south to endau - rompin ( taylor , 1962 and berry , 1975 ) , from borneo from eastern sabah south to southeastern kalimantan and west to central sarawak , and also from sumatra , in indonesia . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest , especially in areas between known sites . it occurs up to 600m asl .\nit is generally a rarely encountered species ; this is because it is only seen when it comes down from the trees to its breeding aggregations where it can be locally common ( grandison , 1972 and dring , 1979 ) .\nit is found typically in primary evergreen rainforest , but it has also been found in old shifting cultivation , but not in open areas . breeding aggregations form in vegetation near forest pools , descending from higher strata in the forest to breed at rain pools , and also animal wallows , and usually egg masses are attached to low vegetation overhanging these pools .\ndeforestation and further degradation of rainforest habitat constitute the most significant threats . there is small - scale pet trade of this species , but this is not considered a threat .\nit occurs in a number of protected areas . safeguarding the integrity of protected areas is a primary objective .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nberry , p . y . ( 1975 ) . the amphibian fauna of peninsular malaysia . tropical press , kuala lumpur .\njurgen , f . , richter , c . , and jacob , u . ( 1988 ) . atlas of reptiles and amphibians for the terrarium . tfh publications , neptune , n . j .\nhabitat ranges from trees , bushes , palms , etc . in primary rain forests and logged rain forests . can be found at elevations ranging from 700 to 1800 feet ( berry 1975 ) .\nbefore mating , the female produces a fluid that she beats into a foam with her hind legs . she then lays her eggs in this bubble nest , at the same time the male fertilizes the eggs with his sperm . the egg nest is then hung over a source of water . when the embryos inside the eggs have developed into tadpoles , the nest falls apart . the young fall into the water and begin life as tadpoles . it is important that the tadpoles don ' t drop onto dry surface , if so the tadpoles will simply dry out and die ( pakcenter 1999 ) .\nlisted as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nreproduction : female produces fluid and converts it into a foam nest by the beating action of her hind legs . she then lays her eggs into the foam nest and at that time the male fertilizes these eggs . the nest is made on branches or leaves above the water . when the embryos inside the eggs have developed into tadpoles , the nest deteriorates and the larvae drop into the water . larvae live in the water until metamorphosis is completed ( richter & jacob 1988 ) .\nare large , its limbs are very long , and its fingers and toes are webbed right to the tips . together with a fringe of skin stretching between the limbs , this\ncan parachute to the forest floor from high in the trees where it is normally found .\n( amphibia , anura ) : identity of red - webbed forms and description of a new species from assam .\n. version of 2005 - jun - 29 . retrieved 2007 - jun - 22 .\n. version of 2003 - apr - 12 . retrieved 2007 - jun - 22 .\nvan dijk , p . p . ; iskandar , d . & inger , r .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\naccording to inger & stuebing ( 2005 ) the tadpole grows up to 50 mm in total length . it has a conspicuously spotted tail and a grayish color on head and trunk . tadpoles are most often found in turbid , muddy water , as it is characteristic for pig and rhino wallows . tadpoles hatch from a foam nest attached to overhanging vegetation or to the mud banks .\ncladogram from meegaskumbura et al . ( 2002 ) , the sri lankan taxa being shown in blue . note the huge number of species that had not been named when this study was published .\nand , yes , more than 100 new species announced in a single paper . if we look at the discovery record of various of the rhacophorid lineages , we see that \u2013 for example \u2013 43 new species of raorchestes , 30 new species of rhacophorus , and 51 new species of pseudophilautus have been named since 2000 . . . 9 new raorchestes species were named in 2014 alone ( frost 2014 ) . as should be well known , the number of recognised amphibian species has sky - rocketed in recent years , and this really is because of newly discovered species , not just the result of splitting , taxonomic elevation of subspecies , or the recognition of cryptic species that can only be distinguished genetically .\nit has to be said that some rhacophorids are not really all that remarkable when compared to , say , familiar ranid frogs . this montage shows tadpoles and an adult of rhacophorus arboreus . however , this species is a foam nester , on which see below . tadpole photo at lower left by \u03c364 , other photos by alpsdake . all cc by - sa 3 . 0 .\nspecialised reproductive strategies are widespread across these frogs , and some of the techniques they use mean that they don\u2019t have to come down to the ground to breed . some ( like some philautus species ) stick their eggs to the undersides of leaves above the ground and some philautus species ( like p . mjobergi ) have been reported to be nepenthiphilous \u2013 that is , to lay their eggs inside pitcher plants . while some frogs definitely are nepenthiphilous , the only alleged rhacophorid eggs discovered inside a pitcher plant and subjected to molecular testing turned out to be from the microhylid species microhyla borneensis ( hertwig et al . 2012 ) . [ photo below by katja rembold . ]\nfrogs belonging to several lineages are documented as users of pitcher plants ( this photo shows a heterixalus inside a dead nepenthes madagascariensis . heterixalus is a hyperoliid , not a rhacophorid ) . it has been claimed that rhacophorids of several species use pitchers in this way , but the cases are either controversial or turned out to be erroneous . photo by katja rembold , cc by - sa 3 . 0 .\nthose philautus eggs , by the way , don\u2019t produce free - swimming tadpoles : philautus species are direct developers , which means that the embryos change to froglets within the eggs , a free - living tadpole phase being absent ( the developing embryos are lecithotrophic or endotrophic , meaning that they depend on a yolk store ) . direct development is also the case in pseudophilautus and raorchestes .\nwhile ( as just mentioned ) some of these direct developers stick their eggs to leaves that are alive and well above ground - level , others come down to the ground and lay their eggs beneath dead leaves . meegaskumbara et al . ( 2007 ) said that these ground - breeding species \u201cdeposit their eggs in nests excavated on the forest floor\u201d ( p . 9 ) . waitaminute \u2013 frogs excavating nests ? really ? i have to look into this . . .\nrhacophorid foam nests in asia and africa . at left : nests of rhacophorus arboreus in japan , photo by alpsdake , cc by 3 . 0 . at right : chiromantis rufescens foam nest in gabon , photo by brian gratwicke , cc by 2 . 0\nmontage of chiromantis and kin . at left : c rufescens ( photo by brian gratwicke , cc by 2 . 0 ) . top right : c . xerampelina ( image by kapenta , cc by - sa 4 . 0 ) . lower right : feihyla vittata ( photo by chintan sheth , in public domain ) . the feihyla species were once included within chiromantis but have since been recovered in several alternative placements in molecular phylogenies .\npolypedates leucomystax pair in amplexus . i think i spot some subtle sexual dimorphism . image taken in java , indonesia , by w . a . djatmiko , cc by - sa 3 . 0\nthe eggs hatch inside the clump , the tadpoles dropping into the stream or pool ( sometimes originally formed by rhinos or pigs ) below after several days . polypedates leucomystax bucks the trend by sometimes making foam nests on the ground ( inger & stuebing 2005 ) . [ adjacent photo by w . a . djatmiko ] . it seems that foam - nesting evolved just once within rhacophorids , since all foam - nesters belong to a single clade ( frost et al . 2006 , grosjean et al . 2008 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) .\nfoam - nester tadpoles are ectotrophic : free - swimming and completing development outside the egg , and often with a schooling habit . some live in muddy pools and are of typical , non - specialised morphology . others ( like those of rhacophorus penanorum ) are specialised stream - dwellers with streamlined bodies , sucker - like mouths and elongate , muscular tails . these tadpoles are rheophilous ( associated with fast - flowing streams ) and inhabit rocky pools that are sometimes also home to megophrys / xenophrys spadefoot tadpoles and ansonia toad tadpoles ( haas et al . 2012 ) .\namazing ' vampire tadpoles ' of rhacophorus vampyrus . ( a ) schematic view of tadpole as seen from the front , ( b ) photo of the real thing . image from vassilieva et al . ( 2013 ) .\nfinally finally , the possibility exists that a completely unique reproductive strategy was present in a species that now seems to be extinct . the holotype female specimen of\n, collected on sri lanka prior to 1876 , had a disc - shaped mass of eggs attached to its belly , raising the possibility that members of this species carried their eggs around with them ( g\u00fcnther 1876 ) . alas , meegaskumbura\n. ( 2007 ) discussed how unlikely this proposal was , concluding that a more plausible possibility is that the individual concerned was collected while in the process of laying and positioning her egg clutch on a leaf . alas , only further observations can establish the \u2018truth\u2019 and . . . sadly ,\ncentury discovery and the present . don\u2019t forget : global . amphibian . crisis .\nfinally , where do rhacophorids fit within the anuran radiation ? molecular studies find them to be close to ranidae , the familiar neobatrachian clade that includes european water frogs , brown frogs , the american bullfrog , leopard frogs and so many others ( frost et al . 2006 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) . they\u2019re clearly not at all close to hylid treefrogs ( hylids are part of the same clade as glassfrogs , toads and kin ) . i also need to say that a huge amount of work \u2013 scarcely any of which is cited in the article you\u2019re reading now \u2013 has recently been devoted to the in - group relationships of rhacophoridae , several conventional \u2018genera\u2019 being the subject of substantial disagreement due to proposals that they might be paraphyletic or polyphyletic . at the risk of elaborating further , i must stop here . oh , i seem to have blogged about anurans again .\nchanning , a . 2001 . amphibians of central and southern africa . cornell university press , ithaca and london .\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1876 . note on the mode of propagation of some ceylonese tree - frogs , with description of two new species . annals and magazine of natural history ( 4 ) 17 , 377 - 380 .\ninger , r . f . & stuebing , r . b . 2005 . a field guide of the frogs of borneo . natural history publications ( borneo ) , kota kinabalu .\nmeegaskumbura , m . , bossuyt , f . , pethiyagoda , r . , manamendra - arachchi , k . , bahir , m . , milinkovitch , m . c . & schneider , c . j . 2002 . sri lanka : an amphibian hotspot . science 298 , 379 .\nnodzenski , e . & inger , r . f . 1990 . uncoupling of related structural changes in metamorphosing torrent - dwelling tadpoles . copeia 1990 , 1047 - 1054 .\npyron , a . r . & wiens , j . j . 2011 . a large - scale phylogeny of amphibia including over 2800 species , and a revised classification of extant frogs , salamanders , and caecilians . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 61 , 543 - 583 .\nvassilieva , a . , galoyan , e . & poyarkov , n . 2013 . rhacophorus vampyrus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) reproductive biology : a new type of oophagous tadpole in asian treefrogs . journal of herpetology 47 , 607 - 614 .\ndarren naish is a science writer , technical editor and palaeozoologist ( affiliated with the university of southampton , uk ) . he mostly works on cretaceous dinosaurs and pterosaurs but has an avid interest in all things tetrapod . his publications can be downloaded at darrennaish . wordpress . com . he has been blogging at tetrapod zoology since 2006 . check out the tet zoo podcast at tetzoo . com !\ndiscover world - changing science . explore our digital archive back to 1845 , including articles by more than 150 nobel prize winners .\nscientific american is part of springer nature , which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications ( many of them can be found at urltoken ) . scientific american maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers .\nwould this diet \u201cbug\u201d you ? these frogs eat only insects , and at the zoo , they are fed crickets .\ndon abbey ( author ) , michigan state university , james harding ( editor ) , michigan state university .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\na large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,\nincomplete metamorphosis\nis when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and\ncomplete metamorphosis\nis when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nfound in the oriental region of the world . in other words , india and southeast asia .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nto cite this page : abbey , d . 2000 .\nrhacophorus nigropalmatus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nskin is smooth or finely granulated above , coarsely granulated below except smooth on the throat . a broad flap of skin on outer edge of forearm and tarsus , and another is at the heel and above the vent . a narrow flap on the inner edge of the arm is present ( berry 1975 ) .\nbody color is shiny green with minute white markings and a couple large white patches on the thighs . the flanks , the inside of the thighs , and the undersurfaces of the body are yellow . the interdigital membranes are jet black at the base . these membranes are yellow and veined with black towards the border . the upper surfaces of toes on to four are yellow . ventral surface of the head and body is whitish ( berry 1975 ) .\njurgen , f . , richter , c . , and jacob , u . ( 1988 ) .\nsunny shah and rachna tiwari ( sunnys at uclink . berkeley . edu ) , amphibiaweb\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution , non - commercial , share alike cc by - nc - sa licence .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) ."]}
{"id": 566, "summary": [{"text": "the large slit-faced bat , nycteris grandis , is a species of slit-faced bat with a broad distribution in forest and savanna habitats in west , central , and east africa .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "n. marica ( kershaw , 1923 ) , is the available name for the southern savanna species if it is recognized as distinct from this species . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "large slit - faced bat", "paragraphs": ["large slit - faced bat - nycteris grandis the large slit faced bat is found in central and southern africa . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nplacentation in the egyptian slit - faced bat nycteris thebaica ( chiroptera : nycteridae ) .\njavan slit - faced bat - nycteris javanica the javan slit - faced bat is found in indonesia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\negyptian slit - faced bat - nycteris thebaica the egyptian slit - faced bat is sometimes called the whispering bat because it has a weak echolocation call . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\n. large slit - faced bats have skin temperatures that range from 33 . 5 to 38 . 0\u00b0c .\nplacentation in the egyptian slit - faced bat nycteris thebaica ( chiroptera : nycteridae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nmalayan slit - faced bat - nycteris tragata the malayan slit faced bat is also known as the hollow - faced bat . it is found in brunei darussalam , indonesia , malaysia , myanmar , singapore , and thailand . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe intermediate slit - faced bat ( nycteris intermedia ) , wood ' s slit - faced bat ( nycteris woodi ) , and n . aurita are considered by the iucn to be lower risk / near threatened . the javan slit - faced bat ( nycteris javanica ) and ja slit - faced bat ( nycteris major ) are considered vulnerable , the former because of declining range , the latter because of restricted range . too little is known about the madagascar slit - faced bat ( nycteris madagascariensis ) to assess its conservation status , and it is listed as data deficient .\nthe iucn lists the javan slit - faced bat and the ja slit - faced bat as vulnerable , facing a high risk of extinction in the wild . three other species are listed as near threatened , not currently threatened , but may become so .\nlarge slit - faced bats are most commonly found in swampy sites in rainforests . they make their roosts in hollow trees , small caverns in rocks , hollow fallen logs , and manmade structures . large slit - faced bats are also found in dry savannah habitats .\nslit - faced bats get their name from the long , vertical slit that runs across the top of their flattened noseleaf .\n(\nregions containing large slit faced bats\n, 2006 ; fenton , et al . , 1987 ; park and myers , 2004 )\n2006 .\nregions containing large slit faced bats\n( on - line ) . wild finder . accessed february 24 , 2006 at urltoken .\negyptian slit - faced bat - nycteris thebaica the egyptian slit - faced bat is found in sub - saharan africa . it is also found in morocco , libya , egypt , israel , palestine and jordan . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\negyptian - slit faced bats and people : there is no known significant relationship with people .\nthe egyptian slit - faced bat is affected by roost disturbance and habitat degradation , but these are not considered to be major threats at present ( 1 ) .\nslit - faced bats are small to medium in size , and have broad wings and large ears . their fur is long and fine and ranges in color from gray to red . the t - shaped tail cartilage , large ears , and slit - faces make them distinctive .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - egyptian slit - faced bat ( nycteris thebaica )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - egyptian slit - faced bat ( nycteris thebaica )\ntitle =\narkive species - egyptian slit - faced bat ( nycteris thebaica )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ncan be distinguished from all other bats by their tails ending in a y or t shaped piece of cartilage . large slit - faced bats can be distinguished from all other\nthere is no information on the lifespan or longevity of this species . large slit - faced bats most likely live for many years since most microchiropterans are fairly long lived .\nthe hollow - faced bat is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe egyptian slit - faced bat is found in sub - saharan africa , egypt , israel , jordan , lebanon , morocco and libya ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nslit - faced bats have one offspring per year , typically at the beginning of the rainy season . female large slit - faced bats leave their young behind in the roost when they set out at night to hunt . they return several times throughout the night to feed their young .\nnot much is known about parental investment in large slit - faced bats . females nurse their young in day roosts and leave them when they forage for food . they are similar to other mammals in that the mother cares for her young until it is ready for independence . the role of male large slit - faced bats in raising offspring is unknown .\nemits echolocation calls through their nostrils , and their noseleaf may play a role in ampilyfing the sound . large slit - faced bats also use other modes of perception to locate and capture prey , including passive hearing and vision . the large ears of\neats large amounts of insects which likely affects the populations of those species . they also feed on vertebrates , including other bats . large slit - faced bats are hosts to parasites called broad trypanosomes , but there is little information available about this relationship .\nslit - faced bats have large ears , broad wings , and a long tail . they roost in alone or in small groups in trees , buildings , caves , and animal burrows .\nlittle is known about the reproductive and mating habits of large slit - faced bats . it is likely that these bats are monogamous because pairing and roost fidelity is quite common in this species .\nthey may not depend upon to find their prey , relying instead on sound cues such as the songs or footfalls of prey . slit - faced bats also take flying prey . accumulations of discarded pieces of prey under feeding roosts provide biologists with a picture of the diets of slit - faced bats . unlike other species of bat , slit - faced bats are warm - blooded and cannot enter torpor , a state of total inactivity .\n(\nregions containing large slit faced bats\n, 2006 ; bayefsky - anand , 2005 ; fenton , et al . , 1987 ; hickey and dunlop , 2000 ; parey and berlin , 1993 )\ninterspecific communication has not been widely studied in bats , but it is likely that large slit - faced bats use chemical and auditory cues , as well as tactile and visual cues , to communicate among individuals .\nslit - faced bats are found throughout most of africa , southeast asia , and madagascar . most species are found in africa .\na tropical forest - dwelling bat , the hollow - faced bat has been found at all altitudes , and is known to roost in small groups in tree holes , rotten fallen trees , and rock crevices ( 2 ) .\nlarge slit - faced bats are opportunistic foragers that use two foraging strategies and eats a broad range of prey . large slit - faced bats eat arthropods , bats , frogs , fish and birds . their diets vary based on the season , with frogs being the most common prey in march , april , may , august , and september . other bats are common prey in june and july , and arthropods are most common in december , january , and february . for large prey like bats and birds ,\njacob , davids .\nbats of the western cape .\ncape bat action team ( cape bat ) . urltoken ( accessed on july 4 , 2004 ) .\ntop right : bat hawk , south africa . [ photo johan van rensburg \u00a9 ] bottom right : bat hawk , south africa . [ photo stephen davis \u00a9 ]\ntanglegram comparing the phylogenies of hantaviruses and their bat , insectivore , and rodent hosts .\nspecies of slit - faced bats have large , oval ears and their wings are broad . slit - faced bats range in color from orange , brown , and red to gray . these bats also have a distinctive feature among mammals at the end of their tail . the long tail , completely enclosed within a membrane , ends in a t - shaped tip .\nslit - faced bats ( nycteridae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nslit - faced bats : nycteridae .\ngrzimek ' s student animal life resource . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nparey , v . , h . berlin . 1993 . variation in foraging behaviour , habitat use and diet of large slit - facebats ( nycteris grandis ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hollow - faced bat ( nycteris tragata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hollow - faced bat ( nycteris tragata )\ntitle =\narkive species - hollow - faced bat ( nycteris tragata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na single young is born each year , typically at the beginning of the rainy season . the slit - faced bats are most likely promiscuous .\nsome species of slit - faced bats live in woodland savanna or dry country , and others live in rainforests in africa or in southeast asia .\nit is considered to be a rather rare bat , colony sizes tend to be small .\nthe broad wings of slit - faced bats enable them to fly slowly and hover , then pluck insects off ground or vegetation surfaces . when bats , such as the large slit - faced bat , catch and kill larger prey such as small vertebrates , they carry them off to their feeding perch . these bats can hunt either lying in wait on their perches or from slow , continuous flight low to the ground . when they eat insects , they typically drop their wings and legs .\nslit - faced bats roost in hollows by day . the hollows include caves and mines , those in trees , as well as others associated with buildings or other artificial structures . roosting slit - faced bats are usually not in physical contact with one another . they produce low - intensity echolocation calls , which\nslit - faced bats ( nycteridae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nslit - faced bats : nycteridae .\ngrzimek ' s student animal life resource . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nprey includes grasshoppers , crickets , caterpillars , and beetles . these frogs are preyed upon by the boomslang dispholidus typus , the vine snake thelotornis capensis , and the large slit - faced bat nycteris grandis . the foam nests are preyed upon by the african bullfrog , fornasini ' s spiny reed frog afrixalus fornasini , and the blue monkey cercopithecus mitis ( channing and howell , 2006 ) .\nmost species of slit - faced bats are found in rainforest in africa or in southeast asia , but other species occur in drier areas , from savanna woodlands to desert .\ndiet : egyptian slit - faced bats typically diet on arthropods , such as spiders , crickets , and scorpions , as well as insects , such as moths and beetles .\nthere are no known conservation efforts currently in place for the egyptian slit - faced bat . it has been recommended that this species would benefit from better protection of its roost sites and improved legal protection , as well as further research into its population size and trends ( 1 ) .\nnowak , ronald m .\nslit - faced bats , or hollow - faced bats .\nwalker ' s mammals of the world 5 . 1 online . baltimore : johns hopkins university press , 1997 . urltoken ( accessed on july 4 , 2004 ) .\nmyers , phil , and bret weinstein .\nfamily nycteridae ( slit - faced bats ) .\nanimal diversity web . urltoken ( accessed on july 4 , 2004 ) .\nal - omari , k . a . , abu baker , m . a . and amr , z . s . ( 2000 ) first record of the egyptian slit - faced bat , nycteris thebaica , from jordan . zoology in the middle east , 21 : 5 - 7 .\na slit - faced bat ' s diet depends upon the species . most species of these bats feed primarily on a variety of arthropods ( animals that have jointed bodies and limbs ) , such as moths , butterflies , beetles , crickets , centipedes , scorpions , and spiders . some bats , the larger slit - faced bats , will also eat small vertebrates ( animals with a backbone ) , such as frogs , birds , fish , other bats , and mice .\nkerner , sarah .\nin the bat cave .\nboys ' life ( june 2003 ) : 18 .\negyptian slit - faced bats are found throughout africa and parts of southern europe . they range from south africa up through egypt , the arabian peninsula , and to the island of corfu .\nlarge slit - faced bats use two foraging strategies . the most common strategy involves hunting from a perch where the bats wait for prey to pass by . they then use short flights to attack the prey on the ground where they envelop it with their wings . they also take longer flights in search of food on the ground or in the air . they switch between each type of foraging strategy based on habitat and prey availability . large slit - faced bats hunt at night from night roosts . they use prey - generated sounds to locate their targets , which explains why noisy prey are their most common targets .\nphysical characteristics : a distinctive feature of the egyptian slitfaced bat is its long ears . the bat has long , fine fur that is gray to red . its underparts are lighter in color . these bats are also called common slit - faced bats . they are medium - size bats , with an adult weighing about 0 . 2 to 0 . 4 ounces ( 7 to 12 grams ) \u2014about the weight of five pennies .\na medium - sized bat ; forearm ranging 1 . 6\u20132 in ( 4 . 2\u20135 . 1 cm ) ; weight 0 . 2\u20130 . 4 oz ( 7\u201312 g ) . long , fine fur is gray to red . large ears .\nlarge slit - faced bats consume their prey while hanging from a perch with one foot . they use their wings to hold and position the prey . the discarded prey remains , such as skin , fur , and wings , fall to the ground beneath their feeding roosts , making these roosts easily recognized by researchers .\nalthough slit - faced bats are included in the superfamily rhinolophoidea , the closeness of their relationship to the other families in the group ( false vampires , the megadermatidae , horseshoe bats , the rhinolophidae , and old world leaf - nosed bats , the hipposideridae ) has been questioned . apart from recent material , there is no fossil record of slit - faced bats . no subfamilies are recognized .\nlarge slit - faced bats are large bats that have reddish brown to gray fur on the top part of their body and paler and grayer fur on the underside . a female found in zambia had a slight yellow tinge around its neck and shoulders . the face has a deep frontal groove that houses the noseleave and extends from the nostrils to a line joining the base of the ears . this groove is surrounded by fleshy lobes and flanges . large slit - faced bats are not sexually dimorphic in size . their tails range in length from 65 to 75mm and terminate in a y or t shaped piece of cartilage . their body and head length ranges from 63 - 93 mm and their body mass is from 23 to 36 g , which makes them the largest member of the family\nfenton , m . b . , c . m . swanepoel , r . m . brigham , j . cebek , and m . b . c . hickey .\nforaging behaviour and prey selection by large slit - faced bats ( nycteris grandis ; chiroptera : nycteridae ) .\nbiotropica 22 ( 1990 ) : 2\u20138 .\nfenton , m . brock . the bat : wings in the night sky . buffalo , ny : firefly books , 1998 .\nfenton , m . b . , swanepoel , c . m . , brigham , r . m . , cebek , j . and hickey , m . b . c . 1990 . foraging behavior and prey selection by large slit - faced bats ( nycteris grandis ; chiroptera : nycteridae ) . biotropica 22 : 2 - 8 .\nhas a large impact on many different species in their ecosystem because they eat such a wide variety of foods . like many bats ,\nslit - faced bats are small to medium in size . head and body length is 1 . 6 to 3 . 7 inches ( 4 to 9 . 3 centimeters ) , and adults weigh 0 . 2 to 1 . 2 ounces ( 6 to 36 grams ) . also called hollow - faced bats , the feature that gives slit - faced bats their name is a deep groove that runs from their nostrils to a pit in the middle of their forehead . the dent is hidden by fur , which makes it hard to see .\nat the same time , a number of local sugar growers are showing an interest in erecting\nbat houses\nwhich may accommodate hundreds of free - tailed bats , the species most likely to be colonising farm buildings anyway . since it is the number of roosting opportunities , and not the food source , which limits bat populations , bat houses are a means of artificially restoring bat roosting habitat that was lost when natural habitats were replaced with sugar cane . more bats must mean fewer moths , which has to be good news for sugar cane growers !\nsmaller species of slit - faced bats feed almost entirely on arthropods , typically insects such as moths , beetles , and crickets , but also spiders , centipedes , and scorpions . larger species of nycterids also eat small vertebrates such as fish , frogs , birds , and other bats . slit - faced bats often hunt from a perch , dropping to the ground to grab passing prey , or snatching it from the foliage or branches or trunks of trees .\nlittle is known about the reproduction and development of large slit - faced bats . one offspring is born to a female per breeding season . it is possible that there are two breeding seasons , but this is uncertain . in one study in zimbabwe in december , some female large slit - faced bats were found with offspring that were 1 - 7 days old . in liberia , a female was found in december with a 5 mm embryo . another study collected 7 females in september in zambia ; these had single fetuses with crown - rump lengths of 24 - 27 mm and head lengths of 17 - 18 mm . the amount of time to weaning and the age at which the offspring reaches sexual maturity is unknown . in related bats such as\nmay hang from perches and wait for passing prey , or fly in search of food . in either case , they depend upon the sounds of prey to locate their targets and usually take prey from surfaces . along the zambezi river , they feed heavily on vertebrates , usually frogs ( representing seven species ) , but occasionally on birds and fish . they also eat other species of bats , including egyptian slit - faced bats . large slit - faced bats also eat large arthropods , including sun spiders , moths , and beetles . prey is killed with a bite to the head , and inedible parts dropped below feeding roosts . when they eat frogs , they usually discard one foot bitten off at the ankle , the other leg bitten off at the knee .\nthe species appears to need rather large trees , and is presumably threatened by deforestation resulting from logging activities and the conversion of forest to agricultural use .\nthe largest of slit - faced bats : forearms 2 . 2\u20132 . 6 in ( 5 . 7\u20136 . 6 cm ) ; weight 0 . 8\u20131 . 2 oz ( 23\u201336 g ) . long , fine fur is gray to red .\negyptian slit - faced bats do not do well in captivity . when given food and water they will eat the food , but will not touch the water , and as a result it is not uncommon for them to die of dehydration .\nlike all bats , slit - faced bats are active in the night hours and they roost ( settle or rest ) during the day hours . most species shelter alone , in pairs , or in small family groups or colonies ( group of animals of the same type living together ) . roosting sites for slit - faced bats are diverse , and may include hollow trees , dense foliage , rocky outcrops , caves , buildings , ruins , abandoned wells , and porcupine and aardvark burrows .\nthe nest is built by both sexes , consisting of a large structure of twigs , lined with green leaves . it is typically placed in the fork of a branch , in a large white or pale - barked tree . it probably prefers lightly - coloured trees because they are easier to locate at night .\nfenton , m . b . , rautenbach , i . l . , chipese , d . , cumming , m . b . , musgrave , m . k . , taylor , j . s . and volpers , t . 1993 . variation in foraging behavior , habitat use , and diet of large slit - faced bats ( nycteris grandis ) . zeitschrift f\u00fcr s\u00e4ugetierkunde 58 : 65 - 74 .\nthe breeding season of the egyptian slit - faced batoccurs between april and july ( 2 ) , with a single offspring born in early november ( 2 ) ( 9 ) , which feeds on the mother\u2019s milk for around two months ( 9 ) .\ncan be found roosting alone , in pairs , or in small groups . these bats show high levels of roost fidelity ; that is , they return to the same roost each day . large slit - faced bats use a variety of different roosts for day roosts , feeding roosts , and night roosts . females pass the day and nurse their young in day roosts . night roosts are used as hunting perches .\ntake prey from surfaces ( the ground or vegetation ) as well as flying prey . the usual diet is arthropods , from sun spiders to scorpions , and insects such as orthopterans , moths , and beetles . in zimbabwe , egyptian slit - faced bats ate 1 . 1 in ( 3 cm ) beetles in less than two minutes . from south africa , there is one record of an egyptian slit - faced bat taking a lizard . these bats appear to use sounds generated by prey to detect and assess their targets . the role of echolocation in hunting remains unclear . they produce bird - like chirps when foraging at night , but the function of these calls remains unknown .\nlarge slit - faced bats have trifid incisors , that is , their incisors are divided into three narrow parts or lobes . a few dimensions of their skulls are as follows : length of skull , 26 - 27 mm , breadth of zygomatic arch , 16 - 17 mm , length of maxillary tooth row , 9 . 1 - 9 . 7 mm and width of the maxillary 10 . 4 - 11 . 1 mm .\nthere is little available information on predation of this species . it is possible that they are prey to snakes as well as to some birds , including bat hawks ,\nas well as echolocation , it appears that these bats depend upon sound to find food . their large ears are apparently used to listen for the low - frequency sounds of prey - generated movements , such as the sound of an insect scuffling along the ground or calls the insects may make . slit - faced bats sometimes catch their prey in the air , but primarily snatch their prey from a surface , such as a leaf or branch .\nfrench , barbara .\nwhere the bats are part ii : other animals ' shelters .\nbat conservation international , inc . urltoken ( accessed on july 4 , 2004 ) .\n. the diet is influenced by prey availability and results in these bats choosing a variety of prey . these bats can take large prey , up to 33 % of their body mass .\nweiss s , witkowski pt , auste b , nowak k , weber n , et al . ( 2012 ) hantavirus in bat , sierra leone . emerg infect dis 18 : 159\u2013161 .\nthought to have a wide habitat tolerance ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the egyptian slit - faced bat may be found in moist and dry savanna , sometimes ranging into desert and rocky areas ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) , but is rarely found in forested areas ( 7 ) . it roosts in caves and crevices , as well as tombs , ruins , roofs , houses , wells and hollow trees ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nbehavior and reproduction : when foraging for food , egyptian slit - faced bats pick their prey off the ground and vegetation surfaces , such as leaves or branches , as well as while flying . they can fly slowly and maneuver well , which allows them to hunt close to the ground and in dense vegetation .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthe roosts of egyptian - slit faced bats include caves , areas under roads , mines , hollow trees , and roofs . they can be seen hanging from veranda ( a structure like a porch ) rooftops in temporary night roosts as they rest from their foraging . observations have spotted colonies ranging in size from several and several hundred individuals .\nmost species of slit - faced bats occur in africa , one ranging from the north ( israel and adjacent countries ) to the south ( the cape ) . two other species occur in southeast asia , from myanmar , thailand , and malaysia to sarawak , sumatra , java , borneo , and bali . one species has been reported from madagascar .\nlight brown above , ventral side is lighter brown or grayish white . medium - sized bat with large ears and well - developed calcar . muzzle has deep median furrow . head and body length 3 . 8\u20134 . 3 in ( 9 . 7\u201311 cm ) , tail length 1 . 8\u20132 . 2 in ( 4 . 7\u20135 . 8 cm ) , forearm length 1 . 6\u20131 . 9 in ( 4 . 3\u20134 . 7 cm ) .\nthe bat has been recorded from both dry and moist lowland forest , gallery forest and moist savanna . it has been found roosting in standing trees in small family groups ( rosevear 1965 ; grubb et al . 1998 ) .\nthere are thought to be two breeding seasons per year , with females giving birth to a single pup ( 2 ) . at first the pup is carried in foraging flights , which may well limit the diet of the hollow - faced bat , as it can only take lighter prey . the pup learns quickly to fly and forage alone , and at one year old will be sexually mature ( 2 ) .\nfenton , m . b . , thomas , d . w . and sasseen , r . 1981 . nycteris grandis ( nycteridae ) , an african carnivorous bat . journal of zoology ( london ) 194 : 461 - 465 .\nbat colonies living in the roofs of farm buildings are at best a barely tolerable nuisance to many farmers . what they overlook is the fact that bats are the major predators of night - flying insects , including many that are important agricultural pests .\nin general there appear to be no major threats to this species as a whole . it is threatened in parts of its range by habitat loss , particularly the logging of large trees used for roosting . some populations may be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food .\nweber , n . and fahr , j . 2007 . survey of endemic and globally threatened bat species in the fouta djallon highlands for conservation priorities in guinea . van tienhoven foundation for international nature protection and conservation international ' s critical species fund , ulm university .\n. they have large ears , ranging from 28 to 35 mm ; this can be as much as 50 % of their forearm length . the forearms range from 57 to 66 mm , and their tibias range in length from 29 . 5 to 33 . 5 mm .\naldridge , h . d . j . n . , m . obrist , h . g . merriam , and m . b . fenton .\nroosting , vocalizations and foraging by the african bat , nycteris thebaica .\njournal of mammalogy 71 ( 1990 ) : 242\u2013246 .\naldridge , h . d . j . n , obrist , m , merriam , h . g . and fenton , m . b . ( 1990 ) roosting , vocalisations and foraging by the african bat , nycteris thebaica . journal of mammology , 71 : 242 - 246 .\nthese bats use echolocation and simply listening to detect their prey . their large ears enable the bats to pick up sounds like the scuffling of some insects or the beating of wings . the purpose of the bird - like chirps they make while searching for their prey at night is unknown .\nnear - threatened in south africa , due to its rarity and disappearance from former breeding sites . destruction of woodland impacts the local bat populations it is dependent on , and it is persecuted by locals because they believe that it eats chickens , although it has never been observed doing so .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nlike all bats , these bats are nocturnal , meaning they are active at night . slit - faced bats also use echolocation ( eck - oh - loh - kay - shun ) , the detection of an object by means of reflected sound . it is not known how much they depend upon echolocation to catch their prey ( animals hunted for food ) . the echolocation calls of these bats are low in intensity , or energy , and brief . usually the calls last only a millisecond or less .\ndistribution of bat hawk in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\nthese bats , like most other bats , use echolocation for finding prey . however , like other gleaning bats , their echolocation calls are not strong and as a result this species is often called a \u201cwhispering\u201d bat . the echolocation that they produce has low intensity , and is multi - harmonic . echolocation is used when they are assessing the area around them , especially for prey location .\nit mainly eats small insectivorous bats , doing most of its foraging at dusk when bats become active , usually in an open space adjacent to cliffs , buildings or large trees . it hawks prey aerially , catching the animal with its feet then eating it while in flight . in one hunting session it takes about 5 - 6 , rarely up to 17 bats , consuming about one every 1 - 3 minutes . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :\nthe species inhabits a variety of bushveld vegetation types in the savanna biome . breeding usually takes place in temporary pans and vleis , but also occurs in more permanent water bodies such as dams and quarries . in the absence of trees and shrubs , nests may be attached to the sides of large rocks or man - made structures overhanging water , including bridges , culverts and bird hides ( text from minter et al . , 2004 , \u00a9 si / mab biodiversity program ) .\nthis species also preys on insects that are not moving , such as on the ground , walls , rocks , lights , and vegetation . small prey will be eaten on the spot , but larger prey will be taken to a tree and eaten while the bat is hanging . their uropatagium is a tool that they use to bring their prey to their mouth . the females leave the roost at dusk ( with their young ) to go on regular hunts for food .\nalthough this insect - eating species is capable of complex echolocation calls involving a rapid , low intensity sweep of the frequency range , it is also thought to hunt simply by listening for sounds made by the insects themselves . its large wing area and comparatively low body weight allows it to take off nearly vertically from the forest floor when hunting , possibly with heavy prey ( 2 ) . it tends to hover over its prey before snatching it up into the air ( 5 ) .\ndorsal surfaces are brownish to grey , sometimes white , with or without darker mottling ( schi\u00f8tz , 1999 ) . according to harper et al . ( 2010 ) , the darker brown mottling resembles tree bark . the eyes are large with horizontal pupils , and the tympanum is distinctly visible . the fingers have wide expanded disks and are arranged in opposable pairs that wrap easily around small branches . toes are completely webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) . no tarsal fold is present ( schi\u00f8tz , 1999 ) .\npreys on organisms while flying , or observes them while hanging upside down from a tree and then goes after the prey . as these bats hang from a tree , they observe the surrounding area for prey . their enormous ears are used to detect any noise made by potential prey . once it hears a potential prey item , an individual bat will go after the area where the sound came from . in addition to their ears , they use their eyes ( since echolocation is weak for these bats ) to locate their prey .\ntanglegram constructed using treemap2 . 0b illustrating the phylogenies of hantaviruses and their bat , insectivore , and rodent hosts . ( a ) the host tree on the left was based on mt - cyt b gene sequences , and the hantavirus tree on the right was based on the coding sequences of m segment . ( b ) the host tree on the left was based on cytochrome b gene sequences , and the hantavirus tree on the right was based on the coding sequences of s + m segment . numbers ( > 0 . 7 ) above or below branches indicate posterior node probabilities .\na single female and several males construct a foam nest on leaves or branches above water . the female must return to the pool several times during the construction of the nest to absorb enough water to complete the task . in some cases , she may even return the following night to add water to the nest . the large unpigmented eggs develop into small dark tadpoles which drop into the water after three to five days . the small tadpoles are only 18 mm in length ( harper et al . , 2010 ) . according to channing and howell ( 2006 ) , approximately 500 to 1226 eggs are deposited in each nest .\na rather different picture of the evolutionary history of hantaviruses was observed in the phylogenies of 62 l segment sequences . in particular , these trees provided evidence for five phylogroups , as viruses from phylogroup ii could be subdivided into a subgroup containing hpuv , mouyassu\u00e9 virus ( mouv ) detected in bat from cote d ' ivoire [ 22 ] , nvav , and altai virus ( eu424341 ) sampled from a soricidae shrew in the neighboring area of russia with china , and a subgroup containing the lquv and mgb virus sampled from bats in sierra leone [ 23 ] ( phylogroup v , figure 2c ) . however , this novel subdivision of phylogroups was not supported strongly . the clustering patterns of other viruses were similar to those in the s and m segment trees ( figure s3a\u2013b ) , although lquv and mgb virus grouped with tpmv and mjnv in the bayesian tree ( figure s3b ) . finally , and in contrast what is seen in the l nucleotide sequence phylogenies , mgb virus shared a closer relationship with tpmv and mjnv than hupv and lquv in the l amino acid tree ( figure s2g\u2013i ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nn . marica kershaw , 1923 , is the available name for the southern savanna species if it is recognised as distinct from this species .\nthis species is broadly distributed in sub - saharan africa . it ranges from senegal , through west and central africa , to southern sudan , southeastern kenya and eastern tanzania , with scattered records as far south as zambia , zimbabwe and mozambique . it is a lowland species .\nit appears to be a rare , or rarely recorded , species . the species occurs in small colonies , but is usually found only as single animals or in pairs .\nthis species has been recorded from a variety of lowland habitats , ranging from lowland tropical moist forest ( often found near to swampy sites ) to drier savanna areas and miombo woodland ( rosevear 1965 ; fenton et al . 1990 ; hickey and dunlop 2000 ; skinner and chimimba 2005 ) . it generally roosts in hollow trees , but is also found in man made structures such as houses ( fenton et al . 1990 , 1993 ) , disused water towers ( fenton et al . 1990 , 1993 ) and culverts ( rosevear , 1965 ) . animals might also roost in hollow fallen logs , and holes or small caverns in rocks ( rosevear , 1965 ; hickey and dunlop 2000 ) .\nin view of the species wide range , it is presumably present in a number of protected areas . no direct conservation measures are currently needed for this species as a whole .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( fenton , et al . , 1987 ; hickey and dunlop , 2000 )\n( fenton , et al . , 1987 ; hickey and dunlop , 2000 ; parey and berlin , 1993 )\n( fenton , et al . , 1987 ; park and myers , 2004 )\nadult size is reached in about two months , and females continue to nurse their offspring from 45 to 60 days .\nit has been documented that females and their young can recognize each other . in several cases , when a female returned to a roost after foraging , her offspring recognized her and began to rapidly flap its wings .\nbreeding season breeding may occur once in the spring ( march and april ) and once in the winter ( december and january ) .\nindividuals take prey that they have caught to a feeding roost , which is usually within 20 m of their day roost . this may be a strategy to avoid having their prey stolen by other bats in the day roosts .\nhas been known to migrate . there is little information about why this occurs in\nand it has been hypothesized that migration occurs as a result of resource availability .\nproduces echolocation calls , increasing the rate of calling as it approaches its prey . the spectra of calls early in the feeding sequence have four peaks ( 20 - 112 khz ) , and the calls later in the approach have a single peak at approximately 73 - 91 khz . the minimum and maximum frequencies of the early calls in the approach are 17 and 114 khz and for the later calls are 61 and 110 khz . the pulse duration varies from 0 . 6 to 2 . 8 ms and the interpulse interval varies from 6 . 0 to 17 . 8 ms .\nhave their higest sensitivity between 10 and 20 khz , a frequency used to detect sounds made by prey .\ngrasp them in their mouths and immobilize them with a strong bite to the head .\n. possibily to avoid predators , these bats roost in high places where it is hard for predators to get to them .\njim aldrich ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor , instructor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nthe process by which an animal locates itself with respect to other animals and objects by emitting sound waves and sensing the pattern of the reflected sound waves .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nbayefsky - anand , s . 2005 . effect of location and season on the arthropod prey of nycteris grandis .\nesmailka , l . , l . olson . 2005 .\nanimal diversity web\n( on - line ) . accessed march 20 , 2006 at urltoken .\nfenton , m . , d . cumming , j . hutton , c . swanepoel . 1987 . foraging and habitat use by nycteris grandis in zimbabwe .\npark , a . , p . myers . 2004 .\nanimal diversity web\n( on - line ) . accessed march 20 , 2006 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : aldrich , j . 2006 .\nnycteris grandis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nthere are 16 species of small to medium - sized bats in this family . they are found in africa , malaysia , indonesia .\nthey range in color from brown , brownish - orange or gray . most species eat insects .\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\nclassification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by jakob fahr - see more .\njakob fahr marked the classification from\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis )\nas preferred for\nnycteris grandis peters , 1865\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nisoj\u00e4n\u00f6lepakko\nto\nnycteris grandis peters , 1865\n.\njakob fahr set\nimage of nycteris grandis\nas an exemplar on\nnycteris grandis peters , 1865\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nyou can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nimage processing : dr . amy balanoff image processing : dr . julian humphries publication date : 22 mar 2003\nthis specimen was scanned by matthew colbert on 15 january 2003 along the coronal axis for a total of 1161 slices . the specimen was mounted in florists foam for scanning . each slice is 0 . 072 mm thick , with an interslice spacing of 0 . 072 mm and a field of reconstruction of 67 . 0 mm .\nto cite this page : dr . nancy simmons , 2003 ,\nnycteris grandis\n( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nitems in open research are protected by copyright , with all rights reserved , unless otherwise indicated .\nsimmons , nancy b . / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ncomments : hispida species group . reviewed by van cakenberghe and de vree ( 1993b ) . n . marica is sometimes recognized as a distinct savanna subspecies , but this does not seem justified based on morphology ; see van cakenberghe and de vree ( 1993b ) . see hickey and dunlop ( 2000 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nsize forearms range 1 . 2\u20132 . 5 in ( 3 . 2\u20136 . 4 cm ) ; body mass 0 . 2\u20131 . 2 oz ( 6\u201336 g )\noccur from sierra leone in the west to lake victoria in the east . there are two isolated populations , one on the coast in tanzania , the other from zambia south into zimbabwe along the zambezi river .\nmost often found in rainforest , but outlying populations occur in areas of savanna woodlands .\nroost in hollows in trees , caves , and mines , or those in artificial structures such as buildings and unused military bunkers . roosting individuals , other than females and their dependent young , are not in physical contact with one another . along the zambezi river in zimbabwe , they use the same day roosts year after year , including hollows in acacia trees as well as those in buildings and in military bunkers ; the roosts provide shelter from the extreme heat of the day . along the zambezi , they use feeding roosts , sites that offer protection from above . typically , feeding roosts are under thatched roofs , on porches , and in rooms that they enter through open doors or windows . some day roosts also serve as feeding roosts ."]}
{"id": 569, "summary": [{"text": "orthetrum triangulare is an asian freshwater dragonfly species .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is usually found in hilly and montane areas , and breeds in small ponds and marshy areas , and is tolerant of disturbance .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the common name for this species is blue-tailed forest hawk .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "two subspecies of orthetrum triangulare are currently recognised , the nominate subspecies and o. t. malaccense . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "orthetrum triangulare", "paragraphs": ["dragonflies & damselflies of thailand : 53 . orthetrum triangulare triangulare ( selys , 1878 )\ndragonflies and damselflies of bangladesh : 32 . orthetrum triangulare ( selys , 1878 )\nno one has contributed data records for orthetrum triangulare malaccense yet . learn how to contribute .\ntwo subspecies of orthetrum triangulare are currently recognised , the nominate subspecies and o . t . malaccense .\ntwo subspecies of orthetrum triangulare are currently recognised , the nominate subspecies and o . t . malaccense .\nthe orthetrum triangulare triangulare is commonly known as the blue - tailed forest hawk dragonfly . it is of the libellulidae family and was first published in 1878 .\ntwo subspecies of orthetrum triangulare are currently recognised , the nominate subspecies and o . t . malaccense .\northetrum triangulare triangulare . i am still looking for 3 species of orthetrum in thailand . i have seen this at a number of upland streams and rivers , especially in chiang mai , phu kradeung national park and nam nao environs . the tend to live alongside other\ndow , r . a . 2010 . orthetrum triangulare ( selys , 1878 ) ; the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 . urltoken accessed on 30 november 2017 .\ncitation : dow , r . 2010 . orthetrum triangulare . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 21 december 2011 .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . orthetrum triangulare selys , 1878 . [ online ] bhutan biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . orthetrum triangulare ( selys , 1878 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\northetrum species and tend to like hot , sunny weather . the males are common at the water ' s edge , but i have only spotted one female .\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 assessor / s : dow , r . a . reviewer / s : allen , d . & clausnitzer , v . justification : orthetrum triangulare is a widely distributed and generally common species , breeding in open and disturbed habitats and is assessed as least concern . conservation actions : no conservation measures are needed for this species .\nrange description : orthetrum triangulare is widely distributed in asia . countries : native : afghanistan bhutan china hong kong india ( arunachal pradesh , bihar , haryana , himachal pradesh , jammu - kashmir , manipur , meghalaya , mizoram , nagaland , rajasthan , sikkim , tamil nadu , uttar pradesh , west bengal ) indonesia ( jawa , sumatera ) lao people ' s democratic republic malaysia ( peninsular malaysia ) myanmar ( myanmar ( mainland ) ) nepal pakistan sri lanka taiwan , province of china thailand viet nam\nauthor contributed taxonomy hierarchy [ admin , k . a . subramanian , panchapakesan jeganathan , panchapakesan jeganathan , panchapakesan jeganathan ]\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\nsubramanian . k . a . ( 2009 ) . dragonflies of india - a field guide . vigyan prasar ,\ndescribes biorhythms - those states or conditions characterised by regular repetition in time , whether on the scale of seconds , hours , days , or seasons . it could also cover phenomena such as\nplant flowering\nor\nchewing rates\n. life cycles are treated in the field for life cycle . seasonal migration and reproduction are usually treated separately .\ndescribes reproductive physiology and behavior , including mating and life history variables . includes cues , strategies , restraints , rates .\nmale : abdomen : 29 - 33mm , hind wing : 37 - 41mm . female : abdomen : 29 - 32mm , hind wing : 37mm .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\nmale : face is glossy black . eyes : dark blue . thorax : velvety black . legs : black . wings : transparent . the hindwing has a broad triangular blackish brown spot at the base . wing spot : black . abdomen : broad at the base and gradually tapering towards the tip . the segments 1 - 2 and 8 - 10 black . the segments 3 - 7 azure blue and covered with fine hairs . female : thorax : olivaceous green above , often suffused with reddish brown . the sides are dark reddish brown with two bright yellow stripes . wings : the transparent wing is suffused with brown . the hindwing does not have basal black area instead it is tinted with yellow . abdomen : the abdomen is black and without fine hairs . a middorsal yellow or olivaceous green stripe runs from segments 1 - 7 . the segments 2 - 7 have two yellow spot underneath .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nmale : wing spot : black eye : dark blue medium sized robust dragonfly with black thorax , blackish triangular patch at the base of hindwing and black - tipped broad blue tail . female : wing spot : brownish black eye : brown very different ; olivaceous green thorax with lateral yellow stripes and wing - base tinted with yellow .\nvery sedentary ; found day after day at the same perch , has a liking for sunlit spots in otherwise shady environs .\ndescribes behaviour and behaviour patterns of an organism , including actions and reactions of organism in relation to its biotic and abiotic environment . includes communication , perception , modes and mechanisms of locomotion , as well as long term strategies ( except mating and reproductive strategies , covered under reproduction ) .\na species of the hills . usually found in marshes associated with hill streams .\nhabitat and ecology : this species is usually found in hilly and montane areas . it breeds in small ponds and marshy areas , and is tolerant of disturbance . systems : freshwater list of habitats : 5 , 5 . 4 , 5 . 7 ,\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\nmayurbhanj . himalayas , w . ghats and ne india ; oriental region . easy to spot at : tarinibilla , str .\nis widely distributed in asia . countries : native : afghanistan bhutan china hong kong india ( arunachal pradesh , bihar , haryana , himachal pradesh , jammu - kashmir , manipur , meghalaya , mizoram , nagaland , rajasthan , sikkim , tamil nadu , uttar pradesh , west bengal ) indonesia ( jawa , sumatera ) lao people ' s democratic republic malaysia ( peninsular malaysia ) myanmar ( myanmar ( mainland ) ) nepal pakistan sri lanka taiwan , province of china thailand viet nam\npopulation : this species can be somewhat local , but is common where it occurs across much of its range . population trend : unknown\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 assessor / s : dow , r . a . reviewer / s : allen , d . & clausnitzer , v . justification :\nis a widely distributed and generally common species , breeding in open and disturbed habitats and is assessed as least concern . conservation actions : no conservation measures are needed for this species .\njeganathan , p & bhanumathi ( 2016 ) . thattangal , usithattangal : arimuga kaiyedu . ( a field guide on dragonflies & damselflies in tamil ) . cre - a . chennai . pp1 - 224 urltoken\niucn . 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2010 . 4 ) . available at : http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . ( accessed : 27 october 2010 ) .\nodonates were surveyed in coimbatore district from september 2012 to january 2016 . the survey sites . . .\nodonata ( insecta ) diversity of salim ali bird sanctuary and its adjacent areas in thattekkad , kerala , . . .\nodonata diversity of salim ali bird sanctuary and its adjacent areas in thattekkad , kerala , india w . . .\ndragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) of nagaland , with an addition to the indian odonate fau . . .\nwe surveyed odonates in the districts of kohima , peren and wokha in the state of nagaland , northeas . . .\ndragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) of tripura , northeastern india with a pictorial catalog . . .\na survey of odonata was conducted in four reserve forests , three wildlife sanctuaries and three unc . . .\nodonates were recorded from kanha tiger reserve and its adjoining areas during january - december 201 . . .\nodonata are freshwater insects spread world - wide . tropical areas are high odonata diversity area . . .\npicked up this report / project on damselfies from the internet authored by the indian academy o . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nis a widely distributed and generally common species , breeding in open and disturbed habitats and is assessed as least concern .\nthis species can be somewhat local , but is common where it occurs across much of its range .\nthis species is usually found in hilly and montane areas . it breeds in small ponds and marshy areas , and is tolerant of disturbance .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhabitat : exposed ponds & seepage , forested streams and rivers ( uplands ) province ( s ) sighted : nam nao np / environs ( petchabun ) ; phu kradueng np ( loei ) ; doi suthep , doi inthanon ( chiang mai ) ; khao soi dao ( chantaburi ) . sightings ( by me ) : fairly common at phu kradeung np in flight ( that i have seen ) : march - december ( probably all year )\nthe male is easy to recognise as it has a large blue section to the abdomen and the rest of it is completely black . they like to hang right over the water ' s edge on branches and twigs .\nthe only time i have ever seen a female of the this species , was part of a copula at the small pond right next to the headquarters of doi inthanon , chiang mai . this demonstrates that they are as happy by ponds as they are alongside rivers .\nhere ' s another male and female . the female is ovipositing with the male guarding above . i was this pair late afternoon at the same location as the copula above . this went on for several minutes .\ni am too lazy to write about my past , but i now love photographing dragonflies , manchester city football club , fishing and , of course , my girlfriend .\n98 . ischnura sp . ( rufostigma selys , 1876 - group ) . . .\nnumber : 186 family : libellulidae genus : nannophya species : nannophya pygmaea common name ( s ) : the scarlet dwarf . . .\nnumber : 182 family : coenagrionidae genus : ceriagrion species : ceriagrion malaisei common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : . . .\nlocation : phu kao - phu phan kham national park , khon kaen date : saturday 28th may , 2016 habitat : lowland , shallow lake on the edg . . .\nnumber : 176 family : lestidae genus : platylestes species : platylestes platystylus common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : n / a . . .\nlocation : phu khieo wildlife sanctuary , chaiyaphum date : saturday , 12th november , 2016 habitat : mid - to upland forested ponds . . .\nnumber : 175 family : libellulidae genus : lyriothemis species : lyriothemis sp . common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : n / a ha . . .\nlocation 1 : tat fa and pha ing waterfalls , tat ton national park , chaiyaphum date : saturday 26th march , 2016 habitat : lowlands ( a . s . l . . . .\nnumber : 189 family : libellulidae genus : amphithemis species : amphithemis curvistyla common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : . . .\nnumber : 185 family : coenagrionidae genus : ceriagrion species : ceriagrion pallidum common name ( s ) : n / a syn . . .\nnumber : 57 family : libellulidae genus : trithemis species : trithemis aurora common name ( s ) : crimson marsh glider , crimson dropwing , . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 dennis farrell 2010 - 2016 . all rights reserved . simple theme . powered by blogger .\nthe male is black and white species . the thorax is black , abdominal segments 1 - 7 are bluish , segments 8 - 10 are black .\nthe female are yellow in color , broad black antehumeral stripe present and abdominal 8 - 10 are black which are the signature of the species .\ni have sighted the species from the forest patches of the north eastern forest of bangladesh .\nrhyothemis variegata ( linnaeus , 1763 ) number : 30 family : libellulidae genus : rhyothemis species : rhyothemis variegata ( . . .\npotamarcha congener ( rambur , 1842 ) number : 22 family : libellulidae genus : potamarcha species : potamarcha congener ( ramb . . .\nagriocnemis femina ( brauer , 1868 ) number : 02 family : coenagrionidae genus : agriocnemis species : agriocnemis femina ( braue . . .\nnumber : 11 family : gomphidae genus : paragomphus species : paragomphus lineatus ( selys , 1850 ) common name : lined hooktail . . .\ntrithemis aurora ( burmeister , 1839 ) trithemis aurora ( burmeister , 1839 ) number : 37 family : libellulidae genus : trith . . .\npantana flavescens ( fabricius , 1 798 ) family : libellulidae genus : pantana species : pantana flavescens ( fabricius . . .\n09 . brachydiplax chalybea ( brauer , 1868 ) number : 09 family : libellulidae genus : brachydiplax species : brachythemis chalyb . . .\nbrachythemis contaminata ( fabricius , 1793 ) number : 08 family : libellulidae genus : brachythemis species : brachythemis conta . . .\nagriocnemis kalinga ( nair & subramanian , 2014 ) number : 04 family : coenagrionidae genus : agriocnemis species : agriocnem . . .\ndiplacodes nebulosa ( fabricius , 1 79 3 ) family : libellulidae genus : diplacodes species : diplacodes nebulosa ( fabr . . .\nall photos and text are copyright . please take permission before using . simple theme . theme images by gaffera . powered by blogger .\nnew version of the portal has been deployed , some features are still under development and may not work temporarily .\nmitra , a . ( 2002 ) . dragonfly ( odonata : insecta ) fauna of trashigang dzongkhag , eastern bhutan . environment and life support systems of the bhutan himalaya 1 : 40\u201370 .\nan overview is given of literature containing distribution records of dragonfies and damselfies . . .\nodonata records from western bhutan , with six new records and a note on the synonymy of himalagrion wi . . .\nrecords of 56 species of odonata collected from western bhutan between 03 - and 15 - viii - 2015 are . . .\nthere is no special announcement ( 13 : 00 hkt on 24 . 04 . 2018 )\nthere is no special announcement ( 13 : 00 hkt on 24 . 04 . 2018 ) [ see full weather warning information ]\na broad band of clouds is covering southern china . weather forecast for today : mainly cloudy with isolated showers . light to moderate easterly winds . outlook : sunny intervals tomorrow and on sunday . mainly fine and hot early next week .\ncheck and understand heat index temperature and air pollution index before hiking . hit f5 to refresh the page if current weather is not up to date .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 572, "summary": [{"text": "bibasis jaina , the orange-striped awl , is a species of hesperid butterfly found in asia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the butterfly was reassigned to the genus burara by vane-wright and de jong ( 2003 ) , and is considered burara jaina by them .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the butterfly is occasionally referred to as the orange awlet , though that name is also used for bibasis harisa . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "bibasis jaina", "paragraphs": ["bibasis jaina ( moore , [ 1866 ] ) = ismene jaina moore , [ 1866 ] = ismene jaina vasundhara fruhstorfer , 1911 = bibais jaina = burara jaina = burara jaina jaina = ismene vasundhara fruhstorfer , 1911 .\norange - striped awl , burara jaina ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 11 ] formerly bibasis jaina .\nbibasis jaina velva ; [ bmp ] : 333 , pl . 62 , f . 4\norange awlet\nredirects here . for the other moth with this common name , see bibasis jaina .\nlife cycle of orange awlet - burara jaina . by dr . k . saji\nismene jaina vasundhara fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 59 ; tl : assam\nismene jaina formosana fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 59 ; tl : formosa\nismene jaina margana fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 60 ; tl : siam , hinlap\nbibasis kanara ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 15 ( text )\nbibasis harisa consobrina ; [ bmp ] : 332 , pl . 52 , f . 4 - 6\nbibasis iluska ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis iluska iluska ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis sena senata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis arradi [ sic ? ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 13 ( text )\ngreen awlet , burara vasutana moore , 1865 [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 13 ] formerly bibasis vasutana .\nbibasis ( coeliadinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\npale green awlet , burara gomata ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 6 ] formerly bibasis gomata .\nplain orange awlet , burara anadi de nic\u00e9ville , 1883 [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 9 ] formerly bibasis anadi .\nvane - wright and de jong ( 2003 ) ( see tol web pages on genus bibasis and genus burara in the tree of life web project ) state that bibasis contains just three diurnal species , the crepuscular remainder having been removed to burara . the species now shifted to burara are morphologically and behaviorally distinct from bibasis , within which many authors have formerly included them .\norange awlet , burara harisa ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 10 ] formerly bibasis harisa .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis jaina\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nsmall green awlet , burara amara ( moore , 1865 ) , [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] formerly bibasis amara .\nbranded orange awlet , burara oedipodea ( swainson , 1820 ) , [ 4 ] [ 7 ] [ 12 ] formerly bibasis oedipodea .\non : ismene jaina margana fruhstorfer , 1911 od : deut . ent . zeit . [ iris ] 25 : 60 . tl : hinlap , siam . ( nhml ) distribution : thailand , laos , vietnam , hainan .\nnote : bibasis contains just three diurnal species , of which only one occurs in india ; the crepuscular remainder having been removed to burara . the species now shifted to burara are morphologically and behaviorally distinct from bibasis , within which many authors have formerly included them . [ 3 ]\nbibasis sena uniformis ; inoue & kawazoe , 1964 , ty\u00f4 to ga 15 ( 2 ) : 35 ; [ bmp ] : 333 , pl . 52 , f . 9\nbibasis uniformis elwes & edwards , 1897 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 14 ( 4 ) : 305 , pl . 27 , f . 95 ; tl : java\nbibasis tuckeri elwes & edwards , 1897 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 14 ( 4 ) : 293 , pl . 20 ; tl : tavoy , s . burma\nbibasis owstoni eliot , 1980 ; malayan nat . j . 33 ( 3 / 4 ) : 150 , f . 10 , 11 , 15 , 16 ; tl : malaysia , pahang , fraser ' s hill\nbibasis harisa , the orange awlet , is a species of hesperid found in asia . the butterfly was reassigned to genus burara by vane - wright and de jong ( 2003 ) and is considered by them to be burara harisa .\nbibasis harisa , the orange awlet , [ 2 ] is a species of hesperid found in asia . the butterfly was reassigned to genus burara by vane - wright and de jong ( 2003 ) and is considered by them to be burara harisa . [ 3 ]\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis sena\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis gomata\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis amara\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis anadi\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis harisa\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis oedipodea\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbibasis vasutana\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 16 october 2007 .\nbibasis sena ; moore , [ 1881 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 4 ) : 161 , pl . 65 , f . 3 , 3a ; piepers & snellen , 1910 , rhop . java [ 2 ] : 16 , pl . 6 , f . 21a - b ; [ bir ] , 469 ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 17 ; [ mrs ] , 693 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nismene swainson , 1820 ; zool . illustr . ( 1 ) 1 : pl . 16 ( preocc . ismene savigny , 1816 ) ; ts : ismene oedipodea swainson\nismene gomata moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 783 ; tl : darjeeling\nburara gomata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\ngomata radiosa ( pl\u00f6tz , 1885 ) ( ismene ) ; berl . ent . z . 29 ( 2 ) : 232 ; tl : celebes\nburara gomata radiosa ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nismene gomata vajra fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : java\nismene mahintha moore , [ 1875 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 4 ) : 575 , pl . 67 , f . 4 ; tl : burma\nismene nestor zonaras fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 63 ; tl : wetter i .\nhasora nestor ; piepers & snellen , 1910 , rhop . java [ 2 ] : 14 , pl . 6 , f . 17a - b\nceylon , india - assam , burma , s . vietnam , malaya , philippines . see [ maps ]\ngoniloba sena moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 778 ; tl : bengal\n1019x734 ( ~ 77kb ) underside thailand , chantaburi province , khao - khitchakut national park , the krating rivulet valley among the tropical forest above the waterfalls . 6th january 2006 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nsri lanka , s . india - burma , thailand , laos , hainan , andamans\nsikkim - burma , thailand , laos , haina , andamans , s . yunnan . see [ maps ]\nismene amara pindapatra fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 62 ; tl : assam\nburara amara ; huang & xue , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 57 : 145 ( name )\nismene aphrodite fruhstorfer , 1905 ; soc . ent . 20 ( 18 ) : 141 ; tl : celebes\nburara aphrodite ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburma , thailand , laos , vietnam , malay peninsula , singapore , borneo , sumatra , java , palawan , mindanao . see [ maps ]\nismene etelka hewitson , 1867 ; ill . exot . butts [ 5 ] ( ismene i - ii ) : [ 88 ] , pl . [ 44 ] ; tl : sarawak\nismene harisa moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 782 ; tl : bengal\nismene harisa asambha fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : n . vietnam , chieem - hoa\nismene harisa distanti evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 319 ; tl : singapore\nismene imperialis pl\u00f6tz , 1886 ; stettin ent . ztg 47 ( 1 - 3 ) : 115 ; tl : celebes\nburara imperialis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis imperialis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis veteratrix ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nw . ghats , mussoorie - sikkim , assam , burma , n . thailand , vietnam . see [ maps ]\nismene velva evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 318 , no . i . 2 . 9\nchaba , assam , burma , indo - china , malay peninsula , sumatra , java , borneo , palawan , philippines , sulawesi . see [ maps ]\nismene oedipodea swainson , 1820 ; zool . illustr . ( 1 ) 1 : pl . 16 ; tl : java\nburara oedipodea ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nlarva on hiptage benghalensis [ mrs ] , combretum , hiptage vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene excellens hopffer , 1874 ; stettin ent . ztg 35 ( 1 - 3 ) : 39 ; tl : celebes\nburara oedipodea excellens ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene oedipodea [ ? ] athena fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : thailand\nburara phul ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene septentrionis c . & r . felder , [ 1867 ] ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 3 ) : 525 , pl . 73 , f . 3 ; tl : china\nsri lanka , n . india , malay peninsula , java , borneo , palawan , mindanao , sulawesi , banggai , sula . see [ maps ]\nburara tuckeri ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nlarva on hiptage vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nunipuncta lee , 1962 ; acta ent . sin . 11 ( 2 ) : 141 , 146\nnepal , sikkim , assam , burma , thailand , laos . see [ maps ]\nismene [ ? ] kanara evans , 1926 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 31 ( 1 ) : 63\nismene fergusonii de nic\u00e9ville , [ 1893 ] ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 7 ( 3 ) : 345 , pl . j , f . 6 ; tl : s . india\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nillustrations of new species of exotic butterflies selected chiefly from the collections of w . wilson saunders and william c . hewitson\na catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,\nneue hesperiden des indischen archipels und ost - africa ' s aus der collection des herrn h . ribbe in blasewitz - dresden , gesammelt von den herren : c . ribbe auf celebes , java un den aru - inseln , k\u00fcnstler auf malacca ( perak ) ; k\u00fchn auf west - guinea ( jekar ) ; menger auf ceylon\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe agaricales , or euagarics clade , is a monophyletic group of approximately 8500 mushroom species . . . read more\nthe tree of life web project ( tol ) is a collaborative effort of biologists and nature enthusiasts from around the world . on more than 10 , 000 world wide web pages , the project provides information about biodiversity , the characteristics of different groups of organisms , and their evolutionary history ( phylogeny ) .\neach page contains information about a particular group , e . g . , salamanders , segmented worms , phlox flowers , tyrannosaurs , euglenids , heliconius butterflies , club fungi , or the vampire squid . tol pages are linked one to another hierarchically , in the form of the evolutionary tree of life . starting with the root of all life on earth and moving out along diverging branches to individual species , the structure of the tol project thus illustrates the genetic connections between all living things .\nthe affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree . . . as buds give rise by growth to fresh buds , and these if vigorous , branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch , so by generation i believe it has been with the great tree of life , which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth , and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications .\ntree of life design , images , and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2005 tree of life web project . all rights reserved . image of rose \u00a9 1999 nick kurzenko . image of annelid worm \u00a9 2001 greg w . rouse .\nankita gupta , swapnil a . lokhande & abhay soman . 2013 . parasitoids of hesperiidae from peninsular india with description of a new species of dolichogenidea ( hymenoptera : braconidae ) parasitic on caterpillar of borbo cinnara ( wallace ) ( lepidoptera : hesperiidae ) zootaxa 3701 ( 2 ) : 277\u2013290 .\n( moore , [ 1866 ] ) \u2013 common orange awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\nif mentioning specific images please give media code ( s ) . for misidentifications please list reasons to assist in diagnosis .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nnakhon nayok : nakhon nayok dist . 1\u2642 ( photo by t . aoyama ) .\nfruhstorfer , h . , 1911 : neue hesperiden des indo - malayischen faunengebietes und besprechung verwandter formen .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\neclosed at home from pupae collected while photographing the caterpillars ( see comments for caterpillar image ) . photographed at release ( background is sky ) .\nskipper ( butterfly ) - richmond park , london , england - saturday july 12th 2008 .\nyup . . . . as the title says . . . better days . . . it may only be 4 days since the death of my canon eos 400d . . . but it seems like a life time already . . : o ( (\nat least i managed to capture a few images before the camera gave up the ghost , so you can expect a few dslr shots to go along side the fuji ones . . . compare and contrast as they say . . . lol . . . : o ) )\ni hope your all having a great week . . . : o ) ) )\na skipper is a butterfly of the family hesperiidae ( superfamily hesperioidea ) , named after their quick , darting flight habits .\nskippers differ in several important ways from the remaining butterflies , which are classified in the superfamily papilionoidea and the neotropical superfamily hedyloidea . collectively , these three groups of butterflies share several characteristics especially in the egg , larval and pupal stage ( ackery et al . 1999 ) . however , skippers have the antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet hook , whilst butterflies have club - like tips to their antennae and hedylids have feathered or pectinate antennae giving them an even more moth - like appearance than skippers . skippers also have generally stockier bodies than the other two groups , with stronger wing muscles . hesperioidea is very likely the sister group of papilionoidea , and together with hedyloidea constitute a natural group or clade .\nthere are about 3500 species of skippers . they are usually classified in the following subfamilies :\nnote : some authorities treat the giant skippers as a separate family , the megathymidae , but more modern classifications place them within the subfamily hesperiinae in the family hesperiidae .\nmany species of skippers look frustratingly alike . for example , some species in the genera erynnis , hesperia , and amblyscirtes cannot currently be distinguished in the field by experts , the only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia .\nthis is a hesperiid ( skipper ) caterpillar of the subfamily coeliadinae ( awls and awlets ) , hasora sp .\ni can comprehend fake eyes and facial features as a defensive mechanism , but why would it resemble a human face , far removed from the head features of any insect ? startling nonetheless .\np1320394 - large cabbage whiteat at devalsari , uttarakhand , himalayas ~ 1800m altitude .\nthis is the only one species in the burara genus in taiwan , and with its vivid orange color and unique stripes , it ' s easy to identify .\nit is distributed throughout the lowlands of the island and there are several broods in a year , so it ' s somewhat easy to meet them .\nthe male has a black spot in the upperside forewing , but it ' s very difficult to take a dorsal view of this butterfly . i would guess it ' s a male .\ni am running low on new subject material due to the longstanding inclement and unpredictable wet weather on top of work commitments , so for the next few days i will do some reposts recognizing the top 30 most ' interesting ' images in my photostream as deemed by flickr ' s magic donkey algorithm ( in reverse order in batches of five to build the suspense ) .\ncoeliadinae is a subfamily of the skipper butterfly family ( hesperiidae ) and includes the awls and awlets .\nthe cutest butterfly i have ever photographed . it was a cloudy day and i was stalking a common red eye butterfly , i saw this sitting on the underside of a leaf . to the naked eye , it looked very dull orange . almost left it thinking it was a moth . but just took a photo with flash and bingo ! ! the rest is history . . .\ncheck out this home i found on urltoken . follow urltoken on pinterest : urltoken | awlet | pinterest\nthe orange awlet is found in india , myanmar , malaysia , java , singapore , hong kong and north vietnam .\nin india , the butterfly is found along the himalayas from sikkim to assam and eastwards to south myanmar . it also has been recorded from the andaman islands .\nit is considered by william harry evans to be very rare in hong kong , rare in south india , but not rare in the himalayas .\nmale . upperside dull vinaceous brown , palest on the disk ; forewing with an orange yellow costal streak ; hindwing broadly along anterior margin pale buff yellow . body greyish . cilia of hindwing orange yellow . underside paler suffused with orange yellow ; forewing with a curved series of pale purple narrow streaks between the veins before the apex , and a broad pale buff patch along the posterior margin ; hindwing with the veins and lines between them and cilia orange yellow : a black orange yellow encircled basal spot on both wings ; a discal series of pale purplish streaks . third joint of palpi brown ; palpi beneath , front and sides of thorax , legs and streak alongside of abdomen orange yellow ; middle of thorax and abdomen and anal tuft orange yellow .\na total of 22 species belonging to four genera of the coeliadinae ( family hesperiidae ) , or the awls , awlets and awlkings , as they are commonly called , are found in india . these are relatively large skippers which inhabit dense forests , mostly evergreen , and have dicotyledonous host - plants . the vividly marked , smooth , cylindrical caterpillars construct cells from leaves within which they metamorphose into stout pupae . these skippers tend to synchronise egg - laying followed by migration , sometimes to sub - optimal habitats in search of fresh supplies of host - plants .\nthe awls and related genera have long , narrow forewings , rounded hindwings with a characteristic deep fold at the inner margin and produced at the tornus . the adult sexes are alike excepting that males have specialised scales and scent brands on the forewings . they have large labial palpi which have a thin third segment protruding ahead of the eye . the eyes are large , an adaptation to the crespuscular habits of this species .\nthis list forms part of the full list of butterflies of india ( hesperiidae ) which itself is part of the complete list of butterflies of india .\nthe common name similar awlking is that of taxon similis ( vide evans ( 1932 ) ) which is not recognised as a valid species by savela and by tolweb ( ref its page on genus choaspes ) . taxon similis is now considered to be a synonym of taxon xanthopogon .\nthe species is considered to be furcata by [ lepindex ] , and as furcatus by tolweb . savela gives it as furcatus without appropriate reference for the change . accordingly it is being retained as furcata , with furcatus as redirect , pending the availability of a proper reference .\nhasora alexis ( fabricius , 1775 ) is a synonym of h . chromus vide lepindex\nevans in the identification of indian butterflies , ( 1932 ) ( ser no i 1 . 9 , pp 224 ) records it as occurring in the nicobars .\nevans in the identification of indian butterflies , ( 1932 ) ( ser no i 1 . 10 , pp 224 ) records it as occurring in the nicobars .\ngay , thomas ; kehimkar , isaac david ; punetha , jagdish chandra ( 1992 ) .\n. nature guides . bombay , india : world wide fund for nature - india by oxford university press .\nwatson , e . y . ( 1891 ) hesperiidae indicae . vest and co . madras .\nbeccaloni , george ; scoble , malcolm ; kitching , ian ; simonsen , thomas ; robinson , gaden ; pitkin , brian ; hine , adrian ; lyal , chris .\nbrower , andrew v . z . and warren , andrew , ( 2007 ) . coeliadinae evans 1937 . version 21 february 2007 ( temporary ) . urltoken in the tree of life web project , urltoken .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 19 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\noriginal russian text \u00a9 a . l . monastyrskii , 2009 , published in entomologicheskoe obozrenie , 2009 , vol . 88 , no . 3 , pp . 553\u2013580 .\narnol\u2019di , k . v . , \u201con the theory of a distribution range in relation to ecology and origin of populations , \u201d zool . zh .\naveryanov , l . v . , phan ke loc , nguyen tien hiep , and harder , d . k . , \u201cphytogeographic review of vietnam and adjacent areas of eastern indochina , \u201d komarovia\ncotton , a . and rachelli , t . , \u201cpreliminary annotated checklist of the papilionidae of laos with notes on taxonomy , phenology , distribution and variation ( lepidoptera , papilionoidea ) , \u201d fragmenta entomol . roma , no . 38 , 279\u2013378 ( 2007 ) .\neliot , j . n . , \u201can analysis of the eurasian and australian neptini ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) , \u201d bull . brit . mus . nat . hist . ( entomol . ) suppl .\n, ed . by r . hall and j . holloway , \u201d ( backhuys publ . , leiden , 1998 ) , pp . 99\u2013131 .\nhirowatari , t . , \u201ca generic classification of the tribe polyommatini of the oriental and australian regions ( lepidoptera , lycaenidae , polyommatinae ) , \u201d bull . univ . osaka pref . ser . b suppl .\nholloway , j . d . , \u201ca numerical investigation of the biogeography of the butterfly fauna of india and its relation to continental drift , \u201d biol . j . linn . soc .\nholloway , j . d . , \u201cthe affinities within four butterfly groups ( lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) in relation to genera patterns of butterfly distribution in the indo - australian area , \u201d trans . r . entomol . soc . london\n( dr . w . junk publishers , the hague , 1974 ) , pp . 473\u2013499 .\nholloway , j . d . and hall , r . , \u201cse asian geology and biogeography : an introduction , \u201d in\n, ed . by r . hall and j . holloway , \u201d ( backhuys publ . , leiden , 1998 ) , pp . 1\u201323 .\n( masson et cie , paris , 1967 ; progress , moscow , 1976 ) [ in russian ] .\n( harvard univ . press , cambridge , 1970 ; mir , moscow , 1974 ) [ in russian ] .\nmiller , l . d . , \u201cthe higher classification , phylogeny and zoogeography of the satyridae ( lepidoptera ) , \u201d mem . amer . entomol . soc . , no . 24 , 1\u2013174 ( 1968 ) .\n( geos , moscow \u2014 hanoi , 2003 ) , pp . 188\u2013218 [ in russian ] .\nmonastyrskii , a . l . , \u201cfauna , ecology and biogeography of butterflies in vietnam , \u201d butterflies , no . 44 , 41\u201355 ( 2006 ) .\nmonastyrskii , a . l . , \u201cecological and biogeographical characteristics of butterflies ( lepidoptera , rhopalocera ) of vietnam , \u201d entomol . obozr .\nmonastyrskii , a . l . and devyatkin , a . l . , \u201cnew taxa and new records of butterflies from vietnam ( lepidoptera , rhopalocera ) , \u201d atalanta\nmonastyrskii , a . l . and kotlobai , a . a . , \u201csome biological characteristics and laboratory rearing of\nosada , s . , uemura , y . , and uehara , j . ,\n, ed . by y . nishiyama ( mokuyo - sha , 1999 ) .\n( cambridge univ . press , london , 1952 ; inostr . liter . , moscow , 1961 ) [ in russian ] .\n( akad . nauk sssr , moscow , 1962 ) [ in russian ] .\n( len . gos . univ . , leningrad , 1965 ) [ in russian ] .\nvane - wright , r . i . and boppre , m . , \u201cadult morphology and higher classification of\nvoris , h . k . , \u201cmaps of pleistocene sea levels in southeast asia : shorelines , river systems and time durations , \u201d j . biogeogr .\nyamaguchi , s . and aoki , t . , \u201cstudies on the butterflies of the semi - dried tropical forest in east thailand iii . butterflies collected during the survey in the provinces of mukdahan and ubon ratchathani , august and september 1999 ( insecta : lepidoptera : rhopalocera ) , \u201d evol . sci . , no . 11 , 41\u201359 ( 2005 ) .\n( nauka , leningrad , 1970 ) , pp . 29\u201388 [ in russian ] .\na total of 22 species belonging to four genera of the subfamily coeliadinae ( family hesperiidae ) , or the awls , awlets and awlkings , as they are commonly called , are found in india . these are relatively large skippers which inhabit dense forests , mostly evergreen , and have dicotyledonous host plants . the vividly marked , smooth , cylindrical caterpillars construct cells from leaves within which they metamorphose into stout pupae . these skippers tend to synchronise egg - laying followed by migration , sometimes to sub - optimal habitats in search of fresh supplies of host plants .\nthe awls and related genera have long , narrow forewings , rounded hindwings with a characteristic deep fold at the inner margin and produced at the tornus . the adult sexes are alike excepting that males have specialised scales and scent brands on the forewings . they have large labial palpi which have a thin third segment protruding ahead of the eye . the eyes are large , an adaptation to the crepuscular habits of this species .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nbadamia exclamationis\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved april 20 , 2018 .\nharibal , meena ( 1992 ) . the butterflies of sikkim himalaya and their natural history . gangtok , sikkim , india : sikkim nature conservation foundation .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes benjaminii\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes plateni\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes xanthopogon\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nthe common name similar awlking is that of taxon similis ( vide evans ( 1932 ) ) which is not recognised as a valid species by savela and by tolweb ( ref its page on genus choaspes ) . taxon similis is now considered to be a synonym of taxon xanthopogon .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nchoaspes hemixanthus ssp . furcata\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . accessed 12 october 2007 .\nthe species is considered to be furcata by lepindex , and as furcatus by tolweb . savela gives it as furcatus without appropriate reference for the change . accordingly it is being retained as furcata , with furcatus as redirect , pending the availability of a proper reference .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora anura\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nhasora alexis ( fabricius , 1775 ) is a synonym of h . chromus vide beccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora chromus\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora chromus\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora taminatus\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora schoenherr\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora badra\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora vitta\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora khoda\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora leucospila\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 12 october 2007 .\nbeccaloni , g . ; scoble , m . ; kitching , i . ; simonsen , t . ; robinson , g . ; pitkin , b . ; hine , a . ; lyal , c . , eds . ( 2003 ) .\nhasora salanga\n. the global lepidoptera names index . natural history museum . retrieved 2 october 2007 .\nevans , w . h . ( 1932 ) . the identification of indian butterflies ( 2nd ed . ) . mumbai , india : bombay natural history society .\ngay , thomas ; kehimkar , isaac david ; punetha , jagdish chandra ( 1992 ) . common butterflies of india . nature guides . bombay , india : world wide fund for nature - india by oxford university press . isbn 978 - 0195631647 .\nkunte , krushnamegh ( 2000 ) . butterflies of peninsular india . india , a lifescape . hyderabad , india : universities press . isbn 978 - 8173713545 .\nwynter - blyth , mark alexander ( 1957 ) . butterflies of the indian region . bombay , india : bombay natural history society . isbn 978 - 8170192329 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe orange awlet is found in india , myanmar , malaysia , java , singapore , hong kong and north vietnam . [ 2 ]\nin india , the butterfly is found along the himalayas from sikkim to assam and eastwards to south myanmar . it also has been recorded from the andaman islands . [ 2 ] [ 4 ]\nit is considered by william harry evans to be very rare in hong kong , rare in south india , but not rare in the himalayas . [ 4 ]\n. upperside dark purple brown ; the base of wings greyish , with steel blue gloss . body greyish . cilia of hindwing pale orange yellow . underside as in male ; posterior margin of forewing with a less defined pale patch .\nthe larva has been recorded on zingiber zerumbet ( zingiberaceae ) . [ 2 ]\nbrower , andrew v . z . and warren , andrew , ( 2007 ) . coeliadinae evans 1937 . version 21 february 2007 ( temporary ) . urltoken in the tree of life web project , urltoken\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation ."]}
{"id": 577, "summary": [{"text": "the marquesan kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) is a species of bird in the family alcedinidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to french polynesia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss and predation by introduced species , and is currently classified as critically endangered , with less than 500 individuals left in the wild . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "marquesan kingfisher", "paragraphs": ["marquesan kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) is a species of bird in the alcedinidae family .\nsurvival , territory resources , and population persistence in the critically endangered tuamotu kingfisher .\nadamson , a . m . 1936 . marquesan insects : environment . bernice p . bishop museum bulletin 139 : 1 - 73 .\nrolett , b . v . 1993 . marquesan prehistory and the origins of east polynesian culture . jounral de la societe des oceanisttes 96 : 29 - 47 .\nthe marquesan kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) , one of the most endangered kingfishers , faces a different suite of threats . once found on a handful of islands in the marquesas chain , the species is now limited to only one , tahuata . the bird\u2019s decline has been attributed to habitat degradation\u2026\nthis article is part of project alcedinidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each kingfisher , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project halcyoninae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each tree kingfisher , including made - up species .\ni did two internships back in french polynesia , with the ornithological society of french polynesia ( sop manu ) . my first three - month internship was working on a conservation project funded by the clp ( conservation leadership program ) . the project\u2019s goal was to update the population number of the endangered species marquesan kingfisher ( only population on tahuata island , marquesas archipelago )\nthe rufous - collared kingfisher is categorised as near - threatened due to the rapid loss of its rainforest habitat . a number of species are considered threatened by human activities and are in danger of extinction . the majority of these are forest species with limited distribution , particularly insular species . they are threatened by habitat loss caused by forest clearance or degradation and in some cases by introduced species . the marquesan kingfisher of french polynesia is listed as critically endangered due to a combination of habitat loss and degradation caused by introduced cattle , and possibly due to predation by introduced species .\ni studied factors influencing territory configuration in the tuamotu kingfisher ( todiramphus gambieri ) . radiotelemetry data were used to define territory boundaries , and i tested for effects on territory size and shape of landscape habitat composition and foraging patch configuration . tuamotu kingfisher territories were larger in areas with reduced densities of coconut plantation foraging . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . future research should analyze habitat preferences of mo ' orean kingfishers in greater detail . closely related kingfisher species have been seen habituating coconut trees in managed and unmanaged coconut farms ( coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . studies of the mo ' orean kingfisher should be conducted in coconut farms to support or refute this idea . . . .\nwagner , w . l . 1991 . evolution of waif floras : a comparison of the hawaiian and marquesan archipelagos . pages 267 - 284 in e . dudley , editor . the unity of evolutionary biology . the proceedings of the 4th international congress of systematics and evolutionary biology . dioscorides press , portland , oregon .\n22 cm . distinctive kingfisher with buff triangle on upper back . totally white crown , forehead , mantle and centre of upper back . blue eye - stripe ending as broken line behind head . white underparts . blue - green lower back , rump , tail and wings .\na wide range of threats affect populations of pacific island birds and conservationists have been challenged to identify factors upon which to focus management . the tuamotu kingfisher ( todiramphus gambieri ) is one of the most endangered vertebrate species in the world , yet little has been published about basic biology or causes of the population decline . we used 4 years of mark - resight and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nwoodall , p . f . , sharpe , c . j . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . marquesas kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 10 july 2018 ) .\n. . . there was a notable gap in occupancy in a large agricultural area on the lagoon side of the western - central section of niau ( 16\u00b0 08\u2032 34 . 26\u2033 s , 146\u00b0 23\u2032 28 . 68\u2033 w ) . active and mixed fallow coconut agriculture , wetlands , and feo forests characterized the gap region . agricultural coconut groves are open , and similar to those described previously as suitable habitat for the tuamotu kingfisher ( see coulombe et al . 2011 ) . although it was not clear why the birds did not occur in the release location , disturbances for airport construction is likely cause of extirpation . . . .\n. . . point - transect surveys were conducted annually from 2006 through 2009 at stations spaced by approximately 300 m along the island ' s ocean and lagoon coasts . results showed regular kingfisher occurrence around the eastern half of the island , with occasional detections along the western oceanic coast ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . there was a notable gap in occupancy in a large agricultural area on the lagoon side of the western - central section of niau ( 16\u00b0 08\u2032 34 . 26\u2033 s , 146\u00b0 23\u2032 28 . 68\u2033 w ) . active and mixed fallow coconut agriculture , wetlands , and feo forests characterized the gap region . . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv , v ) ver 3 . 1\nderh\u00e9 , m . , mahood , s . , o ' brien , a . , shutes , s . , stattersfield , a . , symes , a . , ashpole , j , north , a .\nthis species is listed as critically endangered as , following its extinction on hiva oa , it is now found on only a single small island on which it is suspected to be declining owing to habitat deterioration and predation .\nand was last seen in february 1997 in the atuona valley . searches in 2001 , 2004 and 2006 failed to find the species and it is considered extinct on the island ( j . - c . thibault\nghestemme and timau ( 2014 ) estimated the population to be approximately 350 mature individuals .\n2012 ] ) may have contributed to the decline ( gouni and zysman 2007 ) . on tahuata , black rats , polynesian rats\n2012 , ghestemme and timau 2014 ) . mynas are currently absent on the island and local inhabitants are aware of the risk of their introduction to tahuata island ( withers\n2012 ) , and 2013 - 2014 ( ghestemme and timau 2014 ) investigating the distribution , species ' s behaviour and nesting and territory requirements . public awareness - raising was implemented with positive results , as inhabitants were previously unaware of the species ' s endemic status .\nregularly resurvey the species to determine trends . investigate threats , including feral cat impact and species distribution knowledge . work with local stakeholders to protect remaining forest and retain dead trees in plantations , especially in coconut plantations . take all measures possible to ensure that\ndoes not colonise tahutua . exclude livestock from the remaining intact forest . consider the possibility of translocation to a nearby island . produce a species recovery plan and develop captive breeding populations .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ntraditionally thought to form a species - group with several other australasian and polynesian species ( see t . sanctus ) . monotypic .\nhiva oa and tahuata ( probably extinct in the former ) # r , in marquesas is ; reports from other islands in marquesas ( ua pou , mohotani and fatu hiva ) are apparently erroneous .\n21 cm . both sexes white crown , neck and underparts , dark mask through eye continuing as blue - black stripe and as thin band across nape ; upper mantle with characteristic buffy . . .\nshort , deep , repeated \u201ckiau\u201d , which can accelerate into chatter ; also soft \u201ctreeet - tee - tee\u201d .\nprimary forest , preferring dense humid forest along mountain streams and in remote valleys ; . . .\ninsects , mainly beetles ( coleoptera ) and large grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) , and small lizards ; possibly some fish . takes prey in the foliage . . .\nlays in sept\u2013jan on hiva oa . nest found in hole of old mango tree , another in hollow with 2 entrances dug into decayed screw - pine ( . . .\ncritically endangered . restricted - range species : present in marquesas islands eba . population in 1970s 300\u2013500 pairs on tahuata and under 50 pairs on hiva oa . on latter . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : todiramphus godeffroyi . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthe treeet - tee - tee call described in pratt , et al . listen for it at 30 to 31 sec . sadly , a very rare bird now . confined to tahuata . seen in coconut plantation understory .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\n2012 ) . it formerly occurred on hiva oa , where there were fewer than 50 pairs in 1971 and 1973 ; it was exceedingly rare on the island in 1990 ( seitre and seitre 1991 ) and was last seen in february 1997 in the atuona valley . searches in 2001 , 2004 and 2006 failed to find the species and it is considered extinct on the island ( j . - c . thibault\n2009 ) . records from fatu hiva , mohotani and ua pou are apparently erroneous ( holyoak and thibault 1984 , thibault 1988 ) .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nmarquesasinkalastaja\nfrom\ntodiramphus godeffroyi ( finsch , 1877 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 301 , 298 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project coraciiformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each coraciiform , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nmany of the flight - inclusive holidays on this website are financially protected by the atol scheme . but atol protection does not apply to all holiday and travel services listed on this website . please ask us to confirm what protection may apply to your booking . if you do not receive an atol certificate then the booking will not be atol protected . if you do receive an atol certificate but all the parts of your trip are not listed on it , those parts will not be atol protected . please see our booking conditions for information , or for more for more information about financial protection and the atol certificate go to : urltoken certificate\nbirdquest ltd is registered in england , company no . 01568270 . the address of our registered office is two jays , kemple end , stonyhurst , clitheroe , lancashire bb7 9qy\nlike the hawaiian islands , the tropical marquesas islands are extremely isolated and all flora and fauna present are the result of long - distance colonization and in situ evolution for thousands to millions of years . forty - two percent of the 320 native vascular plants are endemic . the terrestrial snail community is quite diverse , with at least 78 species represented . ten endemic birds occur here . unfortunately , this biodiversity has been exposed to almost two millennia of human disturbance . several species have gone extinct in known history and much of the flora and fauna is critically endangered .\nthe protection and management of upper - elevation forests on ua pou , nuku hiva , fatu hika , ua huku , and fatu hiva islands would serve to protect large numbers of endemic plant species and the unique communities they form ( dahl 1980 , montgomery et al . 1980 , thibault 1988 , seitre & seitre 1992 , florence & lorence 1997 ) .\njustification of ecoregion delineation this ecoregion consists of the relatively discrete marquesas islands group . allison treats the cooks , societies , tuamotus , and marquesas as a unit herpetologically as they share a similar reptile assemblage . van balgooy ( 1996 ) similarly lumps the cooks , niue , societies , tuamotus , tubaui , and marquesas based on floristic affinities . however , birdlife international ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) separates the marquesas from surrounding island groups due to the presence of 10 endemic bird species , and based on this consideration we have delineated the marquesas as a separate ecoregion .\nreferences adamson , a . m . 1935 . affinities and origins of the fauna of the marquesas islands . phd dissertation university of california , berkeley . 205 pp .\nbrown , f . b . h . 1931 . flora of southeastern polynesia . i . monocotyledons . bernice p . bishop museum bulletin 84 : 1 - 194 .\nbrown , f . b . h . 1935 . flora of southeastern polynesia . iii . dicotyledons . bernice p . bishop museum bulletin 130 : 1 - 386 .\ndahl , a . l . 1980 . regional ecosystems survey of the south pacific area . south pacific commission , noumea , new caledonia .\ndekker , b . g . 1992 . secondary plant cover on upland slopes : marquesas islands , french polynesia . atoll research bulletin 363 : 1 - 36 .\nflorence , j . and d . h . lorence . 1997 introduction to the flora and vegetation of the marquesas islands . allertonia 7 : 226 - 237 .\nkuehler , c . , a . lieberman , a . varney , p . unitt , r . m . sulpice , j . azua , and b . tehevini . 1997 . translocation of ultramarine lories , vini ultramarina , in the marquesas islands : ua huka to fatu hiva . bird conservation international 7 : 69 - 79 .\nmontgomery , s . l . , w . c . gagne , and b . h . gagne . 1980 . notes on birdlife and nature conservation in the marquesas and society islands . \u2018elepaio 40 : 152 - 156 .\nmueller - dombois , d . and f . r . fosberg . 1998 . vegetation of the tropical pacific islands . springer press , new york .\nseitre , r . and j . seitre . 1992 . causes of land - bird extinctions in french polynesia . oryx 26 : 215 - 222 .\nstattersfield , a . j . , m . j . crosby , a . j . long , and d . c . wege . 1998 . endemic bird areas of the world : priorities for biodiversity conservation . birdlife conservation series no . 7 , birdlife international , cambridge , uk . 846 pp .\nsteadman , d . w . 1995 . prehistoric extinctions of pacific island birds : biodiversity meets zooarchaeology . science 267 : 1123 - 1130 .\nsteadman , d . w . and b . rolett . 1996 . a chronostratigraphic analysis of landbird extinction on tahuata , marquesas islands . journal of archaeological science 23 : 81 - 94 .\nthibualt , j . - c . 1988 . menac\u00e9s et conservation des oiseaux de polyn\u00e9sie fran\u00e7aise . pages 87 - 124 in j . - c . thibualt and i . guyot , eds . livre rouge des oiseaux menac\u00e9s des r\u00e9gions fran\u00e7aises d\u2019outre - mer . conseil internatioal pur la protection des oiseaux ( monograph 5 ) , saint - cloud .\nvan balgooy , p . h . hovenkamp , and p . c . van welzen . 1996 . phytogeography of the pacific \u2013 floristic and historical distribution patterns in plants . pages 191 - 213 in keast , a . and s . e . miller , editors . the origin and evolution of pacific island biotas , new guinea to eastern polynesia : patterns and processes . spb academic publishing , amsterdam .\nwwf and iucn . 1995 . centres of plant diversity . a guide and strategy for their conservation . vol . 2 . asia , australasia and the pacific . iucn publication unit , cambridge , uk .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nlocally called\npahi\n. this is one of the world ' s rarest kingfishers . currently assessed as critically endangered due to its sole distribution on only one single island and it is already extinct on the other .\nalthough not so extremely rare on its now sole surviving home - tahuata island , it is still not easy to locate them reliably unless an active nest is located . we were lucky to locate a pair and a dependent juvenile at an uninhabited beach .\ni later found out that this is a parent perching on its favourite vantage point for catching prey on the ground , which it flew to feed its young nearby .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nles effets de la modification anthropique de l ' habitat sont \u00e9vidents sur les \u00eeles tropicales du pacifique o\u00f9 les for\u00eats ont \u00e9t\u00e9 extensivement converties en plantations de cocos nucifera . nous avons \u00e9valu\u00e9 la s\u00e9lection des ressources chez todiramphus gambieri gertrudae , une esp\u00e8ce en danger critique d ' extinction limit\u00e9e \u00e0 une seule population sur l ' \u00eele \u00e0 basse altitude de niau atoll , en polyn\u00e9sie fran\u00e7aise . nos analyses indiquent que les ressources associ\u00e9es \u00e0 la qu\u00eate de nourriture sont \u00e0 la base de l ' utilisation de l ' espace et de la s\u00e9lection de l ' habitat par cette esp\u00e8ce \u00e0 plusieurs \u00e9chelles spatiales . \u00e0 l ' \u00e9chelle de l ' \u00eele , les caract\u00e9ristiques de l ' habitat associ\u00e9es \u00e0 des opportunit\u00e9s d ' alimentation , telles que les plantations de cocotiers avec un sous - \u00e9tage ouvert , des perchoirs de chasse et un sol expos\u00e9 , sont les facteurs qui permettent le mieux de pr\u00e9dire la pr\u00e9sence de l ' esp\u00e8ce . \u00e0 l ' inverse , la r\u00e9partition de l ' esp\u00e8ce \u00e9tait n\u00e9gativement associ\u00e9e \u00e0 une v\u00e9g\u00e9tation non perturb\u00e9e , telle que les for\u00eats primaires et les plantations de cocotiers en jach\u00e8re . \u00e0 l ' \u00e9chelle du domaine vital , la r\u00e9partition des individus munis d ' \u00e9metteurs a \u00e9galement indiqu\u00e9 que les oiseaux ont s\u00e9lectionn\u00e9 les for\u00eats agricoles de cocotiers et ont moins pr\u00e9f\u00e9r\u00e9 les for\u00eats primaires . les observations ont de plus indiqu\u00e9 que les oiseaux en qu\u00eate alimentaire ont s\u00e9lectionn\u00e9 les plantations de cocotiers g\u00e9r\u00e9es \u00e0 l ' aide du br\u00fblage dirig\u00e9 pour la chasse . t . gambieri gertrudae constitue un exemple rare d ' une esp\u00e8ce tropicale menac\u00e9e susceptible de b\u00e9n\u00e9ficier de la gestion agricole . nos r\u00e9sultats soutiennent les strat\u00e9gies de conservation bas\u00e9es sur l ' \u00e9tablissement de populations de sauvetage sur d ' autres \u00eeles poss\u00e9dant des plantations de cocotiers . nous sugg\u00e9rons que le fait d ' incorporer les for\u00eats agricoles de cocotiers dans la planification de la conservation peut aider \u00e0 pr\u00e9venir l ' extinction de plusieurs esp\u00e8ces de martins - p\u00eacheurs qui d\u00e9pendaient par ie pass\u00e9 des habitats naturels de feuillus qui sont d\u00e9sormais pratiquement absents des \u00eeles d ' oc\u00e9anie , dans le pacifique .\nl , adapted with permission from butaud ( 2007 ) . locations and results of tu\ne ar ea wa s act ively used to pro duce c oconu ts .\nis akaike weight ( i . e . , model probability given the set of\n25 , 25 , and 75 m ( e . g . , un\ufb01lled points ) ; ground cover bet\n\ue017 . \ue015\ue016 \ue014 ( m a na g ed c oc o nu t f o re s t ) \u2013 \ue014 . \ue014 \ue006\ue005 ( m ea n\nt t o \ue006\ue014 % in man ag ed c oco nut for es t . p ar am\nlo ca tio ns ( fi g . \ue011 ) f rom vi sua l o bs er vat io ns ( \ue016\ue006 % ) , tr ia ng ul at ion ( \ue018\ue014 % ;\n, e d . ) . pa peet e , fre nch po lyne sia .\nar e ac ute ly s usc ept ibl e to glo ba l ch ang e . b iod ive rsi ty a nd c on ser\nrces ( m . l . reaka - kudla , d . e . wi\n. . . common myna removal projects may prove to be more effective if conducted in agricultural areas as well as forests , based on our findings that common mynas were less frequently detected in forests . there is very little information about the habitat requirements , calling activity , and natural history of native avifauna in french polynesia ( coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . mo ' orean kingfishers were shown in this study to have low call counts , low detection probability , and a negative correlation with non - native calling activity in all of the habitats studied . . . .\n. . . not all avian species will decline with human disturbance , and some may even benefit from resource subsidies and increases in open and edge habitats , including those within anthropogenic areas ( werner , hejl & brush , 2007 ; kamp et al . , 2009 ; coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . the bahama oriole uses anthropogenic areas during the breeding season , where it selects nest sites in the tallest available palm trees ( price , lee & hayes , 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . synanthropic species , which cohabit with humans and benefit from resources and modifications that exist in anthropogenic landscapes , present unique challenges for conservation management . today , at least 14 highly endangered birds are recognized as synanthropic , including the bahama oriole ( coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ; price , lee & hayes , 2011 ; wright , lake & dolman , 2012 ) . the extent to which synanthropy affects gene flow among populations remains unclear , but rapid cultural and evolutionary changes may be associated with landscape modification ( johnston , 2001 ; boardman , 2006 ; jim\u00e9nez et al . , 2013 ) . . . .\n. . . we removed locations with an estimated error ellipse greater than 2 ha in size to reduce the potential effects of inaccurate locations ( e . g . kesler & haig , 2007 ; coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . together , excluded bearing groups represented less than 5 % of the total dataset . . . .\n. . . the climate was tropical oceanic without pronounced seasons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) . we conducted our research during 2006\u2013 2010 on 2 study areas situated on the east side of the island , 1 on the ocean coast and 1 near the lagoon ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . coconut plantations on the 2 study areas were managed by farmers using hand tools and prescribed burns to clear understory vegetation . . . .\n. . . we estimated both apparent survival \u00f0 ^ f\u00fe and the probability of resight \u00f0 ^ p\u00fe to account for individuals that might have been present on study areas but were missed when resighting color bands ( lebreton et al . 1992 , anders and marshall 2005 ) . we incorporated island and territory resource metrics into the analysis of adult survival ( f ahy ) using previously published results of resource use , wherein we defined home range area ( ha ) by the 95 % isopleth constructed with a kernel density analysis of radio - marked individuals ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . we intersected home range polygons with vegetation cover maps for niau ( butaud 2007 ) to identify the area of each habitat within home ranges , including atoll forest , mixed coconut and atoll forest , agricultural coconut plantation , littoral zone , urbanized , and wetland . . . .\n. . . we used a mean of 0 . 95 ( sd 0 . 02 ) for f , a mean of 1 . 7 ( sd 0 . 15 ) for n , and a mean of 0 . 534 ( sd 0 . 105 ) for f nestling . we selected simulation input values for effects of territory size on adult female survival from a normally distributed set of values centered on the mean home range size of birds used in our survival analysis ( 4 . 2 ha , sd 0 . 1 ; coulombe et al . 2011 ) . we simulated 1 , 000 value combinations for matrix variables and derived l i for each . . . .\n. . . the climate was tropical oceanic without pronounced seasons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) . we conducted our research during 20062010 on 2 study areas situated on the east side of the island , 1 on the ocean coast and 1 near the lagoon ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . coconut plantations on the 2 study areas were managed by farmers using hand tools and prescribed burns to clear understory vegetation . . . .\n. . . we estimated both apparent survival \u00f0 ^ f\u00fe and the probability of resight \u00f0 ^ p\u00fe to account for individuals that might have been present on study areas but were missed when resighting color bands ( lebreton et al . 1992 , anders andmarshall 2005 ) . we incorporated island and territory resource metrics into the analysis of adult survival ( f ahy ) using previously published results of resource use , wherein we defined home range area ( ha ) by the 95 % isopleth constructed with a kernel density analysis of radio - marked individuals ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . we intersected home range polygons with vegetation cover maps for niau ( butaud 2007 ) to identify the area of each habitat within home ranges , including atoll forest , mixed coconut and atoll forest , agricultural coconut plantation , littoral zone , urbanized , and wetland . . . .\n. . . we used a mean of 0 . 95 ( sd 0 . 02 ) for f , a mean of 1 . 7 ( sd 0 . 15 ) for n , and a mean of 0 . 534 ( sd 0 . 105 ) for f nestling . we selected simulation input values for effects of territory size on adult female survival from a normally distributed set of values centered on the mean home range size of birds used in our survival analysis ( 4 . 2 ha , sd 0 . 1 ; coulombe et al . 2011 ) . . . .\n. . . the climate is tropical oceanic without pronounced seasons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) . from 2006 to 2010 donor population research ( coulombe 2010 , coulombe et al . 2011 ) was conducted primarily on two study areas situated on the east side of the island : one on the ocean coast and one near the lagoon . coconut forests on the two study areas are managed by the farmers using hand tools and prescribed burns to clear understory vegetation . . . .\nsurvival , territory resources , and population persistence in the critically endangered tuamotu kingf . . .\ntranslocation of tuamotu kingfishers , postrelease exploratory behavior , and harvest effects on the d . . .\nconservationists previously described the need for research into using translocation to rescue threatened populations . we conducted an experimental translocation of tuamotu kingfishers ( todiramphus gambieri gertrudae ) to pro - vide foundational information about movement ecology and inform conserva - tion planning for the critically endangered bird . we captured and radio - marked mated pairs of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\n> stream h\u0089\u0094u ] o\u00a2p\u0010 } \u00f7w\u00ec # 7y\u00ae ^ \u00be\u0094\u00a4i\u0082p\u00b5\u00b4 f\u00e0\u00a1\u00f9n6\u00f4b\u00eb\u0086j\u0017t\u0013\u00ff\u00fd\u00fe\u00e1j\u00b1 { i\u00bb > \u00a80\u00fc9gf\u00ee \u00e6q\u00af\u00bf\u0080\u008b\u008b ~ \u00e8\u00fa \u00a4\u009bgp\u00b2\u008d\u009ad\u00e4\u00f2r\u00ec\u00b9\u00f0\u00eb\u00e7\u00f1\u0000\u0098\u0006\u00f1\u00ba\u00e7\u0006 # \u00b0l\u008b\u00fa\u0016\u00e4\u000f = \u0005h\u00fc\u00ab\u00e7c | \u00e6 - \u0093 & a ; \u0094\u0081\u00aa\u0099t\u0084\u0007\u00bf + k \u0011c\u0099 ' k\u0097c\u00e4\u0003nt\u00e5\u008d } \u00a2\u00ea\u00ea | & \u0002\u00e0\u00ec < \u0088\u0088\u00aa ) \u00e7 % \u00a6\u00e2\u0001c\n\u009b\u00aep\u00a2\u008a8qme > \u0011\u0097\u0010 _ q\u00f2\u00fc0\u0014w\u00e9\u00e3\u0091\u00f8w \u0011 \u0082\u00fbc\u0080\u00ef < \u0091\u00e4\u0099m9\u00e6\u0097\u00fc # \u0003c\u00f1\u00f5 # \u00be\u00fe\u00a7\u0002mz\u00e1\u00f0t\u0082v\u00a8 ! n \u00915\u009c\u00e7\u00984\u0081\u009b\u0006 | 6\u0015 \u0013 ? \u00ba\u00e2 \u00bed\u0086wj\u0083\n\u00fa\u00e8\u008em4\u0018\u00f5e\u00b7\u000fi\u00e6h\u00ee _ bin\u00b8\u00b8jd\u0082\b\u00a6x\u00fe \u00e7 > \u0017e\u00bd ? m\u00e1\u00f0\u00a8n \u00ef\u00df\u0011\u0004\u0091\u0016\u00a2k q\u0099nc\u0011\u00a7q\u00e8\u00e7ht \u00f6\u00fa\u0083\u00fc\u00f9 \u000f\u0096r\u00fc / ' j\u00ea5\u00a3\u007fj\u00f2\u0092\u009345\u00ea\u008c6m\u0007\u00e2 ' \u00f1\u00a6\u00ac\u00eeqh5\u00bcth * \u0013\u00ad\u00ae\u00b3\u00ed\u0016\u00efe\u000f \u00ae\u00b6 % \u00fe\u0097\u0093 \u00ea\u00b1tf\u00adq\u001bk\u00fb\u00945i & \u00e9jwl\u00f7 \u00a6 [ \u00aeqf\u00e7\u00e0\u00b4j v\u00e9\u0001\u0015\u00a2\u00f5sy\u0016\u00f8 _ \u008e : \u00ea\u0018\u0083p\u00a3\u00f5f\u00e5 | \u00fa\u001bf\u00b2\u00e9\u00ff\b ` \u00ac\u00b0\u00aa\u00f1n\u00fe\u00e0\u00ed\u00a1 \\ c\u0098\u008bh ] j\u00e5\u00ae\u0012 a\u0003e\u00e5g\u00fc\u00b2\u00f8 = \u0093\u0091r\u009f\u00a7\u00a4\u00ab \u00b6\u0094\u008emp { \u00f4\u00f9\u00ac\u0098\u00fc ^ tf\u0099\u00ff\u00ab\u00a8\u000e\u0091\u00e9 ) \u00b3\u000egj\u00e3v0\u0096 ; \u0081j\u000e\u00e8\u00b0m\u00f9\u00df\u00e0\n\u00ad\u00b0\u00bf\u00fb < - ` \u00b2\u0013 ] / \u00f6yq \u00f9 ` g\u001b\u008du\u00f9 \u00ebxs\u00fd8\u0089\u00f8\u00f5q\u00eee\u00b4\u00ec ~ \u00ef\u00f2\u0083\u008e\u009f\u00e9\u00f0\u0080\u00a1 m\u00af\u00eb \u009f\u0001 / { l8ey\u00b7\u00ba\u0098 | \u00eb ? \u0099gk \u00a6\u008d\u0088\u00b6y\u0005\u0007\u0012\u00f1 * oxlv\u00e2\u0087ue\u0097\u00ef\u00b5\u00a1\u00f3\u00ef7\u009bu\u00ac\u00f6\u0017\u00fd\u00a7\u00ed9\u00edo\u0007q\u00f9n\u007f\u00e1\u0080x\u00e7 ~ \u009e\u00ed\u00e6\u00fd\u00fe\u0003u\u00ea7j\u00b5l\u00ea\u00eele\u00ea\bu\u008d\u009b\u0017\u0098\u00ef\u0083\u0080c @ \u00e1\u009d ' \u00e1 < \u00f3\u000f\u00fee ] kg\u00bfsh\u00af\u00a2\u00e0\u00ed\u008bt\u00038o\u0097\u0082\u00b0\u0080\u009b\u00ac . \u009a ) w\u00df\u00f0 ? \u008d7\u00ff\u008cv / y # = 4\u0099\u00bc\u0016\u008a\u0093\u00a3\u00ebw\u00ef\u00b4\u00a8q\u00f6 \u00eb $ \u00b8\u0005 \u00b7e\u00e0\u0006\u00ef\u00f4\u00e4\u00e3\u00fe _ \u0001\u0006\u0000\u00bci\u001aq endstream endobj 1589 0 obj <\n\u00b4 < c\u00e9\u00b4l\u00b0n\u00b3vy\u00ef\u00a8\u0092\u0097\u008a\u0099\u0083\u009c\u00ea\u00ff \u00ef\u00b4\u0083b6\u00ec\u00be\u00eb ^ \u00eb\u0000g\u008e\u00a3\u00f4qo\u0003 - ^ \u00f3\u00b5\u009ez\u00e6sf } \u00b5 m\u00b3\u00b6g ; \u00a9\u009d\u00f3\u00eei\u000ft\u00f0 # \u0015\u00b3\u0014\u00bd\u00bd\u00fe | # \u00b3 ! \u008ay\u00be ^ \u00fa _ \u00ecz9 _ q\u00f6q\u00ec\u00f2\u001b\u0099e ( f\u00ed \\ \u008e\u00a7\u00ec\u00fa\u00b9\u000660\u00f3\u007f\u0080yf # \u00b3 | \u00a3\u00f4x\u00fe\u00e8\u00ec\u0080bvz1 { \u00a1\u0091\u00f9 \u00f7\u0010\u00e5\u00ac _ \u00eap\u00e5 , \u00ael\u000f ` \u00e0 xn1\u00eb\u0012x ) \u00f0 # p < \u0010 f\u00f5tn ` \u00a6\u00d7\u00e6\u00f43\u00ab\u00bb\b ` \u00b9\u00ad\u00e2\u0098 : \u0013 ~ \u00aa\n\u00b9\u00be & k ; \u00df\u00aa\u00ef\u0096 * 5k\u0081\u0086\u0011\u00ac \u00b4\u00aa\u008e \u0083\u00e6q\u00ab\u0013\u0080\u0012ru\u00f9\u00fe\u00f1\u0000wtm\u00fbc\u00fcq\u00fe\b\u007fs\u007f\u0098\u00df\u00e6\u0097\u00fep\u007f\u0013 ? \u00f7\u0093\u0092\u00a3\u0010 ? \u00f3\u00e3\u008d\u00fa / \u0004\u00beq 9\u00d7\u00f7\u00f8 | \u00b9o\u00e4m\u00f5 $ \u00df\u0096\u009b\u00ef\u00a9 < \u00f17\u00f2\u00fc\u00fb\u00f5c\u00aa ? \u00f0u\u00f8 + / \u00a6\u00fa\u00a6\u00f8\u008b\u00aa\u00eb\u00ab \u00bd \u00fe \u00fei\u0000\u00fe\u00a5\u00f5\u00fb\u00aa\u00e3\u00bc\u00efy\u00fb\u00aa\u00abto\u0017o\u0007o\u0092\u00a7\u0087\u00a7\u00bb ' \u00e3\u00f3\u00bc\u00a7\u0093\u00a7\u0083 ' \u00fd\u0093\u00ecqyzx\u00a2 = h\u00fe2\u00fd\u00e65\u00f3\u00b2y\u00a1 ~ \u0097\u00b9\u00e7\u00fcan7\u00b7\u00a8\u00f9ns\u0089\u00b9\u00e6\u00ecnv5 _ 4\u0093l\u0097\u00e94 \u0097\u008a } \u00fb | \u009b\u00bc\u0015\u0083c\u0007gx\u00b7\u00ab\u00e6\u009b\u00e3k\u00f8l ^ \u00fc\u00fd [ \u00f2u\u00ea v6\u00ec\u00a8\u00ed\u0086\u0015b\u0006\u00f4w * \u00a6\u00ab\u0006\u00be\u00a9\u00f8\u00f4v\u00bc\u00ba\u00aa\u0018e \u00afr\u00berrpg ( ( \u0095 , \u00e5\u009b\u00bf\u00fb - \u0012t\u00a4\u0089t\u00f1 _ \u00eck\u00e2\u0001\b\u008d\u00ae\u00bf\u001b\u001a\u00fe4\u00ba\u00e1\u008f\u008c\u00f0\u00f6\u00a1\u0099 * \u00bf\u0013\u009a\u00fd\u00bd { \u00e3\u001br\u00f6\u000fl\u00f9\u00ef\u00aa\u00f1\u00f5\u0011 : \u00e1\u00e9u\u00ee\u008f = \u00e9 { ; \u00df\b\u00edj\u009c\u00f7\u00fe ? \u00f6g4\u00ee\u0006\u00eb 9\u00f0\u007f\u0016\u0084\u00e0\n\u00e8 q ! yp\u00a8\u009c\u00f0x\u0098\u0002\u0093 ` . , \u0083\u00e5\u00ea4\u009f\u00a8\u0080\u008e \u0002\u00b8\u0003wa2\u0014\u00e1\u0004d\u00f0\u00e0m\u0098\u0007\u00eb\u00e1 [ \u00a5\u00ed\u00f7\u001b\u00f4z \u00ec\u0081u\u00f0 \u0006 @ > t\u00ea = \b\u00f6\u00e2 ~ 8 \u0007\u00a1\u0012\u000e\u00e1u\u0018 g\u00e1\bt\u00e1j\u00f83\u00fc\u0082ij\u00f9\u008f\u00e1q\u00f8 \\ \u0007 ? | c\u00e0 - \u0018 o\u00e30x\u0007j\u0095\u0017x\u000f\u00fe\u00aa \\ \u00f9\u00df\u00e0 } \u0018\u000e\u007f\u0087\u0011\u00ea\u0003\u00fc\u0003\u00b2\u00e1\u0003\u00f8\u0010f\u00e2g\u00b0\u0005\u0016\u00e0h\u0018\u000590\u0006n\u00e0m\u00f8\u008a x\u0084 c\u00f0\u0082v\b @ \u0010ga1\u00ee\u00e6\u0012\u00a8\u0081z $ \u00e4 ( \u000e\u00e7\u00e0 \\ \u009c\u0087\u00f3\u00b1\u0014\u0017 ` \u0013 e\u00a9l\u00f0b \\ \u0004\u000f\u00e0 ! . \u00e6 % \u00b8\u0014\u00eb\u00b0 \u0097\u00e1r \\ \u0081 + q\u0015\u00ae\u00e65\u00b8\u0016\u00d7\u00e1z\u00fc\u0000\u008f\u00e0\u0004n\u00e4i\u00b8\u00117\u00e1f\u00fc\u0082\u009fa\u0018 > \u0083 [ \u00b1\u0002\u009bb8f ` $ \u00f8\u00e0\nas her career takes flight , master of science graduate tehani withers still remains grounded . currently employed as a project manager for sop manu / birdlife international , she tells us about her deep connection to waikato university and the benefits of studying her bsc tech degree in nz , a home away from home .\nwhat made you decide waikato ? mainly because of the bsc tech degree , which had a specialisation in restoration ecology and an internship component . at that time , the upf ( universit\u00e9 de polyn\u00e9sie francaise ) did not have many options in biology studies . another motivator was that my parents attended waikato previously , along with other family members and friends , so i was not completely alone when i moved to nz .\ntell us about growing up i grew up in tahiti ( french polynesia ) . my parents moved there after working a couple of years in singapore , where i was born , to be closer to my father\u2019s family . they actually met at waikato university where they completed their masters\u2019 degrees . they found jobs pretty quickly back in singapore , my mother as a biology teacher and my father as a french teacher in the alliance fran\u00e7aise . we then moved to tahiti where my little sister was born . she got leukaemia when she was around 5 years old and as there were no hospitals to treat cancer in tahiti , we had to live part - time in auckland at the ronald mcdonald house . when she got better , we moved back to tahiti and after completing high school in tahiti , i decided to move to nz to complete my tertiary studies ; at the same university as my parents .\nthe sop manu took me back for another internship , to work on the tahiti fly - catcher ( critically endangered bird species : 50 individuals ) . i monitored nests and population , and i worked on monitoring the number of invasive introduced birds and conducted a survey on a little fire ant colony next to the tahiti fly - catcher habitat .\nfinally , for the department of conservation ( on motutapu island , hauraki gulf ) and the meit ( maungatautari ecological island trust ) , i conducted a research on another nz endangered species , the takahe . my thesis title : foraging behaviours of translocated takah\u0113 ( porphyrio hochstetteri ) at two contrasting sites , new zealand .\nwere you involved in any extra - curricular activities / clubs etc ? i lived in college hall during my 3 year bsc tech degree and i used to participate in all pacific cultural nights by performing tahitian dance shows . i tried to start a club to teach students tahitian dance , but became too busy during my third year . i was also a student ambassador during 2014 , which was quite a nice casual job to do while in university .\ndid you have any outstanding mentors / lecturers during your time here ? any particular papers / courses you enjoyed ? the college hall staff were the best support i could have while i was studying . it was very hard to be away from my family and tahiti at first , and they really helped me get used to nz cultural differences . teachers were mostly understanding of my problems with writing in english , since french was my first language .\nduring my masters , i was lucky to be supervised by dr . chrissen gemmill , mr . john innes ( landcare research ) and dr . steven miller ( statistics department ) . many other waikato staff in the research department really guided me too and really inspired me to work in ecology : dr bruce clarkson , dr daniel laughlin , dr mike clearwater , kiri cutting , rebecca bylsma , catherine kirby , toni cornes , etc . they are the best at what they do and the most enthusiastic people i have met .\nfinishing my 6 yearlong studies ! while i was searching for a job , i was also very happy to work on different projects ( with doc , bream head trust , project tongariro trust , etc . ) . i was very lucky to meet new people & travel across nz while participating in different conservation projects . i felt that completing a few weeks at a time of volunteer work was very meaningful ( and also helped my professional career ) .\nmy biggest achievement right now is to have been recruited as a project manager for sop manu / birdlife international . although i am qualified , this job required many years of experience , and i was very lucky to have been chosen .\noutside of your career , what do you enjoy doing ? since i came back to tahiti , i\u2019ve gone back to tahitian dance , and managed to participate in two dance shows , which was great . i also enjoy running when i can , and hiking .\nwhat do you see yourself doing over the next five years ? life is full of endless possibilities . the conservation projects that i am working now will take at least 5 years to be completed . for now , this job is being funded for 2 years . if they are funded again i might renew my contract and i could then continue as a manager for a different conservation project , or find a steadier job in a private or government firm . i might also try to become a private consultant for different conservation projects across the pacific . i may eventually come back to nz , as there is not much future in conservation here in french polynesia ( ideology of conservation / preserving the environment is still a work in progress ) . i might try to get back into research and obtain a doctorate degree .\nnb : your browser has javascript disabled or does not support javascript . elements of this website require javascript , and will not function unless you enable it or use another browser with javascript support .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nevaluates the conservation status of plant and animal species . the list is based on scientific assessment of an organism ' s status by experts .\ncopyright rhett butler 1994 - 2015 carbon dioxide ( co2 ) emissions generated from urltoken operations ( server , data transfer , travel ) are mitigated through an association with anthrotect , an organization working with afro - indigenous and embera communities to protect forests in colombia ' s darien region . anthrotect is protecting the habitat of mongabay ' s mascot : the scale - crested pygmy tyrant .\nrainforest\nis used interchangeably with\nrain forest\non this site .\njungle\nis generally not used ."]}
{"id": 578, "summary": [{"text": "smith 's bush squirrel , the yellow-footed squirrel , or the tree squirrel in south africa , paraxerus cepapi , is an african bush squirrel found in angola , botswana , the democratic republic of the congo , malawi , mozambique , namibia , south africa , tanzania , zambia , and zimbabwe .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is a common rodent which is diurnal by nature . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "smith ' s bush squirrel", "paragraphs": ["smith ' s bush squirrels will store their food at the bases of trees .\nviljoen , s . 1977 . behaviour of the bush squirrel , paraxerus cepapi cepapi ( a . smith , 1836 ) .\nsmith ' s bush squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi ) , warming - up in the morning sun , south africa , krueger np , aug 04 .\nthe smith ' s bush squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi ) is the 159th species in my mammals of the world series . all media is educational fair use .\nviljoen , s . 1977 . factors affecting breeding synchronization in an african bush squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi cepapi ) .\nsmith ' s bush squirrels mark areas . 3 to 1 . 26 ha in size by mouth wiping , urinating , and anal dragging .\nthere have been squirrels on the african continent for around 20 million years . the african bush squirrel is a genus of squirrels that consist of 11 species of which the smith\u2019s bush squirrel is one . smith\u2019s bush squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi ) , otherwise known as the yellow - footed squirrel or in south africa simply as the tree squirrel is found in central africa , eastern africa and the northern regions of southern africa . this species lives in savannah woodland areas , favouring trees with suitable nesting holes . tree squirrels are often seen in the protected bushveld areas of sabi sabi and the surrounding reserves .\nsmith ' s bush squirrel is mostly arboreal , and diurnal , or active primarily during the daytime . the diet is mostly made up of seeds , but it sometimes will eat insects as well .\nthere is very little information on the reproduction and mating systems in striped bush squirrels . however , in a related species , smith ' s bush squirrels ( paraxerus cepapi ) , there is more information .\n. his quarterbacks have been matt cassel and alex smith . he ' s lucky if a healthy\nadult , adult on tree feeding , africa , animal , animals , color image , color images , colour image , colour images , full - grown , high size , in the open , kruger n . p . , kruger national park , kruger nationalpark , kruger np , mammal , mammals , mature , national park , one animal , outdoor shot , outdoors , paraxerus cepapi , republic of south africa , rm , rodents , single animal , sits , sitting , smith ' s bush squirrel , smith ' s bush squirrel , smith ' s bush squirrels , south africa , tree squirrel , upright format , vertical , vertical format , yellow - footed squirrel\njohn koprowski handles a smith\u2019s bush squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi ) in africa . koprowski and collaborators hope to learn how squirrels influence regeneration of forests where elephants have caused damage in africa . image credit : mike stokes\nadult , adult on tree feeding , africa , animal , animals , climbing , climbs , color image , color images , colour image , colour images , full - grown , headfirst , high size , in the open , kruger n . p . , kruger national park , kruger nationalpark , kruger np , mammal , mammals , mature , national park , one animal , outdoor shot , outdoors , paraxerus cepapi , republic of south africa , rm , rodents , single animal , smith ' s bush squirrel , smith ' s bush squirrel , smith ' s bush squirrels , south africa , tree squirrel , upright format , upside down , vertical , vertical format , yellow - footed squirrel\nwill narrow its eyes at a submissive squirrel . in which case , the submissive squirrel will run away .\nthe smith ' s bush squirrel is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nsmith\u2019s bush squirrel may well be the most common mammal in the okavango . this small rodent is territorial and prefers mature mopane and other broad - leafed woodlands . preyed upon mostly by raptors , mambas and small python .\nthe indian giant squirrel , also called the malabar giant squirrel , has its name for a very good reason : this is the largest tree squirrel sp . . .\nthe tiny little tree squirrel is a common inhabitant of south africa ' s kruger national park .\nwelcome to the 24 th edition of shakati\u2019s bush facts . in this edition we will be focusing on the greater kudu . these are the majestic warriors of the bush , and have the ability to melt away into the bush .\n, the striped bush squirrel , is found throughout southern kenya , the united republic of tanzania , malawi , and northern mozambique .\n( smith ' s bush squirrel ) is found in eastern , central , and southern africa including southern angola , northern namibia , southeastern democratic republic of the congo , western tanzania , malawi , botswana , zimbabwe , mozambique , and northern south africa .\na juvenile abert\u2019s squirrel ( sciurus aberti ) climbs on a tree branch in arizona . image credit : jonathan derbridge\nauthor : bernard dupont license : attribution - sharealike 2 . 0 generic ( cc by - sa 2 . 0 ) urltoken description : male smith ' s bush squirrel or tree squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi ) filmed on 110 road north of berg - en - dal , kruger national park , south africa link : urltoken title : smith ' s bush squirrel ( paraxerus cepapi ) . webm details of the licenses can be found on this channel ' s\nabout\npage . in this video , no changes or modifications have been made to the original material . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nstriped bush squirrels eat seeds , fruits , roots , leaves , and buds .\nis a social squirrel . they live in groups of one or two adults and many juveniles . family groups consist of 2 to 12 . these groups nest together in trees , ground holes , house roofs , and in - between rocks . smith ' s bush squirrels are diurnal and arboreal . although\nafrican bush squirrels are the largest , most diverse and adaptable of all african squirrels .\nspring is almost here , and soon our squirrel friends will be hearing the pitter - patter of tiny squirrel paws . mating season for eastern gray . . .\nsmith ' s bush squirrels are found in areas that provide appropriate nesting holes . these are commonly savanna , mopane and acacia woodlands . although these squirrels mostly live in trees , they will also nest in holes on the ground , between rocks , and in house roofs .\nsmith ' s bush squirrels are medium - sized african bush squirrels . the coat is yellow to brown in color but can vary by region . in general , the dorsal coat is a brownish yellow or gray color , while the ventral coat is a white or gray color with a buff coloration on the chest . the face has white stripes both above and below the eyes and cheeks that are a subtle brownish yellow color . smith ' s bush squirrels have long , bushy tails with a black and yellow to brown coloration . adults have an average body length measuring 238 . 5 mm and an average body mass of 222 . 85 g .\nunlike north american tree squirrels , the smith ' s bush squirrels live in territorial family groups , with both adult males and females defending territory and nesting together along with their juvenile offspring . the nests are made in holes in trees . group solidarity is reinforced through mutual grooming .\na young / baby of a smith is called a ' pup , kit or kitten ' . the females are called ' doe ' and males ' buck ' . a smith group is called a ' dray or scurry ' .\nsafaris are all about the big game . but even though elephants , leopards and rhinos ( oh my ! ) fill your lens and retinas on a daily basis , it\u2019s still just as wonderful to watch a squirrel scamper through a tree . this species is known in south africa simply as a tree squirrel , or smith\u2019s bush squirrel more broadly . its golden coat with tinges of rust and green make it a far more handsome creature than the common grey squirrels that run through london\u2019s parks . it lacks none of their characteristic agility either , as the video below will demonstrate . i spent a good half - hour watching this individual scurry about the tree that stood right next to the lodge .\nin the wild ; however , in captivity , one squirrel lived for 9 . 6 years .\na mt . graham red squirrel . this species of squirrels is the most endangered in america .\nreggie bush nearly made this list . let ' s say he ranked 27th . bush may have been overpriced and overhyped in his heyday , but he was a heck of a receiver and return man early in his career who developed into a capable running back as he matured .\n, yields clues about the communication of striped bush squirrels . tail flicking and ear wagging have been recorded in\nsmith was such a mismatch headache for opponents that the cardinals dusted off the\ntight end around\nplay for him . smith rushed 38 times for 327 yards and three touchdowns in his career . he was also the cardinals ' regular punter for three seasons . and if that isn ' t enough versatility for you , smith also sings a fine national anthem .\nmy pet squirrel , sandy . snuggling , biting , playing , licking , yawning , and being generally cute .\nsmith ' s bush squirrels are mostly vegetarian , consuming many plants , seeds , berries , flowers , and some arthropods . although opportunistic , they prefer seeds and gums of acacia , and seeds and flowers of aloes . they will also consume termites . in east africa , the squirrels will also eat insects , bird eggs , and euphorbia leaves .\nafrican bush squirrels are usually seen in pairs but live amongst six or more other squirrels in a small area of the forest .\nthe sub - species of tree squirrel found in the kruger national park , known as smith\u2019s bush squirrel , is covered by shades of grey fur , with yellow parts covering its lower - back region , hind legs and its bushy , long tails . there are added white parts of fur on their chest and belly - regions , although the shade of these colors differs from one are to another . the average weight of such a squirrel is a meager 200g , and their length average is 35cm of which nearly half of that spans the length of their well - known furry tail . their ears are small and round , and they have long fingered paws similar to primates at the ends of their front legs .\nvery young striped bush squirrels have been collected in the months of march and april . in june , some half - grown young were collected . it has been suggested that the birthing season may occur around these months , and possibly a second one in september . a striped bush squirrel nest was recorded as being made from grass and coconut fibers and was located in a hollow tree .\nzimbabwe ' s top destinations range from victoria falls to mana pools national park .\nis a larger squirrel that has gray shoulders with tan gray sides , gray markings on the belly , and gray white feet .\nanded mongoose , bat eared fox , blesbok , blue wildebeest , squirrel , impala , giraffe , kudu , njala , warthog .\nsuddenly , the mother noticed koprowski with her baby on his head and bolted toward him , ready to attack . koprowski , startled , began running from the protective mother squirrel . \u201clike any good mother , she wouldn\u2019t give up , \u201d he said . after a few seconds of running around with a squirrel on his head while onlookers stood staring at the fiasco , koprowski shook the baby squirrel off of his head onto a nearby tree . it was hard to tell who was more relieved \u2014 koprowski or the mother squirrel .\nsmith ran track and played tailback at northwestern louisiana before switching to flanker , where he played well enough to get drafted in the 10th round by the cardinals in 1963 . cardinals ends coach fran polsfoot saw the 210 - pound smith ' s potential as a tight end and moved him there to cover for some injuries . smith bulked up a bit and was soon putting up mammoth numbers for the era , including a 56 - catch , 1 , 205 - yard , 21 . 5 - yard - per - catch and nine - touchdown receiving line in 1967 .\nthere is little doubt that the most beautiful and instantly recognizable physical characteristic of the squirrel is its tail . tree squirrels . . .\nsmith ' s bush squirrels are able to communicate using clicking and rattling vocalizations . if disturbed , they will grunt and growl . their low intensity alarm call consists of three \u201cchir\u201d or \u201cclick\u201d sounds . this is used as a warning or territorial defense . they also have a high intensity alarm call composed of six or seven high pitched notes ; this is similar to a bird call or whistle . when threatened ,\nsometime vegetarian . bird and squirrel watcher . husband and father . unapologetic red state liberal . texas tech red raider football and basketball fan .\nmurmurs , which is thought to be a form of communication used to contact another squirrel and can be aggressive or friendly . male and female\njohn koprowski stood in an urban park in kansas with binoculars pressed to his eyes . he was conducting a study as part of his phd thesis research and was intently observing a female eastern fox squirrel ( sciurus niger ) carry each of her seven babies from one nest in a tree to the base of a nearby tree . each baby squirrel wrapped its feet around its mother\u2019s head , with its own head tucked under her chin . \u201cthe mother squirrel kind of looked like it had a giant head , \u201d koprowski recalled .\nthere is not much information on communication in striped bush squirrels except that young will emit a piercing squeak when threatened or fearful , to which the mother will respond .\nstriped bush squirrels are diurnal mammals . not much is known about their social system , but females and males associate with their young . there are no recordings of large associations of\njust give me 18 inches of daylight . that ' s all i need .\n\u2014 gale sayers\nwhen most americans think of squirrels , we think of the eastern gray , the familiar bushy - tailed tree squirrel of parks and suburban yards . b . . .\nfirst , happy squirrel appreciation day ! i wasn ' t sure how to commemorate this special day . here are some ideas of things to appreciate a . . .\nmary\u2019s old , mysterious letter . photo by sam kurth ( cc by 2 . 0 ) click for source .\ngifford was , in fact , a popular golden boy . he was also one of history ' s great playmakers\nsince the last couple of posts on this blog have been kind of grim , i thought a bit of squirrel cuteness overload would be appropriate . so i . . .\nif a dominant p . cepapi narrows its eyes at a submissive p . cepapi , the submissive squirrel will run away and is then often chased by the dominant one .\ntree squirrels have often been referred to as ( smith ' s ) bush squirrels , yellow - footed squirrels or mopane squirrels . these associations relate to its bushveld habitat , foot colouring and frequent mopane tree visitations . they spend much of the day searching for food in a very small area , with the males performing sentry duty , alarm soundings and anal and urination scent - marking rituals . they will be close to trees though with suitable nesting holes , of mostly savannah woodland areas that include a wide variety of tree types\nthe garden route region is located between the western cape ' s mossel bay and storms river in the eastern cape .\nthe kruger national park is south africa ' s top safari destination , offering every accommodation option from camping to exclusive lodges .\nfor diptera , it\u2019s a no - brainer . students should read wiegmann et al . \u2019s ( 2011 ) episodic radiations in the fly tree of life . sure it\u2019s technical in its methods , but it also tells an interesting story about how diptera have been so successful , describes natural history trends we see across the phylogeny , and discusses how robust the current classification is .\nit is thought that color changes in the fur might be connected with age . color changes do not seem to be merely seasonal , but may depend on the physiological condition of the squirrel .\nstriped bush squirrels are small to medium sized squirrels . head and body length measurement averages 175 mm and tail length also averages 175 mm . they can weight from 120 g to 200 g . striped bush squirrels undergo periodic color changes . the back can be dark grey or olive - brown , which can be replaced by brightly ochraceous tipped hairs . the dorsal surface can also take on a fulvous or bright gold hue .\nwhile koprowski hasn\u2019t had such a riveting encounter with a squirrel since he was a phd student , his excitement about the small , bushy tailed species hasn\u2019t faltered over the years as he\u2019s traveled all over the world to teach children about squirrels , including the panda breeding center in china where he taught students about the importance of biodiversity , and to remote areas to study them . along with three other authors , he also published the book squirrels of the world in 2012 , which is a comprehensive examination of all squirrel species globally .\nwhen you are extremely lucky you may see the bat eared foxes on shakati . i spotted these curious and teddy bear like creatures very early on a game drive . just shows you how the bush may always surprise you .\nthank you for this information . the sound the squirrel makes in my back garden in selebi - phikwe is rather like a bird alarm call . when i first heard it i kept looking for a bird !\navailable information on the ecosystem roles of striped bush squirrels is lacking . it seems likely , however , that they disperse seeds of the tree species they feed on and affect the abundance of the specific plants on which they feed .\nstriped bush squirrels are terrestrial and live in a variety of habitats , from moist savannahs to forests . they can be found on cultivated lands , preferring sugar plum tree groves . populations are most numerous in old - growth hardwood forests .\nsproles also had an excellent early career for the chargers , complementing ladainian tomlinson as a third - down back and return man . add it all up , and sproles is now eighth on the all - time list with 19 , 011 all - purpose yards . that ' s almost as many as westbrook ( 11 , 259 ) and bush ( 10 , 001 ) combined .\nkeep in mind that barry sanders and emmitt smith were both in the nfl for most of thomas ' tenure as the scrimmage - yardage king . smith was the best pure rusher of the bunch , and he was helped by the best offensive line . ( spoiler alert : sanders is coming soon on this countdown . ) while sanders was a better pure playmaker than thomas , he lacked his former oklahoma state teammate ' s consistency and versatility in the passing game . in his prime , thomas combined the best elements of a shake - ' n ' - bake third - down back and a no - nonsense workhorse , the perfect combination for creating mismatches on the fly .\n[ 0455 ] virginia hayssen et al . ( 1993 ) , asdell ' s patterns of mammalian reproduction : a compendium of species - specific data\nkoprowski is currently conducting a long - term project over 25 years on america\u2019s most endangered squirrel , the mt . graham red squirrel ( tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis ) . he is studying factors such as fire and insect damage in high elevation coniferous forests that influence the status of the squirrel population which includes only about 250 individuals . he also has extended his work to south africa in collaboration with mike stokes at western kentucky university to observe the role of squirrels and other rodents in regenerating forests in areas where elephants are causing damage . in china , he is using a diverse array of squirrels and other seed - eating rodents as an indicator of climate change in high elevations where giant pandas live . \u201coverall , we are interested in using squirrels as indicators of forest change and climate change over time , \u201d he said .\nthis countdown was not really designed for tight ends . but it is designed for mold - breakers . smith didn ' t just break the mold for tight ends . he completely reshaped it , and successors from winslow to gronk have been adding to the design ever since .\n. striped bush squirrels nest in hardwood tree hollows and can be seen basking near their nest holes in the early morning . if they realize they have attracted attention , they will flee . it has been suggested that females are more wary than males .\n2007 .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service : working together\n( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .\nspecimens from 1935 mexico , found in the same box as mary\u2019s letter . photo by sam kurth ( cc by 2 . 0 ) click for source .\nunfortunately , an internet search for smith usually brings up dozens of reference to his dropped pass in the end zone in super bowl xiii , after the 38 - year - old was lured out of retirement by the injury - ravaged cowboys . the greatest tight end of his era waited 16 years to reach the hall of fame because voters of the past were obsessed with\nsignature moments\ninstead of a player ' s body of work .\nsquirrels in the southern hemisphere are seasonal breeders . mating takes place in august and after an 8 week gestation period , 1 - 3 blind , naked , toothless young are born . the baby squirrels are weaned at 6 weeks and become sexually mature shortly thereafter . a squirrel\u2019s life expectancy is 2 - 3 years in the wild , with squirrels in captivity living for as long as 9 years .\nwelcome to the fifteenth edition of shakati bush facts . in this edition we will be sharing with you a special find which we have made on the shakati private game reserve , namely the ground pangolin ! we are quite excited to share this find with you !\nas cold weather sets in and we complain about the freezing temperatures during our morning drive to work , it ' s easy to forget that wild . . .\nmore dangerous as a running back ( 5 . 7 yards per carry with the saints ) , more versatile as a receiver ( 16 touchdowns in three seasons ; bush scored 12 receiving touchdowns in five saints seasons ) and more reliable as an all - purpose return man .\nall of those all - time great tight ends certainly left their stamp on the position . but jackie smith is the guy who literally turned the tight end from a blocker who lined up next to the right tackle and caught a few underneath passes to a chess piece who can line up anywhere and do practically anything .\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nviljoen , s . 1983 . communicatory behaviour of southern african tree squirrels , paraxerus palliatus ornatus , p . p . tongensis , p . c . cepapi and funisciurus congicus .\nto the uneducated mind , it just looks like another latin name . this species of wasp is known for the larvae\u2019s manipulation of its host insect , pushing the discoverers to name it\nwhen i was a kid in london on the \u201950\u2019s things were a little different . yes , today you will see the \u201ccommon grey squirrels that run through london\u2019s parks\u201d , but back then they were a recent invading species ( from america ) taking over from the red squirrels we all loved . i guess the grey squirrels were successful : even the memory of the little red guys is gone now , in london . they are still around in the forests , but even there their existence is precarious . see the forestry service\u2019s report ( urltoken ) .\nimagine a player with the kick - return skills of david meggett , the quick feet of barry sanders and the sure hands of michael irvin ,\ntimothy w . smith wrote of metcalf in the new york times in 1995 . nowadays , imagine a durable percy harvin , a more explosive julian edelman or a tyreek hill without the baggage . that ' s who metcalf was . he finished his career with 12 return touchdowns , 12 rushing touchdowns , 31 receiving touchdowns and 17 , 230 all - purpose yards , 15th on the all - time list .\nthis is a small species of squirrel . adults are only about 14 inches long , about half of which is the tail , and weigh about seven ounces . it is a light rusty brown or , in some regions , more gray in color , with a buff or sometimes white chest and belly .\ncertain species of squirrels such as eastern gray squirrels ( sciurus carolinensis ) are also very common , making them a convenient species to study . there are 285 squirrel species in the world , koprowski said , and the fact that most are active during the day also makes them conspicuous and easy to find .\nworking as a member of the frost\u2019s research and curatorial team has been such a rewarding experience thus far , and i am excited to be a part of all we have in store for the upcoming year .\nthis week\u2019s mystery lice come from mossman , north queensland , australia . they were collected in 1962 on uromys caudimaculatus ( krefft 1867 ) ( rodentia : muridae ) , commonly known as a giant white - tailed rat .\nchip kelly ' s no - huddle experiment . shady led the nfl in rushing and scrimmage yards in 2013 before the rest of the league figured out kelly was running the same handful of plays over and over again .\ndunn was the primary offensive weapon for tony dungy ' s buccaneers in the late 1990s . paired with bruiser mike alstott in the backfield , he was both the big - play threat of the running game and the team ' s most reliable receiver . dunn missed his chance to win a super bowl when jon gruden arrived in tampa bay , however , as he had signed on to become part of a radically different system in atlanta .\nandy reid ' s west coast offense , which at the time was pass - oriented with a rudimentary rushing attack . mccoy had two 1 , 000 - yard rushing seasons and a 20 - touchdown campaign in this scheme .\nlittle was short for a running back in that bruising era . he was also bowlegged . but the legs he sometimes described as\nparentheses\nbrought several unexpected advantages . little ' s center of gravity was low , his balance was exceptional and his ankles were permanently braced to make a cut on a defender . he quickly became one of the most dangerous rusher - receiver - returner combinations in the afl . saban ' s broncos , meanwhile , slowly climbed to respectability .\nthe trees squirrel has hind legs which are longer than the front , with toes equipped with claws for climbing trees . there is soft padding on the underside of their feet . they have a tooth structure which is typical of a rodent ; large chisel - like top and bottom incisors that continue growing for their entire lives and flattish grinding molars for crushing food .\nsome were officially third - down running backs , some slot receivers . all of them were incredibly versatile . brown and edelman played defense at times . welker was the emergency kicker . patten ' s versatility in one 2001 game against the colts\nmitchell would do everything else , both for washington and the eagles . he ' s the nfl ' s all - time leader in career punt and kick return yardage ( 19 , 013 ) . his 13 return touchdowns rank fifth on the all - time list of non - offensive touchdowns . mitchell was also one of the most dangerous and reliable third - down backs of his era , averaging 5 . 1 career yards per rush and never missing a game in 14 seasons .\nthe modern broncos have a well - earned reputation as one of the best - run sports franchises in america . it all started when a bowlegged spark plug of a runner finally gave the fans of football ' s ugliest franchise something worth watching .\nsanders was history ' s most elusive running back , making him an ideal fit for the run ' n ' shoot ' s barely controlled chaos . nickel and dime defenders of the day were no match for sanders ' ankle - twisting cutbacks . linebackers didn ' t stand a chance of even keeping up with him . lions quarterbacks were generally average - to - terrible , but sanders kept the team and the hinky system in the playoff picture with his ability to consistently rack up big plays .\njones , k . , j . bielby , m . cardillo , s . fritz , j . o ' dell . 2009 . pantheria : a species - level database of life history , ecology , and geography of extant and recently extinct mammals .\nthe topic of the plenary is one that koprowski sees evidence of every day as a squirrel researcher . aside from the element of human interest that surrounds squirrels , they are also good indicators of changes in the environment , according to koprowski . as forests become fragmented and disrupt their habitat , squirrels still can be easily found , telling us a lot about climate change and other changes caused by humans .\ngreg roman / anthony lynn ' s cro - magnon power - running jamboree . mccoy averaged 5 . 4 yards per carry , caught 50 passes and scored 14 touchdowns for a power - and - options offense that had zero receiving threats for much of last season .\nbarber left a complicated legacy in the locker room and off the field . he was as quick to criticize teammates and coaches as he was to fake out a linebacker , and the giants ' becoming a tightly knit super bowl team as soon as he retired was not lost on anyone . but this isn ' t a countdown of the nfl ' s most lovable teammates . barber made himself the nfl ' s most dangerous playmaker in the mid - 2000s , proving there is much more to the job than being quick and having good hands .\nmitchell ' s pure speed allowed him to both burn cornerbacks deep and beat defenders to the edge on sweeps . he was also nifty in the open field with a devastating mix of dart - like quickness and vision . his career marks the changing of eras , not just from segregation ' s last holdouts to more enlightened times , but the opening up of offenses near the dawn of the super bowl . mitchell was too good of a playmaker to be a\nleft halfback .\nfootball was changing , because men like mitchell were changing it .\nwhile the mother probably intended for all of her young to wait patiently while she carried each one up to their new nest , the baby squirrels scurried off in different directions . one squirrel ran straight toward what it thought was another tree \u2014 one with binoculars and arms and legs \u2014 6 - foot - 2 - inch koprowski . \u201cthe youngster went up my face and on top of my head , \u201d koprowski said .\n\u201csquirrels help us study how ecosystems are changing , and the recovery from these changes is critical , \u201d he said . \u201cthe challenges involve humans as well as natural systems . we can help effect change with management elements . it\u2019s an exciting time to be a wildlife biologist . \u201d\nbrian westbrook nearly made this list . let ' s say he ranked 26th . westbrook is revered in philadelphia . he carried the andy reid / donovan mcnabb eagles at times as an all - purpose weapon , and he was a respected figure in the locker room as well .\ngifford moved to the broadcast booth upon retirement and spent decades as one of the smoothest announcers in the business . he moved from color commentary to play - by - play , and later generations forgot he was ever even a player . gifford ' s all - purpose stats in the old encyclopedias looked nothing like jim brown ' s perennial dominance . gifford reached the hall of fame in 1977 , but younger fans perusing the encyclopedias may think his enshrinement was some sort of lifetime achievement award for a golden boy who popularized the game for new yorkers or something .\nsquirrels are rodents belonging to the family sciuridae which also includes chipmunks , marmots and prairie dogs . the name squirrel is derived from skiouros , an ancient greek word meaning shadow - tailed . there are over 270 types of squirrels , with various indigenous species found on every continent except antarctica and australia , ( although squirrels have been introduced into australia . ) squirrels are divided into 3 groupings , tree , ground or flying squirrels .\nmitchell led a late touchdown drive , completing three passes for 40 yards . keep in mind , this was against buddy ryan ' s defense in an era before any team had a wildcat or read - option package for a player like mitchell to fall back upon . ( the eagles were in prevent mode , but buddy ' s prevent mode wasn ' t like normal prevent mode . ) it was a gutsy , dignity - saving performance , but mitchell would never play quarterback again , though he threw a few more career passes on trick plays and fake punts .\ntarkenton was an undersized mid - round quarterback with amazing scrambling ability and tremendous touch on his deep passes . he joined the expansion minnesota vikings in 1961 and immediately butted heads with their coach , the notoriously irascible norm van brocklin . the dutchman didn ' t like tarkenton ' s scrambling\nthe browns lined mitchell up in the same backfield as jim brown in the 1950s and early 1960s . serving as a motion man and brown ' s\nmr . outside ,\nmitchell averaged 5 . 4 yards per rush for four seasons and returned three punts and three kickoffs for touchdowns .\nwhile most people haven\u2019t had this kind of close encounter with a squirrel , many have equally memorable stories about the thriving species that are a familiar backyard sight . people care about their welfare , which in turn helps with conservation of squirrels and related species . according to koprowski , this aspect of squirrels makes them an important and useful species for wildlife conservation in general . his early experience with them led to a lifetime of interest in the species .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nsometimes , the fireplug - shaped all - purpose guy is just an all - purpose guy . in sproles ' case , he ' s an easy - to - overlook all - time great , hiding in plain sight and outperforming better - paid , better - regarded players at their own games .\ni\u2019ve been working on my course ( ent 432 ) syllabus for what seems like forever , though it\u2019s only been eight years . in the latest iteration i\u2019ve tried to incorporate required reading from the primary literature\u2014mostly empirical studies , rather than reviews\u2014for each lecture . this exercise was mush more difficult than i anticipated !\nhistory ' s best playmakers often start their careers as ordinary all - purpose backs . they return kicks , catch some third - down screen passes , produce a few highlights and then appear poised to give way to someone younger , faster and cheaper as soon as they lose a fraction of a step .\nwhether he ' s cutting back for positive yardage on a sweep that the entire defense sniffed out , exploding through a tiny crease in the line for a big gain or turning a screen pass into a touchdown , shady has multiple ways of turning nothing into something or a little something into a whole lot .\njudged as\nplaymakers ,\nthere ' s no contest between cunningham , steve young and michael vick . young was a brilliant soloist and conductor for a world - class orchestra . vick played in offenses that complemented his rushing ability , and his 2000s passing totals don ' t come close to cunningham ' s 1980s totals . when it came to contortionist tactics to avoid sacks , windmill leaps at the end of scrambles and making up new moves just to survive , cunningham was in a class by himself . he often looked like he was on the field by himself . and win or lose , he always put on a show .\ndon ' t look up grange ' s nfl stats seeking enlightenment ; what little is there is almost incomprehensible to modern eyes anyway . just know that he was a ruthian figure who achieved lebron james - like fame the moment such fame became possible in american society , and his exploits introduced the fledgling nfl to future fanatics all across the country .\nat just under a million ) and the \u201cdiscoverer\u201d of a new one earns the right to name the species , oftentimes causing the name to have an interesting and unique etymology . now i know what you\u2019re thinking . isn\u2019t it confusing using the words entomology and etymology back and forth in rapid succession ? well of course , but that\u2019s where the fun lies !\nalong came head coach lou saban , who formerly coached the bills to a pair of afl championships . then the nfl - afl common draft arrived , giving the broncos a puncher ' s chance of acquiring real talent . with their first pick of the new era , the broncos selected little , a 5 ' 10\nall - purpose back from syracuse .\nthe species today is named for its \u201cability to hunt down obscure prey\u201d ( jozwiak , rewicz , pabis 2015 ) . if that doesn\u2019t scream google then you should probably get in touch with the modern world because it\u2019s pretty great . in madagascar where the ant was discovered in 2005 , entomologist brian l . fisher named the species proceratium google ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) .\nmcelhenny , by contrast , was all jukes , weaves and squirrel - on - the - freeway chaos .\nthe king\naveraged 7 . 0 yards per carry on 98 carries as a rookie in 1952 and 8 . 0 yards per carry on 64 carries when the million dollar backfield officially came together in 1954 . while perry took tittle handoffs and sprinted off left end behind johnson , mcelhenny took handoffs and pitches and did . . . whatever he felt like doing . both perry and mcelhenny were also effective receivers , and both took turns returning kicks and punts .\nthese tree squirrel species arrange themselves into family groups who usually share a shelter from the heat of the day and the shadows or those within them during the starry african nights . all members of such a family group share the same scent , making life much easier for them when it comes to setting boundaries for other families and their members . all the young are raised together by all their respective mothers together , a very communal and social relationship building exercise . furthermore males may show territorial behavior by protecting their homes , although the same behavior has been seen from females and adolescent young .\nthe bills may field something close to a typical nfl offense this year , with multiple wide receivers and everything . for the first time in four years , mccoy won ' t face stacked fronts of defenders who know what ' s coming . it could be too little , too late for a back who has already had an excellent career . but it could also result in a season for the ages .\nwhen a quarterback as incandescently talented as young leaves college , teams do crazy things to acquire him . the usfl ' s los angeles express offered him $ 40 million they didn ' t really have so he could single - handedly fill the coliseum for them . young ended up taking snaps at running back and paying team bus drivers out of his own pocket just to get the express to games on time .\nin cunningham ' s\nultimate weapon\ndays with the eagles , like his 30 - passing - touchdown , 942 - rushing - yard effort in 1990 , his running backs were 1970s - style plodders anthony toney and keith byars . his receivers were pretty good , but the eagles offensive lines of the era were built out of steroid violators , converted defensive linemen and other assorted castoffs and buddy ryan experiments .\nthe letter was undated , but found among specimens dated from 1928 , addressed to \u201cgeorge and alice . \u201d the wounds from the great war were starting to heal after a decade of peace and rebuilding , the great depression was not even a shadow of a thought , fitzgerald\u2019s famous book had exploded in popularity ; the jazz age was truly in full swing . somewhere out there was mary , trading through fields collecting dragonflies .\nfaulk gained over 1 , 000 rushing and receiving yards in 1999 . he led the league in touchdowns in 2000 and 2001 . he averaged no less than 5 . 3 yards per rush for three consecutive years , leading the league each year and supplementing the rushing production with over 80 receptions per season . faulk wasn ' t just the nfl ' s best playmaker from 1999 through 2001 . he was the best player , period .\nwe will start discussing and examining lepidoptera in late november . scales are certainly a contributing factor to lepidoptera\u2019s diversity , and their patterns are important for determining species . is their a great read about lep scales ? or should we focus our discussion on host plat relationships , chemical defense , moth avoidance , proboscis morphology \u2026 ? photo by johan j . ingles - le nobel ( cc by - nc - nd 2 . 0 ) . click for original .\ndunn ' s falcons , like his buccaneers , were too flawed to reach the super bowl . both teams needed dunn to be an offensive focal point and a locker room leader , not just mr . shake ' n ' bake in the open field . dunn responded by becoming one of the most respected players in the nfl , not just one of the most exciting . that one - two punch is what earned him a spot on this countdown .\nthe various woody areas of the kruger national park offer many suitable shelters and habitats , from mopane forests near mopani rest camp to tree - rich woodland areas found in scattered areas throughout the park . trees with natural holes in them are preferred by most squirrel species , because of its use as a shelter and place in which to raise young . the more trees in a woodland area the better for these animals , whether it be acacia thorn trees or larger trees . their main food source is also found within trees ; seeds . they also spread seeds around large trees to facilitate regrowth , thereby giving back what they take and keeping up their end of the symbiotic relationship they share with trees .\nhester holds the nfl record with 20 non - offensive touchdowns . that ' s an astounding number for a modern player , particularly one who played on offense ( defenders can mix in some pick - sixes with their kick and punt returns ) . hester was also a capable screens - and - bombs receiver stuck in largely bad offenses for much of his career . but he was at his best when he could specialize in the dying art of fielding kicks and punts .\nin modern football , trippi would be a cross between christian mccaffrey , terrelle pryor and jabrill peppers , with a dash of marquette king sprinkled in . great prospects like these still leave college for an nfl befuddled about how best to make use of their gifts . for trippi , the chicago cardinals tried a little of everything , and it worked . today ' s nfl teams can still learn something from their post - wwii forebears . give great playmakers the ball . worry about the labels later .\ngiven 18 inches of daylight , gale sayers performed feats that are still dazzling over half a century later . he jump - cut , head - faked , hurdled and juked early ' 60s defenders who had never seen the likes of the kansas comet before . it might be cheating to point to a highlight reel and say\nwatch this ,\nbut here ' s a highlight reel , complete with quotes from george halas and others ( plus some ac / dc music ) . words don ' t really do sayers justice .\ntarkenton led the vikings to three super bowls in the 1970s . his supporting cast was excellent : the purple people eaters on defense , the aforementioned line , ahmad rashad , john gilliam and chuck foreman among his weapons . but tarkenton ' s timing was poor . the nfl was dominated by the steelers , raiders , cowboys and vikings through most of the mid - to - late ' 70s . with tarkenton and many of the vikings stars already well past their prime when everything came together , they had a habit of finishing one or two games shy of a championship .\nyet in the mid - 2000s , it was still possible for a return man to be a great team ' s most valuable offensive player , as hester proved for the bears . his six return touchdowns in the 2006 regular season and playoffs helped a team with a blundering offense come within a rainy day run - in with peyton manning of winning a super bowl . when he wasn ' t taking a kickoff to the house , he was forcing opponents to squib kick to avoid him , giving the bears offense the field position it desperately needed to muster a few points .\non this list of all - time playmakers , it must be noted that vick spent what should have been his prime either in jail or rebuilding the nfl ' s trust on the eagles bench . he robbed himself of those great years , and it cost him a chance to be the best playmaker ever . he doesn ' t even rank first among our quarterbacks . but vick is in a category all his own , as both an athlete and cultural figure . few inspire more complex emotions . the off - field ugliness was undeniable . but so was the on - field beauty .\nthey are most active , out and about during the daytime , making them diurnal creatures , but spend most of their time in trees , on branches and between leaves where the sun\u2019s grasp on them is not that strong . they mostly forage for food during this time , but keep a careful lookout for any predator that might come walking or flying by , because squirrels overall , especially juvenile squirrels , are very vulnerable and are almost last on the food chain . they also groom and socialize vocally with one another during the day , checking for parasites and keeping up their appearance and hygiene .\ncall these players products of brady and the patriots system if you like . but several of these players ( like welker ) have had success elsewhere , and the system itself points the way to the future . the patriots used to be alone in plucking guys like welker off other rosters or drafting and grooming edelman types for slot receiver roles . copycats are catching on , and players like christian mccaffrey can now enter the draft marketing themselves as patriots - style weapons , even as television analysts shrug their shoulders and ask\nwhat position does he play ?\nlike it ' s still 1977 .\nspeaking of ryan experiments : buddy held the very concept of coordinating a modern offense in near contempt . cunningham ' s job was to drop back and make stuff happen , whether it was a bomb to fred barnett or calvin williams , a pirouetting ballet recital of a scramble or some combination of both . sometimes , the results were highlights that will be remembered forever , like the 95 - yard touchdown to barnett or the apparent carl banks sack that cunningham turned into a touchdown pass to jimmie giles . sometimes , cunningham spent whole afternoons running for his life on 3rd - and - 25 .\nwhen grange joined the nfl in 1925 , it changed perceptions about professional football . his presence at a bears road game could put a struggling host team in the black for the season . fans came to see the most dynamic , elusive all - purpose weapon of that primitive era . grange ran , passed and returned punts in an era when punt returns were much more integral to the game than they are now . football before grange was college lads clobbering each other in the mud . grange introduced quickness and grace to the sport . he was , quite literally , the nfl ' s first playmaker ."]}
{"id": 603, "summary": [{"text": "a leopon / \u02c8l\u025bp\u0259n / is a hybrid resulting from the crossing of a male leopard with a lioness .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the head of the animal is similar to that of a lion while the rest of the body carries similarities to leopards .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "these hybrids are produced in captivity and are unlikely to occur in the wild . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "leopon", "paragraphs": ["no , flint , other mutations are not inheritable . however , if a lion has a leopon parent , that leopon parent has the chance to pass the\nleopon gene\ndown and make the cub a leopon as well .\nof course ! a 2g leopon could get the leopon base and mark but also inherit some of the other markings of the father .\nsince the male leopon is fertile and all female hybrid big cats are fertile , have scientist or zoos tried to steadily breed leopons and leopon . . .\nthis offspring is not a leopon . her sister has not inherited the leopon gene and is a regular lioness as a result . despite lacking the leopon gene , she has inherited the leopon only base , kimanjano , and the leopon only marking , mottled rosette , from her mother . she is capable of passing these down to any cubs she may have ( see below for breeding details ) .\nnone of the members of leopon team are ever depicted wearing the school uniform .\nleopon = leopard + lion the leopon is the result of breeding a male leopard with a female lion . the head of the animal is similar \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthis offspring is a leopon . this cub has gained the\nleopon gene\nas can be seen by the unique lines . her mutation will simply be listed as leopon without a generation . she has inherited her father ' s breed only attributes , but is also a leopon due to her mother . as a result of this , she has the possibility of passing on the leopon gene to her own cubs .\nthe names of leopon team ' s members are derived from famous japanese racing drivers .\nleopon team ' s tiger ( p ) with it ' s first paint scheme .\nleopon team ' s tiger ( p ) with it ' s second paint scheme .\nleopon team takes care of the majority of post - match damage repair for ooarai ' s tanks .\nleopon team are the only ooarai team that were not depicted as having trouble in initially learning to drive their tank .\ninterestingly enough , all first generation leopons are born with two very special , leopon - only , traits : kimanjano base and the mottled rosette marking . these traits are very hard to breed onto a regular lion , but can pass to other leopons with ease . a female leopon can give birth to leopon cubs naturally , however the males are completely infertile .\noctober 9th , 1967 : if all goes well , japanese zoo experts hope to have by next april the world\u2019s first tippon , a cross between a male tiger and a female leopon . the first leopon , offspring of a leopard and lion was successfully bred eight years ago by these experts . tiger named ben , aged 3 years and 10 months , and miss daisy the leopon , 6 years and 4 months , were mated last week .\nleopon team consists of four members of the automotive club from ooarai girls high school , which also provide maintenance for all of ooarai ' s tanks .\ndespite the fact that the tiger ( p ) is designed for a five - man crew , leopon team operates the tank with only four members .\nleopon leopons are the first hybrid to be introduced to lioden . leopons are a cross between a lioness and a leopard male . first generations are very rare . leopons are obtained exactly the same way as other breeding mutations , which means any lioness could randomly pop out a leopon cub when she is bred !\nhow do i get a leopon on lioden ? i ' m starting with a lot of very low fertility lionesses and breeding until i get a leopon ! of course , special items help too . should i claim very low fertility lionesses ? let me know what you think ! follow me on facebook : urltoken add me on lioden : urltoken\na leopon skin and skull at the british museum of natural history is said to have come from an animal bred at kolhapur zoo in india in the early part of the 20th century .\nname : primalnstincts # gnash id : 82551 why i want to join : ever since i joined lioden i have been drawn to leopons . then i find out that it ' s a rare mutation . this seems like a cool way to work with other players to get a leopon without spending 400gb . i don ' t mind if we don ' t get a leopon , but i am happy to try ! what would i do with a leopon : i would pamper it and give it lots of decors , and after i get 1 - 2 more i would share the rest . if a get a leopon boy i will give him to one of my partners . if i sell a leopon that was bred here everyone would get a share of the money or it would be spent on items for leopon breeding . do i have a leopon : nope . . . : ( how do i get currency : i buy gb or sell stuff on the monkey business anything else : why can ' t you just tell your lionesses to mate with a leopard ? also should we make a clan for this ? using a clan hoard as a item storage area ? it would be private . edited on 02 / 05 / 17 @ 20 : 44 : 56 by primalnstincts # gnash ( # 82551 )\nduring the final match against kuromorimine girls academy , ooarai ' s tanks managed to survive the initial attack by kuromorimine ' s tanks and they gathered on the top of a hill , later successfully executing a breakthrough , with leopon team acting as the armored spearhead . although the tank ' s temperamental transmission threatened to catch fire , leopon team were able to make engine repairs whilst on the move . during the subsequent escape from kuromorimine ' s main force , while crossing a bridge , leopon team deliberately demolished it , forcing the opponent to take a different route and gaining critical time for ooarai .\na leopon is a hybrid resulting from a lioness and leopard mating . in the wild , the lioness and leopard use different mating techniques and would be unlikely to find themselves in a position of compatibility .\nleopon team initially crewed their tank to see if they could drift in it . as it turns out , they are very good at it , at one stage drifting the tank over 180 degrees around .\nleopon team started the match as part of team dandelion , where they engaged in fruitless long - range gunnery with rumi company ' s pershings . once the battle shifted to the theme park , leopon team , along with the other ooarai tanks excepting the panzer iv , acted as a mobile reserve . they were deployed first to the main gate , then redirected to the eastern utility gate after miho realized the deception .\nif you know a lion and a leopard very well then you should be able to identify a leopon because its physical appearance is a combination of that of both parents . leopons are spotted like leopards the only\ntowards the end of the match , leopon team helped chase down the bermuda trio by using their tank to create a slipstream for their allies . although the stress of leopon team ' s turbo - charged boost surpassed the technical limits of the engine and caused the tank to fatally break down , their contribution allowed the otherwise slow pravda and kuromorimine tanks to catch the bermuda trio in a close ranged engagement and take one of them out .\nas plan f took effect , leopon team was joined by anteater team and katyusha in the t - 34 - 85 in a high speed engagement through a wild - western setting . just as the all - stars university team tanks were about to close the trap on the ooarai force , leopon team used the heavy weight of the tank to drive through the buildings , which were just theater set constructs , suddenly changing the angle of attack and catching the surprised university tanks in the open .\na leopon ( pronounced :\nlep - \u0259n\n) is the hybrid produced by a mating between a lioness and a leopard . the hybrid produced from the reciprocal cross ( lion x leopardess ) is called a lipard ( pronounced :\nlip - erd\n) .\nlifespan ever recorded for a leopon is over 20 years . to us humans this may seem short but when compared to either lions or leopards this is an unusually long amount of time . for instance lions have a life expectancy of only 13 years ; seeing the difference ?\nname : kat why you want to join : i ' m interested in leopon and have been since i joined the game but never could get ahold of one . what you would do with a leopon : i ' d pamper and breed her . i would give her my most beautiful decors . i would make her my queen lol . if i got a male i would make it a sub since they are infertile so i would not breed him . do you have a leopon : unfortunately no how you intend to help : i have two accounts one of which was a giant face plant so i sold all my lions it now only has a male and a adolescent female i could use that to grow and breed them . like @ korea said how do you get currency : selling items and i could purchase gb\ni hope this helps clarify the confusion on breeding leopons or hybrids in general ! please feel free to post below with any questions , comments , or concerns you have . i ' ll be happy to address them as best i can . many thanks and best luck in your leopon adventures !\na leopon\nflat study skin and skull\nfrom the kolhapur zoo in india ( bred in 1910 ) was donated to the british museum of natural history by lt col fw wodehouse of the junior united services sometime before 1940 . the more famous japanese leopons are preserved as mounted specimens in japan .\nfour months into trying , i bred a leopon ! how can you breed a leopon on lioden ? follow along for my tips and tricks for getting the best mutant cubs on this lion simulator . breed a mutant cub today on lioden ! cotton root bark ? gmo cow ? i did some testing so you don ' t have to . add me on lioden : urltoken lioden is a revolutionary twist on the sim game experience - be the king of your very own pride of lionesses , breed the best cubs , defend your territory and battle other lions for supremacy . follow on facebook : urltoken consider supporting me on patreon : urltoken\ntheir first leopon cubs were born in 1959 after 97 days gestation\u2014the gestation period of a hybrid is usually intermediate in length between those of its parents ( in leopards gestation lasts 90 - 105 days , and in lions , 105 - 110 days ) . three more were born in 1962 , a male and two females .\nmany persons have wondered what kind of animal would be produced if a cross should happen between a lion and a leopard , some have even doubted the possibility . for those who have doubted the possibility , yes it is possible to cross a lioness and a leopard . when crossed the resulting hybrid is known as a leopon .\nthe leopon is documented in r i pocock ' s letter to the field of 2nd november 1912 and the 1913 - 14 vol . of the journal of the bombay natural history society . it refers to three more letters in the field 1908 april 18 , 25 , and may 9th . judging from the letters , the indian leopons were born in 1910 . pocock wrote in november 1912 :\nmr franco stenta of barberino mugello near florence . stenta owned a number of tame big captive - born big cats : 2 male lions , 2 male tigers , 1 tiger cub and a leopardess . these had been acquired from rome zoo and were tame to the point of being domesticated . one lion (\npuff\n) , the leopardess (\nmiccia\n) and the tiger cub were housed in cages in the courtyard of the stenta family ' s paper factory in barberino mugello 25 km from florence . the owner did not expect or intend them to breed . the lion / leopard hybrid cub ( often called a\nleopon\nor\nreverse leopon\nin reports ) came as a complete surprise to the owner and at first he mistook it for a domestic cat , which he thought had slipped into the cage .\n( 5 ) reginald pocock ( 1951 ) describes the skin of a wild - shot leopon :\nit is a male , measuring approximately : head and body 5 ft . 10 1 / 2 in . , tail , without terminal hairs of the tuft , 2 ft . 9 in . , making a total of about 8 ft . 8 in . this is of course small for adult east african lions , of which the dressed skins may\nthere have been successful attempts to cross a lion with a leopardess to produce liards or lipards ( or as florio proposed\nleonards\n) . the large size of the lion compared to that of the leopardess means that a leopon ( male leopard / lioness ) is a more plausible explanation for the marozi than a lion / leopardess pairing . a lion x leopardess hybrid was born in schoenbrunn zoo , vienna in 1951 . a better documented lipard was born in 1982 .\nalthough the leopard and lion come into contact in sub - saharan africa , it is widely believed that a leopon could not occur in a natural state because a leopard would be unable to mate with an unsedated lioness . but many reported hybrids of this type were the result of unplanned crosses in captivity . doi and reynolds ( 1967 ) say a lioness willingly and regularly lay on her side for a leopard to mount ( the pair in question were raised together ) .\nlike leopards , the leopon is an excellent climber and enjoys going into the water , distressing their lioness mothers , who have little , if any , interest in getting wet . leopons are about the size of a lion but their legs are shorter , more like a leopard . they have spots , but somewhat paler than a leopard and a tuft at the end of their tail like a lion . mature males have manes but not nearly as fluffy and large as a male lion . [ 1 ]\nas the match against the st . gloriana - pravda compound team moved into an urban environment , leopon team peeled off from the main force in an attempt to lure the pravda tanks away from the flag tank . when katyusha refused to take the bait , they instead moved to the oy - line , where they set up a defensive line to block the tanks chasing anglerfish team . after an extended firefight , they took a direct hit from nonna ' s is - 2 , which triggered the subsequent collapse of the oy - line .\n( 4 ) in a letter to the field ( nov . 2nd , 1912 ) , r . i . pocock gives the following description of the pelt of a leopon now in the british museum of natural history . pocock thanked walter samuel millard , the honorary secretary of the bombay natural history society , for sending me a skin of a specimen , which ,\naccording to the testimony of col . f w wodehouse , was bred in the gardens at kolhapur between a male panther i . e . a large leopard and a lioness . there were\nthe leopons shown here were bred at koshien hanshin park in nishinomiya city , japan . some of the photos show the cats as being extremely overweight , possibly due to a lack of testosterone ; predisposing them to lay down fat instead of muscle ( life in relatively small cages did not help matters ) . the lioness mother , leopard father and leopon offspring were taxidermised and are still on display . the park is closing and will donate two stuffed leopons to the national science museum in tokyo for scientific research . the remaining stuffed leopons will be displayed in nishinomiya city .\nthe marozi is reported in cameroons , central african republic , uganda , rwanda , kenya and ethiopia where it is reportedly a forest - dweller with a unique spot pattern distinct from that of the leopard . the presence of a supposedly self - sustaining population ( male big cat hybrids are sterile ) , the small size and the size difference problems of a leopard / lioness mating suggests a mutant form of either leopard or lion . because male hybrids are rarely fertile , a female leopon would have to mate with either a leopard or lion in order to produce offspring . those offspring would resemble the pure - bred parent .\nthey are real and are the only hybrid big cat species where the male is fertile . in other hybrid big cat species only the female offspring is fertile and can only mate with a pure - bred big cat . . . usually one of the parent species . more information about this hybrid . . . it is actually the offsrping of a leopard ( male ) and a lioness ( female ) the reciprocal offsrping is a lipard which is a male lion and female leopard mix . from my understanding it is much bigger than the leopon . something you should note , this mix has never occured in the wild and only in captivity .\nleopon team consists of members of the automotive club from ooarai girls high school , which up to that point had meticulously done the restoration and the maintenance of the school ' s tanks . the team operates a german tiger ( p ) , which was accidentally found by miho while searching for saori and the rest of the rabbit team who had lost their way inside their ship city ; after lengthy repairs , it was fixed and painted it with an image of a lion ; miho herself suggested to them that they could become the tiger ( p ) ' s crew . together with anteater team , they became the last minute addition to ooarai ' s lineup prior to the final round of the sensha - d\u014d tournament .\ninheritance please note that most mutations are not naturally inherited . the only mutations that are naturally inherited are : leopon , overgrown fur , primal , smilus , felis and all piebald patterns . leopons can only be passed down by the mother . males with this mutation are sterile and cannot breed . overgrown fur can only be passed down by the mother . males cannot inherit this mutation . primal can only be passed down by the father . females can inherit this mutation . smilus can only be passed down by primal , felis or smilus males . females cannot inherit this mutation . felis can only be passed down by primal , felis or smilus males . females can inherit this mutation . piebald can be passed down by both mother and father .\nin terms of size , the leopons take after the lioness mother and are larger than leopards . they have stout lion - like bodies and shorter leopard - like legs . they have brown , rather than black , spots and tufted tails . they will climb like leopards and seem to enjoy water , also like the leopard ( oddly enough , the japanese leopons were born of a water - loving lioness and a male leopard that did not seem to like water ! ) . when mature , males had sparse manes about 20 cm long when adult ( florio , 1983 ) . females may be torn between the solitary nature of the leopard and the social nature of a lioness . the hybrids proved to be sterile and the last one died in 1985 .\nh hemmer ( 1966 ) described leopard / lion hybrids as large animals , larger than the leopard and almost as large as the lioness mother . males had a beard and mane ; the mane developing at 2 years of age and remaining poorly developed at age 3 . the background colour was pale reddish - yellow ; being more reddish than in a lion . the markings were paler than those of the leopard .\ninterestingly , the leopard was originally believed to be a hybrid between the\npard\n( old name for panther , this being considered a separate creature from the leopard ) and the lion (\nleo\n) i . e . a leo - pard . nowadays , the term\npanther\nis generally only applied to black leopards . pliny believed that leopards were a hybrid of panther ( pard ) and lioness ( leo ) . this belief held sway for centuries , leading some authorities to identify dante ' s lonza as a leopard / lion hybrid in the style of pliny . in dante ' s book\ninferno\n( 1314 ) a leopard - like creature called the\nlonza\nrepresents the sin of lust . although generally translated as leopard , the word\nlonza\nis ambiguous ( being a play on words ) and some identify it as a hybrid of lion / leopardess or leopard / lioness , citing the works of pliny as possible inspiration for dante ' s lonza .\nmust a lioness be sedated for the smaller leopard to mount her ? or does she willingly adopt a lying position ? any natural hybrids would require her to be willing . some have claimed that the zoo pictures below show a very unresponsive , sedated lioness , but reports on the japanese leopons state that the lioness voluntarily assumed a position on her side to allow the much smaller leopard to mount her . the photos clearly show affection between the two animals .\njuly 8th , 1961 : zoo keepers here have dubbed their latest attraction leopons . the three cubs are offspring of a female lion and a male leopard . two are yellowish - brown with light black spots . the third leans to the father\u2019s side \u2013 spotty .\n1968 : the story of leopons . doi , hiroyuk and barbara reynolds . putnam . today japanese children can visit a zoo and see leopons - animals that several vears ago did not exist anywhere in the world . their mother is a lion and their father is a leopard . dr . hiroyuki doi first believed that lions and leopards were more similar than most people had thought , he felt that perhaps the animals had developed from one common ancestor and his experiment was a plausible testimony to his theory . the book is full of photos of these fascinating creatures .\njuly 12th , 1971 : hanshin park zoo officials reported the death of sonoko , a lioness who gave birth in 1959 and 1961 to five cubs called leopons because they were fathered by a leopard . four leopons survive .\nthe father of the hybrid was a 2 year old 250 kg lion 1 . 08 m tall at the shoulders and 1 . 8 m long ( excluding tail ) . the mother was a 3 and a half year old leopardess weighing only 38 kg . the female cub was born overnight on 26 / 27 august 1982 . its estimated birth - weight was similar to that of a leopard cub and the estimated gestation period was 92 - 93 days . miccia was initially a good mother , but began to over - groom the cub , biting off its tail when it was 2 days old . from then on , the cub was left with its mother while nursing . after 2 weeks it was hand - reared . at 5 months old it weighed 13 - 14 kg and was one third the size of its mother . it had the body conformation of a lion cub with a large head ( lion trait ) but receding forehead ( leopard trait ) , fawn fur and thick but faded ( i . e . brown ) spotting . the parents mated again in november 1982 and the leopardess was reported to be pregnant . however she had to be kept separate from puff as he continued to mount her whenever they were together .\nthe mysterious african\nmarozi\nor\nspotted lion\n, may be a rare natural leopard / lion hybrid or an adult lion which retained its childhood spots . descriptions vary , but in general the marozi is described as a small lion with a sandy , tawny or grey coat with tawny spots . to add to the confusion , the spotted patterns are variously described as leopard - like , not leopard - like or even jaguar - like .\npainting of two marozi by bill rebsamen , big - cat lover and wildlife artist . reproduced here by kind permission . bill ' s website can be found at :\nthe first observations of spotted lions ( marozi , panthera leo maculatus ) by westerners were in 1903 . details of marozi / spotted lion sightings is at spotted lions .\nblack leopards ( black panthers ) have always caught the public imagination . to my knowledge black leopons have not occurred . the gene for melanism in leopards is recessive and would probably be masked by lion colouration genes .\nflorio pl . birth of a lion x leopard hybrid in italy . international - zoo - news , 1983 ; 30 ( 2 ) : 4 - 6\nmany thanks to paul mccarthy for tirelessly researching back issues of the field and the times .\na lion detects intercourse with a leopard in the case of an adulterous mate by scent , and uses all his strength to punish her . so she will wash away the guilty odor in some stream , or else keep her distance when accompanying him .\nlioness \u00d7 leopard close - up of face ( male ) . image : trjn\nmany leopard - lion hybrids have been bred in captivity . best known are those born at koshien hanshin park in nishinomiya , japan in the late fifties and early sixties , one of which survived more than twenty years . this is longer than usual for a leopard ( maximum recorded life span in captivity 23 years ) or a lion , which has an average captive life expectancy of 13 years .\nthe staff at koshien hanshin decided to breed lion - leopard hybrids because other zoos were focusing on lion - tiger hybrids . they began by raising a lioness and a male leopard together . she was named sonoko and her leopard mate , kaneo . both were born in 1955 .\none of the interesting facts about leopons is that , unlike lions , they ' re good climbers . they also enjoy water , which often distresses their lioness mothers . leopons are big animals nearly the size of a lion , with stout bodies , but their legs are shorter , like a leopard\u2019s ( hemmer 1966 ) . they have brown spots , paler than the leopard\u2019s black spots , and tufted tails , like a lion . the base color is pale reddish yellow . mature males have sparse manes about 8 inches ( 20 cm ) long .\nthere are , however , anecdotal reports of natural hybrids , known as marozis , from cameroon , central african republic , uganda , rwanda , kenya , and ethiopia . apparently , the only solid evidence of hybridization occurring in the wild is a skin ( and possible skull ) in the british museum of natural history , shot in 1931 in kenya\u2019s aberdare mountains ( this pelt is described in detail in note 5 below ) .\nleopard and lioness making friends : wild lioness nursing leopard cub . this leopard would likely become imprinted on lions , so that it would prefer to mate with lionesses instead of leopards when it reached maturity . more info > >\nas to the reciprocal cross , florio ( 1983 ) reports a case of a lipard , occurring in italy . in this particular case there was a large difference in the sizes of the parents . the lion father weighed 550 pounds ( 250 kg ) , while the leopard mother weighed a mere 84 pounds ( 38 kg ) . unfortunately for the mom , the lion attempted to mate at every opportunity . another lion - leopardess hybrid was born in schoenbrunn zoo , vienna , in 1951 .\nthere is also a three - way cross between leopard , jaguar and lion known .\nantonius ( 1951b ) ; doi and reynolds ( 1967 ) ; flower ( 1929a ) ; gray ( 1972 ) ; hemmer ( 1966 : figs . 75 , 76 , 78 , 1968c ) ; international zoo yearbook ( 1959 , 1960 , 1961 , 1962 ) ; petzsch ( 1956 ) ; peters ( 1978 ) ; pocock ( 1908a , 1908b , 1913 , 1951 ) ( list of works cited ) .\n( 1 ) stuffed leopons are on display in japan at the national science museum in tokyo .\n( 2 ) according to jerdon ( 1874 : 174 ) , arab tradition says the cheetah is a product of this cross ( see also platt 1909 ) .\n( 3 ) this hybrid was apparently known even in ancient times , since it is mentioned by pliny ( natural history , book viii , xvii ) .\ntwo cubs in the litter . one , whose skin is here figured , died when about two and a half months old , whereas the other , now about two years old is , i believe , still living . at first sight this skin recalls that of the leopard in being covered with spots ; but those on the side of the body are much smaller and closer set than in a typical indian leopard\u2019s , and also browner and altogether less distinct , as if beginning to disappear with age \u2026 on the head , down the spine , on the belly and the legs , they are however quite black and distinct . the tail is very confusedly spotted above , but striped below , and has a blackish tip covered with longer hairs . another leonine feature is the dirty white \u2014 rather than clear white \u2014 tint of the underside , while the ears are fawn with a broad , black bar , but are without the white spot seen in leopards\nsurpass 10 ft . over all . from its size i guessed it to be about three years old , a year or more short of full size . there is nothing particularly noticeable in its mane , which is small and , except on the cheeks , consists of a mixture of tawny , grey and black hairs , the longest up to about 5 in . in length . \u2026 the peculiarity of the skin lies in the distinctness of the pattern of spots , consisting of large \u2018jaguarine\u2019 rosettes arranged in obliquely vertical lines and extending over the flanks , shoulders and thighs up to the darker spinal area where they disappear . they are irregular in size and shape , the largest measuring 85 by 45 or 65 by 65 mm . in diameter . their general hue is pale greyish - brown , with slightly darkened centres , but at the periphery they are thrown into relief by the paler tint of the spaces between them . on the pale cream - buff belly , the solid richer buff spots stand out tolerably clearly . the legs are covered with solid spots , more distinct than the rosettes of the flanks , and on the hind legs they are more scattered and a deeper , more smoky grey tint than on the fore legs .\nsome of these crosses are much better documented than others ( as indicated by the reliability arrow ) . indeed , some might seem completely impossible .\nbut all have been reported at least once . the links below are to separate articles . additional crosses , not listed here , are covered on the\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nodor - control , lightweight , dust - free , non - clumping , plus built - in health monitoring .\nthe feedback you provide will help us show you more relevant content in the future .\nleopons have been successfully bred in captivity according to a few sources . the best known were at the koshien hanshin park in nishinomiya city , japan in the 1950s . [ 1 ]\ni ' m not at all convinced this pairing could happen in the wild , but i can imagine it might in a zoo . animals are known to exhibit unnatural behaviors in a typical zoo environment . hybrids are usually considered sterile ; a natural biological barrier against occurrences of hybridization . there have been rare instances where the sterility rule didn\u2019t hold .\nroku has just about every app you can imagine ( youtube , pandora , netflix , amazon , hulu , hbo now ) .\nit is a real image . published in the daily mirror 28 january 1970 .\n, lawyer , love my city bangalore , footballer , die hard a . c . milan fan , movie critic , manga enthusiast\nfrom the rosette markings on this cat , its probably the mix of a lion and jaguar . not a leopard . however , the photo is shopped . the mane is the only indication of any semblance of lion and the distinction is simply to neat . remove the mane , and this is pedigree jaguar . that being said , there are successful jaglions and liguars .\nspoiler warning ! this wiki contains detailed information regarding the girls und panzer universe . proceed with caution !\nthe tiger ( p ) is a german prototype heavy tank with a formidable 8 . 8cm kwk 36 l / 56 gun ; it has excellent firepower and armor protection , but it ' s very unreliable , often suffering from engine breakdowns .\nalthough technically members of the automotive club , they are categorized alongside the other sensha - d\u014d members at ooarai school ' s temporary transfer site .\nthe tiger ( p ) carries the largest gun in the ooarai sensha - d\u014d arsenal .\nin reality , most tiger ( p ) tanks had additional armour plating bolted onto the front . although the automobile club mentions that they have done something similar for the panzer iv , they have not done so for their own tank .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nsince their addition into the game , leopons are arguably one of the most popular mutations . not only are they mind numbingly adorable with their art , but they also present a plethora of new breeding challenges . these hybrids are unique among lioden genetics and are accompanied by a swathe of attributes only they possess . their bloodlines can become rather complex and it can be confusing to understand how hybrid genetics all play out . this guide is here to help you understand where leopons come from , how they can be bred , and what inheritance patterns they follow . please note this guide does not and will not provide exact percentages for any breeding and / or mutation rates . only vague proportions will be given to keep some mystery involved in breeding them !\ni wonder . . . will there be other hybrids introduced in the game ? 0 . 0 i hope so . : )\nomg . so useful thought . : 3 thanks for posting this , cleared things up ! xp but , i have a question . does the mother has to have the rosette marking in order to breed with a leopard ? o . o\nlioden ltd \u00a9 2012 - 2018 . all rights reserved . company number 09846917 registered in england & wales . vat number 234362915 . terms of service - code of conduct - privacy policy - contact us - modbox - faq\nthis page was last edited on 25 may 2017 , at 00 : 10 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\n90 % of the time , speakers of english use just 7 , 500 words in speech and writing . these words appear in red , and are graded with stars . one - star words are frequent , two - star words are more frequent , and three - star words are the most frequent .\na must for anyone with an interest in the changing face of language . the macmillan dictionary blog explores english as it is spoken around the world today .\nwhere a ' was ' price is referenced on this website this means the intended selling price of the product for the season that it was originally produced . please note that this may not represent the lowest selling price of the product during that season . for more information about how we price our products please click here .\na beautifully designed smart chelsea boot that adds a lift to your look whether you dress it up or down . premium burnished tan leather adds richness while twin elastic gussets allow for ease of foot entry .\n\u00a9c & j clark international 2015 clarks and the clarks logo are registered trademarks of c & j clark international limited .\nclarks international registered office : 40 high street , street , somerset ba16 0eq . company registration number : 141015 . vat number : gb 129 9103 63\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbeing the color ; leopons have brown spots while leopards are black spotted . when looking at size leopards and lions are relatively the same , a leopons legs are however shorter like that of leopards . another similarity is that the males have manes like that of lions .\nwhen it comes to mating the lioness would normally lie on her side allowing the leopard to mount . it is also believed that mating seldom happens between these two because the lioness when unsedated often times wouldn\u2019t allow the leopard to mount on her . therefore most of the leopons produced are as a result of human doings .\nso , hybridization is unlikely in nature because of behavioral differences ? i wonder what dynamics were in play between homo sapiens and homo neanderthalensis back in the day . would a human male find a neanderthal babe hot ? perhaps if he was inibriated , he might not know the difference . rod martin , jr . http : / / www . spacesoftware . net\ncross - breed means the animal is of mixed blood ; the animal is often a mix of two different breeds , or a mix of several breeds . these are often referred to as mongrels for dogs , or moggies for cats , mules in sheep , or just known as a cross - breed with other species . cross - breeds often display traits from all the breeds that make up the mix . cross - breeds can reproduce , as they are just different types of the same species .\na cross - breed is different to what is referred to as a hybrid . a hybrid is cross between different species , as with cross - breeds , hybrids often display both physical and personality traits from both parents species . however , hybrids tend to be infertile ( they cannot reproduce their own young ) and therefore the only way to get the particular hybrid is to cross the 2 original species . a few hybrid animal examples are :\nit is important to think about this when acquiring a cross - breed as a pet ; if the mix of breeds is known , you can research into them to see the likely physical characteristics , as well as the likely personality traits you may see in your pet .\ncross - breeds are becoming increasingly popular with dogs , and cross - bred dogs are being sold as designer breeds . some of the more popular designer dog breeds are :\nas you may have noticed , these deisgner breeds have been given their own , new name that combines the 2 breeds they have been crossed with .\ndue to the fact that cross - breeds have ability to reproduce , there is dispute about designer breeds and what makes them up . take the labradoodle for example , most breeders will only accept a dog as being a labradoodle if it is the first generation ; i . e . one parent is a poodle , the other parent is a labrador . if 2 labradoodles have offspring , most breeders do not class the puppies as labradoodles , but rather as mongrels . if one parent is a labradoodle , and the other is either a poodle or a labrador , the offspring is also termed as being mongrels along most breeders of the designer breed .\naside from the designer cross - breeds , most cross - breeds are not recognised as \u201cbreeds\u201d , but rather just referred to as crosses . the crosses from just 2 different breeds that are not designer dogs are easily differentiated by the fact they are referred to as cross - breeds , and do not have their own \u201cbreed name\u201d .\noften cross - breeds are similar breeds that have been mated , such as the scottish terrier and the west highland terrier . these are 2 similar looking breeds ; similar height , coat , ears , face , as well as having a similar temperament .\nhowever , due to the ability to reproduce , cross - breeds become more and more diluted in breed terms and eventually just get termed as a mongrel . a lot of mongrels are so mixed with breeds that a similarity to any one breed is very hard to see , others have a distinct breed that stands out ; such as the alsatian mix and the tibetan terrier mix , pictured below .\nall breeds , including the ones that are now classified as pedigree breeds , have come about from mixing different kinds of canines to get the desired appearance and / or personality out of the animal that the breeder desired . the bedlington terrier for example , is thought to be a mix of ; the rothbury terrier , kerry blue terrier , wheaten terrier ,\notterhound , poodle and the dandie dinmont terrier\u2026 so basically a mongrel with a lot of breeds mixed in ! however , nowadays it is its own recognised breed , a pedigree .\ndogs may be the most popular animals to mix breeds , but they are certainly not the only ones ! cats , birds , fish , rabbits , rodents , reptiles , sheep , cows , pigs , horses and ponies can all be cross bred ; but some species cross - breeds are more common than others . for example , cross - breed rabbits are fairly common , often due to un - neutered pets having accidental litters !\ncats cross - breed often too , however in one litter there can be a different father for each kitten , so the crosses cannot always be determined and may not be known \u2013 unless the cross - breeding was intentional and artificially selected . cats are usually bred via artificial selection for their pedigree , so in the way we get designer dog breeds , it is not the same with cats . some cat crosses can be seen clearly , but most are unsure and just get termed as a moggie .\njust to clarify \u2013 the terms horse and pony refers to the height of the same animal . they are measure in hands high ( hh ) \u2013 horses are 14 . 2hh + , whereas ponies are up to ( and including ) 14 . 1hh . horses and ponies are usually selected for their pedigree too , due to needing pure bloodlines for race and show animals . however , there are a few recognised cross - breeds :\nthere is also a mongrel of horses \u2013 a mix breed of many breeds that has come to be recognised as a breed , the pony of the americas ( poa ) .\na lot of people do not believe birds and fish can be cross bred , however this is just due to the occurrence of this being very low ( lower in fish than birds ) . birds can cross breed as long as they belong to the same sub - species ; for example , 2 of the same type ( such as 2 conures , or 2 cockatoos ) of parrot can have offspring , 2 of the same type of aviary bird ( such as a pair of different finch types ) can have offspring , 2 different chicken types can have offspring\u2026 and the list goes on . it is just uncommon , but the ability is there .\nany questions or comments ? please use either contact page , thoughts comment box below , or social media site ( facebook , google + , twitter or linkedin ) .\ncheck this out ! ! ! i have a zebra heart , instant birth feather and can find some really persistent studs . . . so . . . anyone have 5x yoh barks ? ?\nwant to breed lioden mutants ? the right items will steer the random cub generator towards mutation . this is a comprehensive list of breeding items . let me know what ' s worked for you in the past ! don ' t forget to add me on lioden : urltoken join the pet simmer clan : urltoken guides used - - common misconceptions : urltoken dem lion scrotums : urltoken how to lion scrotum : urltoken item database : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncongrats ! you ' ve decided to try and make some adorable little lions to continue on your pride ' s legacy . in order to do that , you ' ll have to be attuned to the breeding of your females . not every lioness is the same as the next and so not every lioness is likely to give you a cub . some are more susceptible to breeding than others and sometimes the genes even get a bit mixed - up . this page talks about the fertility system , how it affects your breeding , and mutations .\nfertility is how likely your lioness is to get pregnant when bred . it is a chance or a likelihood . this means you and / or the stud that you are using may have to breed with a lioness multiple times before they get pregnant . a successful breeding could take 5 tries or it could take 500 , depending on her fertility . it also correlates to how\ngood\nyour lioness ' genes are . although mutations can occur at all fertility levels , the lower your lioness ' fertility is the more likely she is to produce one .\nall cubs , regardless whether they ' re male or female , have a set fertility level . however , it does not manifest itself until adulthood in case you decide to sex - change your male adolescent into a female . once grown , males are considered to have\ngoddess\nfertility levels while females all vary .\nif you do not like the fertility of your lioness there are some temporary and permanent ways to alter it .\n- choose a new , permanent , fertility . ( infertile / goddess unavailable )\nsometimes , during breeding , the genes of the cub get a little messed up ! what comes afterwards can be a wild card . mutations randomly occur when breeding a lioness . although lower fertility levels are more likely to produce a mutation , they can appear at any fertility level . even then , some mutations are more debilitating than others and others are more common . as a general rule , lethal mutations and hybrids tend to be quite rare ."]}
{"id": 633, "summary": [{"text": "strioterebrum plumbeum , common name : the lead-coloured auger , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family terebridae , the auger snails . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "strioterebrum plumbeum", "paragraphs": ["strioterebrum sacco , f . , 1891 type species : strioterebrum basteroti nyst , p . - h . , 1843\nmyurella joserosadoi myurella kilburni myurella nathaliae myurella nebulosa myurella parkinsoni myurella paucistriata myurella torquata myurella undulata myurella wellsilviae oxymeris areolata oxymeris areolatus cf . oxymeris caledonicus oxymeris chlorata oxymeris costelliferus oxymeris crenulatus oxymeris dillwynii oxymeris dimidiatus oxymeris fatuus oxymeris felinus oxymeris gouldi oxymeris maculatus oxymeris senegalensis oxymeris strigatus oxymeris trochlea oxymeris troendlei perirhoe cerithina perirhoe eburnea pristiterebra glauca pristiterebra petiveriana pristiterebra tuberculosa strioterebrum caliginosum strioterebrum japonicum strioterebrum nitidum strioterebrum plumbeum strioterebrum sanjuanensis strioterebrum swainsoni terebra alba terebra amanda terebra argosyia terebra argus terebra argus brachygyra ( f ) terebra argus cf .\nclade e is the largest clade and includes the genera myurella , clathroterebra , terenolla , hastulopsis , strioterebrum , and the \u201cterebra\u201d textilis - group ( terryn 2007 ) . myurella itself is polyphyletic , with several species placed as sister groups of other genera . for example , myurella affinis , the type species , is the sister group of terenolla , hastulopsis , some clathroterebra species , and two other myurella species ( pp = 1 , b = 94 ) . clathroterebra is also polyphyletic , with the two representative species used in our analyses , clathroterebra poppei and clathroterebra fortunei , type species of clathroterebra , appearing in separate well - supported clades ( pp = 1 , b = 100 ) for both . the distinctiveness of the monotypic genus terenolla appears to be confirmed in our analysis . hastulopsis and strioterebrum are paraphyletic . the \u201cterebra\u201d textilis - group is dispersed within clade e and constitutes a group that includes a large amount of undescribed diversity , both at the genus and species levels , hence the various types ( textilis iii , iv , v , and vii ) listed in the tree .\n( of terebra plumbea quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) quoy j . r . c . & gaimard j . p . ( 1832 - 1835 ) . voyage de d\u00e9couvertes de l '\nastrolabe\nex\u00e9cut\u00e9 par ordre du roi , pendant les ann\u00e9es 1826 - 1829 , sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ' urville . zoologie . paris : tastu . 1 : i - l 1 - 264 ; 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 321 [ 1832 ] ; 2 ( 2 ) : 321 - 686 [ 1833 ] ; 3 ( 1 ) : 1 - 366 [ 1834 ] ; 3 ( 2 ) : 367 - 954 [ 1835 ] ; atlas ( mollusques ) : pls 1 - 93 [ 1833 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of terebra assimilis pease , 1869 ) pease w . h . ( 1869 ) . description of new species of marine gasteropod\u00e6 inhabiting polynesia . american journal of conchology . 5 : 64 - 79 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 67 [ details ]\nterryn , y . ( 2007 ) . terebridae : a collectors guide . conchbooks & natural art . 59pp + plates . [ details ]\n( of hastula plumbea ( quoy & gaimard , 1964 ) ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra plumbea quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra plumbea quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of terebra assimilis pease , 1869 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra bourguignati deshayes , 1859 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra castaneofusca thiele , 1925 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra clappi pilsbry , 1921 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra contigua pease , 1871 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\n( of terebra hoffmeyeri abbott , 1952 ) bratcher t . & cernohorsky w . o . ( 1987 ) . living terebras of the world . a monograph of the recent terebridae of the world . american malacologists , melbourne , florida & burlington , massachusetts . 240pp . [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nterebra assimilis pease , w . h . , 1871 ( preoccupied , renamed )\nterebra clappi pilsbry , h . a . , 1921 ,\n1920\n: hawaii\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\nterebridae terebridae are not variable in shape : they are all slender and pointed . the variability in sculpture and pattern is impressive . their determination is a challenge and we are fortunate with the existence of the work of bratcher and cernohorsky ( 1987 ) . there are about 350 species .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 005 seconds . )\nhastula imitatrix hastula knockeri hastula lanceata hastula lepida hastula matheroniana hastula penicillata hastula philippiana hastula rufopunctata hastula solida hastula species indonesia ( from ) hastula species thailand ( from ) hastula strigilata hastula strigilata nipponensis ( f ) hastula strigilata verreauxi ( f ) hastula strigillata cf . hastulopsis alveolata hastulopsis amoena hastulopsis burchi hastulopsis conspersa hastulopsis conspersa cf . hastulopsis loisae hastulopsis pertusa hastulopsis pseudopertusa impages aciculina impages anomala impages bacillus impages cinerea impages cinerea luctuosa impages escondida impages hectica impages inconstans impages marqueti impages maryleeae impages nassoides impages salleana impages stylata myurella affinis myurella affinis peasii ( f ) myurella affinis cf . myurella columellaris myurella flavofasciata myurella hiscocki\nthe basic data of this taxon were not entered consulting the original description , but from secondary sources .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\npilsbry , h . a . 1921 ,\nmarine mollusks of hawaii viii - xiii\n, proceedings of the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , vol . 72 , pp . 296 - 328\npease , w . h . 1871 ,\nnotes on the synonymy and distribution of marine gastropoda\n, american journal of conchology , vol . 7 , pp . 20 - 25\ndeshayes , g . p . 1859 ,\na general review of the genus terebra and a description of new species\n, proceedings of the zoological society of london , vol . 27 , pp . 270 - 321\nabbott , r . t . 1952 ,\na new terebra ( hoffmeyeri ) from the philippines\n, nautilus , vol . 65 , no . 3 , pp . 77 - 80 , pl . 5\nthiele , j . 1925 ,\ngastropoda der deutschen tiefsee - expedition . theil 2\n, wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der deutschen tiefsee - expedition auf dem dampfer\nvaldivia\n1898\u20131899 , vol . 17 , no . 2 , pp . 35 - 382 , pls 313 - 346\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 58186065 - d13c - 444a - 90d9 - 8e10795e4bb2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 512226\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nterebra brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1789 type species : terebra subulata linnaeus , c . , 1758\nterebra ( amanda - group ) type species : terebra ( amanda - group ) amanda hinds , r . b . , 1844\nterebra ( panamensis - group ) type species : terebra ( panamensis - group ) panamensis dall , w . h . , 1908\nterebra ( picta - group ) type species : terebra ( picta - group ) picta hinds , r . b . , 1844\nterebra ( textilis - group ) type species : terebra ( textilis - group ) textilis hinds , r . b . , 1844\nterebra ( textilis - group ) textilis roseata ( var . ) ( 4 )\nterebra ( variegata - group ) type species : terebra ( variegata - group ) variegata gray , j . e . , 1834\nterebra ( variegata - group ) specillata balaenorum ( var . ) ( 1 )\nterebra ( bathyrhaphe - group ) type species : granuliterebra bathyrhaphe smith , e . a . , 1875\nterebra ( bathyrhaphe - group ) bridgesi dushaneae ( var . ) ( 4 )\nterebra ( alba - group ) type species : terebra ( alba - group ) alba gray , j . e . , 1834\nterebra ( elata - group ) type species : terebra ( elata - group ) elata hinds , r . b . , 1844\nterebra ( elata - group ) elata montijoensis ( var . ) ( 2 )\ncinguloterebra oyama , k . , 1961 type species : terebra hedleyana pilsbry , h . a . , 1905\nclathroterebra oyama , k . , 1961 type species : clathroterebra fortunei deshayes , g . p . , 1857\nduplicaria dall , w . h . , 1908 type species : duplicaria duplicata linnaeus , c . , 1758\neuterebra cotton , b . c . & f . k . godfrey , 1932 type species : euterebra tristis tristis deshayes , g . p . , 1859\ngranuliterebra oyama , k . , 1961 type species : granuliterebra bathyrhaphe smith , e . a . , 1875\nhastula adams , h . g . & a . adams , 1853 type species : hastula strigilata linnaeus , c . , 1758\nhastulopsis oyama , k . , 1961 type species : hastulopsis melanacme smith , e . a . , 1873\nimpages smith , e . a . , 1873 type species : terebra caerulescens lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1822\nmyurella hinds , r . b . , 1844 type species : myurella affinis gray , j . e . , 1834\noxymeris dall , w . h . , 1903 type species : oxymeris maculatus linnaeus , c . , 1758\npellifronia terryn , y . & m . holford , 2008 type species : pellifronia jungi lai , k . y . , 2001\nperirhoe dall , w . h . , 1908 type species : perirhoe circumcincta deshayes , g . p . , 1857\npristiterebra taki , i . & k . oyama , 1954 type species : terebra tsuboiana yokoyama , m . , 1922\ntriplostephanus dall , w . h . , 1908 type species : triplostephanus triseriatus gray , j . e . , 1834\nterenolla iredale , t . , 1929 type species : terenolla pygmaea hinds , r . b . , 1844\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nhastula is a genus of sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family terebridae , the auger snails .\nspecies in this genus can be found in the indo - pacific region , australia and tasmania .\nthese are sand - dwelling snails that burrow into the sand no deeper than their length . these are carnivorous snails , feeding on polychaete worms .\nthe shell is smooth and glossy . it is very high and turreted with impressed sutures . the shell shows axial sculpturing of crenulations below the slender ribs . there is often no spiral sculpture ; some species show very weak spiral lines .\nhastula apicitincta ( sowerby iii , 1900 ) : synonym of impages apicitincta ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1900 )\nhastula diversa ( e . a . smith , 1901 ) : synonym of hastula rufopunctata ( e . a . smith , 1877 )\nhastula maryleeae r . d . burch , 1965 : synonym of impages maryleeae ( r . d . burch , 1965 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n1 department of biology and biotechnology \u201cc . darwin\u201d , sapienza university of rome , roma , italy ,\ncompeting interests : the authors confirm that co - author mand\u00eb holford is a plos one editorial board member . this does not alter the authors\u2019 adherence to plos one editorial policies and criteria . the authors also confirm that co - author yu zhang is employed by ernst & young ( 5 time square , new york , ny , ny 10036 , ny 10036 , usa ) . this does not alter the authors\u2019 adherence to plos one policies on sharing data and materials .\nconceived and designed the experiments : mvm np . performed the experiments : mvm np mc . analyzed the data : mvm np mc yz . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : mh . wrote the paper : mvm np mc mh yz . conducted fieldwork to collected specimens : mvm mh mc np .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\n. in order to validate the abgd / klee approach with another group , a similar analysis has been carried out here on the terebridae . the terebridae was chosen as it is a well - characterized family of conoidea that includes \u223c350 described species , with an estimated total number of 450 extant species ( worms\u2013\n, which constitutes an exception for the conoideans , making terebrids a good model to test the ability of the abgd / klee approach to accurately delimit pshs .\nspecies delimitation is shown as a function of time and robustness . abgd / klee allows for a fast and relatively accurate first assessment of species diversity . a sampling of biodiverse taxa is first analyzed by bioinformatics species delimitation tool abgd ( automated barcode gap discovery ) using the coi gene and visualized by klee diagrams generated from indicator vectors of coi allowing primary species hypotheses ( pshs ) to be made . further analyses using integrative taxonomy in which additional characters ( genes , morphology , geography ) and criteria ( similarity , phylogeny ) will generate secondary species hypotheses ( sshs ) , but this involves a significant increase in time to produce a definitive robust species hypothesis ( rsh ) .\nthe three predatory marine mollusk groups of conoidea are illustrated with representative shells . conidae ( cone snails ) in red , terebridae ( auger snails ) in green , and the 14 remaining families , referred to as turrids , in yellow . the inner dark colors refer to known diversity and the outer light colors refer to estimated diversity .\ncollection permits were provided by the smithsonian tropical research institute permit office ( stri - spo ) and the panama aquatic resources authority ( arap ) for east pacific localities and by the mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris for all the other localities . specific locations of collection sites are recorded in table s1 . our study did not involve endangered or protected species .\n) and stored in the malacology collection of the mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle ( paris , france ) .\ndna sequences were aligned with muscle 3 . 8 . 31 [ 34 ] and accuracy of the alignment was confirmed by eye .\na total of 454 specimens of terebridae were sequenced for a 658 - bp fragment of the coi gene , while a portion of the 28s rdna ranging from 696 to 742 bp was sequenced in a subset of 195 specimens and used to build a 758 - bp alignment ( data s1 and s2 ) . the coi alignment was analyzed with abgd to propose partitions with variable numbers of pshs , depending on the prior threshold and initial or recursive analyses . the more inclusive ( lumper ) partition provided by abgd included 98 clusters , and the least inclusive ( splitter ) partition contained 125 clusters . based on the coi gene only , gmyc and ptp analyses contained a variable number of clusters , mostly overlapping with abgd : 110 in the gmyc single threshold , 130 in the gmyc multiple threshold and 112 in the ptp ( fig . s1 \u2013 s3 ) . sixty - three pshs are found identical in the five partitions . if the partitions obtained with the gmyc multiple threshold method are excluded , the number of identical pshs raises to 83 .\nand 17 were assigned only to a genus name ( designated by \u201csp . \u201d ) (\nklee diagram for the coi gene showing the correlation amongst indicator vectors for the less inclusive ( splitter ) dataset obtained with the abgd method and including 125 pshs . color gradation in red indicates high correlation values . arrows indicate the conflicting pshs between the more inclusive and the less inclusive partitions discussed in the text and listed in table s1 .\nadditionally , ten pshs defined in the lumper partition were split in several psh in the splitter partitions . incongruence between the lumper and splitter abgd partitions can be easily visualized and evaluated when sequence data corresponding to the splitter partition are transformed in indicator vectors and used to build a klee diagram with the indicator vector method\nphylogenies for the pshs groups in the splitter partition vs . the lumper partition (\ngene sequences were paraphyletic between members of each splitter psh . on the basis of these results 13a\u2013b , 24a\u2013d , 71a\u2013c , 81a\u2013c and 98a\u2013c pshs were rejected and not considered candidate species . however , three groups of pshs from the same partition as those rejected , 3a\u2013d , 12a\u2013b , 30a\u2013b , were clearly recognized in the klee diagram (\nphylogeny , with support values comparable or only slightly lower than the lumper partition . additionally , results obtained from the gmyc and ptp are congruent and support the splitting of partitions . for 3a\u2013d , 12a\u2013b , 30a\u2013b psh groups , 28s gene results either confirmed the monophyly of the group ( e . g . for 30a\u2013b ) or were inconclusive . these results substantially reflect a geographical differentiation . specifically ,\nwith psh 30a from vanuatu and 30b from east africa . as a result , 3a\u2013d , 12a\u2013b , 30a\u2013b pshs , referring to\nbayesian phylogenetic tree estimated with the coi gene alignment . clades including several specimens identified as a single morphospecies are compressed in triangles . green circles indicate pp = 100 ; blue upward triangles indicate pp > 80 ; black downward triangles indicate pp > 50 .\nsp . 3 ( psh 33 ) . pshs 16 and 33 were split respectively in three ( pshs 16a\u2013c ) and ten ( pshs 33a\u2013j ) partitions in the abgd splitter analysis . inspection of the klee diagram for psh 16 and 33 clearly shows that correlation values of indicator vectors are lower than 90 % only between two clusters internal to each psh (\n) . this result , although not congruent with abgd analyses , is supported by gmyc analyses and , in case of psh 33 , by ptp analysis as well . pshs 16a\u2013b and 16c and 33a and 33b\u2013j were thus accepted as candidate species .\nin summary a partition of 104 primary species hypotheses are proposed that are congruent based on different characters ( coi , 28s ) , criteria ( similarity , phylogeny ) and species delimitation methods ( abgd / klee , gmyc , ptp ) .\nin other instances , the identification of two or more pshs in single morphospecies of our sample correlated with a disjunct geographic distribution , e . g . in\n) . for these putative allopatric species pairs , a more complete integrative approach taking into account evidence such as dispersal abilities is needed to rule out the possibility that genetic differentiation is due to an intraspecific geographic structure for psh pairs . in disjoint populations , reduced dispersal abilities are generally linked to higher levels of interpopulation genetic divergence\n. in marine environment , dispersal ability of benthic organisms is frequently influenced by the duration of their larval stage . this can be extremely variable , even in closely related species , ranging from remarkably long ( species with teleplanic planktotrophic larvae ) , to short ( species with lecitotrophic pelagic larvae ) , or even absent ( species with intracapsular development or brooding )\nremarkably , there are no cases in which two morphological distinct species are joined in a single psh using abgd / klee approach , suggesting that the use of morphological characters in terebridae is not likely to lead to alpha errors in biodiversity estimate ( e . g . overestimation of the number of species ) , due to a general lack of informativeness of shell characters .\nlist of terebridae specimens analyzed . table indicates morphospecies identification and collection data , together with psh assignment ( abgd lumper and splitter partitions , gmyc single and multiple thresholds and ptp ) , statistical support ( bootstraps and posterior probabilities ) for both coi and 28s loci for each defined psh and klee results .\nall material analyzed are from various expeditions organized in collaboration with the smithsonian tropical research institute , mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle ( mnhn ) , the institut de recherch\u00e9 pour le d\u00e9veloppement ( ird ) and pro - natura international ( see castelin et al . [ 32 ] for details ) . the authors acknowledge support from p . bouchet , b . buge , j . brisset and j . utge for access to , processing , and curation of the specimens used in this study . m . oliverio is acknowledged for discussion on larval development and microevolution . the phylogenetic analyses were partly performed on the cipres science gateway ( urltoken ) .\nfunding for this work was provided by nsf ( grant 1247550 ) and the alfred p . sloan foundation ( grant b2010 - 37 ) grants to m . h . this work was also supported by the \u201cconsortium national de recherche en g\u00e9nomique\u201d and the \u201cservice de syst\u00e9matique mol\u00e9culaire\u201d ( ums 2700b cnrs - mnhn ) as part of agreement 2005 / 67 between genoscope and mnhn for the project \u201cmacrophylogeny of life\u201d directed by g . lecointre . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript .\nricher de forges b , hoffschir c , chauvin c , berthault c ( 2005 ) census of deep - sea species of new caledonia . rapport scientifique et technique ii6 , volume sp\u00e9cial . noum\u00e9a : ird . 113 .\nrex ma , etter rj ( 2010 ) deep - sea biodiversity : pattern and scale . cambridge , ma : harvard university press . 354 .\nerwin tl ( 2001 ) forest canopies , animal diversity . in : levin sa , editor . encyclopedia of biodiversity . waltham , ma : academic press .\ntanzler r , sagata k , surbakti s , balke m , riedel a ( 2012 ) dna barcoding for community ecology - how to tackle a hyperdiverse , mostly undescribed melanesian fauna . plos one 7 .\ngibbs j ( 2009 ) integrative taxonomy identifies new ( and old ) species in the lasioglossum ( dialictus ) tegulare ( robertson ) species group ( hymenoptera , halictidae ) . zootaxa : 1\u201338 .\ncastroviejo - fisher s , guayasamin jm , kok pjr ( 2009 ) species status of centrolene lema duellman and senaris , 2003 ( amphibia : centrolenidae ) revealed by integrative taxonomy . zootaxa : 16\u201328 .\nschlick - steiner bc , steiner fm , seifert b , stauffer c , christian e , et al . ( 2010 )\npadial jm , castroviejo - fisher s , kohler j , vila c , chaparro jc , et al . ( 2009 )\ncamargo a , sites j ( 2013 ) species delimitation : a decade after the renaissance . in : pavlinov iy , editor . the species problem - ongoing issues . new york : intech .\npadial jm , miralles a , de la riva i , vences m ( 2010 ) the integrative future of taxonomy . front zool 7 .\npuillandre n , modica mv , zhang y , sirovich l , boisselier mc , et al . ( 2012 )\ncastelin m , puillandre n , kantor yi , modica m , terryn y , et al . ( 2012 )\nholford m , puillandre n , terryn y , cruaud c , olivera b , et al . ( 2009 )\nstamatakis a ( 2014 ) raxml version 8 : a tool for phylogenetic analysis and post - analysis of large phylogenies . bioinformatics .\nronquist f , teslenko m , van der mark p , ayres dl , darling a , et al . ( 2012 )\nrambaut a , drummond aj ( 2007 ) tracer v1 . 4 . available from urltoken .\npons j , barraclough t , gomez - zurita j , cardoso a , duran d , et al . ( 2006 )\nmonaghan mt , wild r , elliot m , fujisawa t , balke m , et al . ( 2009 )\nezard t , fujisawa t , barraclough t ( 2009 ) splits : species\u2019 limits by threshold statistics . r package version 1 .\nr development core team ( 2010 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing . vienna , austria : r foundation for statistical computing .\nterryn y ( 2007 ) a collectors guide to recent terebridae ( mollusca : neogastropoda ) . hackenheim : conchbooks & natural art .\ncastelin m , lorion j , brisset j , cruaud c , maestrati p , et al . ( 2012 )\nholford m , zhang mm , gowd kh , azam l , green br , et al . ( 2009 )\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nschematic representation of miller ' s foregut anatomy of the terebridae . the three types of foregut anatomy miller used to define feeding strategies within the terebridae are depicted ( types i , ii , and iii ) . anatomical features are labeled and highlighted in color : yellow = salivary glands ( sg ) , red = buccal tube ( bt ) , green = venom bulb ( vb ) and radular sac ( rs ) , and blue = accessory feeding organ ( afo ) . also labeled are the proboscis ( p ) , found only in type ii terebrids , and the labial tube ( lt ) ( after miller 1970 ) .\nsimilar to the majority of shelled mollusks , the taxonomy of the terebridae is not very well characterized ; their taxonomy is primarily based on shell morphology ( oyama 1961 ; bratcher and cernohorsky 1987 ; terryn 2007 ) and relatively few studies describe their anatomy ( rudman 1969 ; miller 1971 ; taylor 1990 ; taylor et al . 1993 ) . this is surprising , given the relative abundance of terebrids and their global tropical distribution and shallow water occurrence . the last classification ( bouchet and rocroi 2005 ) of the gastropoda recognizes two subfamilies , terebridae and pervicaciinae , within the family terebridae , which comprises > 300 known species ( bratcher and cernohorsky 1987 ; terryn 2007 ) and may be another 100 unnamed taxa , especially in deeper waters ( 100\u2013500 m ) .\nwe used a three - gene data matrix consisting of mitochondrial 12s and 16s rrna and cytochrome oxidase subunit i ( coi ) sequences from 67 species to reconstruct the first molecular phylogeny of the terebridae ( fig . 2 ) . we also assessed the evolution of terebrid feeding strategies by mapping the presence or absence of the venom apparatus on the phylogeny . the results presented here suggest a new hypothesis for understanding terebrid evolution : our findings indicate that the terebridae have independently lost the venom apparatus twice during their evolution .\ncombined phylogenetic tree . consensus tree of ml analysis and ba using coi , 16s , and 12s data sets . pp and b are specified for each node . miller types , ia , ib , iia , iib , and iii , as described in the text are highlighted in the tree . molecular analyses divide the terebridae into five distinct clades , clades a\u2013e , indicated by the shaded gray areas . representative shells , numbered 1\u201313 , are shown for each clade . for clarity , multiple samples of the same species are shown only when there is a geographic difference , for example , 30370 and 30389 acus maculatus from panglao 2004 and santo 2006 expeditions , respectively .\nba consisted of six markov chains ( 10 , 000 , 000 generations each with a sampling frequency of one tree each hundred generations ) run in two parallel analyses using mrbayes ( huelsenbeck et al . 2001 ) . the number of swaps that are tried each time the chain stops for swapping was four , and the chain temperature was set at 0 . 08 . when the log - likelihood scores were found to stabilize , a consensus tree was calculated after omitting the first 0 . 25 % of trees as burn - in .\nfor the combined analyses of the three genes , the same parameters were used for the ml analysis . for the ba , one different model was applied for each gene , each with six substitution categories . for the coi gene , as saturation was found on the third base of the codon , different models were applied for the two partitions ( bases 1 and 2 vs . base 3 ) . finally , we have four unlinked partitions ( coi bases 1 and 2 , coi base 3 , 12s , and 16s ) .\ndata from cited literature and personal communications from a . sysoev and j . taylor helped to determine the presence or absence of a venom apparatus in the species used for the phylogenetic analysis . the absence or presence of the venom apparatus was then mapped on the tree using mesquite v . 2 . 01 ( maddison w and maddison dr 2007 ) , using the option \u201ctracing character history . \u201d the parsimony ancestral reconstruction method was used .\none hundred and fifty six samples of terebrids were used to reconstruct the molecular phylogeny of the terebridae . for the coi gene , 658 bp were sequenced . after alignments , we obtained a fragment of 534 and 455 bp for 12s and 16s genes , respectively . trees obtained independently with coi , 12s , and 16s genes were only partly resolved , but no contradictions were found ( results not showed ) . consequently , 12s , 16s , and coi mitochondrial genes , including 131 taxa in the ingroup , were used to produce a combined data set for phylogenetic analyses ( fig . 2 ) .\nphylogenetic analyses strongly indicate that the terebridae is monophyletic ( posterior probabilities [ pp ] = 1 , bootstraps [ b ] = 100 ) ( fig . 2 ) . terebra s . l . \u201c terebra \u201d jungi appears to be the sister group to all other terebrids ( pp = 1 , b = 92 ) . apart from \u201c t . \u201d jungi ( clade a ) , there are four major clades within the tree , designated in figure 2 as clades b\u2013e . clade b is comprised primarily of the genus acus plus one species currently placed in terebra , terebra areolata , which because of its placement in our tree , we tentatively define as acus areolatus ( pp = 1 , b = 100 ) . clade c includes cinguloterebra and additional species currently placed in terebra , including the type species of terebra , terebra subulata ( pp = 1 , b = 76 ) . clade d includes species currently placed in the genera hastula and impages ( pp = 1 , b = 100 ) .\nin order to efficiently characterize toxins from various terebrid species , it is essential to first identify those species that have a venom apparatus . shown in figure 3 is the mapping of the presence or absence of a venom apparatus in the terebrid species used to construct the molecular phylogeny in figure 2 . the map clearly indicates that terebrids have lost the venom apparatus twice during their evolution , see clades b and e . \u201c t . \u201d jungi , and the members of clades c and d , use the typical toxoglossate venom apparatus to hunt prey .\npossession of venom apparatus mapped onto terebrid phylogeny . the presence or absence of a venom apparatus was mapped onto the molecular phylogeny of the terebridae shown in figure 1 . terebrid species with a venom apparatus are indicated by a white box ( \u25a1 ) , whereas terebrid species without a venom apparatus are indicated by a black box ( \u25aa ) . the map indicates that terebrids have independently lost the venom apparatus twice during their evolution .\nevolutionary trends in the toxoglossa have been reconstructed primarily through studies involving radular formation and anatomy of the digestive system ( mills 1979 ; shimek and kohn 1981 ; kantor and sysoev 1989 ; taylor 1990 ; simone 1999 ; kantor and taylor 2000 ) . the molecular phylogeny presented here paints a plausible picture of how terebrids evolved such a diversity of feeding strategies . our findings suggest that all terebrids appear to be derived from a common ancestor with a venom apparatus of the miller type iib ( fig . 3 ) . furthermore , mapping of the venom apparatus indicates that two lineages of terebrids independently lost their ability to hunt prey using toxins , clades b and e .\nthere is a considerable correlation between our molecular phylogeny , miller ' s anatomical groupings , and the ecological distribution of the terebrid species used in this study . miller separated terebrids with a venom apparatus , type ii feeders , into two distinct groups , iia and iib . type iia and iib terebrids differ in the shape of the buccal tube and shell morphology ( miller 1970 ) . type iia terebrids have a long and slender buccal tube and small shiny shells , with 7\u201310 whorls and a flared aperture . terebrids of type iib have a short , thick buccal tube , and the shells are large , long , and slender , with 15 or more whorls and a constricted aperture . our phylogenetic analysis supports this separation . the species in clade c , terebra , have slender and multiwhorled shells , whereas those of clade d , hastula , are shiny with fewer whorls . the separation of the two clades is further supported by the ecological differences in their habitats . terebra species of clade c live buried in sandy or muddy subtidal flats , whereas hastula species of clade d live predominantly on surf beaches or in sand in reef pockets ( miller 1970 , 1979 ) . similarly , terebrids that feed without the use of a venom apparatus , types i and iii feeders , are represented by two different clades in the molecular phylogeny , clades b and e , respectively . our analysis clarifies that the two clades without venom apparatus , clades b and e , are not sister groups .\nthe terebridae phylogeny in figure 2 sets the stage for efficient characterization of terebrid toxins and identification of the gene superfamilies that encode their toxins using the biodiversity first , exogenomic strategy recently applied to cone snails ( olivera 2006 ; olivera and teichert 2007 ) . the exogenomic strategy was used to characterize cone snail toxins that target nicotinic receptors . in this strategy , phylogeny and molecular biology techniques are used to identify \u201cexogenes , \u201d genes of the toxins expressed in the venom duct . exogenes rapidly evolve to respond to cues in their biotic environment and are thus a powerful marker for differentiating ecological or evolutionarily distinct organisms .\nclades c and d are the two major terebrid groups most suitable to investigate toxins for biochemical characterization ( fig . 4 ) . furthermore , as clades c and d are not sister clades , they may produce divergent toxins that could result in varied functional activity upon further characterization .\nterebrids with venom apparatus : representative shell images of the terebrid species in clades c and d that have a venom apparatus . the species from left to right are clade c : terebra subulata , terebra guttata , cinguloterebra jenningsi , cinguloterebra anilis , terebra babylonia , terebra laevigata and clade d : hastula strigilata , hastula solida , and hastula hectica .\nthe biochemical and genetic characterization of terebrid toxins , while identifying novel compounds useful for investigating cell communication in the nervous system , will also provide additional characters to further clarify the phylogeny and evolutionary biology of these organisms . for toxoglossate gastropods , the dual analysis of molecular phylogeny and venom function is an instructive combination for unraveling the bigger question of evolutionary diversification . this work is a first attempt to address these issues for the terebridae .\nthe authors thank yuri kantor for processing many of the terebrid specimens in the field , virginie heros and philippe maestrati for assistance throughout from the field to curating samples at mnhn , the staff of mnhn ' s \u201cservice de syst\u00e9matique mol\u00e9culaire\u201d for technical facilities , and john taylor and alexander sysoev for providing unpublished anatomical information on terebrid taxa used in this study . the panglao 2004 and santo 2006 expeditions , which were the source of many specimens , were supported among others by the total foundation . joint funding from national science foundation chemistry division and office of international science and engineering postdoctoral fellowship ( 0610202 ) for m . h . also supported this work .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non - commercial license urltoken which permits unrestricted non - commercial use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nmost populous animal groups that use venom to capture their prey . these marine animals are generally characterized by\na venom apparatus that consists of a muscular venom bulb and a tubular venom gland . the toxoglossan radula , often\nbut very little is known about toxins from the other toxoglossa , and the phylogeny of these families is largely in doubt .\napparatus for this group . our \ufb01ndings indicate that most of the genera of terebrids are polyphyletic , and one species\n) is the sister group to all other terebrids . molecular analyses combined with mapping of venom\napparatus morphology indicate that the terebridae have lost the venom apparatus at least twice during their evolution .\nall other terebrid species do not . for venomous organisms , the dual analysis of molecular phylogeny and toxin function\nan instructive combination for unraveling the larger questions of phylogeny and speciation . the results presented here\n( taylor et al . 1993 ; puillandre et al . 2008 ) . a venom appa -\n1969 ; miller 1971 ; taylor 1990 ; taylor et al . 1993 ) . this\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non - commercial license ( http : / / creativecommons . or\nvolume of water , for 1 or 2 h . a piece of tissue ( usual\nfoot ) was cut and \ufb01xed in 95 % ethanol . table 2 lists all ter -\nand turridae ( s . l . ) were chosen as closely related outgroups ,\n. 1 . \u2014schematic representation of miller\u2019s foregut anatomy of the terebridae . the three types of foregut anatomy miller used to de\ufb01ne feeding\nstrategies within the terebridae are depicted ( types i , ii , and iii ) . anatomical features are labeled and highlighted in color : yellow\naccessory feeding organ ( afo ) . also labeled are the proboscis ( p ) ,\nfound only in type ii terebrids , and the labial tube ( lt ) ( after miller 1970 ) .\n. 2 . \u2014combined phylogenetic tree . consensus tree of ml analysis and ba using coi , 16s , and 12s data sets . pp and b are speci\ufb01ed for each\nnode . miller types , ia , ib , iia , iib , and iii , as described in the text are highlighted in the tree . molecular analyses divide the terebridae into \ufb01ve\ndistinct clades , clades a\u2013e , indicated by the shaded gray areas . representative shells , numbered 1\u201313 , are shown for each clade .\ndae . for the coi gene , 658 bp were sequenced . after align -\n. 3 . \u2014possession of venom apparatus mapped onto terebrid phylogeny . the presence or absence of a venom apparatus was mapped onto the\nmolecular phylogeny of the terebridae shown in \ufb01gure 1 . terebrid species with a venom apparatus are indicated by a white box (\n. 4 . \u2014terebrids with venom apparatus : representative shell images of the terebrid species in clades c and d that have a venom apparatus . the\nfolmer o , black m , hoeh w , lutz r , vrijenhoek r . 1994 . dna\nguindon s , gascuel o . 2003 . a simple , fast , and accurate\nherbert p , cywinska a , ball sl , dewaard jr . 2003 . biological\nimperial j , kantor y , watkins m , et al . ( 11 co - authors ) . 2007 .\nterebrids of similar proboscis type . pac sci . 29 ( 3 ) : 227\u2013241 .\nof similar proboscis type . pac sci . 33 ( 3 ) : 289\u2013306 .\nbiology of clades and species . annu rev ecol syst . 33 : 25\u201342 .\nterebridae . venus ( jpn j malac ) . 21 ( 2 ) : 176\u2013189 .\nchain reaction . in : hillis d , moritz c , mable bk , editors .\ntaxonomy . new york : springer - verlag . h57 . p . 329\u2013355 .\n. . . besides conus , a subset of the closely related family terebridae ( terebrids ) also possesses a specialized radula , used as a spear or harpoon to deliver potent neurotoxins . these ~ 300 known species fall into three feeding types [ 18 ] : type i species have salivary glands , an eversible labile tube , short buccal tube , and lack venom apparatus ; type ii species , the most similar to conus , have true venom glands and a delivery apparatus in the form of a specialized radula ; and type iii lack a venom apparatus , but have an accessory proboscis that other terebrids lack [ 11 , 19 ] . several type ii species have a venom that exhibits similarities to conopeptides . . . .\n. . . in this symposium , gorson and holford ( 2016 ) provide a perspective on the ways in which venom differs among gastropods of the family terebridae . specifically , the close relationship between these snails and the better - characterized cone snails ( holford et al . 2009 ) allows these comparisons to be extended in phylogenetic and ecological space . phylogenetic and ecological perspective can enhance prospecting for pharmacologically interesting proteins , and may be critical in identifying novel venom genes through comparative analysis ( fry 2005 ; moran et al . 2008 ; whittington et al . 2010 ) . . . .\n. . . conoideans subdue their prey using a venom apparatus made up of a proboscis , radular tooth , a radular sac , venom gland , and venom bulb ( fig . 3 ( a ) ; taylor 1990 ; kantor et al . 2000 ; modica and holford 2010 ; kantor and puillandre 2012 ) . cone snails ( conus ) are the most studied in the conoidea ( puillandre et al . 2014 ; puillandre et al . 2015 ) ; however , conus comprises only 5 % of the biodiverse group of venomous marine snails ( olivera et al . 1999 ; holford et al . 2009 ; king 2015 ) . other non - conus conoideans , such as the turridae ( s . l . ) family , which has more recently been divided into seven family groups ( tucker and tenorio 2009 ; bouchet et al . 2011 ) , and the terebridae family , also produce venom ( heralde et al . 2008 ; aguilar et al . 2009 ; gonzales and saloma 2014 ; gorson et al . 2015 ; moon et al . 2016 ) . . . .\n. . . thus , the advantages of molecular phylogenetics , which allows for the comparison of thousands of homologous characters across species , are of particular interest among the terebridae . the first molecular phylogeny of the terebridae was constructed based on analyses of a three\u2010 gene matrix ( 12s , 16s , and coi ) to define terebridae lineages and their evolutionary history [ 52 ] . this initial terebridae phylogeny confirmed the monophyly of the group and defined five distinct lineages : acus ( clade b ) , terebra ( clade c ) , hastula ( clade d ) , myurella ( clade e ) , and a previously unidentified fifth sister clade that includes pellifronia jungi ( clade a ) [ 52 ] . . . .\n. . . the first molecular phylogeny of the terebridae was constructed based on analyses of a three\u2010 gene matrix ( 12s , 16s , and coi ) to define terebridae lineages and their evolutionary history [ 52 ] . this initial terebridae phylogeny confirmed the monophyly of the group and defined five distinct lineages : acus ( clade b ) , terebra ( clade c ) , hastula ( clade d ) , myurella ( clade e ) , and a previously unidentified fifth sister clade that includes pellifronia jungi ( clade a ) [ 52 ] . subsequent molecular phylogenetic analysis , including additional taxa from the eastern and western pacific further resolved the terebrid evolutionary relationships , synonymizing acus clade b to oxymeris , recovering a previously unidentified clade f that includes the euterebra and duplicara genera , and subdividing the large myurella clade e into five lineages ( clades e1\u20135 ) [ 48 ] ( figure 2 ) . . . .\n. . . thus , the advantages of molecular phylogenetics , which allows for the comparison of thousands of homologous characters across species , are of particular interest among the terebridae . the first molecular phylogeny of the terebridae was constructed based on analyses of a three - gene matrix ( 12s , 16s , and coi ) to define terebridae lineages and their evolutionary history [ 52 ] . this initial terebridae phylogeny confirmed the monophyly of the group and defined five distinct lineages : acus ( clade b ) , terebra ( clade c ) , hastula ( clade d ) , myurella ( clade e ) , and a previously unidentified fifth sister clade that includes pellifronia jungi ( clade a ) [ 52 ] . . . .\n. . . auger snails ( 350\u2013400 described species ) form a clade in the phylogeny of puillandre et al . [ 254 ] which is the sister group to a clade turridae sensu stricto that contains the genus turris . a remarkable aspect of the evolution of terebrids\u2014and in striking contrast to cone snails\u2014is the frequent loss of the venom apparatus261 262 263264 . similarly , hypodermic radular teeth have evolved at least three times in terebrids , and independently of those in cone snails [ 264 ] . . . .\n. . . the terebridae was chosen as it is a well - characterized family of conoidea that includes , 350 described species , with an estimated total number of 450 extant species ( worms\u2013www . marinespecies . org ) . recent molecular surveys indicate that most terebrid morphologically defined species are generally congruent with dna - based clusters [ 33 ] , which constitutes an exception for the conoideans , making terebrids a good model to test the ability of the abgd / klee approach to accurately delimit pshs . . . .\n. . . tv1 is the first peptide structurally characterized from a terebrid snail . terebrids are part of the conoidean superfamily of predatory mollusks , which includes cone snails and turrids [ 18 , 19 ] . tv1 is a novel twenty - one amino acid teretoxin peptide with a cysteine scaffold similar to the m - superfamily of cone snail neurotoxins , cc - c - c - cc . . . .\n. . . the family includes about 400 recent species ( castelin et al . 2012 ) . like other conoidea , terebridae are predators , most of them possessing a venom apparatus ( taylor 1990 , holford et al . 2009 ) and producing toxins , the structure of which is close to that of the toxins of cone snails ( imperial et al . 2003 , puillandre & holford 2010 ) . one of the most prominent features of terebrid evolution is the loss of specialized foregut structures , such as the proboscis , radular apparatus , venom gland and often the salivary glands \u2014 which has occurred independently in different lineages of the family ( taylor 1990 , puillandre & holford 2010 , castelin et al . 2012 ) . . . .\ncentral to the discovery of neuroactive compounds produced by predatory marine snails of the superfamily conoidea ( cone snails , terebrids , and turrids ) is identifying those species with a venom apparatus . previous analyses of western pacific terebrid specimens has shown that some terebridae groups have secondarily lost their venom apparatus . in order to efficiently characterize terebrid . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe terebridae and teretoxins : combining phylogeny and anatomy for concerted discovery of bioactive . . .\nthe conoidea superfamily , comprised of cone snails , terebrids , and turrids , is an exceptionally promising group for the discovery of natural peptide toxins . the potential of conoidean toxins has been realized with the distribution of the first conus ( cone snail ) drug , prialt ( ziconotide ) , an analgesic used to alleviate chronic pain in hiv and cancer patients . cone snail toxins ( conotoxins ) are . . . [ show full abstract ]\nstarting to unravel the toxoglossan knot : molecular phylogeny of the \u201cturrids\u201d ( neogastropoda : conoi . . .\nthe superfamily conoidea is one of the most speciose groups of marine mollusks , with estimates of about 340 recent valid genera and subgenera , and 4000 named living species . previous classifications were based on shell and anatomical characters , and clades and phylogenetic relationships are far from well assessed . based on a dataset of ca . 100 terminal taxa belonging to 57 genera , information . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 670, "summary": [{"text": "the red-shouldered cuckooshrike ( campephaga phoenicea ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is found in benin , burkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , chad , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , eritrea , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea-bissau , kenya , liberia , mali , mauritania , niger , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , sudan , togo , and uganda .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and dry savannas . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "red - shouldered cuckooshrike", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for red - shouldered cuckooshrike ( campephaga phoenicea ) yet .\nred - shouldered cuckooshrike ( campephaga phoenicea ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .\nthe red - shouldered cuckooshrike ( campephaga phoenicea ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .\nnot visually distinguished from black cuckooshrike c . flava but calls are a close match for those of red - shouldered ( available online at avocet ) and not black cuckooshrike .\nthe red - shouldered cuckooshrike is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ntaylor , b . ( 2018 ) . red - shouldered cuckooshrike ( campephaga phoenicea ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nand red - shouldered cuckooshrike were seen in the same area . a couple of african hill babblers was first heard and taped in at another ridge ( 2 ) , and three confiding half - collared kingfishers were seen for as long as we wanted at a quarry ( 3 ) which you can reach going all the way up ( and crossing the river ) from the wabe shabele hotel / lodge . yellow - fronted parrot and white - cheeked turaco where common in the big trees near the river , with abyssinian slaty flycatcher lower in the same trees . more\n20 cm ; 23\u201335\u00b75 g . male is black , glossed greenish - blue , with red , orange or orange - yellow lesser and median upper\u00adwing - coverts ( \u201cshoulder\u201d patch . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon to locally frequent ( keith et al . 1992 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be in decline owing to habitat destruction ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclose to c . flava ( which see ) and c . petiti . monotypic .\nsenegal and gambia e to s chad , s sudan , ethiopia and eritrea , s to sierra leone , n ivory coast , se ghana , se cameroon , n congo , n drcongo , uganda and extreme w kenya .\nmainly silent . song , often as duet , a jumble of high - pitched whistles , squeaks and churrs , . . .\nforest patches , including edges and clearings , gallery forest , moist secondary growth , wooded . . .\neats caterpillars ( lepidoptera ) and other insects , especially orthopterans and bugs ( hemiptera ) . keeps to upper or middle storeys ; . . .\nbreeds during rains , may\u2013sept in nigeria , jul in w sudan ( jun in s ) and mar\u2013apr in uganda ; carrying nesting material in aug in . . .\nmigratory in w africa ( e of c . 8\u00b0 e ) and in sudan , moving n to breed during rains and returning . . .\nnot globally threatened . widespread , and uncommon to locally common . no information on effects of habitat loss , but this species\u2019 numbers may have been reduced by . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\ndavid beadle , arthur grosset , paul van giersbergen , nik borrow , steve garvie , josep del hoyo , ken havard , dr _ m _ zieger , morten venas .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 934 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\none male and one female foraging in the tallest trees . habitat : shrubland , acacia savanna .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nmobile version - juza . ea @ urltoken - terms of use and privacy - p . iva 01501900334 - rea 167997 - pec juzaphoto @ urltoken\nenglish spanish online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nit is found in benin , burkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , chad , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , eritrea , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea - bissau , kenya , liberia , mali , mauritania , niger , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , sudan , togo , and uganda .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nit is found in benin , burkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , chad , republic of the congo , democratic republic of the congo , ivory coast , eritrea , ethiopia , gambia , ghana , guinea , guinea - bissau , kenya , liberia , mali , mauritania , niger , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , sudan , togo , and uganda .\nthis article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .\ncrowd sourced content that is contributed to world heritage encyclopedia is peer reviewed and edited by our editorial staff to ensure quality scholarly research articles .\nby using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . world heritage encyclopedia\u2122 is a registered trademark of the world public library association , a non - profit organization .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department ."]}
{"id": 688, "summary": [{"text": "the west african mud turtle ( west african side-necked turtle , swamp terrapin ) ( pelusios castaneus ) is a species of turtle in the pelomedusidae family .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "pelusios castaneus is a freshwater species and is endemic to west and central africa . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "west african mud turtle", "paragraphs": ["the west african mud turtle has an endearing expression due to its \u201csmile . \u201d\nkeeping west african mud turtles outdoors provides an opportunity to create some beautiful outdoor habitats .\nthere are currently no recognized subspecies of african sideneck turtle . they are very similar to the african helmeted turtle , however , and the names are frequently interchanged . another common name they are known by is west african mud turtle\nit is indeed a west - african brown mud turtle ( pelusios castaneus ) . if you need more info about him : urltoken\nthe west african mud turtle pelusios castaneus acquired an \u201cextinct doppelganger\u201d from the seychelles due to a scientific error . credit : mark - oliver r\u00f6del\nwest african mud turtle are medium to large , females can reach a size of 29cm , males are generally smaller . they spend most of their time within weedy waters of west africa .\na medium sized species , the west african mud turtle grows to between 7 and 11 inches . some individuals may make it up to 12 inches .\nduring the dry season , many of these habitats may dry out and the west african mud turtle is forced to aestivate buried in the mud or in the sand in order to escape the harsh conditions .\nlike the helmeted turtle , the african mud turtle is often seen in water holes frequented by zebra , elephants and other large mammals .\nthe african mud turtle is placed in the family pelomedusidae , along with 26 relatives ; 2 subspecies have been described . it is sometimes confused with the superficially similar ( and equally hardy ) west african mud turtle ( pelosius castaneus ) and the african helmeted turtle ( pelomedusa subrufa ) ; please see photos . all may be kept as described here .\nin the pet trade , but p . subniger \u2014the east african mud turtle\u2014is a different species that is rare in captivity .\npelusios castaneus have remained easily obtainable and fairly inexpensive for the turtle keeper . they are exported in large numbers out of their native africa and many enthusiasts are now having breeding success . in recent years , the african helmeted turtle appears to be the more commonly offered species to the general public . the west african mud turtle follows behind it with the east african mud turtle being virtually unknown in most collections .\nthis group of turtles are known as the african side - necked turtles or the east african serrated mud turtles . they are classified in the genus\nfor the sake of this piece we\u2019ll mainly cover inside housing requirements . there are only a few things that west african mud turtles / sidenecks require to live happily :\nguided by our partners from african aquatic conservation fund , you will gain unique insight into biology and conservation in west africa .\nzoo med\u2019s turtle tub , wading pools , and koi ponds can be fashioned into excellent african mud turtle habitats . outdoor housing is ideal , assuming that raccoons and other predators can be excluded .\ndue to its environmental requirements , moderate size , and long lifespan west african mud turtles / sideneck turtles are best left to intermediate and advanced turtle keepers . that said , they are hardy turtles and can withstand periods of deprivation .\nthe west african mud turtle is a medium sized , aquatic turtle found throughout west africa . highly adaptable , they occur in many fresh water habitats such as mud holes , swamps , rivers and ponds . during droughts and when seasonal spaces dry up , the turtles will aestivate into the ground to wait out the wet season . they are usually found in large numbers basking along muddy banks and are ravenous feeders .\n, the west african mud turtle , and then later split it out as a subspecies . more recent analysis ( in 1983 ) , though , put it into its own species , and therein may lie some confusion . most specimens of\nwest african mud turtles are quite common in nature and first appeared some 120 million years ago making them one of the most primitive turtle species on earth today . they have withstood the test of time making them expert survivalists in a harsh world .\nis a west african species , distributed from guinea and senegal to the central african republic and northwestern angola . it also occurs on the s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 islands and was introduced to guadeloupe , lesser antilles\nthe above two photos are evidence that captive - bred west african mud turtles can exhibit an attractive lighter coloration than their wild - caught counterparts . the lighter coloration of the smaller , captive - bred turtle may remain , or it may turn darker , depending on the turtle\u2019s exposure to natural sunlight .\nthe west african mud turtle may not be littered with vibrant spots or stripes , and its general coloration doesn\u2019t scream at you , but this compact and robust turtle is a lot of fun to work with . it\u2019s an excellent candidate for a backyard waterscape , and isn\u2019t fussy when housed indoors , either .\nmccord , w . p . , joseph - ouni , m . & bour , r . 2004 . chelonian illustrations # 15 : madagascan big - headed , african helmeted , and west african mud turtles . reptilia ( gb ) ( 35 ) : 63 - 67 - get paper here\nwhen provided with the proper environment and diet , your african sideneck turtle will give you years of companionship .\nafrican mud turtles are best kept in bare - bottomed aquariums ; gravel traps waste material , greatly complicating cleaning , and may also be swallowed .\nthe central african mud turtle belongs the family of turtles called afro - american side - necked turtles . indeed , as this turtle pulls its head into its shell , it turns the head sideways , and then the lower shell ( the\nin the wild , african side - necked turtles or african mud turtles are found in a variety of habitats from rivers and shallow pools to large lakes . in captivity most can be kept in relatively simple enclosures .\ntomas diagne is an african turtle specialist who has been working to save threatened and endangered turtle species throughout west africa for the past 22 years . he co - founded and built the village des tortues in rufisque , senegal , and in 2009 he began building the african chelonian institute in order to expand turtle research , captive breeding , re - introduction to the wild , conservation and education to all african species . tomas is also a co - founder of the african aquatic conservation fund .\nfor a group of adult west african mud turtles , an area of 6 feet by 3 feet that can hold between 125 and 175 gallons of water will suffice . for single turtles , a 40 - gallon glass aquarium will suffice as well .\nthe so - called seychelles black terrapin , seychelles mud turtle , or seychelles terrapin was considered a species of turtle ( pelusios seychellensis ) in the pelomedusidae family , endemic to seychelles .\nhaislip , nathan . 2014 . cuora complex construction at the turtle survival alliance turtle survival center .\njust a turtle ? this is a central african mud turtle , which was captured here along the banks of the ubange river . the species is not well studied and , in fact , these may be some of the first photos in its native environment .\nlike other cold - blooded creatures it\u2019s important to provide the proper lighting , heating , and dietary requirements . otherwise , african sideneck turtles are extremely hardy creatures . that being said , it\u2019s a wise idea to have a reptile veterinarian on hand before you even bring your pet turtle home . if you suspect your west african mud turtle to be suffering from any ailments , contact your reptile vet as soon as you can .\nwhile no turtle likes to be picked and held , the west african mud turtle has a rather calm disposition . they rarely bite and usually withdraw into their shells if they are being handled . some will attempt to free themselves so watch out for those sharp nails . we only handle our turtles during water changes and for health inspections to help minimize any stress .\nforero - medina , german ; and moreno , luis eladio renteria . 2007 . distribution and conservation status of the endemic mud turtle kinosternon dunni in colombia .\nlargely aquatic , the african mud turtle lives in well - vegetated rivers , marshes and swamps , as well as in seasonally flooded pans ( low areas that hold water for a time ) within savannas . individuals occupying temporary water bodies burrow into the mud and aestivate ( become dormant ) or travel across land when their habitats dry out .\nconservation international : : tortoise & freshwater turtle specialist group : : turtle survival alliance : : turtle conservancy : : chelonian research foundation : : european assoc . zoos & aquaria\nafrican side - necked turtles or african mud turtles are commonly imported from africa , but captive - hatched specimens are the best pets . these can be purchased from better pet stores , from breeders at the larger reptile shows across the country , and on - line .\nthe genus name pelusios means \u201cmud , \u201d and the west african mud turtle lives up to its name . its smooth , elliptical carapace lacks any pattern and is a uniform dark to light brown . the legs and head are a dark gray to brown with a light reticulated pattern on the top of the head . only when the turtle is viewed from the bottom does a color other than brown become more evident : a creamy yellow coloration can be seen on the soft parts beneath . the brown plastron is hinged and features some lighter areas among the brown .\nthe african sideneck is native to the west african countries of angola , guinea , ghana , senegal , liberia , sierra leone , and the congo . they live in rivers , lakes , and ponds during the wet season and bury themselves deep in the mud ( called estivating ) during the dry seasons . they have also been known to estivate in underground burrows when temperatures get too warm , reemerging when temperatures become suitable again .\ni don\u2019t use any substrate in any of my indoor aquatic turtle set ups simply because i prefer to keep things simple . a bare bottom is easier to clean when the water needs changing . west african mud turtles can be quite messy when feeding , and they will rapidly dirty the water . this is also why i don\u2019t use filters ; i prefer to do frequent water changes every few days .\nchirio , laurent and ivan ineich 2006 . biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 . - get paper here\njoseph - ouni m . 2004 . profiles of extinction # 7 : seychelles mud turtle , pelusios seychellensis , extinct 1912 . reptilia ( gb ) ( 33 ) : 3 - get paper here\ninhabits various water bodies such as streams , ponds , swamps , and lakes , from the west forest to the dry savannah . in\nour unique west african adventure takes you along the coast of senegal , visiting national parks , protected areas , and private wildlife conservation breeding centers . led by our partners at the african aquatic conservation fund , this expedition offers not only excellent wildlife viewing , but also an opportunity to see and learn about conservation in senegal first - hand .\nthe west african mud turtle joins itself alongside some of the most primeval species of turtles having first walked the planet some 120 million years ago . today , it remains on the iucn\u2019s list of species of \u201cleast concern , \u201d meaning it appears to be doing rather well in nature . perhaps it\u2019s because of the turtle\u2019s robustness , enabling it to escape nature\u2019s wrath , or maybe even its drab appearance contributes to its survivability , allowing it to blend in with its environment and remain unnoticed by predators and collectors .\nwild african mud turtles take a huge variety of foods , including fish , tadpoles , snails , carrion , insects , frogs and small snakes . aquatic and terrestrial plants have been reported in the diets of some populations as well .\nteam , ben .\nthe size of african aquatic sideneck turtles\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\nmifsud , david a . 2013 . habitat assessment , species distribution , and threats of imperiled southern african kinixyx .\ndepending on your local climate , african sidenecks can be kept indoors or outside . african sideneck turtles do not hibernate seasonally , as some other species do , so they should only be kept outside when the outside temperatures are warm .\nbaker , patrick j . , and jacob mueti . 2014 . a habitat suitability map for the turkana mud turtle ( pelusios broadleyi ) : assessing current distribution and the impact of fluctuating lake levels on an endangered , endemic species .\nlastly , if you notice little worms floating around in your turtle tank , if your turtle is unable to swim or breathe properly , or if your turtle has a lot of bubbling coming from its nose , it probably has a parasite problem .\ni just got my turtle like 3 days ago and it hasnt eaten much . only ate 1 turtle pill and 2 pieces of lettuce . should i be worried ?\nteam , ben .\nthe size of african aquatic sideneck turtles .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / size - african - aquatic - sideneck - turtles - 5617 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\n) at two important turtle survival alliance sites in southern madagascar : ampotaka and antsakoamasy .\nshepherd , loretta ann . 2011 . freshwater turtle and tortoise rescue centre , malaysia .\ncuc phuong turtle conservation center ; douglas b . hendrie . 2004 . operational support .\nteam , ben . ( n . d . ) . the size of african aquatic sideneck turtles . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / size - african - aquatic - sideneck - turtles - 5617 . html\nanother species classified as native therefore disappears from the list of seychelles species . last year , fritz and his team had already proved that another mud turtle species , pelusios subniger , was not endemic to the seychelles but had been introduced by man .\nafrican mud turtles quickly learn to \u201cbeg\u201d for food as soon as their owner appears , and make excellent , responsive pets . they become quite bold once acclimated to captivity , and do well in busy locations . if provided proper accommodations , captive breeding is possible ( please post below for details ) .\nmale mud turtles have longer , thicker tails than females , with a slightly concave plastron . females have shorter , smaller tails and flat plastrons . the large , flat head and neck are withdrawn into the carapace sideways , giving this turtle its other common name : african side - necked turtle . the jaws are arranged in a way that displays a comical smile , similar to that seen in the blanding\u2019s turtle , and with minimal webbing , the strong limbs are equipped with sharp nails that enable these turtles to rip food items to shreds and to haul themselves onto land or floating debris .\nif you\u2019re looking for a pet that will provide you with entertainment and make an interesting display , african sidenecks are a great choice .\njoin us for this one - of - a kind opportunity to see iconic and rare african wildlife through the eyes of local conservationists .\nday 2 : dakar & bandia game reserve in the morning visit african chelonian institute ' s turtle breeding facility to see the turtles and learn about african turtle conservation . after lunch , visit nearby bandia game reserve where we ' ll see giraffes , zebras , white rhinos , buffalo , ostriches , hyenas , two species of eland , lots of antelope & bird species , crocodiles , and two species of monkeys . return to the hotel in time for dinner .\nit\u2019s a wise idea to outfit your turtle tank with things that appear in the turtle\u2019s native habitat . in the case of the african sideneck this includes driftwood , large flat rocks ( some of which should be used to create an above water basking spot under the uvb basking light ) , cork bark slabs , and plants .\nplatt , kalyar , steven g . platt and me me soe ( wildlife conservation society and turtle survival alliance ) . 2011 . technical assistance for the turtle rescue facility in lashio , myanmar .\ndiesmos , arvin c . 2003 . unraveling the myth of the philippine pond turtle heosemys leytensis .\nreached the seychelles by natural means . this would necessitate either crossing the african continent and subsequent transoceanic dispersal to the seychelles or transoceanic dispersal over more than 10 , 000 km , from the atlantic to the indian ocean , circumventing en route the cape of good hope and madagascar . consequently , there remain two alternative possibilities : either the lectotype was mislabelled or it was transported by humans from west africa to the seychelles . owing to the considerable distance between west africa and the seychelles , the latter option seems less likely .\nafrican side - necked turtles feed eagerly on commercial aquatic turtle food and will eat fish , crayfish , worms , and even crickets . they will also pick at aquatic plants and especially enjoy taking bite - sized pieces from the leaves of\nenjoy excellent wildlife viewing with chances to see african manatees , endemic turtles and tortoises , giraffes , white rhinos , antelopes , & more .\nthis one of a kind journey lets you experience iconic and rare african wildlife , guided by biologists who work every day to conserve it .\ndiagne , tomas . 2013 . exploring the ecology and population biology of two declining turtles , cyclanorbis elegans , cyclanorbis senegalensis in west - central nigeria and south sudan ( sub - saharan africa ) .\nwhile sidenecks don\u2019t \u201cclimb\u201d trees , they do have powerful claws on their feet that enable them to climb inclines . turtle - and water - safe logs and other types of wood in the aquarium are good for your turtle , but arrange them in a way that will not allow your turtle to use them to launch itself out of the tank , otherwise you may have an injured turtle on your hands .\ni am looking for a young adult male florida box turtle . i live in jacksonville , fl .\nyoeung sun , doug tangkor , and sean kin . 2012 . cantor\u2019s giant softhsell turtle conservation project .\nthe genetic analyses have shown that this supposed seychellois species is in reality another species , pelusios castaneus , that is widespread in west africa .\nthe species pelusios seychellensis has therefore never existed\n, adds fritz .\nin fact , for a long time researchers were amazed that the supposed seychelles turtles looked so deceptively similar to the west african turtles . but due to the great geographic distance , it was thought this had to be a different species , which is why the assumed seychelles turtles were also described as a new species in 1906 .\nhatchling west african mud turtles are best maintained in a small enclosure with a water depth about 10 cm ( 4\u201d ) . lots of plants like water lettuce and water hyacinths should be provided to give privacy to the turtles . half of a clay pot could be used to provide a place to hide under or to crawl onto . a basking area is even required as hatchlings with high temperature and uv as described above in the \u201ctemperatures\u201d section . hatchling should be kept in warm water , ranging from 24\u00b0c to 26 - 27\u00b0 c ( 75 - 80\u00b0f ) .\nwhen given proper care , african sideneck turtles can easily live for a few decades . some reports suggest species living for more than 50 years in captivity .\nafrican sideneck turtles that are suffering from a lack of vitamin d3 and / or calcium may display swollen eyes or limbs and open wounds on the skin .\nthis species is widely distributed throughout western africa . it is found from senegal to central african republic , including cameroon and gabon . it is also found in\npowell , r . , and r . w . henderson . 2003 . a second set of addenda to the checklist of west indian amphibians and reptiles . herpetological review 34 ( 4 ) : 341 - 345 .\nschwartz , a . , and r . w . henderson . 1991 . amphibians and reptiles of the west indies : descriptions , distributions , and natural history . university of florida press , gainesville . 720 pp .\n) , a pleurodire from west africa . each pcr reaction was scored on a 1 % agarose gel as producing a single band , multiple bands , a smear or no visible product ( online resource 1 ) .\npetrozzi , fabio , emmanuel hema and laurent chirio . 2016 . a combination of field surveys and extensive interview campaigns to investigate distribution and local abundance of centrochelys sulcata populations in mali , niger ( west africa ) .\npetrozzi , fabio , gabriel h . segniagbeto , and luca m . luiselli . 2013 . a pilot study to investigate distribution and density of centrochelys sulcata populations in west africa : analysis of population status in burkina faso .\na report issued today , co - authored by the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) working in conjunction with the turtle conservation coalition , lists the 25 most endangered turtle species from around the world \u0096 some of . . .\ni just got a african long neck yesterday . i am worried cause he / she keeps discharging this slimmy white stuff it looks like string . i had an african long neck for 27 years before i dont remember him ever having anything like this . . any one know what this could be . . is it normal\nin the seychelles there is therefore at most one mud turtle species that could be native . and even with this species we are still uncertain whether it really is endemic\n, says fritz . so far , the biologists from dresden have not been able to explore this possibility due to the incomplete sampling available , however .\nminh le and tim mccormack . 2014 . a survey of the critically endangered vietnam pond turtle using environmental dna approach .\nreed , renae and adam gilles . 2013 . quantifying an active population of central america\u2019s rarest turtle , kinosternon angustipons .\nzhang fang . 2010 . action plan for the conservation of the golden - headed box turtle under the community participation .\nnoureen , uzma ; and khan , ahmad . 2007 . freshwater turtle conservation initiative along the central indus in pakistan .\nhealthy west african mud turtles are impressive consumers . if you make food available to them , they will eat it\u2014all of it . they will beg for food and accept almost anything . some fruits or greens are taken , but p . castaneus is much more inclined to strip a chicken leg or thigh of all its meat , skin and cartilage . individuals become quite enthusiastic at feeding time and will leave the water to snatch a tasty item from your hands . i prefer to use tongs when feeding them because they can be rather overwhelming to deal with as they all come barreling toward me at the site of food .\nthe abundance and viability status of this turtle species throughout its range in central africa is essentially unknown . four other species of\nzoologists have for the first time bred a critically endangered turtle species using an artificial beach , bangladeshi specialists announced on monday .\nbawa , sulemana . 2015 . current status and distribution of the nubian flapshell turtle in mole national park , northern ghana .\nsingh , shailendra . 2015 . conserving black - softshell turtle species , nilssonia nigricans in assam , north - east india .\nminh duc le ; and pritchard , peter . 2007 . genetic variability of the critically endangered softshell turtle , rafetus swinhoei .\ninternational center for conservation of turtles , allwetterzoo m\u00fcnster ; martina raffel . 2003 . conservation of critically endangered asian turtle species .\nturtles are the vertebrates under the greatest threat . among the approximately 320 turtle species , the species confined to islands have been especially hard hit \u2013 humans have caused the extinction of a whole number of species . one of them \u2013 or at least it was thought so \u2013 is the seychelles mud turtle pelusios seychellensis . just three specimens were collected at the end of the 19th century ; they are still kept at the natural history museum in vienna and the zoological museum in hamburg .\nafrican sidenecks get their nickname due to their inability to withdraw their heads fully into their shells , instead drawing their head to the side and under the upper edge of their shell .\nsideneck turtles are bizarre animals that look lopsided thanks to their unusual neck anatomy . also colloquially referred to as helmeted , mud or musk turtles , sideneck turtles have not been studied extensively , nor are they kept in captivity very often . keepers searching for uncommon turtle pets should consider sideneck turtles , but be careful to choose a species that remains a manageable size .\nrahman , shahriar caesar . 2015 . ecoguardian program : a model for turtle hunting mitigation in the chittagong hill tracts , bangladesh .\nibarrondo , bonggi r . 2005 . rote snake - necked turtle ( chelodina mccordi ) : the action plan for its preservation .\nsyed , gracia p . 2004 . population recovery program for the central american river turtle dermatemys mawi ( testudines : dermatemydidae ) .\nloveridge , a . 1941 . revision of the african terrapins of the family pelomedusidae . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 88 : 467 - 524 . - get paper here\nafrican sidenecks are typically dark colored , and their underbellies ( called plastrons ) are a grayish black color with a wide , poorly defined yellow area . they have olive - to - brown heads with black markings on top , and two barbels ( beard - like sensory organs ) that protrude from the lower jaw . they have lightly webbed feet with long , sharp claws , or nails . in the image below , you can see the two barbel nubs on the chin of this young african sideneck turtle .\nunlike many turtle species that have more serious reptilian features , the african sideneck has a face that can be described as cute , with a mouth that is fixed into a smiling shape and big round eyes . when it pulls its head to the side to tuck under its shell , it appears to be playing coy .\n) . these photos of two males compare the carapaces and plastrons of the two species , with the helmeted turtle on the right .\nn box turtle ( terrapene carolina yucatana ) : a multidisciplinary collaboration at the community and landscape level , phase i proposal : 2014 .\nparham , james f . ; wilson , byron s . ; parra - olea , gabriela ; and papenfuss , theodore j . 2006 . assessment of caribbean slider turtle populations : a neglected turtle fauna under threat of genetic pollution , human exploitation , and habitat destruction .\nibarrondo , bonggi . 2004 . rote snake - necked turtle ( chelodina mccordi rhodin 1994 ) : the action plan for its preservation .\nluiselli , luca m . , godfrey c . akani , fabio petrozzi , and gabriel h . segniagbeto . 2014 . expanding towards west africa : conservation ecology of the critically endangered / endangered forest kinixys populations in the \u2018bas - sassandra \u2013 region\u2019 ; ivory coast .\nbranch , b . [ = w . r . ] 1993 . southern african snakes and other reptiles . a photographic guide . new holland ( publishers ) ltd , london . 144 pp .\nin the wild , african sidenecks are omnivores , munching without discretion on insects , plants , and fish that are native to its habitat . when it comes to feeding your african sideneck , variety is the key to success . no matter how much your turtle prefers a single food type , always feed it a variety to prevent it from developing a fixation . aside from variety , don\u2019t overfeed your turtles ! adult sidenecks should be fed as much as they will eat in a few seconds , once every second or third day .\nthe next time you\u2019re in the market for a new turtle , don\u2019t overlook this underdog . you just might end up being pleasantly surprised .\nchris leone has kept and bred many turtle and tortoise species for more than 20 years . visit him at urltoken and hermannihaven . com .\nnew university of east anglia research into the mating habits of a critically endangered sea turtle will help conservationists understand more about its mating patterns .\nrahman , shahriar caesar . 2014 . mro tortoise guardian program : a model for turtle hunting mitigation in the chittagong hill tracts , bangladesh .\nsyed , gracia p . 2005 . a program of phylogeography , conservation and management for the critically endangered central american river turtle dermatemys mawii .\nsome specimens are lighter in color , such as a dark brown and even tan , but generally the african side - necked turtles are gray to black overall with dark skin . they vary in size ,\nto ensure your turtle is receiving the right amounts of nutrients , we also recommend providing a calcium block or other vitamin and mineral supplements periodically .\nmccormack , tim and pham van thong . 2011 . new surveys for swinhoe\u2019s softshell turtle in laos and conservation action at sites in northern vietnam .\nbaby african side - necked turtles are hardy and grow quickly . keep them in an aquarium with clean filtered water , warmth , uvb rays , and a few sturdy basking sites . they feed well on a variety of food . they relish small invertebrates , especially worms , and they quickly begin eating commercial aquatic turtle food . keep aquatic plants such as\ni was at petsmart today found a res and african sideneck . the african sideneck was 36 bucks . . . i was looking at there set up and notice that there temp was freaken 71f ! ! ! i asked the lady there and she said they just got it and didn ' t have the time to adjust it yet . . . yah right ! they didn ' t even have a basking area !\nturtles don ' t instill the cautious concerns that some folks have when dealing with other types of reptiles . however adult females of most species of african mud turtles get larger than most first - time pet buyers realize , with adult females reaching 9 - 12\ninches within five or six years . also , when threatened these turtles can exude a horrible musk odor . this is most often exhibited by wild caught specimens . fortunately after settling into captivity they rarely exhibit this behavior .\nweigh your turtle regularly to monitor its weight . if it experiences a significant and unexplainable change in weight , dehydration or illness could be the cause .\nwhen choosing a turtle tank , wider is always better than taller . remember , turtles don\u2019t jump , they like to float , dive , and bask . your water level should be at least 1 . 5 times the length of your turtle ; the ideal depth is from 6 to 8 inches .\nlescher , timothy c . 2012 . the distribution , movement , and conservation of the critically endangered southeast asian narrow - headed softshell turtle ( chitra chitra\nplatt , kalyar , me me soe and khin myo myo ( turtle survival alliance and wildlife conservation society ) . 2011 . population assessment of batagur baska\ni have an african sideneck and i changed the water last night . everything was good i feed him but left the light on late this morning when i woke up , i woke up to find him dead .\nluiselli , luca . 2004 . a mega - transect along the gulf of guinea ( west africa ) to assess the status and the impact of human hunting activities on the hinge - back tortoises ( genus kinixys ) : a crucial step towards a large - scale conservation strategy for these forest species .\nthe taxonomy and nomenclature of p . subniger was reviewed by iverson ( 1985 , 1992 ) , and broadley ( 1989 ) . this is a secretive , highly aquatic turtle that may wander over land , and has been known to survive drought and wildfires ( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; schwartz and henderson , 1991 ; branch , 1983 , 1998 ; bartlett and bartlett , 1999 ) . the east african black mud turtle is a carnivore that primarily feed on frogs , fish and aquatic invertebrates ( hedges , 1983 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; branch , 1993 , 1998 ; bartlett and bartlett , 1999 ; spawls et al . , 2002 ) . clutch size consists of 3 - 12 eggs ( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; branch , 1993 , 1998 ; bartlett and bartlett , 1999 ) .\nkyaw moe , khin myo myo , win ko ko , and steven g . platt . 2012 . integrated conservation of the burmese roofed turtle , batagur trivittata\ntraffic southeast asia ; chris shepherd , noorainie awang anak , james compton . 2004 . protecting the roti island snake - necked turtle chelodina mccordi from extinction .\ndue to the variety of aquatic environments it inhabits in its african homeland , where it may occupy everything from rivers to seasonal mud holes , p . castaneus is quite adaptable and does not appear to be very picky in captivity . it can be housed outdoors in the summer and where winters are mild , and will do very well in outdoor ponds or water gardens that get plenty of sunlight , thriving where temperatures stay in the high 70s and into the 100s ( with nighttime in the mid 60s ) .\nwhile there aren\u2019t any official subspecies , there are three variations that the african sideneck can take on . the \u201cnormal form , \u201d which is as described above ; the \u201crainforest form , \u201d where the turtle displays an all over dark brown or black shell ; and the \u201csavannah form , \u201d which takes on a lighter , buttery color of caramel , with a full yellow plastron .\nhatchlings should be kept in low water\u2026just enough so that they can breathe without swimming . floating live or plastic plants will provide youngsters with security\u2026they are on the menus of many african predators , and remain shy for a time !\nafrican side - necked turtles are prolific breeders and females can lay multiple clutches each year . while egg - laying , females bury themselves deeply , even up to the base of their front legs . the depth achieved could be a defensive strategy against monitors or other egg - eating predators or could be a safety measure to allow eggs to avoid the extreme heat and drying potential of the hot african sun close to the surface of the laying area .\nturtle taxonomy working group [ van dijk , p . p . , j . iverson , a . rhodin , h . shaffer , and r . bour ]\nsirsi , shashwat , gowri mallapur , and shailendra singh . 2012 . distribution mapping and status assessment of leith\u2019s softshell turtle ( nilssonia leithii ) in peninsular india .\nand other threatened turtle species at yinggeling nature reserve , hainan island , china ; and to adopt effective protection measures and awareness raising outreach activities in surrounding communities .\nsyed , gracia patricia . 2008 . genetic characterization and conservation of the critically endangered central american river turtle dermatemys mawii . ( quintana roo and belize populations ) .\nfidenci , pierre . 2005 . inventory , distribution , status , and conservation action of the critically endangered philippine forest turtle , heosemys leytensis , palawan , philippines .\nullenbruch , k . ; grell , o . ; b\u00f6hme , w . 2010 . reptiles from southern benin , west africa , with the description of a new hemidactylus ( gekkonidae ) , and a country - wide checklist . bonn zool . bull . 57 ( 1 ) : 31 - 54 - get paper here\ni just got my african sideneck a few days ago and when i got him i saw some odd looking spots , like its peeling . i thought it was probably nothing since they were . . . ( more ) leonardo luna\nsideneck turtles require semi - aquatic habitats with plenty of space for burrowing . the water area for the turtles should be at least five times the length of the turtle , the water portion\u2019s width should be three times the length of the turtle and the depth should be at least twice the turtle\u2019s length . the land area should be about the same size . for example , a 10 - inch helmeted turtle requires a water area of approximately 100 gallons and a 4 - foot by 2 - foot land area filled with a dirt or mulch substrate . it ' s important that both areas are escape - proof and protected from predators if the cage is outdoors .\nhamish campbell , andrew mcdougall , and adrian ros . 2015 . determine if a community driven nest protection initiative has resulted in increased recruitment for the mary river turtle (\npraschag , peter ; and reza , ali . 2005 . genetic verification of the identity of the black soft - shell turtle aspideretes nigricans ( anderson , 1875 ) .\nyou can use a variety of things as your turtle tank , including all - glass aquariums , large rubbermaid totes , baby pools , custom - built enclosures , etc .\nthe one essential piece of decoration you need to have is a place where your turtle can haul out of the water to dry off , preferably under a basking light .\nhello , my sons have made a wonderful fl . box turtle habitat - we are looking to buy $ $ female fl . box turtles . please contact us , thx\nhoang van ha , pham van thong , and nguyen tai thang . 2016 . intensive survey at priority sites to confirm additional individuals of the world ' s rarest turtle .\nkuchling , gerald , nantarika chansue , and lu shunqing . 2011 . reproductive evaluation of the last male and artificial insemination of the last female yangtze giant softshell turtle rafetus swinhoei\nkuchling , gerald . 2003 . preliminary status survey of the critically endangered endemic roti snake - neck turtle ( chelodina mccordi rhodin , 1994 ) , roti island , indonesia .\nhughes , b . 1986 . longevity records of african captive amphibians and reptiles : part 1 : introduction and species list 1 - amphibians and chelonians . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 32 ) : 1 - 5 - get paper here\ndharwadkar , sneha and shailendra singh . 2016 . sustaining the distribution mapping and threat assessment of leith\u2019s softshell turtle ( nilssonia leithii ) along the river kali , karnataka , india .\nafrican sidenecks are on the larger - side of the spectrum and can reach an adult size between 7 and 12 inches , with the females reaching a larger size than their male counterparts . male sidenecks grow to reach a maximum length of about 10 inches .\nforero - medina , german , and camila r . ferrara . 2013 . 1 st workshop for developing a regional monitoring program for the giant south american river turtle , podocnemis expansa .\nwhen they\u2019re young and growing , insects and protein should make up the majority of your sideneck turtle\u2019s diet . as they get older they tend to give up most of their carnivorous tendencies .\nmy thanks to ferry grunewald for his help with species identification and further information . mr . grunewald is a member of the dutch turtle & tortoise society , nederlandse schildpadden vereniging ( nsv ,\nbock , brian c and vivian p . p\u00e1ez . 2016 . protection of nesting females and quantification of re - nesting frequency in the critically endangered magdalena river turtle ( podocnemis lewyana ) .\nwin ko ko , steven g . platt , and kalyar platt . 2012 . ecological study of the arakan forest turtle ( heosemys depressa ) in the rakhine yoma elephant sanctuary , myanmar .\nmccormack , tim , hoang van ha , and pham van thong . 2010 . mapping priority areas for swinhoe\u2019s turtle ( rafetus swinhoei ) in northern vietnam and sonar surveys to confirm presence .\nrestrepo , adriana and l\u00f3pez , catalina . 2008 . demographic structure of the population of the endangered turtle podocnemis lewyana ( podocnemididae ) in the chicagua branch of the magdalena river , colombia .\ncombining both land - and boat - based wildlife observation , we will search for the elusive african manatee , learn about efforts to save endemic turtles and tortoises , and visit world heritage wetlands . on land we\u2019ll see giraffes , white rhinos , antelopes , and more .\nif you would like to contribute to the photo gallery of any turtle or tortoise species , please email us at [ email protected ] . you will be credited for any photos you contribute .\nother important food items include various turtle treat foods and freeze - dried krill or shrimp . crickets , butterworms , calci - worms , roaches and other invertebrates will also be consumed with gusto .\nbarley aj , spinks pq , thomson rc , shaffer hb ( in press ) fourteen nuclear genes provide phylogenetic resolution for difficult nodes in the turtle tree of life . mol phylogen evol . doi :\nsingh , shailendra and saurav gawan . 2014 . employing sonic telemetry and community based patrolling in conservation strategy for the critically endangered red - crowned roofed turtle , batagur kachuga , in national chambal sanctuary .\nsingh , shailendra and ashutosh tripathi . 2013 . evaluating and refining conservation interventions for the endangered indian narrow - headed softshell turtle ( chitra indica ) along the chambal \u2013 yamuna river system , india .\nchirio , l . 2009 . inventaire des reptiles de la r\u00e9gion de la r\u00e9serve de biosph\u00e8re transfrontali\u00e8re du w ( niger / b\u00e9nin / burkina faso : afrique de l\u2019ouest ) . [ herpetological survey of the w transfrontier biosphere reserve area ( niger / benin / burkina faso : west africa ] . bull . soc . herp . france ( 132 ) : 13 - 41 - get paper here\nlucy keith diagne holds a phd from the university of florida and along with her husband , tomas diagne , is the founder of the african aquatic conservation fund . lucy has studied marine mammals for 30 years , and for 19 of those years she has studied manatees . in 2017 , lucy was named a pew marine fellow . now in her eleventh year in africa , lucy ' s research and conservation projects for african manatees include studies of distribution , population genetics , feeding ecology , and development of alternative livelihoods for manatee hunters . lucy is based in saly , senegal .\ni have found p . castaneus to be quite placid with other turtles . i guess with a smaller turtle they might be a problem but i would consider mine to be rather gentle with other species .\nmccormack , timothy , pham van thong , nguyen thi thuy , and nguyen tai thang . 2014 . habitat improvements and protection for the only known wild population of the world\u2019s rarest turtle \u2013 rafetus swinhoei .\nahmed , m . fireoz , abhijit das , and jayanta kumar roy . 2013 . status , distribution and ecology of the keeled box turtle , cuora mouhotii in dibang valley , arunachal pradesh , india .\nrainwater , thomas r . , steve g . platt , and rick hudson . 2009 . status , distribution , and exploitation of the critically endangered central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) in belize .\nmccormack , tim ; hendrie , douglas ; and nguyen xan thuan . 2008 . ensuring a future for the vietnamese pond turtle : establishing the mauremys annamensis conservation project ( map ) , in central vietnam .\nsingh , shailendra ; and horne , brian . 2007 . development of \u201cgreen\u201d headstarting facilities in the national chambal river sanctuary , india : the last stronghold for the red crowned roof turtle , batagur kachuga .\nthe turtle species pelusios seychellensis regarded hitherto as extinct never existed . scientists at the senckenberg research institute in dresden discovered this based on genetic evidence . the relevant study was published today in the journal plos one .\noliva , milena , brad lock and daniel ariano . 2010 . evaluation of the distribution , population density and habitat quality of the central american river turtle ( dermatemys mawii ) on the sarstun river , izabal .\nalacs , erika ; georges , arthur ; kuchling , gerald and rhodin , anders , gj . 2008 . phylogenetics and genetic guidelines for the captive breeding of the critically endangered snake - necked turtle chelodina mccordi .\nvargas - ram\u00edrez , mario ; and casta\u00f1o - mora , olga victoria . 2007 . actions towards the conservation of the endangered - endemic fresh water turtle podocnemis lewyana , in the upper magdalena river , colombia .\nartner , harald , bala\u0301zs farkas , and victor loehr . 2006 . turtles : proceedings : international turtle & tortoise symposium , vienna 2002 . frankfurt am main : ed . chimaera . p . 352 - 355 .\nmccormack , tim ; ha , hoang van ; and nhan , nguyen chi . 2009 . ensuring a future for the vietnamese pond turtle : establishing the mauremys annamensis conservation project ( map ) , in central vietnam .\ngong shiping , shi haitao , and jiang aiwu . 2008 . a survey on the status of red - necked pond turtle ( chinemys nigricans ) , a neglected endangered species in guangdong and guangxi , south china .\nvargas - ram\u00edrez , mario alfonso ; and casta\u00f1o - mora , olga victoria . 2006 . participatory research towards the conservation of the endangered - endemic fresh water turtle podocnemis lewyana in the upper magdalena river , colombia .\nkhin myo myo , kyaw moe , and win ko ko . 2008 . survey on the status of arakan forest turtle ; heosemys depressa and other endemic species in the rakhine yoma elephant range wildlife sanctuary , rakhine state .\nmccormack , tim ; hendrie , douglas b . ; van ha , hoang ; and chi nhan , nguyen . 2008 . production and distribution of an awareness poster for the endemic vietnamese pond turtle ( mauremys annamensis ) .\ntypically , african side - necked turtles arrive with varying amounts of shell damage . minor cases heal well if treated with a betadine\u00ae scrub and if the turtles are kept in a warm , sunny environment . more serious cases may require treatment with silvadene\u00ae cream . access to direct sunlight helps immensely with treating most shell problems .\nif you are interested in obtaining african side necked turtles , there a few private breeders here on the forum , living in the us . it would be best to buy true captive bred offspring from them , instead of buying from a shop where the turtles are mistreated and by buying them stimulating mass import from the wild .\na high quality commercial turtle chow ( the various zoo med pellets are my favorites ) can comprise up to 50 % of the diet . reptomin food sticks and trout chow also provide excellent nutrition , and may be offered regularly .\ntri , ly ; thinh , phung ba ; huy , hoang duc ; stuart bryan l . ; and huy , hoang duc . 2009 . surveys to find the southern vietnamese box turtle ( cuora picturata ) in the wild .\nkyaw moe , kalyar platt , khin myo myo , win ko ko , me me soe , and steven g . platt . 2013 . conservation of the burmese roofed turtle ( batagur trivittata ) along the upper chindwin river of myanmar .\nlights are not just for warmth . aquatic turtles like the african sideneck benefit from ultraviolet lights , too , particularly from uvb rays . these rays give turtles vitamin d3 and can help them stay healthy . when placing uvb / uva lights , keep in mind that any plastic , plexi - glass , or glass blocking them will prevent the beneficial rays from reaching your turtle . also , uvb lights lose their uvb strength over time , even though the bulb continues to emit light . it\u2019s a good idea to mark your calendar to change the uvb bulbs every 9 months .\na dry basking surface is necessary . commercial turtle docks and ramps work for smaller specimens , but large adults may sink anything that is not affixed to the glass with silicone adhesive . cork bark wedged between the aquarium\u2019s sides is another option .\nresults of pcr reactions of 68 loci for 13 turtle species . gray cells indicate reactions that produced a single band . black cells indicate multiple bands or smears while white cells indicate no product . marker numbers correspond to those in online resource 1\njones , michael t . , lisabeth l . willey , thomas akre , rodrigo macip rios , erika gonzalez , and luis diaz gamboa . 2015 . community - based conservation of the yucat\u00e1n box turtle ( terrapene yucatana ) , phase ii .\nsom , sitha ; chey , koulang ; sun , yoeung ; kim , chamnan ; kheng , sokhorn ; and sitha , prum . tremors psp 2009 . community - based nest protection for cantor\u2019s giant softshell turtle in the mekong river , cambodia .\niucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group ; rhodin , anders g . j . 2007 . turtles on the brink in madagascar : a workshop on current status , conservation prioritization , and strategic action planning for madagascan tortoises and freshwater turtles .\nfritz u , branch wr , gehring p - s , harvey j , kindler c , et al . . ( 2012 ) weak divergence among african , malagasy and seychellois hinged terrapins ( pelusios castanoides , p . subniger ) and evidence for human - mediated oversea dispersal . org divers evol : doi 10 . 1007 / s13127 - 012 - 0113 - 3 ."]}
{"id": 703, "summary": [{"text": "the marsh skimmer , also known as tricolored marsh hawk , and slender blue skimmer , ( orthetrum luzonicum ) is a species of dragonfly in the family libellulidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is widespread in many asian countries .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it breeds in marshes , boggy areas and wet abandoned rice fields .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "commonly found perched around marshes , ponds , paddy fields , and stagnant part of rivers and streams . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "orthetrum luzonicum", "paragraphs": ["dragonflies & damselflies of thailand : 50 . orthetrum luzonicum ( brauer , 1868 )\northetrum luzonicum are a vivid blue / green colour and o . glaucum ' s eyes are dull in comparison .\ncitation : dow , r . 2010 . orthetrum luzonicum . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . < www . iucnredlist . org > . downloaded on 21 december 2011 .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . orthetrum luzonicum ( brauer , 1868 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .\nrange description : orthetrum luzonicum is a widespread species , known from afghanistan and india to japan and southwards to java . countries : native : afghanistan bangladesh bhutan china hong kong india indonesia ( jawa , sumatera ) japan malaysia ( peninsular malaysia ) myanmar nepal philippines singapore sri lanka taiwan , province of china thailand viet nam\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 assessor / s : dow , r . a . reviewer / s : clausnitzer , v . & allen , d . justification : orthetrum luzonicum is a widespread , common species that breeds in open and disturbed habitats , and is assessed as least concern . conservation actions : no conservation measures are needed for this species .\nthis species is smaller and slimmer than orthetrum glaucum . in males , the hindwing is 30 to 32 mm in length and the total body length ranges from 40 to 42 mm . the abdomen is blue with the last two segments dark . the hindwing base is only lightly and narrowly tinted with yellow . the eyes are light blue . pruinescence develops with age and eventually the whole body becomes powdery blue . young males have a dark thorax with yellow bands on the dorsum . immature males are light brown in colour , resembling the female .\nauthor contributed taxonomy hierarchy [ admin , k . a . subramanian , panchapakesan jeganathan , panchapakesan jeganathan , panchapakesan jeganathan ]\n< a target = ' _ blank ' href = ' urltoken ' > iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . exported on 12 january 2012 < / a >\nsubramanian . k . a . ( 2009 ) . dragonflies of india - a field guide . vigyan prasar ,\ndescribes biorhythms - those states or conditions characterised by regular repetition in time , whether on the scale of seconds , hours , days , or seasons . it could also cover phenomena such as\nplant flowering\nor\nchewing rates\n. life cycles are treated in the field for life cycle . seasonal migration and reproduction are usually treated separately .\ndescribes reproductive physiology and behavior , including mating and life history variables . includes cues , strategies , restraints , rates .\nmale : abdomen : 28 - 30mm , hind wing : 30 - 32mm . female : abdomen : 28 - 32mm , hind wing : 30 - 32mm .\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\nmale : face : pale bluish or greenish yellow . eyes : bluish green with violet or brownish spots . thorax : pale olivaceous green with brown lateral stripes . dorsal side has a distinct yellow \u201cy\u201d shaped mark . in older individuals , brown and yellow markings may be totally replaced by pale blue pruinescence . legs : bluish black . wings : transparent . wing spot : yellowish . abdomen : is pruinosed pale azure blue in colour and dorsoventrally dilated at base . female : markings similar to sub adult males but less brightly coloured .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nmale : wing spot : yellowish eye : bluish green with brownish spots medium sized dragonfly with olivaceous thorax marked with brown and yellow and slender blue abdomen . aged males develop pale blue pruinesence , appearing blue throughout . female : wing spot : similar to male eye : brownish very different ; brownish green with yellowish marks on thorax and black lateral lines on thin yellowish abdomen .\ndescribes behaviour and behaviour patterns of an organism , including actions and reactions of organism in relation to its biotic and abiotic environment . includes communication , perception , modes and mechanisms of locomotion , as well as long term strategies ( except mating and reproductive strategies , covered under reproduction ) .\ncommonly found perched around marshes , ponds , paddy fields , and stagnant part of rivers and streams . like green marsh hawk ( o . sabina ) this species also frequently perches on ground .\nmarshes , swamps and edges of wetlands in wellwooded areas , particularly in mid - elevations .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\nhabitat and ecology : this species breeds in habitats such as marshes , boggy areas and wet abandoned rice fields . systems : terrestrial ; freshwater list of habitats : 5 , 5 . 3 , 5 . 4 , 5 . 7 , 15 , 15 . 7\nwidely distributed from india , sri lanka to java and sumatra in the east .\nenumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .\nbolangir , kotgarh , mayurbhanj . throughout wetter parts of india . parts of se asia . easy to spot at : jamuna meadow , str .\nis a widespread species , known from afghanistan and india to japan and southwards to java . countries : native : afghanistan bangladesh bhutan china hong kong india indonesia ( jawa , sumatera ) japan malaysia ( peninsular malaysia ) myanmar nepal philippines singapore sri lanka taiwan , province of china thailand viet nam\npopulation : this is a common species across much of its range . population trend : unknown\nred list category & criteria : least concern ver 3 . 1 year assessed : 2010 assessor / s : dow , r . a . reviewer / s : clausnitzer , v . & allen , d . justification :\nis a widespread , common species that breeds in open and disturbed habitats , and is assessed as least concern . conservation actions : no conservation measures are needed for this species .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\niucn . 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2010 . 4 ) . available at : http : / / www . iucnredlist . org . ( accessed : 27 october 2010 ) .\njeganathan , p & bhanumathi ( 2016 ) . thattangal , usithattangal : arimuga kaiyedu . ( a field guide on dragonflies & damselflies in tamil ) . cre - a . chennai . pp1 - 224 urltoken\ndragonflies and damselflies of university of north bengal campus , west bengal , india with new distribu . . .\na study was made to determine the present status of the diversity of the dragonflies and damselflie . . .\nodonates were surveyed in coimbatore district from september 2012 to january 2016 . the survey sites . . .\nan observation on the odonata fauna of the asansol - durgapur industrial area , burdwan , west bengal , in . . .\nthe present investigation was undertaken as a pilot study to examine the diversity , occurrence a . . .\nthe diversity of the odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) was studied in seven districts of southe . . .\na study was conducted at chinnar wildlife sanctuary , idukki district , kerala , the southern western . . .\nan inventory of odonata was carried out in six districts of central gujarat from 2012 to 2014 . a t . . .\nnew records of dragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) from the western ghats of maharashtra , i . . .\nodonates were surveyed across 10 localities from western ghats of maharashtra state , india during 2 . . .\nodonata ( insecta ) diversity of salim ali bird sanctuary and its adjacent areas in thattekkad , kerala , . . .\nodonata diversity of salim ali bird sanctuary and its adjacent areas in thattekkad , kerala , india w . . .\na preliminary checklist of odonates in kerala agricultural university ( kau ) campus , thrissur district , . . .\na study was conducted to document the species diversity of odonata ( insecta ) of the kerala agricult . . .\ndragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) of nagaland , with an addition to the indian odonate fau . . .\nwe surveyed odonates in the districts of kohima , peren and wokha in the state of nagaland , northeas . . .\ndragonflies and damselflies ( insecta : odonata ) of tripura , northeastern india with a pictorial catalog . . .\na survey of odonata was conducted in four reserve forests , three wildlife sanctuaries and three unc . . .\nhabitat and seasonal distribution of odonata ( insecta ) of mula and mutha river basins , maharashtra , in . . .\ncatchment landscape degradation and habitat modifications of freshwater ecosystems are a primary ca . . .\nerratum : habitat and seasonal distribution of odonata ( insecta ) of mula and mutha river basins , mahara . . .\ncepf western ghats special series first record of < i > poltys columnaris < / i > thorell , 1890 ( araneae : ara . . .\ndragonflies and damselflies ( odonata : insecta ) of tropical forest research institute , jabalpur , madhya . . .\ndragonfly and damselfly ( odonata ) species diversity and status were studied in the urltoken campus . . .\nthe study reports the results from surveys for odonates in the state of goa over 19 months during 2 . . .\nodonata are freshwater insects spread world - wide . tropical areas are high odonata diversity area . . .\na list of odonates from sahyadri tiger reserve and amboli with discussion on habitat requirement . . .\npicked up this report / project on damselfies from the internet authored by the indian academy o . . .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\njoshi , s . , p . koparde , p . dawn , p . roy , and k . kunte ( eds . ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nis a widespread , common species that breeds in open and disturbed habitats , and is assessed as least concern .\nis a widespread species , known from afghanistan and india to japan and southwards to java .\nthis species breeds in habitats such as marshes , boggy areas and wet abandoned rice fields .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntang , h . b . , l . k . wang & m . h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen , 2010 . a photographic guide to the dragonflies of singapore . raffles museum of biodiversity research , national university of singapore , singapore . 222 pp .\nraffles museum of biodiversity research rmbr has its origins in the raffles museum which was founded in 1849 . established on\u2026\ndeveloped by moving mouse \u00a9 2018 lee kong chian natural history museum . all rights reserved . terms of use .\nnam nao np / environs ( petchabun ) ; doi inthanon ( chiang mai ) ; khao krating np ( chantaburi ) .\n( see entry ) . however , it is quite easy to spot the difference . simply look at the eyes . the eyes of\nthe male ' s thorax and abdomen are bright powdery blue and s9 - 10 can be black , though i have seen specimens where this turns blue too . the males also have slight yellow / black markings on the abdomen , which seem slightly variable depending on age .\nthis one i captured with my little net . they also seem slightly smaller than most other species in the genus , though this could just be my imagination . still , a beautiful little thing . when i released him , he flew straight towards another male and began fighting .\nthis young male , has a pruinosed abdomen , but only half of its thorax has changed .\na poor photo ( everything was set up for close macro work ) and one shot and it was gone . . . anyway , it ' s still good enough for id purposes . even here you can see its bright blue eyes . . . something i missed ! special thanks to dr . matti for the id . this was seen at nam nao helicopter pad lake .\nlike the male , the female becomes pruinosed . this one i saw a good distance from the water ' s edge . the female also has a slimmer abdomen to its counterparts ( from what i can make out anyway ) .\nyou can see that the female ' s eyes are similar to those of the male .\nat last i spotted the female . it ' s actually similar to the young male . the thoracic markings are different and the eyes are similar in colour to that of the male , making it easily identifiable . also , unlike other females in the genus , when you movc near them , they only seem to fly to another leaf or twig . whereas , other females fly away , never to be seen again .\ni am too lazy to write about my past , but i now love photographing dragonflies , manchester city football club , fishing and , of course , my girlfriend .\n98 . ischnura sp . ( rufostigma selys , 1876 - group ) . . .\nnumber : 186 family : libellulidae genus : nannophya species : nannophya pygmaea common name ( s ) : the scarlet dwarf . . .\nnumber : 182 family : coenagrionidae genus : ceriagrion species : ceriagrion malaisei common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : . . .\nlocation : phu kao - phu phan kham national park , khon kaen date : saturday 28th may , 2016 habitat : lowland , shallow lake on the edg . . .\nnumber : 176 family : lestidae genus : platylestes species : platylestes platystylus common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : n / a . . .\nlocation : phu khieo wildlife sanctuary , chaiyaphum date : saturday , 12th november , 2016 habitat : mid - to upland forested ponds . . .\nnumber : 175 family : libellulidae genus : lyriothemis species : lyriothemis sp . common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : n / a ha . . .\nlocation 1 : tat fa and pha ing waterfalls , tat ton national park , chaiyaphum date : saturday 26th march , 2016 habitat : lowlands ( a . s . l . . . .\nnumber : 189 family : libellulidae genus : amphithemis species : amphithemis curvistyla common name ( s ) : n / a synonyms : . . .\nnumber : 185 family : coenagrionidae genus : ceriagrion species : ceriagrion pallidum common name ( s ) : n / a syn . . .\nnumber : 57 family : libellulidae genus : trithemis species : trithemis aurora common name ( s ) : crimson marsh glider , crimson dropwing , . . .\ncopyright \u00a9 dennis farrell 2010 - 2016 . all rights reserved . simple theme . powered by blogger .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nmature male is entirely light blue in colour . it has a long slender abdomen . hindwing base is only lightly and narrowly tinted with yellow . eyes are light blue .\nthis dragonfly can be found in marshes and open ponds . it has a preference for flowing streams . it can be found at bukit batok nature park .\ntang , h . b . , wang , l . k . & h\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen , m . 2010 . a photographic guide to the dragonflies of singapore . singapore : raffles museum of biodiversity research . 222pp .\nsupported client browser : ie6 + , firefox 1 . 05 + , chrome 12 + , opera 7 . 52 + , netscape 7 . 1 +\nwidely distributed dragonfly throughout asian countries including sri lanka . breeds in marshy habitats . it is a least - concerned spices in red data list and no threats have been identified .\neggs english : trinket snake binomial name : coelognathus helena sinhala : \u0d9a\u0da7\u0d9a\u0dbd\u0dd4\u0dc0\u0dcf / \u0dc4\u0db6\u0dbb\u0dbd\u0dd2\u0dba\u0dcf [ katakaluwa / habaraliya ] c . hel . . .\nscales are identical in size and keeled . english : sri lanka wolf snake binomial : lycodon carinatus sinhala : \u0daf\u0dcf\u0dbb \u0dbb\u0daf\u0db1\u0d9a\u0dba\u0dcf [ dara ra . . .\nenglish : sri lankan pipe snake binomial : cylindrophis maculatus sinhala : \u0daf\u0dd9\u0db4\u0dad\u0dca \u0db1\u0dba\u0dcf / \u0dc0\u0da7\u0d8b\u0dbd\u0dca\u0dbd\u0dcf [ depath naya / wata ulla ] an endemic spe . . .\nenglish : dwarf bamboo binomial name : arundinaria densifolia a . densifolia is an species of dwarf bamboo that grows in swampy a . . .\np . penicillatus in 5000 rupee note of sri lanka engish : yellow eared bulbul scientific : pycnonotus penicillatus sinhal . . .\nenglish : sri lankan krait sinhala : \u0db8\u0dd4\u0daf\u0dd4 \u0d9a\u0dbb\u0dc0\u0dbd\u0dcf [ mudu karawala ] binomial : bungarus ceylonicus bungarus ceylonicus ( sri lankan k . . .\nengish : daffodil orchid scientific : ipsea speciosa sinhala : \u0db1\u0d9c\u0dcf \u0db8\u0dd0\u0dbb\u0dd6 \u0d85\u0dbd [ naga maru ala ] i . speciosa is a rare and ende . . .\ne . sordida in 50 rupee note english : sri lanka dull - blue flycatcher / dusky - blue flycatcher scientific : eumyias sordida . . .\nbinomial name : zeuxine regia sinhala : \u0d89\u0dbb\u0dd4 \u0dbb\u0dcf\u0da2 [ iru raja ] an endemic and endangered ground orchid that grows in lowland wet zone an . . .\nengish : sundew scientific : drosera burmannii sinhala : \u0d9a\u0db3\u0dd4\u0dbd\u0dd0\u0dc3\u0dca\u0dc3 [ kandulessa ] drosera burmannii is a type of sundew whic . . ."]}
{"id": 716, "summary": [{"text": "motyxia is a genus of cyanide-producing millipedes ( collectively known as sierra luminous millipedes or motyxias ) that are endemic to the southern sierra nevada , tehachapi , and santa monica mountain ranges of california .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "motyxias are blind and produce the poison cyanide , like all members of the polydesmida .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "all species have the ability to glow brightly : some of the few known instances of bioluminescence in millipedes . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "motyxia", "paragraphs": ["forma motyxia pior f . secca causey & tiemann , 1969 accepted as motyxia pior chamberlin , 1941\nduring the day , this millipede , motyxia sequoiae looks like another nonglowing critter .\nglowing millipede ( motyxia sequoiae ) lights on , lights off . paul merek - youtube\nthe suggestion that motyxia ' s glow wards off marauding nocturnal predators is supported by the fact that motyxia are blind , so their visual signaling can only be seen by members of other species , such as predators .\nanalysis of xystocheir bistipita\u2018s dna revealed that the millipede actually belonged to a different genus , motyxia - the only genus of bioluminescent millipede in the western hemisphere . the identity - challenged millipede was then renamed motyxia bistipita .\nthis week , we published a study documenting the rediscovery of the millipede xystocheir bistipita , which turns out to be bioluminescent and a species of motyxia , the luminous mountain millipedes ( marek & moore , 2015 ) . a few folks have asked what the distribution looks like with these new data . here\u2019s an updated distribution of the genus including motyxia bistipita ( we transferred the species into motyxia after determining it was more closely related to bioluminescent millipedes in the genus motyxia ) . the distribution of motyxia is overlaid on level iii usgs ecoregions .\nat top , millipedes motyxia sequoiae ( left ) and motyxia bistipita ( right ) are seen normal light . in the bottom row , m . sequoiae , which has more predators , glows much stronger than m . bistipita .\nmotyxia ' s eastern cousins possess bright and conspicuous reds and yellows , apparently also to ward off daytime predators .\nanalysis of xystocheir bistipita ' s dna revealed that the millipede actually belonged to a different genus , motyxia \u2014 the only genus of bioluminescent millipede in the western hemisphere . the identity - challenged millipede was then renamed motyxia bistipita .\nthis entry was posted in uncategorized and tagged bioluminescent , california , cyanide , millipede , motyxia . bookmark the permalink .\ninterestingly , motyxia are blind , and so their visual signaling can only be seen by members of other species , such as predators . in addition , motyxia produce hydrogen cyanide , an extremely poisonous gas as a chemical defense . some of our research indicates that motyxia \u2019s bioluminescence serves as a warning signal to deter nocturnal mammals from eating these highly poisonous millipedes .\nthe researchers then sequenced several genes in each xystocheir and motyxia species to determine how the millipedes were related to each other .\na prolonged exposure taken in the darkroom , showing the greenish glow of a motyxia millipede . ( photo : paul marek )\ntheir results , combined with x . bistipita ' s unexpected bioluminescence , showed that x . bistipita actually belongs to the motyxia genus . the scientists renamed it motyxia bistipita . ( also see\nworld ' s leggiest animal found near silicon valley .\n)\nthe study also revealed that m . bistipita evolved before other motyxia \u2014giving the team a theory for how millipedes got their glow .\nwhen scientists discovered that this millipede , formerly named xystocheir bistipita , emits a faint bluish green glow , they renamed it motyxia bistipita .\nin a previous article for nsf , i explained that motyxia ' s\nglow means no\nto predators . that is , the green glow of nocturnal motyxia - - which are exclusively found in the sierra nevada mountains of california - - wards off nocturnal predators . motyxia ' s bright coloring warns predators that when these millipedes feel threatened , they ooze toxins , including hydrogen cyanide , an extremely poisonous gas .\nthese discoveries provide the bases for a possible explanation of the evolutionary origins of bioluminescence in millipedes . over time , bioluminescence gradually escalated from the faintly glowing species of motyxia that live at low elevations to the brighter and more highly toxic species of motyxia that live at high elevations .\nafter we sequenced them we were able to place the millipede on an evolutionary tree with other bioluminescent species of motyxia ,\nsays marek .\nafter sequencing the bug\u2019s dna , he found that it was in fact related to its luminous cousins , and changed its name to motyxia bistipita .\nwhen you observe bioluminescence , you may wonder about the purpose of this illuminating phenomenon . my research on motyxia indicates that\nglow means no !\nto predators . that is , motyxia ' s glow warns nocturnal predators that these 60 - legged creatures are armed and dangerous ; any predator that riles a motyxia risks being squirted by toxins , including hydrogen cyanide , an extremely poisonous gas , which the millipede releases when it feels threatened .\nat the field study site in giant sequoia national monument in calif . , paul marek assesses predator bite marks on clay models of the millipede motyxia .\nin order to provide a context to the evolution of bioluminescence , my team and i sequenced the dna of x . bistipita , and positioned it on an evolutionary tree with other species of motyxia and their closest relatives . these and other analyses showed that x . bistipita should now be classified in the genus motyxia along with other glowing millipedes . so in honor of its family ties , i gave x . bistipita a new name : motyxia bistipita .\nat the field - study site in giant sequoia national monument in california , paul marek assesses predator bite marks on clay models of the millipede motyxia .\nentomologist paul marek rediscovered this faintly glowing millipede in san luis obispo and renamed it m . bistipita to reflect its connection the genus of bioluminescent millipedes called motyxia .\nspecies in the genus motyxia are unique in being the only known bioluminescent millipedes . while all xystodesmids can fluoresce under ultraviolet light , motyxia creates its own glow , visible to the naked eye , in what is thought to be a warning signal to nocturnal predators indicating its noxious chemical defenses ( marek et al . , 2011 ) .\nmillipede motyxia photographed in natural light ( top ) and solely with its own light from bioluminescence ( bottom ) . the animal is an adult about 25 milimeters long .\nsupplemental information includes detailed experimental procedures and the phylogeny of motyxia species and close relatives ( figure s1 ) . it can be found with this article online at doi : xxxxxx .\nonly later in time , as motyxia colonized higher elevations with more predators , was the glow co - opted by evolution as a way to warn predators that the millipedes were toxic .\nmy research team , which is funded by nsf , explores the evolution of bioluminescence in a genus known as motyxia , the only millipedes in north america that are known to be bioluminescent .\na re - evaluation of the millipede genus motyxia chamberlin , with a re - diagnosis of the tribe xystocheirini and remarks on the bioluminescence ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) , rowland m . shelley\n( of luminodesmus sequoiae loomis & davenport , 1951 ) causey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 31 ; note : motyxia sequoiae [ details ]\nthe researchers also collected real glowing millipedes from giant sequoia national monument in california , from the species motyxia sequoiae . these are each about 30 millimeters long and 1 gram in mass on average .\nmillipedes of the genus motyxia spend the day burrowed under soil and leaves . they come out to forage at night , when they are sought after by predators . ( photo : paul marek )\njust like all other millipedes , motyxia are vegetarians , feeding mostly on decaying plant material , but in the course of adapting to a lifestyle primarily underground , they lost the ability to see .\nmany millipedes also have bright colours , but these would be useless to motyxia species . they spend the daytime buried in the leaf litter , emerging only at night to feed on decaying plants . \u201cnight is an excellent time to do millipede things like eating detritus and mating , \u201d says marek . when they\u2019re active , predators wouldn\u2019t be able to see bright colours anyway . as such , motyxia millipedes are a dull orange , and they publicize their defences by glowing in the dark . \u201ci think that motyxia is better able to exploit this nighttime niche if bioluminescent & toxic , \u201d says marek .\nof all these creepy crawlies , eight species are bioluminescent , meaning they can glow just like fireflies and glowworms . all are part of a genus known as motyxia . [ gallery of glowing creatures ]\ninterestingly , a few of the species in the glowing genus motyxia can switch their glow on and off . marek and his co - workers measured glowing intensity of species in the genus using darkroom photography and traced the results on an evolutionary tree . they determined that the ability to glow evolved only once in millipedes and is restricted to a set of closely related species , all in the genus motyxia .\none species they examined , xystocheir bistipita , had not been seen since its discovery back in 1967 and was assumed to be non - luminescent . but to their surprise , the bug began glowing in their laboratory , arousing suspicion that this millipede may actually be a mislabeled member of the motyxia group . later genetic analysis by the team revealed that this was indeed the case , so the enigmatic species was renamed motyxia bistipita .\nprevious research had shown that the ten known species of the motyxia genus glow at different levels of brightness . measuring just how much that brightness varies between species can reveal how luminescence evolved\u2014an important goal of evolutionary biologists .\nmotyxia , which are the only known bioluminescent millipedes , are found solely in a small region of the sierra nevada mountain range in california . but various types of bioluminescent creatures live throughout the united states . they include :\nluminescent millipede and results of the field experiment . a . motyxia sequoiae photographed in natural light , and b . entirely with light from luminescence ; c . mean proportion of millipedes attacked versus luminescence . number of individuals attacked above bars ; d . rodent incisor marks in clay millipede , e . live millipede ( arrows ) with anterior segments 1 \u2013 14 missing . ( phylogeny of motyxia species and close relatives in supplemental information online , figure s1 )\none possible clue to the origins of bioluminescence is provided by a millipede species known as motyxia sequoiae , which inhabits habitats that are normally off - limits to other closely related millipedes . these habitats include exposed areas of the forest floor , open mountain meadows and the trunks of oak trees . so perhaps bioluminescence evolved in motyxia sequoiae to protect these creatures from predators in particularly vulnerable areas , and thereby enable these millipedes to expand their range to these favorable locations .\nassistant professor of entomology paul marek rediscovered this faintly glowing millipede in san luis obispo and renamed it m . bistipita to reflect its connection the genus of bioluminescent millipedes called motyxia . photo : courtesy of the national geographic society expeditions council\nmotyxia are extremely common out there ,\nmarek said .\nif you sit there in a moonless night , the ground will look like the starry night sky up above , from all those millipedes glowing in the dark .\naccording to my explanation for the origins of bioluminescence in millipedes , as their evolution progressed and motyxia colonized higher elevations that support more predators , the millipede repurposed and intensified its glow as a way to warn predators of its greater toxicity .\nthis is just the tip of the iceberg for the fascinating story of bioluminescence in motyxia ,\nmarek added .\nwe still don ' t know a lot of things about their biology and the circumstances under which luminescence evolved .\ndiminutive in size compared to other millipedes , the species lives at a lower elevation with few predators and was not thought to belong to the genus of millipedes that glow called motyxia \u2014 the only genus of bioluminescent millipedes in the western hemisphere .\nthe location i marked in keene , ca is where i collected the motyxia monica on march 10 , 2013 . the photos were taken the next day at santa barbara city college . my professor verified its bioluminescence and my id for a project of his .\nhowever , my recent research indicates that millipedes may not have always used bioluminescence as a defense mechanism . rather , bioluminescence may have originated in a millipede species named xystocheir bistipita for an entirely different function and slowly evolved into its current defensive function for motyxia .\nmy research team and i ran an experiment to test whether motyxia ' s coloration warns predators to stay away . our experiment involved positioning 150 glowing clay millipede models and 150 clay non - glowing millipede models in motyxia ' s natural nighttime habitat in california . the results : predators attacked a significantly lower percentage of the glowing vs . non - glowing models ( 18 percent vs . 49 percent . ) the relatively greater ability of the glowing millipede models to repel predators supports the\nglow means no !\nidea .\nmy research team , which is funded by the national science foundation ( nsf ) , explores bioluminescence\u2014the biological production of light by natural chemical reactions . specifically we focus on the evolutionary origins of bioluminescence in motyxia , the only millipede genus in california that is bioluminescent .\nspecies such as m . bistipita , which live in low elevations of the sierra nevadas , have to cope with a much hotter , drier climate than other motyxia . their glow is also much dimmer , and they have fewer predators . ( see more pictures of glowing animals . )\nbut when the members of the motyxia group began to migrate to higher elevations with a greater risk of predation , the bugs repackaged this luminescence system as a warning signal . this was supported by the observation that species containing larger volumes of cyanide were brighter than their slightly less toxic counterparts .\n\u201cafter we sequenced them we were able to place the millipede on an evolutionary tree with other bioluminescent species in motyxia , \u201d said marek . \u201cwe demonstrated the faint bioluminescence of the low - lying millipedes represented an older trait and the brighter luminescence of their mountain cousins represented a newer trait . \u201d\ncausey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 25 [ details ]\ncausey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 29 [ details ]\ncausey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 27 [ details ]\nafter we sequenced them we were able to place the millipede on an evolutionary tree with other bioluminescent species of motyxia ,\nsaid marek .\nthe faint bioluminescence of the low - lying m . bistipita represented an older trait and the brighter luminescence of their mountain cousins represented a newer trait .\nthere are around 12 , 000 known species of millipedes , and only the eight motyxia species glow . marek says , \u201c [ they ] would definitely be on my top 10 for my imaginary \u201cmillipede biodiversity global tour\u201d ( along with the shocking pink millipede in thailand & the longest millipede in africa ) . \u201d\nvideo of my new motyxia cf . tiemanni , this is a rare species of millipede that can actually glow in the dark ! here is a video of them in the light of day , though i will be trying to get a video of them at night while they are glowing , so stay tuned !\n( of motyxia pior f . secca causey & tiemann , 1969 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 377 [ details ]\nour analyses of the chemical reaction used by m . bistipita to generate its faint glow suggests that this species might not have originally acquired bioluminescence as a defense mechanism . rather , it might have acquired its faint glow to help adapt to the dry heat of its habitat - - before other motyxia acquired bioluminescence .\nevery evening , these creatures \u2014 which remain hidden underground during the day \u2014 emerge and initiate a chemical reaction to produce a green - blue glow , a process called bioluminescence . the eerie night lights of these millipedes highlight nature ' s eccentricities , a fringe benefit as i research the millipede species known as motyxia .\nour analyses also showed that the faint bioluminescence of the low - lying cousins of motyxia bistipita - - which i ' ll refer to as simply m . bistipita - - represents an older trait than the brighter bioluminescence of their mountain relatives . in addition , millipede species that live at higher elevations exhibit the brightest bioluminescence .\nstill , a number of poisonous millipede species active during the day are thought to display bright colors to warn predators that they possess toxins and to steer clear . since motyxia are instead out in the dark , marek and his colleagues reasoned\nthey use their greenish glow in place of a warning coloration ,\nhe said .\nthe researchers then began comparing the genomes of the members of the motyxia genus , including its newest member , in order to examine genetic relationships . after constructing an evolutionary tree , the researchers measured the brightness of their characteristic glow photographically and then investigated their toxicity levels by seeing how much cyanide they possessed in their specialized glands .\nso the scientists collected several wild specimens all species of motyxia , plus a control group of non - glowing , related millipedes known as xystocheir . the team then set up experiments in the lab to measure the brightness of each species . ( related :\nif you see a glowing millipede , best not to bite it .\n)\nunlike fireflies , whose gleam emanates from a specialized organ on its abdomen , millipedes in the motyxia genus give off a teal hue . these invertebrates have a special type of protein that allows them to produce light from beneath the tough cuticle that covers their bodies . ( also see\nglow - in - the - dark millipede explained .\n)\nhow did bioluminescence evolve ? this question is another focus of our ongoing research on motyxia . by helping to reveal the evolutionary origins of warning colorations \u2014 which , by necessity , contribute to some of the most blatant and complex appearances in the living world \u2014 we expect to improve our ability to investigate and understand how other complex traits arise in nature .\npaul marek , a research associate in the university of arizona ' s department of entomology and center for insect science , and his team now provide the first evidence gained from field experiments of bioluminescence being used as a warning signal . they discovered that the nightly glow of millipedes belonging to the genus motyxia helps the multi - legged invertebrates avoid attacks by predators .\nspecies phylogeny of xystocheirine millipedes showing a single origin of bioluminescence in the most recent common ancestor of motyxia species . tree was estimated by using a partitioned bayesian analysis of the concatenated dataset of five genes . gray branches indicate < 0 . 95 posterior probability . ( scale bar : 0 . 1 expected substitutions per site . ) bioluminescent intensity was back - transformed from log - scale .\nwhen they are disturbed , they ooze toxic cyanide and other foul - tasting chemicals from small pores running along the sides of their bodies as a defense mechanism ,\nmarek explained .\nsome millipede species that are active during the day display bright warning colors to announce their defenses to predators , but because motyxia are out when it ' s dark , we hypothesized they use their greenish glow in place of a warning coloration .\nthe reason why these millipedes glow is a mystery . they are blind , adapted to a lifestyle primarily spent underground , so they cannot use their glow to send messages to other members of their species . also , while deep - sea angler fish dangle glowing lures in front of their mouths to attract prey , motyxia are vegetarians just like all other millipedes , feeding mostly on decaying plant material . so they have no need to pull in victims .\ninterestingly , they found that the millipedes\u2019 bioluminescence originated in motyxia\u2019s common ancestor and then grew brighter over time . furthermore , species living at lower elevations , such as m . bistipita , glow less than their relatives at higher elevations . since m . bistipita\u2019s habitat is much hotter and drier than bugs living further up the mountains , the researchers reasoned that their glow may not have in fact evolved as a warning signal for predators , but instead to help them deal with the stresses of such a climate .\n. . . animals may use colour signals in activities such as claiming advantage in maleemale combat ( e . g . eagle owl , bubo bubo , penteriani et al . , 2007 ; frog , phyllomedusa boliviana , jansen & k\u20ac ohler , 2008 ) , defence ( e . g . glow - worm , lampyris noctiluca , de cock & matthysen , 2003 ; motyxia millipedes , marek , papaj , yeager , molina , & moore , 2011 ) , prey attraction ( e . g . . . .\nhere , we document the unexpected discovery of bioluminescence in m . bistipita and infer the evolutionary history of the species in the context of a comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the xystocheirini . based on the tree , and phylogenetic trait mapping , faint light originated in the most recent common ancestor of motyxia and gradually intensified through the evolutionary diversification of the genus . the linear escalation in luminescent intensity as a function of tree depth reverses in some crown group species and may indicate a shift in the functional role of luminescence over time .\nto reconstruct the evolutionary tree , marek and his team included every species in the genus motyxia and all its closest nonglowing relatives and tested the relationship between them and m . bistipita . marek and his team measured light emission photographically in a darkroom by placing individual millipedes in a light tube . the researchers also measured toxicity of the bugs by measuring the volume of cyanide glands that line the sides of the millipedes . bugs with larger cyanide glands were also brighter , indicating a functional link between luminescent intensity of displays and toxicity .\nthe ability to make your own light , known as bioluminescence , has evolved around 40 to 50 times in the history of life . hundreds of animals can do the same thing , from fireflies to squid to deep - sea fish . they use this ability to attract their prey , to recognise their mates , and to hide from predators . motyxia millipedes are part of this extensive club , but they\u2019re unusual in one important respect : they\u2019re blind . they can\u2019t see their own glows ; their light shows are aimed at a different audience .\nmarek collected 164 motyxia millipedes from california\u2019s giant sequoia national monument and painted half of them to cover up their nightly glow . he then tethered them with a gently knotted string to specific places throughout the forest . marek also built 300 clay millipedes using a bronze cast made by his wife . he covered half of them with the same obscuring paint as the live millipedes , and the other half with a glow - in - the - dark hue . he scattered the fake millipedes throughout the forest just like the real ones , and waited .\nif you go down to the woods of california today , you might be in for a big surprise . at night , the forests crawl with sinuous shapes that glow with an eerie greenish - blue colour . they are motyxia millipedes and they shine brightly whenever they\u2019re disturbed . \u201cif you go to the right forest and you let your eyes get adjusted to the night , then you can see them everywhere , \u201d says paul marek from the university of arizona . some big oak tress can shelter 1 glowing millipede in every square metre . they look like fields of stars .\ndespite our growing knowledge , much about motyxia remains mysterious . for example , how do these blind creatures find mates ? what triggers their nightly emergence ? with funding from the national science foundation , my team is working to answer these and other questions . this research is part of our larger effort to describe biodiversity and reconstruct the evolutionary histories of arthropods \u2014 a group that includes insects , spiders and crustaceans , and accounts for 80 percent of all living species . we contribute our findings to the tree of life , which is a worldwide effort to define the evolutionary histories of animals .\namong the largest millipedes are the north american millipede and the giant african millipede . the north american millipede grows 10 cm ( 3 . 9 inches ) long , and is dark reddish - brown or black with a red line on each segment . females lay a single egg in a nest of regurgitated food , and wrap themselves around it to incubate the egg . giant african millipedes are the world ' s largest known millipedes , growing 30 . 5 cms ( 12 inches ) long . they live in rain forests and have 30 to 40 segments . millipedes belonging to the group motyxia live in mountain areas of california and glow greenish - blue at night , which seems to scare off predators .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nedited by may r . berenbaum , university of illinois at urbana\u2013champaign , urbana , il , and approved march 31 , 2015 ( received for review january 5 , 2015 )\nbioluminescent millipedes : m . sequoiae ( a and b ) and m . bistipita ( c and d ) . ( upper ) millipedes photographed under incident white light . ( lower ) millipedes photographed with light emitted from the cuticle . ( inset ) a 5\u00d7 magnification of the granular photocytes of m . bistipita . ( scale bars : 5 . 0 mm . )\nwe then tested for a directional trend of luminescence through evolutionary diversification by estimating the relationship between light intensity and phylogenetic distance . if the hypothesis of a phylogenetic escalation of brightness is true , we predicted a strong positive correlation between a node\u2019s luminescent intensity and its distance from the root , as opposed to the null hypothesis of no correlation ( one - tailed test , \u03b1 = 0 . 05 ) . although trends can occur in both directions , in cases where novel predator / herbivore defense traits ( e . g . , plant secondary metabolites ) promote speciation or a shift into a new adaptive zone , than the quantity or intensity of these features will escalate and evolve in a directional and positive manner (\n) . because the ecological phenomenon of defense - trait escalation underlying our hypothesis predicts that the sign of a relationship should be positive , we formulated a one - tailed hypothesis ( the two - tailed probability is also shown in parentheses ) . using the comparative framework afforded by the phylogeny , we also tested the null hypothesis with nonluminescent xystocheirini , predicting conformity with the null expectation . first , we estimated phylogenetic conservatism of luminescent trait values under a brownian motion model of character evolution with pagel\u2019s \u03bb (\n) , where \u03bb = 0 indicates a lack of fit between the data and the tree . we found that phylogeny strongly influences our observed luminescent data with a pagel\u2019s \u03bb = 0 . 718 ( not significantly different from 1 , with a bayes factor = 0 . 656 ; compare with \u03bb = 0 , bayes factor = 3 . 53 ) . we then used the branch length scaling factor \u03ba to differentiate between a gradual vs . punctuational mode of continuous trait evolution on the tree , where \u03ba = 0 indicates a punctuational model with change associated with speciation events ( i . e . , clumped at nodes ) , as opposed to a gradual change model ( \u03ba = 1 ) where character evolution is proportional to estimated branch lengths of the phylogram (\n) . when the models are compared by using a bayes factor test , the empirical \u03ba = 0 . 544 is not significantly different from \u03ba = 1 ( bayes factor = 1 . 59 ; compare with \u03ba = 0 , bayes factor = 3 . 49 ) . therefore , a gradual model of evolution better fits our observed luminescent trait values , given the phylogeny . we then assessed whether bioluminescence underwent a directional change on the phylogeny by testing a correlation between luminescent intensity and a node\u2019s path length from the root ( calculated from branch lengths ) . using phylogenetically independent contrasts , we estimated the phenotype of the internal nodes of the tree and compared these values with their root - to - node distance using the pearson product moment rho (\n) . we conducted the same analyses and tested for a correlation between toxicity ( estimated from cyanide gland area ) and phylogenetic distance . the tests were then repeated with the nonluminescent xystocheirine taxa . in\n) . lastly , to test whether the observed correlation could have been due to the random association of traits with species , we generated a probability distribution by repeating the processes of node state reconstruction and correlation tests of light intensity ( or gland area ) and path length from the root for 10 , 000 datasets after shuffling the luminescent intensity data among the tips . we then evaluated whether our empirical pearson\nwas within the range of permuted values representative of the null distribution of random assignments between traits and species . if < 5 % of our permuted values were greater than our empirical value (\n= 0 . 712 ) , then we rejected the null hypothesis that luminescent intensity or gland area is negatively related or unrelated to taxon assignment . because the proportion of instances in the randomized distribution where\n= 0 . 045 ( significant as a one - tailed test \u03b1 = 0 . 05 , but not as a two - tailed test ,\ntests of phylogenetic escalation of bioluminescent intensity and cyanide gland area . ( a ) in luminescent millipedes , a positive linear relationship exists between a taxon\u2019s luminescent intensity and its phylogenetic distance from the root . ( c ) a similar relationship is observed between its toxicity and phylogenetic distance . ( b and d ) a weak negative or no evidence of a correlation is evident between luminescence and toxicity with phylogenetic distance in nonluminescent taxa . raw luminescent data points are shown for clarity of illustration . open circles denote luminescent taxa , and dots indicate nonluminescent taxa . regression lines : phylogenetically corrected values ( dotted ) , uncorrected raw values ( solid ) .\nwe inferred the evolution of continuous traits on the tree using a least - squares parsimony method of estimating ancestral states where the cost of a state change is equivalent to the squared difference in values of the states , ( x \u2013 y ) 2 . to correct for the phylogenetic nonindependence of species , we used the pdap module in mesquite to produce a set of independent contrasts for statistical analysis ( 43 ) . if light and toxicity evolved in a directional manner , we expected a positive correlation between the trait value at a node and the distance of the node from the root of the tree . we calculated the nodal values of contrasts and the node\u2019s path length from the root and tested for a correlation using the pearson product - moment correlation coefficient r .\nthe results of a stepwise multiple regression with bioluminescent intensity as the dependent y - variable and root - to - tip distance ( rt ) , cyanide gland area ( cn ) , and elevation ( el ) as independent predictor variables\u2014and with a minimum akaike information criterion as a stopping rule to select the best model\u2014indicate that cyanide gland area contributes most to the multiple regression equation of y = 18 . 000x rt + 0 . 722x cn + 0 . 0004x el - 3 . 690 , with an r 2 = 0 . 75 . to evaluate millipede body width as a possible confounding factor , because we expect it to covary with cyanide gland area as a result of isometric growth , we conducted a second multiple regression including width as a fourth predictor variable and found that cyanide gland remains the most significant contributor to the regression model .\ntwo anonymous reviewers , charity hall , and jackson means provided improvements to earlier drafts . we appreciate the careful work of tim mccoy and elizabeth francis with dissections . tsutomu tanabe , deren ross , pavel stoev , michael jorgensen , derek hennen , avery lane , brent hendrixson and rob marek helped collect specimens for the project . this work was supported by national science foundation grant deb1410911 and national geographic society grant ec0564 - 12 .\nauthor contributions : p . e . m . and w . m . designed research , performed research , analyzed data , and wrote the paper .\ndata deposition : the sequences reported in this paper have been deposited in the genbank database ( accession nos . kr135885 \u2013 kr136081 ) .\nmesquite : a modular system for evolutionary analysis , version 2 . 73 . available at urltoken\npdap package of mesquite , version 1 . 15 . available at urltoken . accessed january 24 , 2014\nbayestraits , version 2 . 0 ( beta ) . available at urltoken . accessed march 1 , 2014\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the pnas web site .\nresearchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .\na survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .\na study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .\nthe mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena\u2014but this rigor hasn\u2019t always been enough to spur policy changes .\nbut why do the californian ones glow ? marek knows the answer . with hundreds of millipedes , some clay , and a bit of paint , he has shown that they light up to ward off predators . you might expect that the light shows would make the millipedes easier to find and eat . in fact , it deters hungry mouths .\nthe next morning , he found that rodents like grasshopper mice , had savaged around a third of the millipedes . the dull ones took the brunt of the attacks \u2013 they had between two and four times as many bite marks as the glowing ones . nearly half of the dull clay millipedes bore the wounds of a rodent attack compared to just 22 percent of the glowing models . similarly , rodents had attacked around 18 percent of the painted live millipedes but only 4 percent of the glowing ones .\nthe experiment showed that the millipedes\u2019 glow repels predators , and the models proved that it\u2019s the light , rather than the smell or taste of the animals , that puts off attackers . the glow sends a clear message : \u201cdon\u2019t eat me . i\u2019m dangerous . \u201d and they are \u2013 the millipedes create cyanide in their bodies and secrete the poison through pores along their flanks . they make for an unpleasant and possibly lethal mouthful .\nif doesn\u2019t matter that an animal is poisonous if its predators have to bite it to find that out . the predator would get a mouthful of poison , but the prey would incur a serious wound . this is why many poisonous animals advertise their toxic payloads with bright colours .\nnow , marek wants to find out more about how the millipedes got their lights . by analysing the genes of all 8 species , he found that bioluminescence has evolved only once in this group . while many animals glow by harnessing luminous bacteria , the millipedes rely on their own light - producing protein . what that protein is , and how it\u2019s related to those of other glowing animals , is still a mystery .\nreference : marekt , papaj , yeager , molina & moore . 2011 . bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes . current biology . current biology ; citation tbc .\nsome california millipedes first evolved bioluminescence to cope with harsh desert living , according to scientists who may have cracked the mystery of glowing millipedes .\nwatch : when the lights go out , these millipedes emit a green glow .\nin california ' s sierra nevada mountains ( map ) live a group of blind millipedes that glow in the dark\u2014and now scientists have cracked the mystery of how their brightness evolved , a new study says .\nthese\nspecies glow like a neon light . it ' s enough light to read something with if you get close enough ,\nsaid rowland shelley , an emeritus scientist at the north carolina state museum of natural sciences who wasn ' t involved in the study .\nscientists already knew that these creatures ' radiance serves as a warning to predators .\nnow , paul marek and wendy moore entomologists at virginia tech and the university of arizona , respectively , have discovered that the animals ' bioluminescence first evolved for another reason entirely : to help them cope with california ' s hot , dry environment .\ni thought it was going to be just another boring day in the lab ,\nsaid marek , who has received funding from national geographic ' s expeditions council .\nbut then he made a surprising discovery : a faint glow emanating from one supposedly non - luminescent millipede species : xystocheir bistipita , according to the study , published may 4 in proceedings of the national academy of sciences .\nbased on the research , the team thinks these millipedes ' low - watt glow isn\u2019t a warning signal , but rather the result of their bodies ' responses to heat stress .\nfor instance , millipedes have trouble metabolizing oxygen when it ' s really hot , which creates chemical byproducts such as peroxide . the bioluminescent proteins help neutralize these byproducts and prevent harm to the millipede .\nas evidence , the researchers found that the millipedes with the brightest glow also contained the most cyanide in their bodies . ( also see photos :\ncyanide millipede , huge spider among new species .\n)\nthe paper and work is very nice , and is a rare combination of real fieldwork with modest molecular methods ,\nsaid peter vrsansky , a scientist at the slovak academy of sciences who was not involved in the new research .\nfor his part , marek calls the study\na surprising , unique evolutionary story .\n, or the sierra luminous millipedes , is a genus of cyanide - producing millipedes in the order polydesmida endemic to the southern sierra nevada , tehachapi , and santa monica mountain ranges of california ( refs . 1 , 2 ) . members of this genus are blind and produce cyanide ( like\nin the order polydesmida ) . one of the most remarkable features of these millipedes is their ability to glow at a peak wavelength of\n, which are the only known bioluminescent species in the millipede class diplopoda ( about 12 , 000 known species , ref . 5 ) , spare\n, are restricted to three counties in california ( los angeles , kern , and tulare ) . all 8 species of\nthe darkest ( 4 ) . light is emitted from the exoskeleton of the millipede continuously ( the light intensifies when the millipede is handled , ref . 3 ) . emission of light is uniform across the exoskeleton , and all the appendages ( legs , antennae ) and body rings emit light . the internal organs and viscera do not emit light . luminescence is generated by a biochemical process in the millipede ' s exoskeleton ( 3 ) . the light originates by way of a photoprotein , which differs from the photogenic molecule luciferase in firefly beetles ( 6 ) .\nanother animal that produces light from a photoprotein is the jellyfish aequorea victoria , which is notable for green fluorescent protein ( gfp ) and widely used as a biomarker in molecular biology ( 7 ) .\nin size ( 6 , 8 ) . however , the structure of the luminescent photoprotein remains uncertain , and its homology to molecules of closely related arthropods is unknown .\n. various functions were suggested : a nighttime aposematic warning signal , that it had no function at all , or that it inadvertently attracted predators ( 1 , 2 ) . a field study tested the hypothesis that bioluminescence acts as a warning signal . based on the results of the field experiment conducted in california , in a spot where\nare native , researchers found that bioluminescence strongly deterred nocturnal mammalian predators ( 4 ) .\nmedium ( 3 cm in length ) ,\nflat - backed\npolydesmidan millipedes . typically orange - pink in color ( except\nfluorescent ( millipedes in the tribe xystocheirini display some of the brightest fluorescence of the u . s . xystodesmidae species )\nspecies occur in live oak and giant sequoia forests , and notably also in meadows . the presence of xystodesmid millipedes in meadows is atypical for the family . most species are observed under canopies of broad - leaf deciduous forests . all\nspecies are exclusively nocturnal . during the day , individuals are burrowed beneath the soil . at night , they emerge ( by an unknown mechanism potentially not related to light since they ' re blind ) and feed on decaying vegetation . individuals of the species\nhave been observed climbing on tree trunks , possibly consuming algae , lichens , and other cryptogams adhering to the bark .\nspecies are geographically restricted to 3 counties in california : los angeles , kern and tulare . species predominately occur in the santa monica , tehachapi , and southern sierra nevada mountains . the northernmost population of the genus is of the species\nin sequoia national park near crystal cave ( 2 ) . the southernmost population is of the species\n, collected in 1944 , was recorded from sherman oaks in los angeles county , california . a dubious historical record indicates a riverside county locality ; however , recent collections in the area have not confirmed this .\nchamberlin , with a re - diagnosis of the tribe xystocheirini and remarks on the bioluminescence ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) .\np . e . marek , d . r . papaj , j . yeager , s . molina , w . moore ( 2011 ) . bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes . current biology 21 : r680\u2013r681 .\np . sierwald & j . e . bond ( 2007 ) . current status of the myriapod class diplopoda ( millipedes ) : taxonomic diversity and phylogeny .\nv . r . viviani ( 2002 ) . the origin , diversity , and structure function relationships of insect luciferases .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nmarek , p . , papaj , d . , yeager , j . , molina , s . , & moore , w . ( 2011 ) . bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes . current biology , 21 ( 18 ) , r680\u20131 ( link )\nfinding glow - in - the - dark - millipedes . npr , science friday video\nchecklist of the millipeds of north and middle america richard l . hoffman . 1999 . virginia museum of natural history special publications .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nmillipede , which scientists have found uses the glow to warn predators of their toxic oozing cyanide .\nmysterious glowing millipedes apparently use their radiance to warn nighttime predators to stay away , scientists now find .\nmore than 12 , 000 species of millipede are currently known to science , but researchers suggest the vast majority remain undiscovered . the real number of species could actually be as high as 100 , 000 or so .\ncalifornia is the only place on the planet where you can see glow - in - the - dark millipedes ,\nsaid researcher paul marek , an evolutionary biologist at the university of arizona .\nthe santa monica mountains , the tehachapi mountains and the southern sierra nevada mountains , all of which are in southern california .\n[ see photos of glowing millipede ]\nthey spend the day burrowed beneath the soil and leaf material , but even though they are blind , they somehow sense when night falls , and come to the surface to forage and mate and to go about their millipede business ,\nmarek said . it currently remains completely unknown how the millipedes detect the fall of night ."]}
{"id": 733, "summary": [{"text": "the small ground finch ( geospiza fuliginosa ) is a species of bird in the tanager family thraupidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "endemic to the gal\u00e1pagos islands , it is common and widespread in shrubland , woodland , and other habitats on most islands in the archipelago .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it commonly feeds on small seeds and parasites from the skins of gal\u00e1pagos tortoises , and gal\u00e1pagos land and marine iguanas . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "small ground finch", "paragraphs": ["in addition to the medium ground finch , other abundant species of darwin\u2019s finches are the small ground finch , cactus finch and small tree finch .\nsmall ground finch ( geospiza fuliginosa ) is a species of bird in the thraupidae family .\nsmall ground - finch ( geospiza fuliginosa ) a male feeding on the ground . | the internet bird collection | hbw alive\nrange : the small ground - finch is found in galapagos and this species occurs almost on all islands .\nvegetarian finch and ground finch all have crushing beaks while the tree finch have a grasping beak . the cactus finch , warbler finch and woodpecker finch all have probing beaks . this is how they are distinguished into their separate groups .\nridgway ; found on genovesa . \u2013 restricted to genovesa , why not genovesa ground - finch ? it is small and similar to small ground - finch , so a size or even a bill shape name does not jump out based on its morphology .\nthe small tree - finch is resident in its range . it only performs short flights .\nthe already smaller - beaked medium ground finch couldn ' t keep up with the newly arrived large ground finch , which is about twice as big and dominates feeding grounds .\nthe small ground finch ' s song is rapid and weak , transcribed as\ntwichooo - twichooo\nor\nteur - weee\n.\napparently in response , the medium ground finch evolved to have an even smaller beak , making the species more adept at eating small seeds that didn ' t interest the larger finch .\nthe large ground - finch is resident , and only performs short flights within its range .\nthe small ground - finch in the next three shots is foraging on the side and back of a marine iguana at james bay , santiago island , galapagos . these finches will pick small parasites from the iguanas .\ntable s1 . sample information by capture episode and habitat for darwin ' s small ground finch on santa cruz island , gal\u00e1pagos , ecuador ( 2000\u20132005 ) .\nhabitat : the large ground - finch frequents arid scrubs in the lowland areas of each island .\na medium ground finch nestling with nostril and abdomen lesions caused by infestation with parasitic fly larvae .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - small ground - finch ( geospiza fuliginosa )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - small ground - finch ( geospiza fuliginosa )\ntitle =\narkive species - small ground - finch ( geospiza fuliginosa )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nsince then , the 1982 arrival of the large ground finch on daphne is the first known instance of a new finch arriving in the gal\u00e1pagos .\nbehaviour in the wild : the small ground - finch forages mainly on the ground and consumes small seeds , buds and insects , but seeds are the main food . it also feeds on fruits from opuntia cactus . in the highland areas , it often forages in the low vegetation . small food items are usually taken , related to shape and size of its compact bill .\nfood : the ground finches have their name because most of their gathering of food ( foraging ) happens on the ground . the medium ground finches eat small insects and the fruit and seeds of plants , and the fruit and seeds of cactus . the cactus finch gets its food primarily from cactus .\nprotection / threats / status : the small ground - finch is common or abundant . it is widespread in its range in all habitat types . this species is not currently threatened .\nsharpe ; found on pinta , fernandina and santiago . \u2013 this is the most widespread , and perhaps the archetype \u201csharp - beaked ground - finch\u201d so i would suggest letting it retain the name sharp - beaked ground - finch .\na male medium ground finch , one of at least 14 species of darwin\u2019s finches in the galapagos islands , ecuador .\na female medium ground finch , one of at least 14 species of darwin\u2019s finches in the galapagos islands , ecuador .\nkleindorfer , s . ( 2007 ) the ecology of clutch size variation in darwin ' s small ground finch : comparison between lowland and highland habitats . ibis , 149 : 730 - 741 .\nrothschild and hartert ; found on wolf and darwin . vampire ground - finch , based on its well - known habit of feeding on booby blood . the colloquial vampire finch has been in use for some time , but to be consistent i think we would need to use ground - finch .\nsecond , the molecular data place the cocos finch within the darwin\u2019s finch assemblage and in some trees ( fig .\nthe small ground - finch ( geospiza fuliginosa ) is endemic to the galapagos islands - a group of volcanic islands distributed around the equator in the pacific ocean , 972 km west of continental ecuador .\ntable s2 . factor loadings calculated from principal components analysis of morphological traits in darwin ' s small ground finch ( n = 134 ) on santa cruz island , gal\u00e1pagos , ecuador ( 2005 ) .\n; found on espa\u00f1ola . this huge - billed bird is most similar to the large ground - finch , which it is sister to . i don\u2019t know if one can come up with a morphological based name , such as thick - billed ground - finch that mentions anything unique ? perhaps espa\u00f1ola ground - finch would be the best name , because it is endemic to that island .\nprotection / threats / status : the large ground - finch is common and widespread in its range . its populations appear stable , but the species is extinct on floreana island . although living in restricted range , the large ground - finch is not currently threatened .\nmost of the finches on daphne major are medium ground finches . this investigation of daphne major focuses on the population of medium ground finches .\nlike the other gal\u00e1pagos ground finches , the small ground finch is an omnivore with a preference for vegetable matter . it feeds primarily on the ground or in low vegetation , eating seeds , buds , flowers , leaves and the occasional insect . it forms symbiotic relationships with gal\u00e1pagos tortoises and both marine and gal\u00e1pagos land iguanas , gleaning parasites from their skins .\nboth finches suffered , since there were far fewer seeds overall . the dominant large ground finch ate most of the available large seeds .\ncacti ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . in particular , small ground - finch populations in highland areas , such as on santa cruz , tend to spend considerably more time foraging in low vegetation ( 9 ) . with its compact beak , this species is much more efficient at foraging for smaller food items than the other ground - finches , with the very small seeds of\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the small ground - finch male usually utters only one song type , a repetition of two nasal notes \u201cclzeeuu clzeeuu\u201d with a pause of several seconds between the paired notes .\nname : small ground finch family : thraupidae scientific name : geospiza fuliginosa length : 11 cm ( 4 . 3 in ) weight : 12 - 17 g category : darwin finches number of species : 13 endemic species : 13\n) . analogously , the incomplete species differentiation within the ground and tree finch groups is probably a sign of an adaptive radiation in progress .\na female sharp - beaked ground finch , one of ' darwin ' s finches ' . photograph : steve gettle / minden pictures / corbis\nhabitat : the small ground - finch occurs at all elevations , up to 1700 metres , from arid lowland areas with cacti , deciduous shrubs and small trees , to moist highland forest dominated by trees of genus scalesia , endemic to galapagos . this species occurs in large numbers in highlands during the non - breeding season .\nthe small ground - finch is one of the most common and highly adaptable , as well as widespread of the darwin\u2019s finches of the galapagos islands . in towns and villages they are found foraging on dusty margins of streets and act very much as would a house sparrow ( passer domesticus ) in other parts of the world . yet in higher and moister areas they may be seen perched on a galapagos tortoise , waiting for bugs or seeds to be uncovered by the movements of the large reptile . this is the smallest and smallest billed of the ground - finches and thus it eats the smallest seeds available . during years of high rainfall ( el ni\u00f1o ) , fast growing annual grasses quickly grow and seed on the galapagos . in these situations small seed is abundant and this finch has a very easy time ! in dry years small seed becomes more difficult to find , as hard and large seeds are the ones that remain longest in the seed bank . the small ground - finch is present on most islands except the outermost low islands to the north where the sharp - beaked ground - finch takes a similar role of being the small billed ground foraging finch .\nprotection / threats / status : the sharp - beaked ground - finch is uncommon at high elevation , but common on the n arid low islands . the species is widespread and its populations are suspected to be stable . currently , the sharp - beaked ground - finch is not threatened .\nintroduction : the small ground - finch is endemic to the galapagos islands . like the other darwin\u2019s finches , the male is black and the female is paler with streaked plumage . this one is the smallest species of the genus geospiza .\nthe small ground finch is one of darwin ' s finches , a group of closely related birds which evolved on the gal\u00e1pagos islands . the group is related to the tiaris grassquits , which are found in south america and the caribbean .\nthe random changes in the frequency of alleles . is an especially strong force in small populations\n) . this species is apparently the oldest in the darwin\u2019s finch assemblage , presumably the result of an early radiation of the ancestors . it has long been debated whether the warbler finch should or should not be included in the darwin\u2019s finch assemblage . although the majority of taxonomists have regarded the warbler finch as being derived from finch - like ancestors (\n; found on genovesa . this is sister to the common cactus - finch , so perhaps it should keep the name large cactus - finch ? although this may be confusing as it is not any more widespread or easily found than conirostris . genovesa cactus - finch would be another possible name , noting that above we already have a genovesa ground - finch .\nduring the earlier drought the medium ground finches ' average beak size actually increased .\ntable s3 . annualized survival ( \u03c6 ) and recapture rates ( p ) for darwin ' s small ground finch ( 2000\u20132005 ) , based on model - averaged real parameter estimates and unconditional standard errors , using the nine competitive models in table 2 .\nthey died at a faster rate than the small - beaked members of the population .\nkleindorfer , s . , chapman , t . , winkler , h . and sulloway , f . j . ( 2006 ) adaptive divergence in contiguous populations of darwin\u2019s small ground finch ( geospiza fuliginosa ) . evolutionary ecology research , 8 : 357 - 372 .\npairs are usually monogamous . a small territory is maintained and the nest is built within this area . competition for food is intense during the breeding season , but the large bill of this species allows the large ground - finch to take different seeds and food items .\nthe effects of competition are apparent when this event is compared to a drought in 1977 , before the large ground finch arrived on the island , the researchers argue .\n, sharp - beaked ground - finch . results confirm that there are three taxa widely separated in the phylogeny . three species level taxa are recommended to be recognize :\n) , the vegetarian finch is not a member of the tree finch group , but rather a separate branch that diverged from the ancestral stock after the divergence of the warbler finch but before the divergence of the tree finches ( fig .\nintroduction : as its name implies , this species is largely arboreal . the small tree - finch is an insect - eater . the tree - finches have paler plumage than ground and cactus finches , the other darwin\u2019s finches . they also have sharper bill made primarily for grasping .\nthe significant role of nest infestation in extinction risk has an upside for medium ground finches .\na smaller limnetic species \u2014 with a smaller mouth \u2014 that feeds on the small plankton in open water .\nprotection / threats / status : the small tree - finch is common and widespread throughout its range . its populations are suspected to be stable , and currently , this species is not globally threatened .\ntrue to their name , the two species in the third lineage , the warbler - like finches , resemble warblers in their small size and slender beaks . the warbler finch , certhidea olivacea , even uses a similar method of catching insects to the warblers . the second species , the cocos finch , pinaroloxias inornata , is the only darwin finch species that lives outside the gal\u00e1pagos archipelago . it feeds predominantly on insects , both on the ground and in the trees .\nthe small ground - finch is endemic to the gal\u00e1pagos , where it occurs on the islands of pinta , marchena , floreana , san crist\u00f3bal , santa fe , daphne major , santa cruz , pinz\u00f3n , r\u00e1bida , santiago , fernandina , espa\u00f1ola , isabela , baltra and seymour ( 2 ) .\n) . fifth , the traditional classification of ground finches into six species and of tree finches into five species ( excluding the vegetarian finch ) is not reflected in the molecular data .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season takes place during the rains . the nest is built by the male within the small territory . that is a small dome - shaped structure , a sphere with side entrance towards the top .\n) . in the case of ground and tree finches , both explanations may apply . hybridization with the production of fertile offspring occurs with an estimated frequency of up to 5 % in the ground finches (\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the large ground - finch\u2019s voice differs from other finches due to bill structure and shape . usually , the male sings only one song type , a nasal repetition of 2 - 3 notes \u201cchzweee - chzwee\u201d with lower - pitched sounds and slower speed than those of the medium ground - finch . the call is a high - pitched \u201ctzeeeeppp\u201d .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the small tree - finch utters a high - pitched double note \u201czee - tzee , zee - tzee\u201d as song . this sound is related to the bill size .\nbehaviour in the wild : the small tree - finch feeds primarily on insects , small arthropods and caterpillars . it picks the preys from bark and leaves\u2019 surface , but also bites through the bark to reach insect larvae . however , during the dry season , it feeds on seeds , fruits , buds and occasionally takes nectar from flowers .\n) and did not change when different outgroup species were used ( not shown ) . in all of them , four groups of sequences could be distinguished , arranged in the same branching order , the warbler finch sequences branching out first after the outgroup , the vegetarian finch sequences next , and the tree finch together with the cocos finch sequences ( which in some trees intermingle with the tree finch , whereas in others they are outside of the group ; compare figs .\nthe name geospiza is a combination of the greek words geo - , meaning\nground -\n, and spiza , meaning finch . the specific name fuliginosa is late latin for\nsooty\n.\nwoodpecker and mangrove finches use small twigs and cactus spines as tools to dine on the larva stored in dead tree branches .\nrange : the large ground - finch occurs on several galapagos islands such as pinta , marchena , genovesa , fernandina , isabela , santiago , r\u00e1bida , pinz\u00f3n , baltra , santa cruz and santa fe .\nin common with much of the galapagos\u2019 endemic fauna and flora , darwin\u2019s finches are under threat from habitat destruction , introduced diseases , and invasive predatory species such as rats and cats ( 10 ) . however , the small ground - finch is still relatively abundant and is not thought to be undergoing a significant decline ( 11 ) .\n\u201cin two of the three scenarios tested , our model predicted that medium ground finch populations on the island of santa cruz were declining and at risk of extinction within the next century , \u201d the researchers conclude .\n) , diverging from the ground finch sequences last . in the tree - robustness tests , these groups were recovered with high bootstrap values . the tree topology was also congruent with that of the trees based on the\nlike all but one of the other darwin ' s finches , the small ground finch is endemic to the gal\u00e1pagos islands . abundant and widespread , it is found on every island in the archipelago except genovesa , wolf and darwin . it is most common in arid coastal and transition areas , though it moves into the highlands following the breeding season .\nthe pair is monogamous and a small territory is maintained all year round . songs , whistles and buzzes , are associated to courtship .\nthe small ground - finch is largely resident in its range . some altitudinal movements are reported during the non - breeding season . they also may disperse between islands . this species usually performs short - distance flights . it is mainly terrestrial , hopping and moving easily among the vegetation . its short , rounded wings do not allow this species to travel long distances .\nthere are 14 different types of gal\u00e1pagos finches in the gal\u00e1pagos . the small island daphne major contains populations of several kinds of these finches :\n) . the molecular data fail to distinguish the morphologically defined ground and tree finch species altogether . the inter - and intraspecies genetic distances overlap and on the phylogenetic trees , individuals representing different morphologically identified species are intermingled ( fig .\nthe sharp - beaked ground - finch is resident , but the birds living at high - elevation perform some altitudinal movements , coming to lower and drier habitats after breeding . they have rounded wings because they only travel over short distances .\nsongs of the medium ground finch ( g . fortis ) and cactus finch ( g . scandens ) changed following the arrival and increase in numbers of a third and socially dominant species , the large ground finch ( g . magnirostris ) . the rate of note repetition , or trill rate , of the first two species became faster over the next three decades ( fig . 4 ) . as a result , the songs of both species diverged from the songs of the large ground finch ( fig . 5 ) . it is possible that the changes were the result of random cultural drift and that g . magnirostris was irrelevant to the song changes . we consider this to be unlikely given the coincidence of changes in g . fortis and g . scandens . their songs differ but they changed in the same way .\nit forages in foliage and mainly above the ground , although it can be seen occasionally on the ground . it gleans insects from leaves and twigs , but also hangs from tips of branches , moving upside - down to reach preys from the vegetation .\nthese were formerly recognized as species , based on differences in size and bill shape . the species difficilis has a straight culmen and is truly sharp beaked , whereas septentrionalis has a curved culmen . these populations also differ in song ( grant et al . 2000 ) . the species acutirostris is very much smaller in mass than the other two ; in many ways it resembles a small ground - finch ( g . fuliginosa ) , and in fact it is genetically much closer to fuliginosa and fortis ( medium ground - finch ) than it is to true sharp - beaked ground - finch . curiously song is more similar to septentrionalis ( grant et al . 2000 ) . lamichhaney et al . ( 20150 suggested that acutirostris may be a species derived from mixed ancestry , i . e . of hybrid origin , but that it is a distinct and separate entity ( species ) .\nin 1981 , a male large cactus finch ( geospiza conirostris ) turned up on daphne major , some 100 km ( 62 miles ) from its home on the island of espanola . there were no members of its species on daphne major , but this male mated successfully with a female medium ground finch ( geospiza fortis ) living there . their offspring then , and over the subsequent years , mated with each other but not with the resident medium ground finches ( g . fortis ) .\nbehaviour in the wild : the large ground - finch feeds mainly on large seeds , and also takes opuntia cactus fruits , caterpillars and large insects . it feeds on seeds of bursera graveolens , but its main food source includes the woody seeds of tribulus cistoides . its large , strong bill allows it to crack open these hard seeds . this species forages mainly on the ground .\nidentification : the smallest , most compact ground finch with a rather dainty , short , pointed bill , the culmen being slightly curved . adult male : wholly black with white - tipped undertail - coverts . female / immature : brown with streaked underparts .\nthe next ten shots show various plumages of small ground - finches during an august , 2010 , visit to the galapagos islands . these next ten shots were all taken with a canon eos 1d mark iv and a sigma 50 - 500mm lens . an adult male is on the right .\ndarwin\u2019s finches vary by what they eat , some eat seeds and others eat insects . the ground finches eat ticks which they remove with their crushing beaks from tortoises , land iguanas and marine iguanas and they kick eggs into rocks to feed upon their contents . on one galapagos island ( isla wolf ) the vampire finch , a sub species of the sharp beaked ground finch , jumps on the backs of other birds such as masked boobies and red - footed boobies and peck away at their flesh to feed on their blood . the booby birds do not resist against this eating behaviour . it is thought that this behaviour evolved from the pecking behaviour that the finch used to clean parasites from the plumage of the booby birds . the vampire finch is an endangered species .\nthe total house finch population across north america is staggering . scientists estimate between 267 million and 1 . 4 billion individuals .\n\u201cwe predict they will no longer go extinct\u201d if intervention reduced fly infestation of finch nests by 40 percent , she adds .\nintroduction : like other darwin\u2019s finches , the sharp - beaked ground - finch is endemic to the galapagos islands . this one has fairly long , pointed bill . the three subspecies show considerable differences with different size and bill shape , and different behaviour too . one of the subspecies living on darwin and wolf islands is known as \u201c vampire finch \u201d . actually , it drinks blood from seabirds\u2026\nthe processes described in this page can occur over and over . in the case of darwin ' s finches , they must have been repeated a number of times forming new species that gradually divided the available habitats between them . from the first arrival have come a variety of ground - feeding and tree - feeding finches as well as the warblerlike finch and the tool - using woodpeckerlike finch .\nmostly seeds , buds , berries . almost all of diet is vegetable matter . feeds mainly on weed seeds . other important items include buds and flower parts in spring , berries and small fruits in late summer and fall . also eats a few insects , mostly small ones such as aphids . young are fed on regurgitated seeds .\n) , support the hypothesis that the ancestors of the cocos finch migrated from the gal\u00e1pagos archipelago to the cocos island relatively recently .\nbreeding : the medium ground finches breed after the first big rains of the wet season . the fledglings grow to adult size within one year .\nwe addressed the question of what drives song divergence by studying the songs of two species of finches on daphne major island ( 34 ha ) from 1978 to 2010 . the species are geospiza fortis , the medium ground finch , and geospiza scandens , the cactus ground finch ( fig . 1 ) , and they differ in beak morphology and in song ( fig . 2 ) . even though both species vary from island to island in morphology and song features ( 10 ) , song remains discretely different between species in sympatry ( fig . s1 ) .\ngrant , b . r . , grant , p . r . & petren , k . ( 2000 ) . the allopatric phase of speciation : the sharp beaked ground finch ( geospiza difficilis ) on the galapagos islands . biol . j . linn . soc . 69 , 287\u2013317 .\nthe small ground - finch ( geospiza fuliginosa ) is one of the famous\ndarwin finches\nof the galapagos islands . the first 20 images on this page were all taken in july , 2007 , on various islands of the galapagos with a canon eos 1d mark iii and ef 100 - 400mm f / 4 . 5 - 5 . 6 l is lens . the black birds are adult males . the more brown - plumaged birds are females or immature males .\nthe simulations included only female finches , so the researchers say they may have underestimated extinction risk by ignoring factors such as a female\u2019s ability to find a mate when populations are small .\nalthough clines present a problem for classifiers , they are a beautiful demonstration of darwin ' s conviction that the accumulation of small inherited differences can lead to the formation of new species .\nthe second lineage is the tree finches , which spend most of their time in foliage and vegetation and only occasionally forage on the ground . the six species of this group are classified into three genera , cactospiza , camarhynchus , and platyspiza . all , except the vegetarian finch , p . crassirostris , are insect eaters . one of the two cactospiza species , the woodpecker finch , c . pallida , ferrets insects out of cracks with cactus spines or twigs , which it holds in its chisel - shaped beak . the other , the mangrove finch , c . heliobates , uses its stout , straight beak to catch insects in mangrove swamps . the three species of camarhynchus differ in body and beak size , the latter adapted to the size of the insects they feed on . they are the large , medium , and small tree finch , c . psittacula , c . pauper , and c . parvulus , respectively . the vegetarian finch eats buds , young leaves , blossoms , and fruits with its thick , short , slightly decurved beak .\ndarwin ' s finches are distinguished by their highly specialised beaks , which enable each species to occupy a different ecological niche ( 6 ) . the ground finches (\n) within the tree finch group . the species may have arisen relatively recently as part of the tree finch radiation . its relatively large genetic distance from the other tree finches as revealed by the rate constancy test ( data not shown ) and by the branch lengths on the nj tree ( fig .\n) , and this view now is upheld by the molecular data : the warbler finch is part of the monophyletic darwin\u2019s finch group and parulidae were clearly not among its ancestors ( a . s . , unpublished work ) . the relatively large genetic distances among the individual warbler finches tested ( fig .\nto protect american goldfinches from contagious diseases at feeders , keep the ground well - raked . for more information about keeping feeders clean , see project feederwatch\u2019s \u201csafe feeding environment\u201d .\ni recommend a yes vote to separate these species , raising the number of darwin\u2019s finch species from 15 to 18 . note that geographically the existence of a large cactus - finch on darwin and wolf islands is very unlikely , unless it also was a separate and unique population . there is no recent evidence of a long - term sustaining population on wolf . it is unclear if the species is present and common on darwin island , and indeed these may have been either stray large ground - finch , or perhaps a population of large cactus - finch . therefore , i think it is best to delay any decision on what to do with darwini ( if indeed it still exists ) , until genetic data from specimens is studied . in the past darwini has been lumped with propinqua .\npunta suarez is found on the western tip of espa\u00f1ola , punta suarez offers great wildlife such as sea lions , sea birds and the largest marine iguanas of galapagos . this is one of the best sites in the galapagos . the amount of wildlife is overwhelming . along the beach there are many sea lions and large , colorful lava lizards and marine iguanas . as you follow the trail to the cliff ' s edge masked boobies can be found nesting among the rock formations . after a short walk down to a beach and back up the other side blue - footed boobies are seen nesting just off the trail . the galapagos dove and very friendly hood mockingbird are commonly found in this area . the nearby bushes are frequently home to the large - cactus finch , warbler finch , small - ground finch and large - billed flycatcher .\n\u2022galapagos islands had land birds that was a unique group of finches that occurred nowhere else \u2022there was only one species on the nearby mainland , a seed - eating ,\nground finch .\n\u2022over a dozen different species in the galapagos , each with it ' s own pattern of distribution . \u2022many species were confined to just one island or part of one island \u2022all show variation in beaks and diet \u2022ground and tree dwellers , insect and seed - eaters . \u2022some finch species were filling roles normally occupied by totally unrelated birds on other continents \u2022darwin came to believe in\ndescent with modification\n- a bunch of species of an organism share a common ancestor\nthe new study dealt with medium ground finches , geospiza fortis , among the most common of at least 14 species and perhaps 18 species of darwin\u2019s finches . one of them , the mangrove finch , already \u201cis facing potential total extinction because it is present in only two populations on a single island , isabela , \u201d koop says .\nevery single donation we receive , no matter how small , counts as we are completely dependent on the generosity of others to carry out our scientific projects . we need your passion , loyalty and continual support .\nthe house finch was originally a bird of the western united states and mexico . in 1940 a small number of finches were turned loose on long island , new york , after failed attempts to sell them as cage birds ( \u201chollywood finches\u201d ) . they quickly started breeding and spread across almost all of the eastern united states and southern canada within the next 50 years .\ndarwin\u2019s finch segments , however , divergences were below the saturation level , so that all sites , ts and tv , could be used for phylogeny reconstruction . the\nhabitat : the small tree - finch is an arboreal species , usually found in forested areas , cultivated areas with trees , and also in some parts of the drier zone where tall shrubs and other vegetation are growing . this species can be seen at all elevations , from dry areas to highland wet zones , but it is usually common from and above the transition area .\nintroduction : the large ground - finch is endemic to the galapagos islands . it is the largest of all the darwin\u2019s finches . its large beak allows it to feed on the largest available seeds and large insects . the bill shape also involves slower and lower - pitched sounds and more nasal calls . it is usually found in arid lowland areas .\none ( # 12 ) looks more like a warbler than a finch , but its eggs , nest , and courtship behavior is like that of the other finches .\napparent survival rates ( annualized ) in individual small ground finches , as predicted by model 1 ( table 2 ) and plotted by habitat and year . trend lines are plotted for all 100 imputed datasets . individual cases are plotted for the first imputed dataset . selection was consistent in direction by habitat across the four time periods ( and cohorts of birds ) . there is no evidence of stabilizing or disruptive selection .\ngene , the majority ( 75 % ) of the substitutions in the darwin\u2019s finch sequences occurred at the third codon position and 90 % of these are ts ( fig .\ndarwin\u2019s finches generally breed opportunistically , with egg - laying being most profuse when rainfall is high and food abundant ( 2 ) . pairs are typically monogamous and maintain small territories within which they build a small dome - shaped nest in a bush or cactus . on average each clutch comprises three eggs that are incubated for around 12 days before hatching . the nestlings are mostly raised on insects and leave the nest after about two weeks ( 6 ) .\n\u201cb ) yes , given the more complete genetic sampling ( all this makes me wonder about splitting up the small , compact clade of camarhynchus ( ? ) in green into all those species ; presumably vocal evidence ) . \u201d\ndensity plot of the omnibus clinal - trend measure , showing the relationship between morphology and habitat in darwin ' s small ground finch along an elevation gradient on santa cruz island in 2005 ( r = 0 . 54 , n = 131 . 7 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . the omnibus measure includes five significant predictors of habitat \u2013 beak size , beak shape , foot size , claw size , and tarsus thickness . individual cases are plotted for the first imputed dataset . means and standard errors , adjusted for all 100 imputed datasets , are indicated to the right of each density plot .\nwith the near removal of the supply of large seeds , the large - beaked birds [ among ] the medium ground finches did not have enough food to survive ,\npeter grant said .\na definitive arrangement of the individual sequences within the two polytypic groups , one encompassing all ground finch sequences , and the other the tree finch sequences , could not be obtained , however . not only did the branching order of individual sequences within each group differ among the various trees and the individual nodes could be only poorly reproduced by bootstrap resampling , but also sequences from different morphologically identified species were intermingled . attempts to resolve the intra - group branching pattern and make it consistent with morphological species differentiation by using different tree - drawing methods failed ( figs .\ncolor : young medium ground finches ( fledglings ) , are brown in color , with streaks of lighter shades . adult females are also brown in color , while adult males are a solid black color .\nthe study was performed on santa cruz island in the galapagos . an estimated 270 , 000 medium ground finches live on that island and perhaps 500 , 000 live throughout the galapagos islands , clayton says .\n) hint at the existence of taxonomical diversity within this species . taxonomists indeed have divided the warbler finch , which inhabits all the major and a few minor islands of the archipelago (\nthe breeding season occurs during heavy rains , when food resources are abundant . competition for food can be intense between the different darwin\u2019s finches species . pairs are monogamous , and maintain a small territory where the nest - site will be included .\nthe new study is based on five years of data collected by koop , clayton and colleagues documenting fly damage to finch reproduction , and on mathematical modeling or simulation using that and other data .\nthe observed trend for longer beaks in highland birds may relate to the ecological niche that is currently open to the small ground finch within this zone . prior to about 1930 , this niche on santa cruz island was occupied by the sharp beaked ground finch , g . difficilis , which largely excludes g . fuliginosa from the highlands on this and other islands wherever the two species coexist ( lack , 1947 ; schluter & grant , 1982 ) . after 1930 , g . fuliginosa probably expanded its range into the highlands as a result of growth of the agricultural zone and the subsequent extinction of g . difficilis on santa cruz ( lack , 1947 ; harris , 1973 ) . in elongated beak length , the current highland population of g . fuliginosa approaches the beak shape of g . difficilis , which , based on museum specimens , is 3 . 45 sd larger than beak length in g . fuliginosa ( t = 15 . 95 , d . f . = 110 . 5 , p < 0 . 0001 ; lack , 1947 : tables 23 and 29 ) .\napparent survival ( annualized ) of darwin ' s small ground finch as predicted by habitat , season , and the clinal trend ( model 1 , table 2 ) . means and standard errors , adjusted for all 100 imputed datasets , are indicated for each subgroup . birds in the highlands , where 3 . 0 times as much rainfall occurred , were 18 % more likely to survive than were birds in the lowlands . relative to the dry season , survival was 67 % higher during intervals that included the wet season . in addition , birds in the lowlands were more likely to survive if they had large feet and short , blunt beaks , whereas birds in the highlands tended to survive if they had small feet and long , pointed beaks . a 1 . 0 - sd increase in the clinal - trend measure was associated with an 8 % increase in survival among highland birds and a 13 % decrease in survival among lowland birds .\nthe mangrove finch is found only on isabela island , is on the iucn red list , and is also listed by birdlife international as an endangered species . photo by : francesca cunninghame / cdf .\nin our 2005 study , birds from the highlands were distinguished from birds from lower altitudes by having larger and more pointed beaks , and thicker tarsi , but smaller feet and claws . the findings for foot and claw size confirm the differences detected between highland and lowland birds during the previous 4 years by kleindorfer et al . ( 2006 ) . in addition , kleindorfer et al . ( 2006 ) found that beak length was greater among highland than lowland birds , consistent with the significant clinal trend for beak shape documented in 2005 . hence salient features of the clinal trends found in 2005 were also present in the small ground finch population on santa cruz during a continuous 5 - year period .\n) . a more definitive characterization of mtdna heterogeneity will require testing of a large sample set collected from the different islands ( all of the warbler finch samples tested in the present study were from marchena ) .\nthis is the smallest of the ground finches , measuring 11 cm ( 4 . 3 in ) in length . its beak is short and pointed , with a slightly curved culmen . on average , its beak is smaller than that of the\nforages on ground , while perching in weeds , or up in trees and shrubs . except when nesting , usually forages in flocks . will come to feeders for seeds , especially sunflower seeds , and to hummingbird feeders for sugar - water .\nincrease in trill rate across decades ( mean \u00b1 sem ) . most ses are too small to be shown . sample sizes are in table 1 . g . magnirostris ( green ) , g . fortis ( red ) , and g . scandens ( blue ) rates are shown .\nisla lobos is up the coast from puerto baquerizo across a small channel off the coast of san crist\u00f3bal . the basalt island outcropping is home to a large and noisy colony of sea lions . it is also a nesting place for blue - footed boobies and an excellent spot for snorkeling .\nduring the breeding season , competition for resources between different species of finch can be extremely intense . in promoting ever increasing levels of specialisation , competition for resources has been the driving force behind the evolution of darwin\u2019s finches . this is exemplified by the widely divergent beak sizes of different finch species co - inhabiting one island , compared with much more convergent beak sizes when the same species are isolated from each other on separate islands ( 6 ) .\nhabitat : the sharp - beaked ground - finch is usually found in the highlands of the three larger islands , fernandina , santiago and pinta . it occurs at high elevation in dense forests ( zanthoxylum fagara ) with more open areas of low vegetation . however , in the low islands of darwin and wolf , it frequents dry , arid scrub habitats with open vegetation and opuntia cactus . on genovesa , it is found in the deciduous forests with bursera graveolens and cordia lutea .\n) . nor could any obvious correlation between sequences and the origin of the samples from the various islands be ascertained , although the data set was not large enough to exclude the existence of such a correlation definitively . consistent with the failure to differentiate the species in the trees was the observation that the ranges of intra - and inter - species genetic distances within the ground finch group were 0\u20130 . 9 % and 0\u20131 . 2 % substitutions per site , respectively ; within the tree finch group the ranges were 0 . 2\u20131 . 4 % and 0 . 2\u20131 . 3 % substitutions per site , respectively . hence , the intra - and interspecific distances overlapped within each group . moreover , in the\namerican goldfinches are the only finch that molts its body feathers twice a year , once in late winter and again in late summer . the brightening yellow of male goldfinches each spring is one welcome mark of approaching warm months .\napparent survival rates ( annualized ) in individual small ground finches , as predicted by model 1 ( table 2 ) and plotted by habitat and season . trend lines are plotted for all 100 imputed datasets . individual cases are plotted for the first imputed dataset . the panel illustrates contrasting patterns of directional selection by habitat , especially under harsh ecological conditions \u2013 namely , those prevailing in the lowlands and during the dry season ( b\u2013d ) . the net result of these opposing patterns of directional selection by habitat was morphological divergence along the length of the cline .\nfill your backyard feeders with small , black oil sunflower seed . if house finches discover your feeders , they might bring flocks of 50 or more birds with them . find out more about what this bird likes to eat and what feeder is best by using the project feederwatch common feeder birds bird list .\nthe problem was identified in the 1990s but until now nothing has been able to prevent the parasite from spreading through the islands . a single nest may be home to 100 voracious larvae . some finch species have started eating them , but this adaptation may well be too slow to protect the population . the charles darwin foundation , the gal\u00e1pagos national park and san diego zoo are planning to collect some mangrove finch eggs next year and try to raise fledglings in incubators .\nthree species of darwin ' s ground finches that breed on the island of daphne major , gal\u00e1pagos : ( top ) geospiza fortis , ( middle ) g . scandens , and ( bottom ) g . magnirostris . photographs are by k . t . grant .\nthe oldest known house finch was a female , and at least 11 years , 7 months old when she was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in new york in 1985 , the same state where she had been banded in 1973 .\nbehaviour in the wild : the sharp - beaked ground - finch\u2019s diet varies according to the islands . the birds of the low , dry islands feed primarily on seeds , and usually complete their diet with various other food items such as leaves , flowers , cactus pulp and insects . the race \u201c septentrionalis \u201d of darwin and wolf islands frequently drinks the blood from seabirds . it pecks at the base of a growing feather and then , it licks up the blood which begins to flow . this is due to the longer , sharper and more pointed bill of this race . it also feeds on seabirds\u2019 eggs by cracking them open against rocks . the populations living at high elevation also feed on seeds , and forage among the ground litter where they can find numerous invertebrates .\nthe small tree - finch is monogamous , and pairs with long - term pair - bonds are fairly common . during the breeding season , the male displays to attract a female . it builds a dome - shaped nest and displays outside this structure while singing . the female may accept both male and nest , but sometimes she rejects the nest , and the pair builds a new one . but both male and nest can also be rejected ! the females prefer the older males , able to build a well concealed nest than younger males . such nests are protected from predators involving better breeding success .\nhahn , thomas p . 1996 . cassin ' s finch ( haemorhous cassinii ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nfluctuating changes in amount of vegetation also occurred as a result of pronounced annual variation in rainfall ( 3 ) . the habitat is a mixture of cactus , shrubs , trees , and open areas , with no closed - canopy forest . the changes were mainly restricted to low - growing vegetation close to the ground where finches do not sing , whereas song perches are 1\u20135 m above ground on cactus ( opuntia echios ) and trees ( bursera graveolens and croton scouleri ) . such changes in vegetation are ephemeral when considered against a finch life span . the average generation length of g . fortis is 4 . 5 y and of g . scandens is 5 . 5 y , the maximum age for both species being 16 y ( 3 ) . thus for singing finches the habitat remained the same , so changes in songs must have been caused by other factors .\nthe adult male is almost entirely black , with brown wash on wings and tail . the vent is white . the undertail - coverts are tipped black . the bill of this species has relatively straight culmen and is longer than it is deep , involving more triangular shape than the mostly round - topped bill of the medium ground - finch . the bill is black during the breeding season , turning brown with orange base and yellow tip during the transition , and becoming orange - yellow outside the breeding season . the eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are blackish .\nthe new study \u201cshows that the fly has the potential to drive populations of the most common species of darwin\u2019s finch to extinction in several decades , \u201d says biology professor dale clayton , senior author of the study published online dec . 18 in the journal of applied ecology .\npigeons were more important to charles darwin\u2019s theory of evolution than finches , partly because he failed to label finches he collected in the galapagos to denote the islands where he collected the birds . nevertheless , darwin observed how different galapagos finch species evolved varying beak and body sizes .\na highly social bird , the house finch is rarely seen alone outside of the breeding season , and may form flocks as large as several hundred birds . house finches feed mainly on the ground or at feeders or fruiting trees . at rest , they commonly perch on the highest point available in a tree , and flocks often perch on power lines . during courtship , males sometimes feed females in a display that begins with the female gently pecking at his bill and fluttering her wings . the male simulates regurgitating food to the female several times before actually feeding her . back to top"]}
{"id": 734, "summary": [{"text": "the rufous-fronted parakeet ( bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons ) is a species of parrot in the family psittacidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "endemic to colombia , its natural habitats are high-altitude shrubland , high-altitude grassland and arable land .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat destruction and is classified as \" vulnerable \" by the international union for conservation of nature . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "rufous - fronted parakeet", "paragraphs": ["information on the rufous - fronted parakeet is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe rufous - fronted parakeet is the only small parrot in a very restricted , high altitude range .\nthe rufous - fronted parakeet ( bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons ) is losing habitat to agriculture , grazing and conversion to firewood .\nanon . 2007 . discovered : the first ever nest of the rufous - fronted parakeet . cyanopsitta : 15 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - rufous - fronted parakeet ( bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - rufous - fronted parakeet ( bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons )\ntitle =\narkive species - rufous - fronted parakeet ( bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ngolden - plumed parakeet ( leptosittaca branickii ) y brown - breasted parakeet ( pyrrhura callipetra ) .\n18 - 19 cm . chunky parakeet . mostly dark green , with rufous area around bill and bluish tinge to primaries .\nproject and progress : in 2001 wpt granted american bird conservancy funds to help the ngo proyecto ognorhynchus preserve and study the parrots of the andes , which included yellow - eared conures and the rufous - fronted parakeet .\nmost of the representatives of the genus bolborhynchus own short and acuminate tail feathers , which is unusual for parakeets . obvious differences between the sexes cannot be found with any species of that genus . it contains the following species : andean parakeet , bolborhynchus orbygnesius ; barred parakeet , bolborhynchus lineola ; rufous - fronted parakeet , bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons .\nthe endangered rufous - fronted parakeet is restricted in range to the central andes of colombia . these birds are a rich dark green with rufous around the bill , pale green underparts and blue on the outer primaries . the rufous - fronted parakeet is found in semi - humid and humid montane scrub and elfin forest on the borders of p\u00e1ramo and agricultural areas . these parrots prefer to feed on the ground , where they forage for grass seeds , seeds of frailejones and flowers . habitat degradation caused by firewood gathering , grazing , buring and cultivation continues to the shrink the already small range of this species .\nthere are currently two species considered to be severely endangered - yellow - eared parrot ognorhynchus icterotis and fuerte\u2019s parrot hapalopsittaca fuertesi ; two in danger - great green mackaw ara ambiguus and santa marta parakeet pyrrhura viridicata - and seven vulnerable \u2013 military macaw ara militaris , golden - plumed parakeet leptosittaca branickii , brown - breasted parakeet pyrrhura calliptera , rufous - fronted parakeet bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons , spot - winged parrotlet touit stictopterus , saffron - headed parrot gypopsitta pyrilia and rusty - faced parrot hapalopsittaca amazonina .\nin comparison , wolters ( 1975 - 1982 ) assigns each of the last two parakeet species to an own genus . so , the sierra parakeet (\nwe have an amazing birding tour , around ( western , central and eastern andes colombia ) . bogota birding is a company specialized in offering birding trips , orchids & mammals in colombia . . here video the endemic , rufous - fronted parakeet , bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons , lorito cadillero , los nevados national natural park\necology : the rufous - fronted parakeet is found in cold and sparsely wooded hillsides at an altitude of 2400 - 4000m ( 7872 - 13 , 120 ft ) . birds feed on grass seeds on the ground , herbs and flowers . may be found in potato fields . they may be nomadic outside of breeding season ; birds are gregarious and easily approached .\nthe taxonomists agree with each other as well . the lineolated parakeet belongs to the order of the\n[ five species of parakeet ( bolborhynchus ) ] [ picture ] / w . t . cooper\ncooper , william t . ( 1972 ) . [ five species of parakeet ( bolborhynchus ) ] .\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . rufous - fronted parakeet ( bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 10 july 2018 ) .\n, i met lots of different statements during my investigations , especially concerning\nthe next of kin\nof the lineolated parakeet . however , i will try to offer the general idea about the taxonomy of the lineolated parakeet .\n18\u201319 cm . rich , fairly dark green , paler on underparts and rump ; area around bill rufous ; bluish on outer webs of primaries . immature undescribed .\nbirdlife international . 2013 . species factsheet : barred parakeet bolborhynchus lineola . downloaded from birdlife international on 15 february 2013 .\n[ five species of parakeet ( bolborhynchus ) ] [ picture ] / w . t . cooper | national library of australia\ncooper , william t . [ five species of parakeet ( bolborhynchus ) ] [ picture ] / w . t . cooper 1972\ncooper , william t . 1972 , [ five species of parakeet ( bolborhynchus ) ] [ picture ] / w . t . cooper\noutcomes : a report by researcher niels krabb found that , of the thirty - two species of parrot restricted to the andes and the temperate zone of patagonia , fifteen , including the rufous - fronted parakeet , are considered threatened with extinction , primarily because of habitat loss through deforestation . poaching was another main concern . the study determined that knowledge of species ' distribution and population status was required for planning and beginning conservation measures . it also decided that for the parrots of the andean region conservation through in - country programmes would result in the best outcome .\nhistory : the rufous - fronted parakeet , or bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons , is found only in the c andes of colombia , mainly in the volcan ruiz - tolima massif in tolima , risaralda , quindio and caldas . there it exists on cold , scrubby and sparsely wooded mountain slopes , known as paramo , feeding on grass seeds , herbs and flowers . loss of the specific paramo vegetation seems to have had the most adverse effect on population numbers . although trapping for the bird trade exists , it is not thought to have been significant enough to cause a decline in the population .\nde souanc\u00e9 , c . 1856 . [ description of a new species of parakeet ] . revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliqu\u00e9e series 2 volume 8 : 144 .\n{ { citation | title = [ five species of parakeet ( bolborhynchus ) ] [ picture ] / w . t . cooper | author1 = cooper , william t . ( william thomas ) , 1934 - 2015 | year = 1972 | language = english } }\nthe andean parakeet is one of those parakeets that nests underground . a burrow will be formed in a steep bank . a clutch of up to ten eggs ( but generally 4 to 6 ) may be laid . the eggs are incubated by the hen for about 20 days\nthreatened species lists are always subject to change , and that in birds to watch was intended for regular update . subsequent information has led to some adjustments , involving the deletion of yellow - sided parakeet pyrrbura bypoxantba ( an invalid species ) , the relegation of yellowfaced amazon amazona xantbops to near - threatened status , the promotion from near - threatened status of whiteh eaded amazon amazona leucocepbala , and the addition of el oro parakeet pyrrhura orcesi , fuertes ' hapalopsittaca fuertesi and fireeyed parrots h . pyrrbops , bluecheeked amazona dufresniana and alder amazons a . tucumana . currently , therefore , icbp considers 42 neotropical parrot species at risk .\nthe andean parakeet is uncommon to locally common from 3 , 000 - 4 , 000m in semi - arid cloud forests , especially with polylepis , or in brushy montane ravines . it forages in small groups or pairs in bamboo thickets or leguminaceous trees , and occasionally on the ground , and nests in deep burrows in steep embankments .\nall but one of these species are distributed within six general areas , as follows . central america ( mexico ) holds four ( thick - billed parrot rbyncbopsitta pacbyrbyncba , maroon - fronted parrot r . terrisi , red - crowned amazon amazona viridigenalis and socorro conure aratinga brevipes ) ; the caribbean holds seven ( cuban conure aratinga eu op s , white - headed amazon amazona leucocepbata , puerto rican amazon a . uittata , st . lucia amazon a . versicolor , red - necked amazon a . arausiaca , st . vincent amazon a . guildingii , imperial amazon a . imperialis ) ; the lowland forests of northern south america hold four ( golden conure guaruba guarouba , pearly parakeet pyrrbura p ert ata , blue - cheeked amazon amazona dufresniana , yellowshouldered amazon a . barbadensis ) ; the andes of northwestern south america hold 11 ( golden - plumed\nthe andean parakeet is plump and relatively short - tailed , and dark green throughout , with a yellow tinge to the face and belly , brightest in the throat and upper breast . the outer webs of the primaries are teal , and can even approach violet . juveniles lack the yellow tinge , and all ages have a plain grayish bill and dull pink legs .\ncollar , n . , bonan , a . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . fiery - shouldered parakeet ( pyrrhura egregia ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncollar , n . , sharpe , c . j . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . malherbe ' s parakeet ( cyanoramphus malherbi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\ngenerally occurs at lower elevations and is smaller , with pale bill , and black shoulder patch , wing - bars and barring on flanks .\nvulnerable b1ab ( iii , v ) ; c2a ( i ) ; d2 ver 3 . 1\nthis species is listed to vulnerable because it has a small population which is continuing to decline because of ongoing habitat degradation , with a high proportion of birds concentrated in one or two strongholds .\n. most records are from the volc\u00e1n ruiz - tolima massif in tolima , risaralda , quind\u00edo and caldas , but there are two specimens and a few observations from volc\u00e1n purac\u00e9 in cauca , and it is probably present at low densities along the intervening ridge . the population has recently been estimated at 2 , 000 - 4 , 000 individuals ( renjifo\n2002 ) , significantly higher than previous estimates . in september 1993 , the species was found to be common ( over 100 birds seen in eight hours ) at el bosque , below laguna de ot\u00fan , in its stronghold , los nevados national park\nthe population is estimated to number 2 , 000 - 4 , 000 individuals , roughly equating to 1 , 300 - 2 , 700 mature individuals . trend justification : a slow and on - going population decline is suspected on the basis of habitat destruction and degradation , particularly in the p\u00e1ramo .\nit inhabits temperate sub - p\u00e1ramo and p\u00e1ramo at 3 , 000 - 4 , 000 m , sometimes as low as 2 , 800 m . it also uses modified shrublands and agricultural areas in the temperate zone , and seems tolerant of heavily modified habitats ( c . downing\n( juniper and parr 1998 ) . it forages terrestrially , mostly taking grass - seeds ( especially\nconversion of forest for agricultural purposes has been widespread below 3 , 300 m in the central andes . at higher elevations , the forest is exploited for firewood and grazing , but large areas remain . given its adaptation to the agricultural environment , the level of threat posed by deforestation is unknown\n. 2000 ) . conversely , widespread destruction of p\u00e1ramo vegetation , even in los nevados , seems to have seriously affected numbers . this is caused by frequent burning ( promoting fresh shooting ) , intense grazing and , to a lesser extent , conversion to potato cultivation . the colombian authorities have been unable to purchase pre - existing landholdings within national parks , often rendering the parks ineffective . it is occasionally kept as a pet .\nsurvey and monitor the species ' s population movements , densities and distribution . clarify its natural history and threats to identify appropriate conservation actions\n. 2000 ) . enhance the protection of los nevados through fire control , a major reduction in livestock - grazing and agriculture and , where necessary , compensation to farmers .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ntypical calls are short overslurred slightly nasal notes , usually given in a fast repeated series . . .\nmales with developed gonads in jan . nests reportedly found in rock cavities in cliff .\nno information . likely to wander a little outside breeding season , and has been encountered as low . . .\nvulnerable . previously listed as endangered . cites ii . a birdlife \u201crestricted - range\u201d species . habitat degradation , caused by firewood - gathering , grazing , burning . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nsome recent molecular studies indicated a sister relationship between bolborhynchus lineola and nannopsittaca # r # r , another study finding that psilopsiagon was sister to these two genera # r ; a different analysis suggested a sister relationship between touit and nannopsittaca ( although bolborhynchus was not sampled ) # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\nboth adults in general short , green parrots with red markings on face ; red frontal mark , lores and base of lower mandible blue / green underwings ; short rounded tail . bill grey / yellow . eye dark brown .\ncites birdlife international internet bird collection a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . 2010 edition\nclearing of forest for agriculture ; also widespread destruction of p\u00e1ramo vegetation , caused by slash burning , has affected numbers .\noccurs in cold , scrubby and sparsely wooded mountain slopes at around 2400 - 4000m ( 7872 - 13 , 120 ft ) . may be found in potato fields .\nmay be nomadic outside of breeding season ; gregarious , roosts communally on cliffs . easily approached .\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 015 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nperiquito barrado ( bolborhynchus lineola ) . pich\u00f3n de pocos dias con su madre .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n. however , in some systematics the\nneo - tropic parrots\nare assigned to the\nreal parrots\n, as well .\nplease see wikipedia ' s template documentation for further citation fields that may be required .\nreproduced in : parrots of the world / joseph m . forshaw . melbourne : lansdowne , 1973 , p . [ 451 ] .\nrequest this item to view in the library ' s reading rooms using your library card . to learn more about how to request items watch this short online video .\nyou need flash player 8 + and javascript enabled to view this video embedded .\npractical co - operation in asia and africa / by w . k . h . campbell ; foreword by c . f . strickland\nnew studies in co - operation : being a five paper study course on the philosophy and present day practice . . .\nthe cooperative movement : globalization from below / richard c . williams ; with preface by george cheney\nmembers of aboriginal , torres strait islander and maori communities are advised that this catalogue contains names and images of deceased people . all users of the catalogue should also be aware that certain words , terms or descriptions may be culturally sensitive and may be considered inappropriate today , but may have reflected the author ' s / creator ' s attitude or that of the period in which they were written .\nlong treated as a colour morph of c . auriceps but now generally recognized as a separate species # r on basis mainly of assortative mating # r and bill morphology # r , backed up by molecular data # r . form hochstetteri of c . novaezelandiae has been treated as race of present species # r , apparently in error . monotypic .\nformerly scattered through most of new zealand ; now confined to n south i . translocated to several islands off south i ( chalky , maud , blumine ) and off north i ( tuhua ) # r .\n20 cm . very similar to c . auriceps but frontal band orange , crown pale yellow , patches either side of rump orange . immature almost lacks frontal band .\ncommonest call a quite nasal rattling chatter , \u201ckehkehkehkehkeh . . . \u201d , similar to both\nforest , in one area being found breeding only at 600\u2013900 m in . . .\nscale insects , flower and leaf buds , flowers , young leaves , berries and seeds .\ncritically endangered . cites ii . in 19th century , distributed widely throughout north i , most of south i , and stewart is of new zealand , but range and population have . . .\nthis and all the taxa following below have recently been suggested to form a separate family # r . see also under family psittacidae .\nmolecular data indicate that this taxon is closest to eunymphicus ( see above ) .\n( p . l . sclater , 1881 ) \u2013 se venezuela and adjacent w guyana .\nj . t . zimmer & phelps , sr , 1946 \u2013 se bol\u00edvar ( in se venezuela ) and adjacent n brazil ( extreme ne roraima ) .\n25 cm . generally green ; crown and lores brown edged green ; ear - coverts reddish brown ; sides of neck and breast edged whitish and tipped dark , giving light scaled effect ; . . .\nmost common call is a series of harsh notes , e . g . \u201ckrreek krreek krreek\u201d , both in flight and . . .\ntepu\u00ed ( tabletop ) forest and edge , ranging round the bases of these mountains , 700\u20131800 . . .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . a birdlife \u201crestricted - range\u201d species . apparently common , but there is considerable loss of habitat in the range of nominate\n. most records are from the volcn ruiz - tolima massif in tolima , risaralda , quindo and caldas , but there are two specimens and a few observations from volcn purac in cauca , and it is probably present at low densities along the intervening ridge . the population has recently been estimated at 2 , 000 - 4 , 000 individuals ( renjifo\n2002 ) , significantly higher than previous estimates . in september 1993 , the species was found to be common ( over 100 birds seen in eight hours ) at el bosque , below laguna de otn , in its stronghold , los nevados national park ( salaman and gandy 1993 ) .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\ntolimanaratti\nfrom\nbolborhynchus ferrugineifrons ( lawrence , 1880 )\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n> stream x\u009cc ` ` ` e ` ` * f ` b ` t ] \u00ed\u00e0\u00ef\u0080\u0000\u00fc \u00ec , \u008c \u008cg6\u00e5\u0087\u00e6z\u00ef ` ` \u0010 < \u00f4 ) \u00f4\u00a81\u0081\u0081\u0001 & \u0002\u0004\u0082 \u00ac 2 @ \u009a\u0003\u0088\u00b9\u00e0\n\u00b9 \u0002 \u00f6\u00ec\u00b3\u0099g10\u00f0\u00ad\u009b\u00fe\u0092 . \u009d\u00b6\u0091y . \u0003 ; \u0003\u0003\u0000\u001b\u00ae\u0011 endstream endobj 26 0 obj <\n> stream x\u009c\u00ec | gxs [ \u00b7\u00eej # \u0080t\u0083\u0006 = td\u0002\u0088\u00b4 @ h ! \u00f4\u00f0\u0094\u00a6\u009b\u00fe\u00b6 ( ! 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p\u00e4j\u00bd \u00f0\u00e8\u00f5 $ \u00e0\u0088 : | \u0092\u00e6\u00ee\u00e8 } \u00a1r\u00ea\u00ba\u00f1\u00fc ( \u008b\u00f4\u00e2k\u00ed\u0002 * z\u00f4\u00ef\u00f2\u00fea\u008f\u0005\u00d7\u00a9\u00e2\u00df\u00a9 } y\u00ad\u00faz\u00ed\u00fe\u00ef * \u0096\u00f0\u00bf\u00aa\u00f9\u00df * \u00f6\u00f7z\u00bd\u0004\u00e20\b\u00af\u00f3 ` \u0012\u00e0 | \u00d7 c\u00f9\u00f0\u00ff\u00e8\u007f\u00e4 ? \u00f2 \u00f9\u008f\u00fcg\u00fe # \u00ff\u0091\u00ff\u00e8\u00ffb\u00aa\u00bf ~ \u008f\u009bv\u00fc > \u00fc\u00f8\u00d7\u00ff > \u00e4\u00ef\u001a\u0095\u00af & w ; \u00e0\u009d\u00b8\u00e9l\u00eb ? 7\u0088\u00eb > \u00f4\u0014 \u00ae [ \u00fe\u00b2\u0002\u00ee : ( \u00fe\u00b9\u0001v\u0095\u00f4 \u00bf\u00fb\u00f6 { \u00fb\u00f2\n\u00fe\u00ef\u00ff\u0090\u00e0\u00ff\u00f1 # \u0013\u009f\u00fc [ = 6\u00b4 < \u001b\u00f7v # m\u00f3c\u00b7\u00a4o\u00ea \u00ab\u00ef6\u00f0\u0092x\u008ep7 # \u0083b : n\u0080\u008d ( \u00e9\u00e4 \u00ad\u00a3\u00fb ? \u00ee\u0003 8 = \u0092 ? \u00e4\u00bf\u00ac\u001b\u00fd _ \u00fe\u008a\u0007\u00b5 . \u00b6m > 6\u009e + \u00e0\u00e8 = p \\ z1w\u00f9\u00e1\u00b2k\u00f4\u00bd\u00b9 \u00a7\u00ef\u00a34\u00f5\u0092\u00f2y\u00b3\u00e7q\u009d\u00a9zk\u00a7 ~ ta\u00e9\u001afk\u001bk\u00e7\u00fe\u00fb\u0093 & \u0012 + @ ck\u00f1t\u00fd\bq\u00f2\u00f9y\u00b1\u00e8\u0093\u00f9\u00885\u00ef\u00f1\u00a9\u007f\u0088\u0000 [ + \u00eb\u00f1\u00b8\u00ab + ` \u00a1 [ a\u00df2w\u0005\u00bc\u00e5c\u00f4\u00a4\u0015s\u00e2\u00ea\u00d7\u000e\u00f9 } \u00df\u00bch\u0081\u00b3 \\ \u00b6\u00f9\u00fd\u00b1k\u0086 ] w\u00edg\u0015d\u0080\u00ea\u00f7 | \u00f95\u00bf1u\u0084 ( z\u0092i\u00fa\u009avk\u00ec\u00f5\u00e1n\u009a\u00bc\u00f5\u00e6\u00e3 ) \u001b\u00a7 } \u0016 ) \u00b0\u00aa\u008a ) s3e\u00ba f\u00eb\bq\u00ac $ g\u0015\u00ee = x\u00e2u = x\u00e0\u00fd = \u00e7\u0012 ) \u00b6m\u00f1\u00b9 > fq\u00f5\u0096\u00ad ! sfy\u0088\u00a6oq\u001a\u00e0 ( \u00ea\u0081\u0012og = \u00efn\u00ea\u00ea\u001b ] i\u00be\u0098\u008c\u00f5\u00a6\u007f\u00a9\u00fc\u00ab\u00df\u00ec\u00ac\u00ac\u00be\u009entz\u009a \u0010yx\u00a2r\u0006\u000f\u00f1\u0097\u00e6\u00af ? \u00fb\u00fdmq\u00f9 , w\u00f9\u000f\u00b6\u0080\u007f\u00f5\u00e9\u00f6\u0018\u00ed\u00f2\u00f9 \u0003\u00ab\u0005 ^ g\u00a5\u000e8s ( \u00f0\u0011w\u009c\u00a4e\u00056\u00a3rky - l = \u00e0\u00e8\u0083 > \u00b6\u00ed\u00f3 # yy\u00a9\u00b6\u009f\u001ae\u00eet\u00bd\u009c\u0011\u000f\u009d = \u00e1 9 @ \u00af\u00fc\u00fa\u0087\u00e9\u00ae\u00e5\u00e5\u00f2\u00e9\u00ef1uk\u00b3\u00e4\u00f5\u00f8\u009a\u00b8\u0097\u00e2\u00ab\u009b\u00f6 _ s\u00ee ] \u0088\u00e3\u00b5l\u0018\u00bdr\u00a9\u00f4\u00f0\u00e7\u00b7 \u00fd\u008a / \u00b7 , _ z\u0001\u00e7\u00fa\u0010\u009d\u001ae\u00bfn\u00e7\u00f9\u00bf\u00fa\u00f6\u00b7\u001b\u007f\u009e ~ \u00fc\u00ebr\u00e0yr\u00bd\u0002\u00fc _ \u00ad\u0080\u009b\u00bc\u00a3\u009c8\u00ff\u00e6\u00e5g\u00abw\u00fa\u00d7\u00ec } \u00a9 w\u00f3\u00e7\u0095\u00e8\u00ef { yw\u00ee . \u00a9 ^ \u00ba\u00fb [ \u0016\u00a6\u00f4 > \u00fe % \b\u00e8 : vz\u00fe\u0000 % \u008b\u00e0\u00a3\u00ad\u00a7\u0013jq\u00e94\u0018 ' \u009e\u00e4\u008f\u0002\u0082 \u00e6vd\u0004\u00ea\u0099\u00e8 / \u0080i\u00a4\u00e7\u00fb\u00a6\u00a7 | \u00a6\u00be @ 8\u0010\u00071 . s\u0099 + @ jm\u00f1\u0093 > 8\u0082w\u00b6\u0002\u00a8\u00ff ? z \u00f3\u0098\u00ee\u00eb\u00ee _ \u00efkj\u0014\u0005\u00f2o\u0004q\u00f0\u00ab\u00e4k\u00a3\u00ab = \u009bd ^ # \u0083\u00b8\u00e8k\u00bb\u0083\u00b8v9\u00df\u00e5\u00e6 < \u00e7\u00f0\u0090\u00e3 ' f\u00eb\u00bb - \u008bb\u008axc , \u0083\u00ee\u00f3\u0013 , \u001b ^ b\u00e7\u0082\u0012\u0016\u00e5 @ \u00ef\u00e1skh\u0092 , y2\u0016t\u00a3\u001ajh\u00a2\u00fe\u00a8\u00ear % 6\u00bc\u009cm\u00d7 # xa\u00f9 } \u00f0\u00f14\u008e3\u0011\u0081 - + \u00e7\u00b5\u0093 ' gpg\u00ad\u0014p\u0089t ' n\u00ab > a\u00f6c @ \u00ed\u00f2\u00f6e \u00e7 % \u0011p\u00f8\u00b1\u0015 8\u00af\u008a\u008d\u00e8\u00e6\u00ffymy\u00ee\u00ffp7\u00a8 \u00e7\u007f\u000f ^ \u00f0ny\u00ff\u0016\u0014 ` q\u00df\u00a7\u00f5a\u00acp ( \u0016\u00e8o o1\u00b6\u00eb\u00e8\u0001\u00f2\u000e\u00e6u\u00fa\u0012ugg \u00ea\u0091 \u00e0 \\ \u0097\u00e5\u00ed : a s\u00f8\u00a7\u00f9\u00fa\u0098\u00df\u0097\u008f\u008a\u00dfl\u008d \u000f\u009c\u0011\u000ex \u00e0 & \u00e8 \u00e4\u00eb\u0011\u0089 / v\u00ea\u00e0\u009fg\u00fd\u0090\u00f5\u00f6a\u00f6\u0082\u00fc\u00810g\u00ec\u009b\u00fav\u0003 \u0081\u00a7\u00f4 - \u00df ; e\u00b6\u0018e\u0095 \u00ea\u00ac7\u00f3\u00009\u0098\u00b9\u00f22\u0098 < \u00ee \u00ac\u00b5\n\u00f3 { \u0088 \\ \u0092\u00e5\u007f\u00ea\u00ee > \u00f0 & #\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\ndiet consists of seeds , buds and berries . gregarious ; seen in pairs , small groups and occasionally large flocks of over 300 birds . feeds in bamboo , brambles and leguminaceous trees . forages in vegetation or on the ground .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe psittacidae family is one of the bird families most threatened in the world . in colombia it is represented by 53 species ; 21 % of them are included in an endangered category due to the destruction of their habitat and the exploitation of these birds for commercial purposes .\nto alleviate this situation proaves began in 1999 the yellow - eared parrot project after rediscovering this endangered species considered to be extinct up to then . afterwards it was created the threatened parrots project with the objective of working towards the preservation of the threatened parrot species in colombia .\nwithin this programme we have developed different research projects like the \u201cthreatened parrots in the central mountain range project\u201d and the \u201cpyrrhura project\u201d both aimed at evaluating threats and directing the preservation efforts involving the local communities as much as possible . one of the main achievements of this programme was the rediscovery of the hapalopsittaca fuertesi colony , also considered to be an extinct species after 90 years of lack of records .\nup to now more than 60 studies have been concluded regarding 9 of the 11 species of threatened parrots . this has led to a recompilation of very important data such as their diet , distribution , reproductive biology , use of their habitat and demography among others . moreover , expeditions have been organized in search of new colonies of parrots and for the first time there have been registers of the hapalopsittaca amazonina in the western mountain range of colombia and of the pyrrhura caeruleiceps in the santander region .\nmoreover , to contribute to the preservation of the existent parrot colonies we have implemented two specific strategies , namely , the artificial nest programme and the establishment of 8 natural bird reserves with more than 10 . 000 hectares dedicated to the protection and recovery of the parrot\u2019s habitat . the civil society has also dedicated 2 , 600 hectares of woods , in particular within the municipality of jard\u00edn and other neighbouring communities , to the preservation of the parrots through the reserves linked to the civil society network of nature reserves .\nthe numerous achievements of this programme are the result of the hard work made by the proaves team that have cooperated with the local communities and many national and international institutions that also support the preservation process for this species .\nfrom 1st to 6th march , was held the first workshop of population monitoring techniques and management of artificial nests for endangered andean parrots of colombia . it was attended by 20 people from different parts of the country .\non 15 january , the workshop successfully developed plan for the conservation of threatened parrots of colombia from 2010 to 2020 which was attended by representatives of 11 organizations and local communities , ornithologists and conservationists .\nparrot experts and conservation groups are working with proaves to develop a ten - year conservation action plan for threatened parrot species in colombia . a workshop will be held on january 15 at the headquarters of proaves to discuss the plan .\nproaves has published the first videos inside the nests of the yellow - eared parrot and fuertes\u2019s parrot from its threatened parrots program supported by fundaci\u00f3n loro parque .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : marginal season : resident 3 . shrubland - > 3 . 7 . shrubland - subtropical / tropical high altitude suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 4 . grassland - > 4 . 7 . grassland - subtropical / tropical high altitude suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 1 . artificial / terrestrial - arable land suitability : suitable season : resident major importance : no\n2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management\n2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 1 . annual & perennial non - timber crops - > 2 . 1 . 3 . agro - industry farming\n2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 3 . livestock farming & ranching - > 2 . 3 . 2 . small - holder grazing , ranching or farming\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 1 . hunting & trapping terrestrial animals - > 5 . 1 . 1 . intentional use ( species is the target )\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 3 . logging & wood harvesting - > 5 . 3 . 3 . unintentional effects : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ]\n7 . natural system modifications - > 7 . 1 . fire & fire suppression - > 7 . 1 . 1 . increase in fire frequency / intensity\n1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends\nauthors : carlos a . soberanes - gonz\u00e1lez , claudia i . rodr\u00edguez - flores , mar\u00eea del coro arizmendi , and thomas s . schulenberg\ncassin , j . 1853 . descriptions of new species of hirundinidae and psittacidae , specimens of which are in the collections of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 6 : 369 - 373 .\ncollar , n . j . 1997 . family psittacidae ( parrots ) . pages 280 - 477 in j . del hoyo , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( editors ) , handbook of the birds of the world . volume 3 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nfjelds\u00e5 , j . , and n . krabbe . 1990 . birds of the high andes : a manual to the birds of the temperate zone of the andes and patagonia , south america . zoological museum , university of copenhagen , copenhagen , denmark .\nforshaw , j . m . 1977 . parrots of the world . t . f . h . publications , inc . , australia . 584 pp .\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 2006 . parrots of the world and identification guide . princeton university press , new jersey , e . u . a . 172 pp .\nfriedmann , h . , l . griscom , and r . t . moore . 1950 . distributional check - list of the birds of mexico . part 1 . pacific coast avifauna number 29 .\nhartman , f . a . 1961 . locomotor mechanisms of birds . smithsonian miscellaneous collections 143 ( 4 ) : 1 - 92 .\nhennessey , b . , s . k . herzog , and f . sagot . 2003 . lista anotada de las aves de bolivia . asociaci\u00f3n armonia , santa cruz de la sierra , bolivia .\niucn 2008 [ en l\u00ednea ] . 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . ( 09 octubre 2008 ) .\nhilty , s . l . 2003 . birds of venezuela . second edition . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nhilty , s . l . , and w . l . brown . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nhowell , s . n . g . , and s . webb 1995 . a guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america . oxford university press , new york , new york .\njuniper , t . , and m . parr . 1998 . parrots . a guide to parrots of the world . yale university press , new haven , connecticut .\nmaillard z . , o . 2005 . primer esp\u00e9cimen de bolborhynchus lineola para bolivia . kempffiana 1 : 51 - 54 .\nmart\u00ednez - s\u00e1nchez , j . c . , and t . will ( editors ) . 2010 . thomas r . howell ' s check - list of the birds of nicaragua as of 1993 . ornithological monographs number 68 . american ornithologists ' union , washington , d . c .\nmiller , a . h . 1963 . seasonal activity and ecology of the avifauna of an american equatorial cloud forest . university of california publications in zoology 66 : 1 - 178 .\no\u2019neill , j . p . , c . a . munn , and i . franke j . 1991 . nannopsittaca dachilleae , a new species of parrotlet from eastern peru . auk 108 : 225 - 229 .\nridgely , r . s . 1981 . the current distribution and status of mainland neotropical parrots . pages 233 - 384 in r . f . pasquier ( editor ) , conservation of new world parrots . international council for bird preservation technical publication number 1 . smithsonian institution press .\nridgely , r . s . , and p . j . greenfield . 2001 . the birds of ecuador : status , distribution , and taxonomy . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .\nridgway , r . 1915 . descriptions of some new forms of american cuckoos , parrots , and pigeons . proceedings of the biological society of washington 28 : 105 - 108 .\nridgway , r . 1916 . the birds of north and middle america . part vii . bulletin of the united states national museum 50 , part 7 .\nschirtzinger , e . e . , e . s . tavares , l . a . gonzales , j . r . eberhard , c . y . miyaki , j . j . sanchez , a . hernandez , h . m\u00fceller , g . r . graves , r . c . fleischer , and t . f . wright . 2012 . multiple independent origins of mitochondrial control region duplications in the order psittaciformes . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 64 : 342 - 356 .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture , and conservation , the field museum .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , d . f . lane , j . p . o\u2019neill , and t . a . parker iii . 2010 . birds of peru . revised and updated edition . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .\nsemarnat . 2002 . norma oficial mexicana nom - 059 - semarnat - 2001 , protecci\u00f3n ambiental - especies nativas de m\u00e9xico de flora y fauna silvestres - categor\u00edas de riesgo y especificaciones para su inclusi\u00f3n , exclusi\u00f3n o cambio - lista de especies en riesgo . diario\nstiles , f . g . , and a . f . skutch . 1989 . a guide to the birds of costa rica . cornell university press , ithaca , new york .\ntavares , e . s . , a . j . baker , s . l . pereira , and c . y . miyaki . 2006 . phylogenetic relationships and historical biogeography of neotropical parrots ( psittaciformes : psittacidae : arini ) inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences . systematic biology 55 : 454 - 470 .\nweske , j . s . 1972 . the distribution of the avifauna in the apurimac valley of peru with respect to environmental gradients , habitat , and related species . ph . d . thesis , university of oklahoma , norman , oklahoma .\nwetmore , a . 1968 . the birds of the republic of panama . part 2 . columbidae ( pigeons ) to picidae ( woodpeckers ) . smithsonian miscellaneous collections volume 150 , part 2 . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c .\nwhitney , b . m . 1996 . flight behaviour and other field characteristics of the genera of neotropical parrots . cotinga number 5 : 32 - 42 .\nsoberanes - gonz\u00e1lez , c . a . , c . i . rodr\u00edguez - flores , m . d . c . arizmendi , and t . s . schulenberg ( 2013 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nparrots are colourful , vegetarian , playful and mimetic , so people find them attractive , easy to keep , companionable and entertaining . in popular consciousness , they are the most high - profile of birds , commonly featured in advertisements that seek to assert the tropical authenticity of a product , and often humourised in cartoon form to assure the conviviality of and complicity in the experience the product offers .\nit is all the more curious , then , that scientifically parrots remain so little known . the truth is , however , that for all their colour and noise , parrots are highly cryptic ( being mostly green ) and capable of long periods of silence , feeding invisibly in the high crowns of trees , and when they fly it is often with such speed or over such distances as to prohibit further observation . these factors discourage rigorous study to obtain quantitative data ; so we have many major gaps in our understanding of the ecology and biology of the family in general and almost all of its individual members .\nthe majority of the world ' s 330 - odd parrot species are indeed found in tropical regions , and most of this majority are tropical forest dwellers , the lowlands being especially rich in species . although dispersed widely through the pacific ocean and old world in general , the parrots reach their maximum diversity in south america , southeast asia and australia . icbp ' s preliminary checklist of the threatened birds of the world , birds to watch ( 1988 ) , treated no fewer than 71 parrot species ( 21 . 5 % of the family ) as at risk of extinction , and listed a further 29 as nearthreatened ( birds in this second category were either genuine borderline cases or species considered most vulnerable to future decline ) . hence no fewer than 100 ( 30 % of the family ' s total 330 species ) were identified as giving cause for concern or worse .\nthe areas in question are massive , and sympatric occurrence of species within them is commonly lacking . nevertheless , it is obviously important to look for areas of overlap between threatened species in order to identify the optimal areas in which to seek to establish or reinforce reserves . many of the species certainly occur in existing protected areas , but for most it is not known if the populations there possess genetic viability or if their requirements can be met throughout their life - cycle . indeed , detailed information on the distribution and natural history of most species is very poor and in some cases almost completely lacking . this renders the task of determining priorities for particular areas very problematic and , although an essential measure , such priorities should always be framed so as to reflect their provisional nature .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\ncollar , n . j . 1997 . psittacidae ( parrots ) . in : del hoyo , j . ; elliott , a . ; sargatal , j . ( ed . ) , handbook of the birds of the world , pp . 280 - 477 . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain .\ncollar , n . j . , gonzaga , l . p . , krabbe , n . , madro\u00f1o nieto , a . , naranjo , l . g . , parker , t . a . and wege , d . c . 1992 . threatened birds of the americas : the icbp / iucn red data book . international council for bird preservation , cambridge , u . k .\nhilty , s . l . ; brown , w . l . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton university press , princeton .\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 3 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 07 december 2016 ) .\njuniper , t . ; parr , m . 1998 . parrots : a guide to the parrots of the world . pica press , robertsbridge , uk .\nrenjifo , l . m . ; franco - maya , a . m . ; amaya - espinel , j . d . ; kattan , g . h . ; l\u00f3pez - lan\u00fas , b . 2002 . libro rojo de aves de colombia . instituto de investigaci\u00f3n de recursos biol\u00f3gicos alexander von humboldt y ministerio del medio ambiente , bogot\u00e1 , colombia .\nsalaman , p . ; gandy , d . 1993 . colombia ' 93 : thunder lake expedition .\nsnyder , n . ; mcgowan , p . ; gilardi , j . ; grajal , a . 2000 . parrots : status survey and conservation action plan 2000 - 2004 . international union for conservation of nature and natural resources , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\nverhelst , j . c . ; pfeifer , a . m . ; orrego , o . ; botero , j . e . 2002 . observaciones sobre la ecolog\u00eda del periquito frentirufo bolborhynchus ferrugineifrons en zonas cercanas a la laguna del ot\u00fan . cotinga 18 : 66 - 70 ."]}
{"id": 740, "summary": [{"text": "elachista illectella is a moth of the elachistidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , illinois , indiana , kentucky , maine , mississippi , ohio , oklahoma , ontario , tennessee , texas and west virginia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of deciduous forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 6 \u2013 8 millimetres ( 0.24 \u2013 0.31 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are sexually dimorphic .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the forewings of the males are fuscous , but the base of the paler scales is grayish white .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "females have darker and more evenly dark brown or black forewings than males .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the hindwings are fuscous and also darker in females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing nearly year round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on poa ( including poa pratensis ) , agrostis , hystrix , elymus , oryzopsis , bromus and phleum species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they mine the leaves of their host plant .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "the mine starts as a fine line , gradually increases in breadth .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae are greenish yellow .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "mining larvae can be found almost year round .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "pupation takes place beneath a dense white web of silk strands . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "elachista illectella", "paragraphs": ["# 1129 \u2013 elachista illectella | st . louis mo 10 / 7 / 15 quote f\u2026 | flickr\nfigure 9 . elachista illectella . adult , reared from leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nthis is definitely one of the elachista spp . formerly ascribed to the genus cosmiotes , and in the eastern usa , illectella is the most commonly encountered species of this group . therefore , illectella would be the odds - on favorite determination here .\ncosmiotes illectella clemens , 1860 has been placed in elachista by : kaila , l . 1999 . phylogeny and classification of the elachistidae . systematic entomology 24 : 139 - 169 .\nthis genus was synonymized under elachista in the phylogeny of kaila ( 1999a ) .\nfigure 1 . elachista leucofrons . pupa , of the type representative of most elachistidae ( dorsal aspect ) .\nfigure 2 . elachista epimicta . adult , reared from leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nfigure 7 . elachista albicapitella . adult , reared from leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nthis genus , as with cosmiotes , was subsumed into elachista in the phylogeny of kaila ( 1999a ) .\nfigure 3 . elachista acenteta . adult , collected at light , iroquois county , illinois , mid - june .\nelachista illectella ( fig . 9 ) is a grass leaf miner , with larvae occurring\nalmost throughout the year , even in the winter . . . on many species of grass\n( braun 1948 ) . included in the host list given by braun are poa praetensis , poa spp . , agrostis spp . , hystrix sp . , elymus sp . , oryzopsis sp . , bromus sp . , and phleum . the adult , which commonly appears at light in deciduous forest , is somewhat smaller than most of the elachista species . the color and pattern are of the\nblackish with white markings\ntype , but the white fasciae and patches on the forewing are more diffuse , with the dark areas more heavily suffused with white scaling , than in the other elachista spp . of this color pattern .\nfigure 8 . closeup of head and thorax of adult elachista leucofrons ( left ) and e . albicapitella ( right ) showing the color differences cited above .\nfigure 5 . elachista madarella . larva ( removed from leaf mine ) ; leaf mine on a sedge , carex sp . ( cyperaceae ) ; and adult moth .\nquote from terry harrison regarding this moth ,\nwell , i consider any sight id in this group to be equivocal compared to a dissection - based id , because there are so many look - alike spp . , so it certainly wouldn ' t be incorrect to add a\nprobable\ndenotation to the id , as we ' ll never really know for sure . in this case , however , it would be ok to be assertive and say that your moth is e . illectella , because it does appear to be in the\ncosmiotes\ngroup ( all of the spp . of which look alike ) , and because , from what i have seen , illectella is overwhelmingly the odds - on favorite\ncosmiotes\nspecies to be found in this part of the country .\nthe larva of elachista glenni ( fig . 4 ) most likely feeds as a leaf miner on a sedge or a rush ( possibly scirpus sp . ) . the adult appears in june .\nfigure 6 . elachista leucofrons . top : left , larva ( removed from leaf mine ) ; right , adult moth ; bottom : occupied leaf mine on a woodland grass ( poaceae ) .\nthe blackish elachista species with metallic or white markings on the forewing are somewhat similar to some mompha spp . ( coleophoridae : momphinae , treated here as family momphidae , to coincide with the 1983 checklist ) , but moths of these two groups can be differentiated by the fact that the black - and - white mompha spp . have raised tufts of scales on the forewings , whereas elachistids do not . as for the white elachista species , the only other common , similarly - sized illinois microleps in which the forewing is flat - finish white are some of the species of coleophora ( coleophoridae ) . coleophora , however , have relatively narrower , more elongate forewings than do elachista , and they display a distinctive resting posture in which the antennae are held together and projected straight forward . other illinois microleps that are predominantly or entirely white either are considerably larger than elachista , e . g . , yucca moths ( prodoxidae ) or are considerably smaller and more shining - opalescent white , e . g . , phyllonorycter , phyllocnistis ( gracillariidae ) , argyresthia ( argyresthiidae ) , pseudopostega ( opostegidae ) .\nthe larva of elachista brachyelytrifoliella ( fig . 10 ) occurs from july through october , in a noticeably whitish leaf mine on any of several grass species . according to braun ( 1948 ) , muhlenbergia spp . are preferred , but the larva also has been recorded from brachyelytrum aristatum and uniola latifolia .\nelachista epimicta ( fig . 2 ) is a large elachistid , the larva of which is a leaf miner on grasses . it matures in the third week of april in central illinois . braun ( 1948 ) cited hystrix patula ( preferred ) and elymus spp . as hosts . the larval leaf mine occupies the apical one third or so of the host leaf .\nelachista madarella ( fig . 5 ) is a leaf miner on sedges of the genera carex and scirpus , with mines occurring from february through early may . the leaf mine of this species usually appears to be unoccupied , but close examination reveals that the larva extends the mine to the very base of its host leaf , and it is there that the larva usually can be found . in central illinois , the adult of this species is common at light in deciduous forest in late june .\nelachista leucofrons ( fig . 6 ) is a leaf miner on grasses of low - lying deciduous forest ; according to braun ( 1948 ) , elymus canadensis and e . virginicus are preferred , with hystrix sp . less commonly recorded as a host . active mines appear from late february through mid - april ; apparently , there is only one generation per year . unlike e . madarella , the larva of e . leucofrons does not mine to the base of its host leaf ; therefore , in an occupied mine , the larva can be seen in the main part of the leaf mine at all times , as shown in fig . 6 .\nnothing is known of the larval biology of elachista acenteta ( fig . 3 ) . the largest numbers of adults have been collected in southeastern canada . as for usa records , kaila ( 1997 ) reported the species as occurring in colorado and nebraska . in illinois , e . acenteta has been collected in a wet sand area in iroquois county , in mid - june ; james vargo has collected it in the same habitat in an adjacent county in indiana , also in mid - june . these represent the first records of this species from these two states , and they provide something of a connecting point between the two geographically - remote areas of previously - known occurrence .\nthe traditional definition of this group ( elachistidae sensu strictu ) , which is followed here , in accordance with the revision by braun ( 1948 ) and the hodges et al . ( 1983 ) checklist , includes elachista plus a few allied genera ( about 60 described species , in eight genera , in north america as of the 1983 checklist ; moderately well represented in illinois ) . an expanded concept of elachistidae , in which traditional elachistidae was included as a subfamily , elachistinae , was presented by hodges ( 1999 ) . a phylogeny of elachistidae s . s . was published by kaila ( 1999a ) and revisited by kaila and sugisima ( 2003 ) . the former author also has covered nearctic components of elachistidae in several excellent taxonomic papers ( kaila 1995a , 1995b , 1996 , 1997 , 1999b ) .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nkaila , l . 1999a . phylogeny and classification of the elachistidae . systematic entomology 24 : 139 - 169 .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nall documents and related graphics provided by this server and any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server are provided\nas is\nwithout warranty as to the currentness , completeness , or accuracy of any specific data . natureserve hereby disclaims all warranties and conditions with regard to any documents provided by this server or any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , including but not limited to all implied warranties and conditions of merchantibility , fitness for a particular purpose , and non - infringement . natureserve makes no representations about the suitability of the information delivered from this server or any other documents that are referenced to or linked to this server . in no event shall natureserve be liable for any special , indirect , incidental , consequential damages , or for damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use or performance of information contained in any documents provided by this server or in any other documents which are referenced by or linked to this server , under any theory of liability used . natureserve may update or make changes to the documents provided by this server at any time without notice ; however , natureserve makes no commitment to update the information contained herein . since the data in the central databases are continually being updated , it is advisable to refresh data retrieved at least once a year after its receipt . the data provided is for planning , assessment , and informational purposes . site specific projects or activities should be reviewed for potential environmental impacts with appropriate regulatory agencies . if ground - disturbing activities are proposed on a site , the appropriate state natural heritage program ( s ) or conservation data center can be contacted for a site - specific review of the project area ( see visit local programs ) .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nlarvae of elachistidae are blotch leaf miners , almost always on grasses ( poaceae ) or on sedges / rushes ( cyperaceae ) , but with a few species using dicots , e . g . , wild oregano , cunila origanoides , in the mint family ( lamiaceae ) . active leaf mines of some elachistid species can be found very early in the year ; apparently , these larvae overwinter in the mine and resume feeding as early as february in the second year . the great majority of elachistid species in illinois are insects of deciduous forest , which is where their leaf mines should be sought . despite their grass - mining larval habits , in illinois they are not seen to be a component of grass - dominated communities such as prairies .\nelachistid leaf mines on grasses and sedges can be differentiated from those of cosmopterix spp . ( cosmopterigidae ) , which likewise are blotch leaf miners and which use many of the same host plants as elachistidae , by the fact that , in elachistidae , the larval frass is retained within the mine , where it can be seen scattered throughout , whereas in cosmopterix , frass is removed from the mine , where it can be seen as a small blackish accumulation at one end of the mine . also , in general , elachistid mines tend to be whitish , whereas cosmopterix mines tend to be yellow , but exceptions to this may occur .\nafter it finishes feeding , the elachistid larva leaves the mine to pupate , often in the depressed crease that occurs at the midvein of a leaf of the host plant . some species pupate under a slight lattice - like sheet of silk , whereas others do not spin at all . the articulation between the front and hind parts of the pupal abdomen allows the posterior part of the abdomen to move only in the sagittal plane ; this is similar to the situation seen in certain other microlepidoptera groups ( e . g . , depressariinae ) . the pupa of one species , dicranoctetes brachyelytrifoliella , is adorned laterally with spiky cuticular projections . pupae of typical elachistidae species lack the cuticular projections seen in dicranoctetes , but they present a distinctive appearance via being laterally and dorsally keeled ( fig . 1 ) .\nadult elachistidae display distinctive male genital morphology , in which the valve is elongate and apically rounded , and the gnathos is spined ( and sometimes bifid ) . sight recognition of elachistidae is best effected on basis of coloration and pattern , which fall into several categories , shown below ( these groupings are presented here strictly for convenience of recognition ; they are not meant to represent monophyletic units , whether or not they actually do so ) .\n, so that both moths sometimes emerge in the same rearing lot . the adult of\n( fig . 8 ) . there are also differences in male genital morphology .\nthe genus onceroptila , which was erected by braun ( 1948 ) to accommodate two western - nearctic elachistid species , was synonymized under perittia by kaila ( 1995b ) .\nthe only species of this genus that is likely to be encountered in illinois is perittia herrichiella ( fig . 11 ) , which is a european species that has become established in eastern north america . kaila ( 1995b ) reported it from eastern canada . more recently , james vargo , who kindly provided the specimen shown here , has collected a series of adults of p . herrichiella at light in northern indiana ; collection dates range from late may through mid - july , with a concentration in early to mid - june . this apparently is the first usa record for p . herrichiella . given this , the species might reasonably be expected to be found elsewhere in the north - central and northeastern usa . in europe , the larva of p . herrichiella makes a typical elachistid leaf mine ( full depth , with frass retained inside ) on honeysuckle , lonicera sp . ( caprifoliaceae ) . according to dr . george balogh ( who generously provided the mined leaf shown here ) , p . herrichiella has been established for several years in michigan , where it feeds on woody non - native ( eurasian ) species of lonicera , with leaf mines being especially common in disturbed and secondary forests in which exotic honeysuckle occurs as an invasive species . it is not known whether the moth has expanded its host range in north america to include any of the native nearctic species of caprifoliaceae .\nfigure 11 . perittia herrichiella . left , adult , collected in northern indiana , specimen courtesy of james vargo ; right , leaf mine on invasive eurasian bush honeysuckle , lonicera sp . ( caprifoliaceae ) , collected in michigan by dr . george balogh .\n. the forewings of the males are fuscous , but the base of the paler scales is grayish white . females have darker and more evenly dark brown or black forewings than males . the hindwings are fuscous and also darker in females . adults have been recorded on wing nearly year round .\nthe leaves of their host plant . the mine starts as a fine line , gradually increases in breadth . the larvae are greenish yellow . mining larvae can be found almost year round . pupation takes place beneath a dense white web of silk strands .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 20 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 744, "summary": [{"text": "nessaea batesii , the bates olivewing , is a species of butterfly of the family nymphalidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in eastern venezuela , the guianas and the lower amazon in brazil .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the length of the wings is 29 \u2013 36 mm for males and 32 \u2013 40 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the upperside of adult males is dark brown , with bright sky-blue diagonal bands on the forewings and orange patches on the hindwings .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the females have plain brown hindwings , blue diagonal bands across the forewings , and elongated reddish spots within the discal cell of the forewings . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "nessaea batesii", "paragraphs": ["nessaea obrinus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) = papilio obrinus linnaeus , 1758 = nessaea ancaeus = nessaea obrina = nessaea lesoudieri le moult 1933 .\nnessaea batesii ( c . felder & r . felder , 1860 ) - bates ' olivewing\nnessaea , namely aglaura , batesii , hewitsonii and obrinus , all of which are confined to the neotropical region .\nthe bates olivewing ( nessaea batesii ) is a species of butterfly of the nymphalidae family . it is found in eastern venezuela , the guianas and the lower amazon in brazil .\nnessaea hewitsoni is found throughout eastern andes from colombia and venezuela to bolivia , and across the western amazonas of brazil .\nall of the species have similar undersides . the uppersides of nessaea males are very dark brown , with bright sky blue diagonal bands on the forewings . the male of hewitsonii also has blue markings on the hindwings , but the remaining species including batesii have orange patches on the hindwings instead . the females of all species have plain brown hindwings , blue diagonal bands across the forewings , and elongated reddish spots within the discal cell of the forewings .\nare usually seen singly , and breed in wet primary rainforest at altitudes between 0 - 800m . they are not usually encountered in secondary forest , and it is very unusual for them to be seen in open sunny areas , although i have observed males of nessaea aglaura in forest edge habitats and degraded forest in ecuador .\nid : 11901 original name : nessaea ancaeus 01 ( c ) v . moty\u010dka . jpg size 750x566 - 73759 bytes image manager : vladim\u00edr moty\u010dka directory : 2135 created : 2005 - 12 - 16 18 : 45 : 10 - user ond\u0159ej zicha last change : 2015 - 07 - 18 11 : 01 : 20 - user francesco vitali url : urltoken text function : [ [ i : 11901 ; image ] ] , [ [ it : 11901 ] ] ( thumbnail )\nall nessaea species are fast flyers . when at rest they are very alert to movement . if alarmed they fly off very rapidly and with great agility . they usually resettle a short distance away but invariably return to the original spot within a few minutes . normally they settle on foliage about 1 - 3m above the ground , and close their wings immediately upon landing . they then wait motionless for a few minutes , and if undisturbed they will slowly open their wings to bask .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n{ { t ( ' get _ image _ for ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . priceperimage ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . add _ to _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . update _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . add _ notes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . project _ codes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . select _ project _ code ' ) } } { { projectcode } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . download _ will _ be _ saved _ to _ dropbox ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . calculate _ price _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . save _ to _ cart _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' site _ specific . getty . request _ preview ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . usage _ rights _ restrictions ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ restrictions _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ title ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ check _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . download _ button ' ) } }\nmix and match royalty - free images , videos , and editorial with packs that never expire . *\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . fivepackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . tenpackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' compared _ with _ single _ price ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . price ) } ) } }\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a license is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a licence is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndetermination author : r . i . vane - wright [ determination history and verification ]\nnote : if not otherwise indicated image is property of its author and cannot be used without his permission .\nfor every image in gallery , either accepted or unconfirmed , you can add , change or verify determination ( identification ) , or write comments .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na small neotropical forest genus . the green ventral color of the wings is quite unusual among nymphalidae .\nlamas , g . ( ed . ) 2004 atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . checklist : part 4a hesperioidea - papiionoidea . gainesville : scientific publishers / association of tropical lepidoptera .\ncorrespondence regarding this page should be directed to andrew v . z . brower at\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nthe larva when fully grown is jade green . each body segment adorned with enormous whorled spikes which are amber in colour . the head is bluish and armed with a pair of long head horns . the larva adopts the usual biblidini resting posture with it ' s body arched and it ' s face appressed to the substrate so that the spines are directed upward . if it is molested the larva twitches violently , swinging it ' s head from side to side . the pupa is dark green , and is attached by the cremaster from the upperside of a leaf , projecting horizontally .\nthe butterflies are usually found as singletons , but it is not unusual to see several males and one or two females during an hour long walk along a narrow forest track in suitable habitat .\nfeed at fallen fruit , and can be baited with plantain . they are also attracted to mammal dung and urine on forest tracks , but unlike many other members of the biblidini they are not attracted to sunny river beaches or other open areas .\nall photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nspecies catonephele salambria ( c . felder & r . felder , 1861 ) - salambria banner"]}
{"id": 760, "summary": [{"text": "sir bevys ( 1876 \u2013 1896 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a career that lasted from 1878 to 1879 he ran six times and won two races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his most important success came in the 1879 epsom derby : his only other win was in a selling race .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "at the end of the 1879 season he was retired to stud where he had little success . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "sir bevys", "paragraphs": ["we have found 10 property sales in sir bevys close since the beginning of 1995 .\nsir bevys investments limited . free business summary taken from official companies house information . free alerts . registered as 01557110\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\nsir bevys close in oxford is in the south east region of england . the postcode is within the cumnor ward / electoral division , which is in the constituency of oxford west and abingdon . this page combines information for the address sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn ,\nsir bevys has been described as \u201cvery moderate\u201d , [ 2 ] and as possibwy \u201cde worst ever\u201d winner of de derby . [ 10 ]\nlisted here are the 10 closest opticians to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest is ideal eyes , approximately 650 yards away .\nlisted here are the 10 closest primary schools to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest is botley school , approximately 640 yards away .\nlisted here are the 10 closest hospitals to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest is warneford hospital , approximately 3 . 6 miles away .\nlisted here are the 15 closest railway stations to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest railway station is oxford , approximately 1 . 6 miles away .\nlisted here are the 10 closest secondary schools to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest is matthew arnold school , approximately 0 . 7 miles away .\nthe half - serious suspicion by bevys ' s fellows of what his accounts clerk might be up to .\nsir bevys ( gb ) br . h , 1876 { 10 - a } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nour information is available for almost all uk postcodes . why not take a look at some of these other postcodes in the immediate vicinity of sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn :\nsir bevys was a dark brown\nawmost bwack\ncowt standing 15 . 2 hands high [ 1 ] bred at wydam , oxfordshire by lord norreys . he was sowd to lionew de rodschiwd , who used de name \u201cmr acton\u201d for his racing interests . sir bevys was sent into training wif rodschiwd\u2019s private trainer joseph hayhoe at de pawace house stabwe at newmarket , suffowk . [ 2 ]\ncorey , sir william , of trebigh , cornwall , letter of , 190 .\nsir bevys\u2019s sire , favonius , a mawe - wine descendant of de byerwey turk , had won de derby for meyer de rodschiwd in 1871 , but sired few oder notabwe horses . his dam , lady langden , was an unraced hawf sister to de st leger winner cawwer ou . apart from sir bevys , she was notabwe for producing hampton , an outstanding stayer who became a successfuw and infwuentiaw sire . [ 3 ]\nsir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn is within the abingdon outer policing neighbourhood , under the thames valley police force area . for non - urgent queries , contact 101 . for emergency assistance , please contact 999 .\nsir bevys retired to stud at a modest fee of 10 guineas . the best of his offspring was probabwy de bwack cowt morgway , who won de ascot derby and de queen ' s vase at royaw ascot in 1889 , awdough his biggest winner was de fiwwy primrose day who won de cesarewitch handicap in de same year . sir bevys died in march 1896 fowwowing a\ngeneraw break - up of his system .\n[ 15 ]\nthe average price for property in sir bevys close stood at \u00a3428 , 389 in july 2018 . this is a fall of 0 . 00 % in the last three months ( since april 2018 ) and fall of 4 . 11 % since 12 months ago . in terms of property types , flats in sir bevys close sold for an average of \u00a3383 , 826 and terraced houses for \u00a3344 , 402 . this is according to the current zoopla estimates .\nbamfylde or bamfeild : - , sir amias , letter of , 84 . - , j . , letter of , 27 . - , sir richard , death of , 231 , 232 .\nbernard : - , christopher , letter of , 230 . - , sir john , 173 .\nedgcumb ( eggecomb ) , sir richard , knight , comptroller of the royal household , 19 .\nthis address ( sir bevys close , oxford ) can be considered less ethnically diverse than the uk average . as whole , the uk population claims itself as approximately 86 % white , with residents of this area being 95 % so .\nlisted here are the 10 closest dentists to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest is clinic 95 , approximately 560 yards away . please consult the nhs choices website to check if the facility is currently accepting new nhs patients .\ncompton , sir william , master general of his majesty ' s ordnance , order of , 216 .\ndavenport , sir humphrey , knight , lord chief baron of the exchequer , letter to , 196 .\ninscription : printed text at upper left : kinney bro ' s . / high class cigarettes / sir bevys , derby winner / rider - geo . fordham . 1879 . [ verso of card not visible as card is mounted on original album page ]\nthe area containing sir bevys close , oxford consists predominantly of detached housing , a strong indicator of affluence . please note that the figures may include adjacent streets - see the summary tab for an explanation and map of the area that these figures cover .\nlisted here are the 10 closest gps ( general practitioners ) to sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn . the nearest is botley medical centre , approximately 540 yards away . please consult the nhs choices website to check if the facility is currently accepting new nhs patients .\ncottington [ cockkington ] , sir francis , going to spain , 191 . - , departure of , 192 .\nfavonius was retired to his owner\u2019s mentmore stud . he stood for only four seasons before his death from a form of\ntyphoid fever\nin august 1877 when he was valued at \u00a312 , 000 . his most notable offspring was sir bevys , who won the derby in 1879 .\ncheyne , [ sir ] t [ homas ] , lord of the council , signature of , 25 , 366 .\nin de st leger at doncaster on 10 september sir bevys started 3 / 1 joint favourite wif rayon d ' or . ridden by tom cannon , he settwed towards de middwe of de seventeen horse fiewd but made no progress in de water stages and finished a remote eighf behind rayon d ' or . [ 12 ] the fact dat bof pawmbearer and visconti were awso unpwaced convinced some observers dat de derby form was virtuawwy wordwess . [ 13 ] by wate autumn sir bevys had devewoped respiratory probwems ( a\nroaring aiwment\n) and was retired from racing . [ 14 ]\nto the fury of rival colleagues a junior official , hastings clive macaulay bevys , graced with the names of earlier great men , is brilliaintly successful . in his office he has an assistant , concepcion gabral , a shadowy figure , ill favoured and of mixed race . no - one is quite sure what he does , other than assisting bevys .\nfavonius was retired to his owner\u2019s mentmore stud . he stood for only four seasons before his death from a form of\ntyphoid fever\nin august 1877 when he was valued at \u00a312 , 000 . [ 21 ] his most notable offspring was sir bevys , who won the derby in 1879 .\ndam of sir gallahad , bull dog , admiral drake , and bois roussel . grand dam of hostility ( f ) .\nneither sir bevys nor palmbearer ran at ascot , so that the truth of the derby running could not be corroborated . lord falmouth ' s silvio , winner of the derby and st . leger of 1877 , and jeannette , winner o\u00a3 the oaks and st . leger of 1878 , were both defeated at ascot .\nchichester : - , lady frances , surrender of lease by , 70 . - , sir john , information to be given to , 39 .\ndam of scattered , squared away , speedwell . grand dam of here and there , disperse , sir gaylord , queen ' s double , secretariat .\nchampernon , champernowne , sir arthur , letter to , 367 . - , vice - admiral of the county of devon , letter of , 376 .\ncoke , christopher , letter of , 230 . - , sir john , secretary , commission read to , 191 . - , signature of , 17 .\nsir bevys appeared in de betting wists for de derby in apriw , when he was offered at odds of 50 / 1 . [ 5 ] he was backed down to 25 / 1 , but drifted out again after appearing to wack de\ndash\nof a derby winner , awdough in may beww ' s life reported dat his performances in training had improved . [ 6 ]\nkieren fallon was back on top in 2003 and rode the sir michael stoute colt kris kin to victory , just denying pat eddery and the great gatsby a famous success on his final derby mount . fallon was back in the winners\u2019 circle again the following year aboard north light who gave sir michael stoute his fourth derby victory .\ncordell , sir william , master of the rolls , bill committed to , 51 . - , ( wrongly printed cecil ) , executor of a will , 319 .\nsir bevys won one race from four starts as a two - year - owd . he began his career by running unpwaced in de fernhiww stakes at ascot and a minor race newmarket in summer . in autumn , he returned to newmarket and ran twice in two days . on 1 october he won a \u00a3187 sewwing race and on de fowwowing day he finished second to out of bounds in de ditch miwe nursery handicap . [ 4 ]\nhowever , when bevys is promoted to distant posts , he proves spectacularly incompetent , and is eventually sacked . the clue to the mystery , known to the poet , is that it was the unimpressive but able gabral who had really been doing the good work .\nfor the st . leger , at latest dates , wheel of fortune was first favourite at the short odds of 6to 4 j sir bevy ' s coming next at 4 to 1 .\nconway , sir edward , secretary of state , his man , 11 . - , fee to , 92 . - , made a privy councillor , 129 . - , conference with , 191 .\ndenham , john and sir john , knight , baron of the exchequer , letter of , 56 . - , letter to , 196 . - , business of the sequestration referred to , 132 .\ndoncaster august sale 2007 lot 273 ( property of mrs . p . e . w . nicholson ) 3yo chf sir harry lewis - vedra ( carlingford castle ) 16 , 000gns ( p . peare )\nelliott , sir george augustus , k . b . , lieut . - general , to be presented with the freedom of the city of exeter , 252 . - , his successful service in gibraltar , 252 .\ndiomed was owned by sir charles bunbury , who collected prize money of \u00a31 , 065 15s . the race was held at the oaks estate and named after its host , the 12th earl of derby . the first four runnings of the derby were over 1 mile , but this was amended to the current distance of 1\u00bd miles in 1784 . lord derby first won the race in 1787 , with a horse called sir peter teazle .\nanother legendary trainer finally added his name to the derby roll of honour in 1985 , as sir henry cecil\u2019s slip anchor , under an inspired front - running ride by popular american jockey steve cauthen , routed his rivals .\ncolleton : - , sir john , letter of , 75 . - , john , desires to make stairs near the quay of exeter , 324 . - , - , receiver of exeter , dismissal of , 325 .\nsir george ohetwynd intends moving at the next meeting of the jockey club that two year - olds shall not run more than sis furlodg rao . # a before july ' lab , nor less than five furlong races after that date .\nthe 20 th century closed with oath winning a fourth derby for sir henry cecil and a first for the leading jockey of the time kieren fallon . oath was subsequently injured but tasted epsom success at the expense of the outstanding dubai millennium .\ntulyar was a famous winner in 1952 and the following year the legendary jockey sir gordon richards finally won the derby at the 28 th attempt , having announced 1953 would be his final season riding . he famously beat the queen\u2019s runner aureole in coronation year !\ncaesar , dr . julius , cause to be shown before , 72 . - , as sir julius , letter of , 73 . - , - , chancellor of the exchequer , letter to , 86 . - , - , letter of , 86 .\ncoventry [ warwicks ] , sir thomas white ' s estate in or near , 232 . - , how it might profit by trade with guinea , 243 . - , bishop of , roger ( n . d , ) , charter of , 345 .\nin 1993 sir hendry cecil trained his third winner as commander in chief gave dancing brave a derby winner . unraced at two , commander in chief gained valuable experience that spring and defeated his stable mate tenby , who had been the hot favourite for the race .\ndata on sold house prices , such as the results above for sir bevys close oxford ox2 , is supplied to us via monthly updates from the land registry for england and wales and from the registers of scotland for scotland . there may be a delay of up to 3 months from when a property is actually sold to when it becomes officially recorded with land registry and / or registers of scotland . we provide data on house prices for information only , on an ' as is ' basis as supplied to us and accept no liability for any errors or omissions . if you have identified any incorrect information in , please report an error .\nameredeth , sir ames , baronet , conveyance for the sale of the chamber ' s lands in ireland to , 329 , 330 . - , his bonds unto the chamber of exeter , 335 . - , a release under the common seal sealed to , 336 .\nchudleigh : - , sir george , letter of , 11 . - , - , to receive the loan money collected in exeter , 11 , 175 , 176 . - , hugh , letter of , 221 . - , richard , appointed commissioner for exeter , 260 .\ndenys : - , elizabeth , lease to , 26 . - , richard , farmer of the mansion house of exeter castle , 199 . - , robert , note by , 374 . - , sir robert , knight , son of sir thomas , letter of , 44 . - , - , thomas , letter of , 44 . - , - , farmer of the mansion house of exeter castle , 199 . - , - , lease to , 70 . - , - , commission addressed to , 309 . - , sir robert , recorder of exeter , receipt from , 55 . - , - , to be asked to resign , 317 - , - , to provide lodging for the earls of essex and huntingdon and sir francis knolles , 317 . - , - , to receive a gift , 318 . - , - , resigns the recordership , 318 . - , sir thomas , - , - , knight , recorder of exeter , letter to , 14 . fee for , 56 . - , - , j . p . for devn , letter of , 288 . - , - , appointed commissioner for exeter , 260 . - , - , sheriff , burns thomas benet for heresy , 361 . - , - , letter to , 366 . - , - , john aclande hopes to confer with , at exeter , 67 .\nleo inherited palace house in newmarket which became his spiritual home . here the prince of wales often stayed with him during race meetings , together with many prominent figures of the day . leo also took over the running of his father\u2019s stud at gunnersbury before moving it to his own estate at ascott . it became the southcourt stud farm , from where he bred many winners . in 1879 leo registered the rothschild colours in his name and had his first victory when a previously unknown horse , sir bevys , won the epsom derby . it transpired that the owner , a \u2018mr acton\u2019 , was actually leopold de rothschild who had entered his late father\u2019s horse into the race .\nthe very first derby was actually run on thursday 4 may 1780 and went to diomed , ironically owned by sir charles bunbury , who collected prize money of \u00a31 , 065 15s . iomed is to this day commemorated in the diomed stakes , raced at epsom on derby day .\nbluet ( bluett , blewet ) : - , john , property granted to , 279 . - , sir roger , knight , letter to , 22 . - , - , appointment of , 21 . - , - , one of the king ' s commissioners , 262 .\nthe identity of\nmr acton\n, de winning owner , was not entirewy cwear : it was known dat he was a member of de rodschiwd famiwy , but many seemed to bewieve\nmr acton\nwas in fact lionew ' s son , leopowd de rodschiwd , who was known to have won severaw very warge bets on de race . [ 11 ] subseqwent events made de issue wess cwear : de deaf of lionew de rodschiwd on 3 june 1879 , was reported to have made aww of sir bevys ' s entries void , preventing him from running in de grand prix de paris on 8 june , [ 6 ] but de cowt ' s entry for de st leger was apparentwy unaffected .\nthe derby originated at a celebration following the first running of the oaks stakes in 1779 . a new race was planned , and it was decided that it should be named after either the host of the party , the 12th earl of derby , or one of his guests , sir charles bunbury .\nthen in 1968 lester piggott and dr vincent o\u2019brien combined to create an irresistible force which would last a decade . their opening epsom salvo came with the brilliant burst of speed from sir ivor who won major races in four countries including the 2 , 000 guineas , derby and washington dc international stakes .\nsir ivor won major races in four countries : the national stakes in ireland , the grand criterium in france , the 2000 guineas and the epsom derby in england and the washington , d . c . international in the united states . he was retired to stud at the end of the 1968 season and became a successful stallion .\nthe information on housing , people , culture , employment and education that is displayed about sir bevys close , oxford , ox2 9rn is based on the last census performed in the uk in 2011 . they are performed once every 10 years . please note : census information may include figures for adjacent streets and postcodes . the figures are therefore representative of the local area , not a specific street address or row of houses . the census collection is designed so that each group of postcodes should contain at least 100 people ( 50 in scotland ) . this is done to preserve the anonymity of the people in that area , as some postcodes cover a very small area , sometimes a single building . you can see the area covered by the census statistics by clicking\nshow census area covered\nbelow the map above .\nin 1954 richards\u2019 successor won the first of an unprecedented nine derbies as lester piggott rode never say die to glory . crepello gave piggott a second victory in 1957 and was trained by the great sir noel murless . the horse had tendon problems which limited him to two runs that year \u2013 and he won both the guineas and the derby .\nacland , ackland : - , sir hugh , baronet , attestation by , 220 . - , john , alderman of exeter , signature of , 150 , 151 . - , - , perryman ' s admission to , 157 . - , - , makes contribution towards the city plate , 322 . - , - , and see exeter , mayor of . john or sir john , knighted 1604 , letters of , 66 , 83 , 84 . - , - , request to , 73 . - , - , his liberality to exeter college cited , 100 , 102 . - , - , message to , 192 . - , - , grant from , 323 , 324 .\nedmondes , edmunds : - , sir clement , 109 . - , sir thomas , clerk of the crown , present at council debate , 108 . - , - , copy of the exeter charter presented to , 115 . - , - , orders to , 117 , 118 , 119 , 121 . - , - , his opinion concerning the bishop of exeter ' s suit , 118 . - , - , opinion of , concerning the charter , 123 . - , - , receives no definite instructions concerning the commission for the bishop , 124 . - , - , instructed to draw up a new commission for the bishop , 128 . - , - , going as ambassador to france , 190 .\nthe 2006 epsom derby had a pulsating finish and a four - way photo but sir percy , the guineas runner - up prevailed . the ever - popular frankie dettori finally broke his derby curse in 2007 at the 15 th attempt , when authorised burst clear of his field also giving trainer peter chapple - hyam a second success following dr devious in 1992 .\nlarkspur , who kept his feet while seven rivals fell on the descent to tattenham corner , provides the first of six derby winners for perhaps the greatest trainer ever , vincent o\u2019brien , who also sent out sir ivor ( 1968 ) , nijinsky ( 1970 ) , roberto ( 1972 ) , the minstrel ( 1977 ) and golden fleece ( 1982 ) to victory .\ndrake : - , augustyn , signature of , 145 . - , sir francis , ships for , 63n . - , - , ships under the command of , 312 . - , gilbert , of lytelham , lease to , 289 . - , john , of exmouth , lease to , 289 . - , john , receiver of exeter , a gown for , 306 .\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\ncarew : - , gawen , letter of , 49 . - , - , hooker ' s notice of , 351 . - , sir gawen , receipt from , 49 . - , - , letter to , 367 . - , - , ( carye ) , george , baron , at council debate , 108 . - , - , humphrey , lease granted by , 159 , 266 . - , - , john , conveyance by , 266 . - , - , sir john , knight , 361 . - , - , peter , son of humphrey , lease granted by , 159 , 266 . - , - , sir peter , knight , appointment of ( 1549 ) , 21 . appointment of ( 1552 ) , 260 . letters of , 24 . hooker ' s notice of , 351 . letter to , 367 . - , - , richard , attestation of , 220 . - , - , thomas , of bickleigh , st . john ' s hospital passes to , 266 . - , - , thomas , baron ( 1415 ) , appointed to remain in harfleur , 352 . - , - , widow named , letter to , 21 .\nin 1779 , the sport of horseracing was governed by a man named sir charles bunbury . at that time no races were run over a distance of less than two miles . also , racing was for horses aged four or older so the decision to permit three - year - old racing , and at distances shorter than two miles , paved the way for a new era in the sport .\nberkeley : - , gilbert , bishop of bath and wells , charter of , 346 . - , sir john , knight , governor of exeter , commission to , 13 . - , - , intimation by , 98 . - , - , certificate from , 209 . - , - , gift to be presented to , 325 . - , - , note of letter from , 325 .\nsainfoin was sired by springfield out of the mare sanda and was foaled at hampton court stud , owned by queen victoria , in 1887 . most of the yearlings produced by hampton court stud were underfed and skinny , which resulted in little interest in sainfoin as a racing prospect . he was sold as a yearling for 500 guineas to horse trainer john porter and sir robert jardine . [ 1 ]\nhugh , 12th earl of devonshire , petition against , 228 . - , infringes on the rights of the city of exeter , 391 , 392 . - , hugh , - , - , knight , mawte widow of , bequest of , 267 . will of , 282 . her gift to grendon ' s almhouses , 292 . - , hugh , monument of , 351 . - , katharine , wife of william , earl of devon , grant to , 404 . - , pierse , appointment of , 21 . - , thomas , 13th earl of devonshire , the mediation of , 360 . - , - , copy grant of the conservancy of the exe to , 404 , 429 . - , sir william ( 1585 ) , knight , commission addressed to , 309 . - , sir william ( 1662 ) , letter of , 98 .\nfordham was devoted to his family . he was never known to give a vote for a parliamentary candidate in his life . he was extremely reticent on horse - racing , had a deep aversion to gambling of all kinds , and ever showed the greatest anxiety to keep his son from being in any way associated with the turf . his own career was scrupulously honourable . he did , however , perform somewhat below his best on one occasion . riding for sir john astley at lewes , he was beaten a head in a close finish by a horse belonging to mrs drewitt the widow of his old master . afterwards he confessed to sir john ' well , you know , mrs drewitt has not been able to pay her rent , and all through the race i could not help thinking of that damned rent , and , you know , i ought just to have won ' .\nbonvile ( bonvyle , & c . ) : - , john , letters of , 209 . - , john , will of , 360 . - , william , the mediation of , 360 . - , sir william , the conservatorship of the exe granted , to , 430 . - , - , his almshouses , papers concerning , 7374 , 425 . or charity , charter of , 6 , 372 . grant of , 430 . other mention of , 277 , 348 .\ncalvert , sir george , secretary of state , receives instructions from james i , 17 . - , letter delivered to , 109 , 110 . - , interview with , 110 , 126 . - , his attitude towards the bp . of exeter ' s suit , 122 . - , suit from the chamber of exeter to be presented to , 125 . - , progress of the suit from exeter with , 128 . - , the lord lieut . for devon and exeter dealing with , 132 .\nryan moore lands a first investec derby victory on workforce a day after clinching an initial british classic success aboard snow fairy in the investec oaks . he was the 32nd jockey to win both epsom downs classics in the same year . workforce , the first derby winner to have been beaten in the dante stakes , breaks the epsom downs\u2019 track record set by lammtarra in 1995 with a time of 2m 31 . 33s and gives trainer sir michael stoute his fifth success , making him the most successful current trainer .\nall the brothers found hunting an irresistible pastime , particularly lionel ( 1808 - 1879 ) who set up his own kennels at hastoe in the woods above tring . over the next few decades , the rothschilds bought adjoining estates and properties in the area : aston clinton , mentmore , halton , ascott and tring . one early commentator on the rothschilds - sir thomas fowell buxton - wrote that nathan mayer approved of his sons ' hobby , indulging their interests and whetting their appetites for fine arab horses which he was happy to purchase for them .\nsea the stars never won his races by far but was always on top . in 2010 there was a derby of a very different vintage as the lightly - raced workforce won the derby on just his third start , delivering a fifth win in the race for trainer sir michael stoute and a first derby for champion jockey ryan moore . the colt also ended the curse of beaten horses from the dante , for workforce had finished second at york to cape blanco but physically blossomed thereafter and won his derby by 7 lengths in a course record time .\ncecil : - , robert , son of william , lord burghley , signature of , 66 . - , robert , viscount cranbourne , signature of , 74 . - , - , earl of salisbury , high steward of exeter , lord high treasurer , letters of , 40 , 41 . receipt of , 75 . - , - , complaint to , 73 . - , - , letter not sent to , 75 . - , - , letter to be written to , 321 . - , thomas , 2nd lord burghley , signature of , 74 . - , sir william , and as lord burghley , secretary of state and lord high treasurer , petition addressed to , 29 . - , - , blake roll left in the custody of , 33 . - , - , fee of , 52 . - , - , receipt of , 55 . - , - , signature of , 66 , 366 . - , - , letters to be sent to , 312 . - , - , allusion to letter to , 365 . - , - , master of the rolls [ ? sir wm . cordell ] , executor of a will , 319 .\nin 1890 , he made his first appearance in the esher stakes , a handicap race at sandown . after the race , porter felt that the colt would have little chance in the derby , and accepted an offer of \u00a36 , 000 for the colt from sir james miller , an officer in the 14th king ' s hussars . [ 3 ] the sale contract however , contained a clause which stated that if sainfoin won the derby , his previous owners would receive half the prize money . on 8 may , sainfoin won a two runner race for the dee stakes at chester .\nblakeney stayed in training as a four year old and met the 1970 derby winner but was comprehensively beaten ; little wonder as that colt was the imperious nijinsky . as brilliant as sir ivor had been , nijinsky was a hard act to top . unbeaten going into the 2 , 000 guineas , dr vincent o\u2019brien\u2019s colt sauntered to victory and at epsom lester piggott was able to quicken when he wanted with explosive effect . nijinsky went on to land the irish derby and then recorded his facile victory over blakeney , before winning the st leger to become the first triple crown winner in 35 years . no colt has achieved this feat since .\nhampton had three other good sons who were good racers , and also very good sires - - royal hampton and bay ronald , the latter of whom perpetuated the hampton male line well into the twentieth century . the third , sheen , lived to a great age , siring foals to the end of his life . royal hampton was produced from the king tom mare princess , and bred by famed breeder william blenkiron . royal hampton suffered a serious foot injury as a foal in which his foot became lodged in a stall door , the effects of which stayed with him throughout his life , as he was a very unsound horse . nevertheless , sir blundell maple liked the colt and purchased him for his stable .\ncoventry : - , henry , secretary of state , 218 . - , - , letter to , 41 . - , - , letter for , 219 . - , - , [ sir thomas ] , attorney general , order to , 121 . promise of , 122 . allusion to conference between the council for exeter and , 123 . - , - , commission referred to , 124 . - , - , warrant from the king drawn up and delivered to , 127 . - , - , william prous ' interview with , 127 , 134 . - , - , his opinion touching the exeter charter , 128 . - , - , his opinion probably to be sought by the king , 130 .\nroyal hampton ran ten times during his career and only won twice - - on his debut in the national breeders produce stakes at two and in his last race , the city and suburban handicap at four . in the latter race , the colt ' s fragile legs gave way , but he still managed to win the race on heart . in between , royal hampton secured placings in a host of important races - - the woodcote stakes , champagne stakes , middle park plate , the derby , prince of wales stakes , and sussex stakes . only once was royal hampton unplaced . he was a courageous and honest campaigner , and after his career - ending injury , he was retired to sir maple ' s childwick bury stud .\n* bred in france , t bred in gormany . { bred in america . phafton . geualdine races . [ by telegraph . \u2014press association . ] timaku , thursday . the first day ' s racing of the geraldine autumn meeting took place to - day . the following are the results : \u2014 handicap hurdles , oosovb . borderman , 1 ; master agnes , 2 ; secretary , 3 . novel hurdles , sosovs . \u2014bagshofc , 1 ; sir williams , 2 ; milo , 3 . autumn handicap , 75sovs . \u2014mr . hobbs ' jack , 1 ; mr . higgott ' s patrician , 2 . stkkplkchase , loosovb . \u2014 victor , 1 ; canard , 2 ; marmion , 3 . the selling race was won by conundrum , and the hurry scurry by bagshot . acceptances and general entries in connection with the otahuhu racing club ' s . meeting are due to - night at eight o ' clock .\nbristol ( bristowe ) , will not allow exeter free with them for custom , 33 . - , soldiers home from , 38 . - , cited as example , 53 . - , procedure at , 69 . - , protest of , 89 . - , two public free grammar schools in , 154 . - , letters directed to , 169 . - , proposition relating to , 203 . - , serjeant - major borthwick to sail from , 203 . - , letter dated at , 203 . - , sir thomas white ' s estate in , 232 . - , court of conscience in , 234 . - , traders from , 240 . - , how it might profit by trade with guinea , 242 . - , gifts from exeter for the royalist army in , 325 . - , the quay at , 426 . - , merchants of , summoned to appear before the house of lords , 138 . - , mayor of ( 1629 ) , information to be sent to , 190 . - , bishop of . see thornborough .\nlot 74 ( property of grange farm ) bc kheleyf - la belle katherine ( lyphard ) . 1 / 2 brother to 5w / 6r / 6rao inc stevedore ( won 7 ) . dam is 1 / 2 sister to 3 winners inc rainbow crown ( won 3 ) . 2nd dam won 2 and is 1 / 2 sister to 7 winners inc balarat ( leader of the band h l , eight thirty h l ) and sir moon dancer ( won 5 , 2nd . red earth derby l , 3rd . lawton s ) and to the dam of majestic dream . 3rd dam rio rita won 4 , 3rd . miss woodford s and is 1 / 2 sister to 5 winners inc loose cannon and thundering force and to the dams of memories of silver ( queen elizabeth ii challenge cup s g1 , beverly d s g1 ) , memories ( dam of russian revival ) , naskra ' s return , moon up t c , too cool to fool , misty hour ( dam of india ) and merit wings . 27 , 000gns ( j . c . fretwell )\na 25 mile match for 800 soys . came off at longchampa on juna lofch between the racer triboulet and the trotter tambour - battant , and tho thoroughbred won by nearly five miles . itilian horses will soon be competing on the english turf , sigaor e . ginistrelli having sent to newmarket to be trained the twoyear old good luck and the three - year - old sweetheart , both by the defunct bire heir - at - law . herr blascoyitz ' s celebrated hungarian mare kincsam won two races at vienna in may \u2014 making 48 races that bhe has oarrled off . by the victory of nubienne in the grand prix de paris , her owner , m . blanc , won 34 , 000 francs in addition to the stake . sir e . deas thompson , who died at sydney on the 16th ultimo , was for many years president of the australian jockey olub , and always took great interest in turf matters . he waa upwarda of 80 years of age . the tasmanian racing olub has a balance of \u00a31173 in hand after last season , and there is avery prospect of good meetings being held next year . the added money to the hobart town cup is to be 400 soys , the weights will not be declared till after the geelong meeting , and a 14 lb penalty will be incurred by winning the lauflcestou cup . a tasmanian derby will also , probably , be instituted .\ncary ( carey , & c . ) : - , george , of buckington , devon , executor of a will , 319 . - , - , bearer of a letter from the queen , 370 . - , james , mention of his election as bishop ( ? ) , 351 . - , sir robert , receipts from , 56 . - , - , letter of , 98 . - , valentine , bishop of exeter , his petition to the king , 17 . - , - , his claim to be made a j . p . within the county and city of exeter , 46 . - , - , his suit for the same , papers concerning , 11531 . - , - , allusion to his suit , 77 . - , - , his possible opposition to the charter of 1627 to the city , 91 . - , - , leaves two remembrancers to attend the lord keeper during his absence , 118 . - , - , returns to london , 119 . - , - , not to remain long at exeter , 121 . - , - , his proposed return to exeter , 124 . - , - , intention of , 128 . - , - , has an interview with the lord keeper , 128 . - , - , his attitude with regard to perryman and the free school of exeter , 13444 , 150 , 154 . - , - , indisposition of , 142 . - , - , his narration of the difference between perryman and the city of exeter , 14244 . - , - , letter to , 134 . - , - , has no temporal jurisdiction in the city , 135 . - , mr . , excepted from paying taxes , 161 .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nbay colt , 1872 - 1897 by lord clifden - lady langden by kettledrum . darley arabian sire line : newminster branch . family 10 - a\nhampton was a horse with a high class pedigree and a poor race record , until he finally matured into a solid winning stayer with great weight - carrying ability . he became a stallion of significant influence and a source of stamina , siring numerous classic champions and founding a powerful branch of the stockwell male line . hampton was bred by lord norreys , later created lord abington , and was foaled at his breeder ' s farm , tetsworth , near the ancient university town of oxford , in 1872 .\nhampton was by lord clifden , a son of newminster from the melbourne mare the slave . lord clifden had been a winner of the classic st . leger , as had his sire , newminster . the latter was an impeccably bred individual , being by touchstone , another st . leger champion and the pre - eminent stallion of his era . dam of newminster was the celebrated racemare beeswing . lord clifden continued the impeccable siring record of his male line , as during his stud career he sired four classic winners , all of whom numbered the st . leger among their triumphs - - hawthornden and wenlock , winners of the st . leger ; petrarch , winner of the two thousand guineas , st . leger and ascot gold cup ; and jannette , winner of the oaks and st . leger .\nmerry hampton , out of doll tearsheet , by broomielaw , has sometimes been criticized as one of the worst winners of the derby . his only victory came in the derby , though he did finish second in the st . leger . he might have won that classic , too , had he not been boxed in badly , for when free , he ran the winner kilwarlin to within half a length . the harsh assessment of merry hampton as a racer in some quarters is not quite fair , for he had talent . merry hampton was an unsound colt , which made him difficult to train . in fact , the derby was the first race of his abbreviated career , which was hampered by his delicate legs .\nas a sire of racehorses , merry hampton was a failure . he got only one decent runner , the colt pride , who raced just as a four - year - old and gained distinction by defeating the star french runner omnium in the alexandra plate . merry hampton ' s daughter , merry wife , became the dam of 1901 ascot gold cup winner santoi . another daughter , merry token , was exported to america by august belmont , assuring her sire some measure of immortality , for through her , he became the broodmare sire of mahubah , the rock sand filly destined to become the dam of the incomparable man o ' war and ancestress of american triple crown champion assault .\nayrshire , out of atalanta , by galopin , was bred and raced by the duke of portland . ayrshire was a top performer all three seasons he ran , winning many important races , including the champagne stakes at two , the two thousand guineas and derby at three , and the eclipse stakes at four . at stud , ayrshire was noted for the quality of his fillies over his colts . his two classic winners were fillies - - oaks winners airs and graces and our lassie . daughters of ayrshire made wonderful producers . daughter gas produced derby champion cicero ; glare produced one thousand guineas heroine flair and also became the second dam of prince palatine ; cannie lassie produced one thousand guineas winner witch elm . st . leger winner night hawk and one thousand guineas winner roseway were also products of ayrshire mares . ayrshire ' s best son was robert le diable , winner of several races , including the city and suburban handicap and doncaster cup . robert le diable sired wrack , a stallion who did well in the united states as the sire of thirty stakes winners .\nladas , out of illuminata , by rosicrucian , was a lovely animal with a superb pedigree . third dam paradigm was a half sister to the dam of bend or . his dam illuminata would later produce one thousand guineas winner chelandry as well as gas , dam of the aforementioned derby winner cicero . bred and raced by archibald philip primrose , 5th earl of rosebery , ladas was unbeaten at age two , winning the woodcote stakes , coventry stakes , champagne stakes , and the middle park plate . at three , ladas captured both the two thousand guineas and derby and placed in the eclipse stakes , princess of wales ' s stakes , and the st . leger . at stud , ladas was somewhat disappointing , as he did not yield a son which carried his line forward . but he did get epsom lad , winner of the eclipse stakes ; gorgos , winner of the two thousand guineas and july stakes ; and troutbeck , winner of ten races including the st . leger . none of these became very notable sires . montem was a speedy daughter of ladas which captured the new stakes at ascot and the july stakes . baroness la fleche , another filly by ladas , was exquisitely bred , being from st . simon ' s classic - winning daughter la fleche . she won the acorn stakes at epsom , but was more noted as a broodmare , as she produced cinna , a polymelus filly who won the one thousand guineas and placed second to charlebelle in the oaks . cinna became the dam of beau pere , a leading sire in new zealand and the united states .\nother good running sons sired by hampton included ladislas , who was the top of his generation , winning the dewhurst stakes , the king edward vii stakes and the jockey club cup ; duke of richmond , who won the richmond stakes ; grandison , winner of the champagne stakes and the windsor castle stakes ; gay hampton , winner of the craven stakes ; lord lorne , a great stayer , who won the ascot stakes twice ; fitz hampton , another good stayer , who , in italy , won a number of races , including el premio presidente de la republica over 2 , 400 meters , and the gran premio de milan ; balmoral , winner of the manchester cup ; bushey park , winner of the queen alexandra stakes , phocion , who won the st . james palace stakes and the kind edward vii stakes ; troon , another st . james palace stakes winner ; speed , winner of the july stakes .\nanother son of hampton , gotten , like bay ronald , when his sire was in his advanced years , was star ruby . he was foaled in 1892 , out of the bend or mare ornament . the colt was sold to american horseman green morris and sent to america . he was a useful runner , but more successful as a stallion . purchased by james ben ali haggin , star ruby stood at stud in california . he got two american classic winners , cairngorm , a winner of the preakness , and africander , a winner of the belmont stakes , suburban handicap , saratoga cup , and the lawrence realization . star ruby ' s son rubio was a chestnut colt sent to race in england , where in 1908 , he became the first american - bred to capture the grand national steeplechase at aintree . star ruby ' s daughter , ruby nethersole , became the second dam of questionnaire .\nhampton ' s daughters hampton ' s best running daughter was reve d ' or , out of queen of the roses , by sundeelah . she was kept in training an unusually long time for a classic winning filly , for she raced until she was seven . as a juvenile , she captured the dewhurst plate . at three , reve d ' or was a dual classic champion , for she won both the one thousand guineas and the oaks , as well as the yorkshire oaks . during her career , she won eleven other races , including the sussex stakes , jockey club cup , and the city and suburban handicap . as a broodmare , reve d ' or failed to come up with anything remotely like herself . she spent her producing career in france , and one of her daughters , oussouri , became the dam of a good performer named opott ii , winner of several stakes races in france and placed in the grand prix prix de paris . opott ii went on to sire l ' olivete , dam of mieuxce .\nother good hampton daughters on the turf included rookery , from an oxford mare , who won the windsor castle stakes ; belinda , a great staying mare who won the park hill stakes and the ascot stakes over 4 , 023 meters ; maize , a sister of st . florian , out of palmflower , won the nassau stakes ; butterfly , whose dam was merry duchess by speculum , won the nassau stakes and the coronation stakes and ran third in the doncaster st . leger , among her other placings ; rambling katie , from the galliard daughter barmaid , won the 2 , 414 meter manchester cup ; hawamdieh , out of the galopin daughter boyne water , won the 2 , 200 meter prix de la rochette .\nas a sire of broodmares , hampton boasted some impressive representatives , including perdita ii and maid marian . perdita ii , out of hermione , by young melbourne , was a temperamental mare , and transmitted her nervous energy to her offspring . she was a moderately successful race mare of staying class , winning the ayr gold cup , the liverpool cup , and the great cheshire stakes ( twice ) . purchased by albert edward , prince of wales ( afterward king edward vii ) for 900 guineas , perdita ii went on to become the jewel of the prince ' s broodmare band . to the cover of st . simon , she produced three extraordinary full brothers - - persimmon , florizel ii , and diamond jubilee . all three were top racehorses , and good sires . persimmon sired five classic winners and was twice leading broodmare sire in england . florizel ii was among the leading sires seven times in england , and also was a good broodmare sire ; he got three classic winners . diamond jubilee won the english triple crown , and after export to argentina became the leading sire there four times .\nhampton ' s daughter maid marian , foaled in 1886 , became the dam of one the most influential british stallions of the twentieth century - - polymelus . out of the toxophilite mare quiver , maid marian was bred by queen victoria and was a product of the hampton court stud . as a racehorse , maid marian proved useless , as she started only as a two - year - old , running seven times without notching a single victory . maid marian ' s value as a broodmare went up considerably due to the exploits of her younger half sisters - - memoir and la fleche - - classic winning daughters of st . simon . maid marian was owned by the earl of crewe when she was covered by cyllene in 1901 and foaled the bay colt polymelus the following spring ."]}
{"id": 761, "summary": [{"text": "gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family cerithiidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "there is one variety : gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum var .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "argutum ( monterosato , 1911 ) the subspecies gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum barashi nordsieck , 1974 is a synonym of cerithium scabridum philippi , 1848", "topic": 21}], "title": "gourmya argutum", "paragraphs": ["there is one variety : gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum var . argutum ( monterosato , 1911 )\nsubspecies gourmya argutum barashi nordsieck , 1972 accepted as cerithium scabridum philippi , 1848 ( dubious syn . )\nspecies gourmya argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) accepted as cerithium protractum bivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838\ngourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum ( monterosato , 1911 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 8 february 2011 .\n\u00bb species gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) accepted as cerithium protractum bivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838\n( of gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum barashi nordsieck , 1974 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gourmya argutum barashi nordsieck , 1972 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gourmya argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nrelevant synonyms gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum barashi nordsieck , 1972 [ haifa bay , israel ] cerithium scabridum var . hispida pallary , 1938 [ syria ] cerithium yerburyi smith , 1891\n( of gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) ) nordsieck f . ( 1974 ) . il genere thericium monterosato nei mari d ' europa . la conchiglia 59 : 3 - 12 [ details ]\n( of drillocerithium argutum monterosato , 1910 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of gourmya argutum barashi nordsieck , 1972 ) nordsieck , f . ( 1972 ) . marine gastropoden aus der shiqmona - bucht in isra\u00ebl . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft . 102 ( 4 - 6 ) : 227 - 245 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym cerithium stenodeum locard , 1886 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 3 publications ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym cerithium haustellum monterosato in crema , 1903 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium stenodeum locard , 1886 ) to clemam ( from synonym drillocerithium argutum monterosato , 1910 ) to clemam ( from synonym drillocerithium delphinum monterosato , 1910 ) to clemam ( from synonym drillocerithium marosticum monterosato , 1910 ) to clemam ( from synonym gourmya argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium vulgatum var . gracilis philippi , 1836 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium vulgatum var . angustissima weinkauff , 1868 ) to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym gourmya ( gladiocerithium ) argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) ) to encyclopedia of life to pesi to pesi ( from synonym cerithium haustellum monterosato in crema , 1903 ) to pesi ( from synonym drillocerithium marosticum monterosato , 1910 ) to pesi ( from synonym drillocerithium delphinum monterosato , 1910 ) to pesi ( from synonym drillocerithium argutum monterosato , 1910 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium stenodeum locard , 1886 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium vulgatum var . angustissima weinkauff , 1868 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium vulgatum var . gracilis philippi , 1836 ) to pesi ( from synonym gourmya argutum ( monterosato , 1910 ) ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection\n( of drillocerithium argutum monterosato , 1910 ) monterosato t . a . ( di ) ( 1910 ) . nota su taluni generi e specie della famiglia cerithiidae . giornale di scienze naturali ed economiche di palermo , 28 : 65 - 76 , pl . i , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ndelivering alien invasive species inventories for europe ( daisie ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 3 publications ) ( from synonym cerithium nigropunctatum g . b . sowerby ii , 1855 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 46 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 7 publications ) ( from synonym cerithium yerburyi e . a . smith , 1891 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium nigropunctatum g . b . sowerby ii , 1855 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium yerburyi e . a . smith , 1891 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium scabridum var . hispida pallary , 1938 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium levantinum smith e . a . in hart , 1891 ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym cerithium adenense g . b . sowerby ii , 1865 ) to clemam ( from synonym gourmya argutum barashi nordsieck , 1972 ) to clemam ( from synonym cerithium yerburyi var . djiboutiensis fischer & vignal in fischer h . , 1901 ) to encyclopedia of life to pesi to pesi ( from synonym cerithium adenense g . b . sowerby ii , 1865 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium nigropunctatum g . b . sowerby ii , 1855 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium levantinum smith e . a . in hart , 1891 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium scabridum var . hispida pallary , 1938 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium yerburyi e . a . smith , 1891 ) to pesi ( from synonym cerithium yerburyi var . djiboutiensis fischer & vignal in fischer h . , 1901 ) to pesi ( from synonym gourmya argutum barashi nordsieck , 1972 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection\nnordsieck f . ( 1974 ) . il genere thericium monterosato nei mari d ' europa . la conchiglia 59 : 3 - 12 [ details ]\ncheck list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nfischer p . ( 1880 - 1887 ) . manuel de conchyliologie et de pal\u00e9ontologie conchyliologique . paris , savy pp . xxiv + 1369 + pl . 23 . fasc . 1 : pp . 1 - 112 [ 21 . 9 . 1880 ] . fasc . 2 : pp . 113 - 192 [ 16 . 3 . 1881 ] . fasc . 3 : pp . 193 - 304 [ 28 . 7 . 1881 ] . fasc . 4 : pp . 305 - 416 [ 5 . 5 . 1882 ] . fasc . 5 : pp . 417 - 512 [ 21 . 2 . 1883 ] . fasc . 6 : pp . 513 - 608 [ 20 . 12 . 1883 ] . fasc . 7 : pp . 609 - 688 [ 30 . 6 . 1884 ] . fasc . 8 : pp . 689 - 784 [ 29 . 1 . 1885 ] . fasc . 9 : pp . 785 - 896 [ 31 . 8 . 1885 ] . fasc . 10 : pp . 897 - 1008 [ 30 . 4 . 1886 ] . fasc . 11 : pp . 1009 - 1369 [ 15 . 6 . 1887 ] , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 680 [ details ]\nworms - world register of marine species - cerithium protractum bivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838\nbivona - bernardi and . , 1838 . generi e specie di molluschi descritti dal barone antonio bivona e bernardi . lavori postumi pubblicati dal figlio andrea dottore in medicina con note ed aggiunte . giornale di scienze lettere e arti per la sicilia 61 : 211 - 227 [ stated date march 1838 ] ; 63 : 319 - 324 [ stated date september 1838 ] [ also as reprint , 16 pp , 1 pl . , tipografia del giornale letterario , palermo ] , available online at urltoken ; : pa215 page ( s ) : 321 - 322 [ 15 - 16 in reprint ] [ details ]\nbivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 139063 on 2018 - 07 - 09\n( of cerithium stenodeum locard , 1886 ) locard a . ( 1886 ) . prodrome de malacologie fran\u00e7aise . catalogue g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des mollusques vivants de france . mollusque marins . lyon , h . georg & paris , bailli\u00e8re : pp . x + 778 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 180 - 181 , 564 - 565 [ details ]\n( of drillocerithium delphinum monterosato , 1910 ) monterosato t . a . ( di ) ( 1910 ) . nota su taluni generi e specie della famiglia cerithiidae . giornale di scienze naturali ed economiche di palermo , 28 : 65 - 76 , pl . i , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of drillocerithium marosticum monterosato , 1910 ) monterosato t . a . ( di ) ( 1910 ) . nota su taluni generi e specie della famiglia cerithiidae . giornale di scienze naturali ed economiche di palermo , 28 : 65 - 76 , pl . i , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium vulgatum var . gracilis philippi , 1836 ) philippi r . a . ( 1836 ) . enumeratio molluscorum siciliae cum viventium tum in tellure tertiaria fossilium , quae in itinere suo observavit . vol . 1 . schropp , berlin [ berolini ] : xiv + 267 p . , pl . 1 - 12 , available online at urltoken ; = article & id ; = 355 & itemid ; = 167 page ( s ) : 193 [ details ]\n( of cerithium vulgatum var . angustissima weinkauff , 1868 ) weinkauff h . c . ( 1867 - 1868 ) . die conchylien des mittelmeeres , ihre geographische und geologisches verbreitung . t . fischer , cassel vol . 1 : pp . xix + 307 [ 1867 ] . vol . 2 : pp . vi + 512 . [ 1868 ] , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium elegantulum coen , 1925 ) coen , g . ( 1925 ) . nota su alcune conchiglie di libia . bollettino del reale comitato talassografico italiano , venezia . 13 ( 81 - 86 ) , 51 - 55 , 1 pl . [ reprint paginated 3 - 7 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of cerithium vulgatum var . angustissima weinkauff , 1868 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of drillocerithium marosticum monterosato , 1910 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of drillocerithium delphinum monterosato , 1910 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium haustellum monterosato in crema , 1903 ) oliverio , marco ( 2006 ) . gastropoda prosobranchia caenogastropoda , in : revisione della checklist della fauna marina italiana . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium stenodeum locard , 1886 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ncerithium yerburyi var . djiboutiensis fischer & vignal in fischer h . , 1901 ( synonym )\nsubspecies cerithium scabridum rufonodulosum e . a . smith , 1901 \u2020 represented as cerithium rufonodulosum e . a . smith , 1901 \u2020\nvariety cerithium scabridum var . djiboutiensis h . fischer & vignal in fischer , 1901 accepted as cerithium scabridum philippi , 1848\nvariety cerithium scabridum var . hispida pallary , 1938 accepted as cerithium scabridum philippi , 1848\nphilippi r . a . ( 1847 - 1848 ) . testaceorum novorum centuria . zeitschrift f\u00fcr malakozoologie , 4 : 71 - 77 , 84 - 96 , 113 - 128 [ 1847 ] , 5 : 13 - 16 , 17 - 27 [ 1848 ] , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 23 [ details ]\n( of cerithium yerburyi e . a . smith , 1891 ) smith e . a . ( 1891 ) . on a collection of marine shells from aden , with sorne remarks upon the relationship of the molluscan fauna of the red sea and the mediterranean . proceedings of the zoological society of london . ( 1891 ) : 390 - 436 , pl . 33 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 417 , pl . 33 fig . 4 [ details ]\n( of cerithium scabridum var . hispida pallary , 1938 ) pallary p . 1938 . les mollusques marins de la syrie . journal de conchyliologie , 82 : 5 - 58 , pl . 1 - 2 , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium levantinum smith e . a . in hart , 1891 ) hart h . c . ( 1891 ) . some account of the fauna and flora of sinai , petra , and w\u00e2dy ' arabah . published for the committee of palestine exploration fund by a . p . watt , 255 p . page ( s ) : 196 [ details ]\nobis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nstreftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nzenetos , a . , m . e . \u00e7inar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nocchipinti - ambrogi , a . ; marchini , a . ; cantone , g . ; castelli , a . ; chimenz , c . ; cormaci , m . ; froglia , c . ; furnari , g . ; gambi , m . c . ; giaccone , g . ; giangrande , a . ; gravili , c . ; mastrototaro , f . ; mazziotti , c . ; orsi - relini , l . ; piraino , s . ( 2010 ) . alien species along the italian coasts : an overview . biological invasions . 13 ( 1 ) : 215 - 237 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nzenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union\u2019s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\ngalil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium adenense g . b . sowerby ii , 1865 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium adenense g . b . sowerby ii , 1865 ) petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cerithium carnaticum melvill & standen , 1898 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium nigropunctatum g . b . sowerby ii , 1855 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium nigropunctatum g . b . sowerby ii , 1855 ) petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of cerithium ( thericium ) scabridum philippi , 1848 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium yerburyi e . a . smith , 1891 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium levantinum smith e . a . in hart , 1891 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium ( thericium ) yerburyi e . a . smith , 1891 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium scabridum albida dautzenberg & bouge , 1933 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium scabridum var . djiboutiensis h . fischer & vignal in fischer , 1901 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium scabridum var . hispida pallary , 1938 ) obis indo - pacific molluscan database . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of cerithium yerburyi var . djiboutiensis fischer & vignal in fischer h . , 1901 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nkatsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthis section is empty . you can help by adding to it . ( may 2010 )\ncerithium protractum bivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838 . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 17 may 2010 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\npallary p . , 1938 . les mollusques marins de la syrie . journal de conchyliologie , 82 : 5 - 57 . , ( emedsyrlev - l720 )\nalbano , p . g . & trono , d . , 2008 . record of the alien species cerithium scabridum philippi , 1848 ( gastropoda : cerithiidae ) from otranto , southern adriatic sea . bollettino malacologico , in press . , ( adriitaadr - l715 )\ndi natale a . , 1978 . note sur la presence et la repartition de cerithium scabridum philippi , 1849 ( mollusca , gastropoda ) sur les cotes siciliennes . bulletin de l ' office national des peches de tunisie 2 ( 1 - 2 ) : 193 - 198 . , ( cmeditaion - l716 )\nmifsud , c . & sammut , p . , 2006 . cerithium scabridum philippi , 1848 ( gastropoda : cerithiidae ) , a new invader to the maltese islands . novapex , 7 ( 4 ) : 115 - 116 . , ( cmedmltunk - l719 )\nenzenross l . & enzenross r . , 2001 . untersuchungen uber das vorkommen mariner mollusken in tunesichen gewassern . schriften fur malakozoologie , 17 : 45 - 62 . , ( cmedtununk - l721 )\nfischer , w . , 1993 . beitraege zur kenntnis der rezenten und fossilen marinen molluskenfauna zyperns ( ii ) . die mollusken des kap drepanum ( peyia , paphos ) . club conchylia information , 15 ( 2 ) : 147 - 152 . , ( emedcyplev - l711 )\nkeller c . , 1883 . die fauna im suez kanal . und die diffusion der mediterranen und erythraischen thierwelt . eine thiergeographische untersuchung . neue denkschriften der allgemeinen schweizerischen gesellschaft fur die gesammten naturwissenschaften , t . 28 ( 3 ) , ( emedegylev - l712 )\nhart , h . c . , 1891 , some accounts of the fauna and flora of sinai , petra and wadi arabah . palestine exploration fund , london . , ( emedisrlev - l714 )\nbogi c . and khairallah n . h . , 1987 . nota su alcuni molluschi de provenienza indo - pacifica raccolti nella baia di jounieh ( libano ) - contributo i . notiziario del cisma , 10 : 54 - 60 . , ( emedlbnlev - l718 )\nalbayrak s . , 2001 . prosobranch gastropods of the imbros island ( ne aegean sea ) . acta adriatica , 42 : 35 - 42 , ( emedturaeg - l722 )\naartsen , j . j . van & kinzelbach , r . , 1990 . marine molluscs from the iztuzu beach near dalyan ( mediterranean coast of turkey ) . zoology in the middle east , 4 : 103 - 112 . , ( emedturlev - l723 )\nmienis h . k . , 1985c . an old record of cerithium scabridum from the gulf of naples ? . levantina : journal of malacology , kfar saba , 55 : 626 . , ( wmeditatyr - l717 )\nmarine mediterranean invasive alien species database since 2012 . the database includes among alien species , cryptogenic ones . tropical atlantic species , which have expanded their geographic distribution in the mediterranean , are noted as range expansion , or vagrant . the database includes also species that have been occasionally reported as alien but were subsequently excluded from lists , along with the reasoning of their exclusion .\nboulevard du leader yasser arafat b . p . 337 - 1080 tunis cedex - la charguia - tunis tunisia\nbivona - bernardi and . , 1838 . generi e specie di molluschi descritti dal barone antonio bivona e bernardi . lavori postumi pubblicati dal figlio andrea dottore in medicina con note ed aggiunte . giornale di scienze lettere e arti per la sicilia 61 : 211 - 227 [ stated date march 1838 ] ; 63 : 319 - 324 [ stated date september 1838 ] [ also as reprint , 16 pp , 1 pl . , tipografia del giornale letterario , palermo ]\ngofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213\nbivona ant . in bivona and . , 1838 . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nphilippi r . a . ( 1847 - 1848 ) . testaceorum novorum centuria . zeitschrift f\u00fcr malakozoologie , 4 : 71 - 77 , 84 - 96 , 113 - 128 [ 1847 ] , 5 : 13 - 16 , 17 - 27 [ 1848 ]\nstreftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453\ngofas , s . ( 2014 ) . cerithium scabridum . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nshort description shell high - spired , about three times as long as wide , of 9 - 10 whorls . sculpture on spire whorls of 3 strong , raised spiral cords with interspaces as broad as the cords , and weak axial folds which determine strong knobs at their intersection with the cords . some weak varixes on the spire . body whorl slightly expanded with respect to the spire whorls , externally with 7 - 8 cords , internally with a smooth outer lip and a short , small siphonal canal .\ncolor : brownish , with a contrasting pattern of white and dark brown mottles on the cords .\ndistinguishing characteristics c . scabridum is distinguished from any other native or introduced species of cerithium by the markedly raised shape of the spiral cords , separated by rather broad interspaces .\nbiology / ecology egg masses in the form of coiled gelatinous , transparent strings packed with small eggs ( barash and danin , 1973 ) . this species has been taken as a possible model for the genetics of invasive marine species , and as such has been investigated by lavie and nevo ( 1986 ) who found a high level of genetic variability , not less considerable in mediterranean than in red sea populations . this species has been shown to have a quite long planktotrophic larval phase , which lasts 45 to 60 days , and has been calculated to have a life span of two years ( ayal and safriel , 1982 ) .\nhabitat : intertidal or shallow water zone , on a variety of substrates including sandy mud with cymodocea nodosa or zostera nana , rock pools in sheltered places , and lagoons .\n1st mediterranean record port said , egypt , 1883 [ no collecting date ] .\ndistribution worldwide : red sea , persian gulf , western and southern india ( houbrick , 1992 ) ; found in the suez canal ( keller , 1883 ) . mediterranean : recorded first from port said , egypt ( keller , 1883 ) ; successively from israel ( haas , 1937 ) ; syria ( pallary , 1938 ) ; lebanon ( pallary , 1938 ) ; italy : sicily ( di natale , 1978a ) , naples ( mienis , 1985 ) ; southern turkey ( enzenross et al . , 1990 ) ; north cyprus ( cecalupo and quadri , 1996 ) , southern tunisia ( enzenross and enzenross , 2001 ) ; imbros island , ne aegean ( albayrak , 2001 ) . the species from cyprus illustrated as c . scabridum by tornaritis ( 1987 ) is however the native c . lividulum risso , 1826 .\nestablishment success this is one of the earliest recorded and most successful of the lessepsian migrants , which now constitutes large , stable populations . it is locally invasive , for example in the gulf of gab\u00e8s .\nspeculated reasons for success : the larval dispersal via a planktonic stage , the unspecialized feeding habits and unusually high levels of genetic vairability may be key characters for success .\nmode of introduction via the suez canal into the levantine sea ; probably by shipping from there to porto megarese , sicily , where it spread along the sicilian east coast and later to tunisia .\nalbayrak s . , 2001 . prosobranch gastropods of the imbros island ( ne aegean sea ) .\nenzenross l . , r . enzenross and h . j . niederh\u00f6fer , 1990 . wissenschaflich interssante funde aus der sammlung enzenross ( marine invertebraten ) .\nenzenross l . and enzenross r . , 2001 . untersuchungen \u00fcber das vorkommen mariner mollusken in tunesichen gew\u00e4ssern . schriften f\u00fcr malakozoologie , 17 : 45 - 62 .\nkeller c . , 1883 . die fauna im suez kanal . und diediffusion dermediterranen und erythraischen thierwelt . eine thiergeographische untersuchung . neue denkschriften der allgemeinen schweizerischen gesellschaft f\u00fcr die gesammten naturwissenschaften , z\u00fcrich , 28 ( 3 ) : 1 - 39 , pl . 1 - 2 . basel .\nlavie b . and nevo e . , 1986 . genetic diversity of marine gastropods : contrasting strategies of cerithium rupestre and c . scabridum in the mediterranean sea . marine ecology progress series , 28 : 99 - 103 ."]}
{"id": 767, "summary": [{"text": "the tongaland cannibal snail , scientific name natalina wesseliana , is a species of medium-sized predatory air-breathing land snail , carnivorous terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family rhytididae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this species is endemic to south africa and is named after the natural region of tongaland .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "its natural habitat is temperate forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tongaland cannibal snail", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about tongaland cannibal snail ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for tongaland cannibal snail ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\ntongaland cannibal snail\n.\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - tongaland cannibal snail facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nfacts summary : the tongaland cannibal snail ( natalina wesseliana ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\nsnails\nand found in the following area ( s ) : south africa .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - maputaland cannibal snail ( natalina wesseliana )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - maputaland cannibal snail ( natalina wesseliana )\ntitle =\narkive species - maputaland cannibal snail ( natalina wesseliana )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnamed for their snail - eating habits ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , cannibal snails ( rhytididae ) feed using a rasping tongue - like structure known as a radula , which bears long , curved teeth , a specialisation for their carnivorous diet ( 4 ) . the orange - brown body of the maputaland cannibal snail is large and broad , and carries a thin brown shell with rapidly expanding whorls and a large opening ( 2 ) .\nnamed for their snail - eating habits ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , cannibal snails ( rhytididae ) feed using a rasping tongue - like structure known as a radula , which bears long , curved teeth , a specialisation for their carnivorous diet ( 4 ) . the orange - brown body of the maputaland cannibal snail is large and broad , and carries a thin brown shell with rapidly expanding whorls and a large opening ( 2 ) .\nvery little has been documented on this snail\u2019s biology and behaviour , which remain poorly understood . like other cannibal snails , this species is carnivorous , feeding on other molluscs and probably also earthworms ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthis species is endemic to south africa and is named after the natural region of tongaland . its natural habitat is temperate forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nvery little has been documented on this snail ' s biology and behaviour , which remain poorly understood . like other cannibal snails , this species is carnivorous , feeding on other molluscs and probably also earthworms ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\ncarnivore flesh - eating . radula a flexible tongue - like organ in certain molluscs that has rows of horny teeth on the surface and is used to rasp at food . whorls in molluscs , the spiral coils of the shell of a snail .\nthe maputaland cannibal is threatened by ongoing habitat loss and degradation as a result of conversion to agricultural land , wood plantations and mining ( 2 ) , as well as ever increasing pressure from local communities on the few remaining pristine habitats ( 5 ) .\nthe maputaland cannibal is threatened by ongoing habitat loss and degradation as a result of conversion to agricultural land , wood plantations and mining ( 2 ) , as well as ever increasing pressure from local communities on the few remaining pristine habitats ( 5 ) .\nherbert , d . g . & moussalli a . 2010 . revision of the larger cannibal snails ( natalina s . l . ) of southern africa - natalina s . s . , afrorhytida and capitina ( mollusca : gastropoda : rhytididae ) . african invertebrates 51 ( 1 ) : 1 - 132 . [ 1 ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nranges from central zululand north to maputo in southern mozambique , primarily near the coast ( 2 ) .\nthis species is known from dune , coastal lowland and scarp forest , but probably also occurs in other wooded habitats ( 2 ) .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\nthere are currently no conservation measures specifically targeting this species , although it is known to occur in conservation areas ( hluhluwe - imfolosi game reserve and the greater st lucia wetland park ) ( 5 ) .\nherbert , d . g . & kilburn , r . n . ( 2004 ) field guide to the land snails and slugs of eastern south africa . 340pp . natal museum , pietermaritzburg .\nauthenticated ( 13 / 07 / 2006 ) by dr . dai g . herbert , chief curator : mollusca , natal museum , and member of the iucn / ssc southern african invertebrate , and mollusc specialist groups . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\noccurs in south africa on the coastal plain of north zululand and south mozambique ( st . lucia - maputo ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nfor the first time in history , a captive cheetah has successfully given birth to eight healthy cubs . it is said that only around 10 , 000 cheetahs remain in the wild in africa along with 100 or fewer in iran .\nlist of all endangered animals . list of all endangered plants . list of all endangered species ( animals & plants ) . by species group ( mammal , birds , etc ) . . . united states endangered species list . browse by country , island , us state . . . search for an endangered species profile .\nare you inspired by endangered animals ? check out our games and coloring pages ! more to come soon .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nranges from central zululand north to maputo in southern mozambique , primarily near the coast ( 2 ) .\nthis species is known from dune , coastal lowland and scarp forest , but probably also occurs in other wooded habitats ( 2 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 4 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\nthere are currently no conservation measures specifically targeting this species , although it is known to occur in conservation areas ( hluhluwe - imfolosi game reserve and the greater st lucia wetland park ) ( 5 ) .\nherbert d . g . ( 2000 ) . natalina wesseliana . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 7 august 2007 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services ."]}
{"id": 795, "summary": [{"text": "the atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ) is a north american member of the acipenseridae family and is among the oldest fish species in the world .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is one of two subspecies of a. oxyrinchus , the other being the gulf sturgeon , a. o. desotoi .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the range of the atlantic sturgeon extends from new brunswick , canada , to the eastern coast of florida , united states .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "a disjunct population occurs in the baltic region of europe ( today only through a reintroduction project ) .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it was in great abundance when the first european settlers came to north america , but has since declined due to overfishing and water pollution .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is considered threatened , endangered , and even locally extinct in many of its original habitats .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the fish can reach 60 years of age , 15 ft ( 4.6 m ) in length and over 800 lb ( 360 kg ) in weight . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "atlantic sturgeon", "paragraphs": ["critical habitat for the carolina and south atlantic distinct population segments of atlantic sturgeon .\n. 0151 atlantic sturgeon per hour ) sections was greater than the experimental ( 0\u20130 . 75 atlantic sturgeon per hour ,\natlantic sturgeon being measured as part of a cooperative federal / state / industry atlantic sturgeon bycatch reduction survey . photo \u00a9 asmfc .\npart of the atlantic sturgeon\u2019s scientific name , oxyrhynchus , means \u201csharp snout . \u201d\npart of the atlantic sturgeon\u2019s scientific name , oxyrhynchus , means \u201csharp snout . \u201d\natlantic sturgeon \u2013 u . s . fish & wildlife service chesapeake bay field office\nfwc ( florida fish wildlife conservation commission ) atlantic sturgeon biological status review report .\nwirgin i , grunwald c , stabile j , waldman jr . genetic evidence for mid - atlantic coast relict atlantic sturgeon stocks .\nthen in 1998 , the atlantic marine fisheries commission closed the entire coast to atlantic sturgeon fishing for the next four decades . stock assessments indicated that only remnant populations of atlantic sturgeon remain along much of the east coast .\nking ta , lubinski ba , spidle ap . microsatellite dna variation in atlantic sturgeon (\nartyukhin e , vecsei p . on the status of atlantic sturgeon : conspecificity of european\ncaron f , hatin d , fortin r . biological characteristics of adult atlantic sturgeon (\natlantic sturgeon can live up to 80 years old but generally live approximately 60 years .\natlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ) . photo credit : edith carson ( noaa )\nnoaa fisheries today designated critical habitat for atlantic sturgeon\u2014an important step to ensuring their recovery .\nsecor and niklitschek ( 2001 ) show that shortnose sturgeon are more tolerant of higher temperatures than atlantic sturgeon , thus the \u201cstressful temperature\u201d for atlantic sturgeon is considered 26 \u00b0c ( secor and gunderson , 1998 ) .\nthe national oceanic and atmospheric administration officially declared the atlantic sturgeon an endangered species in 2012 . it is illegal to fish for , catch or harvest atlantic sturgeon or their eggs .\nthe national oceanic and atmospheric administration officially declared the atlantic sturgeon an endangered species in 2012 . it is illegal to fish for , catch , or harvest atlantic sturgeon or their eggs .\n\u2018spawning atlantic sturgeon are showing up in rivers where they were never thought to exist . \u2019\nleave the fish where you found it . possession of atlantic or shortnose sturgeon is prohibited !\nthe restoration program for the baltic population of the atlantic sturgeon acipenser o . oxyrinchus in polandus\nthe atlantic states marine fisheries commission\u2019s fisheries management plan calls for rebuilding at least 20 year classes of atlantic sturgeon in order to restore the population .\nany sturgeon found in connecticut waters that is more than 4 feet long is an atlantic sturgeon . atlantic sturgeon can be distinguished from shortnose sturgeon by their relative mouth width . atlantic sturgeon have mouth widths ( inside the lips ) that measure less than 50 percent of the distance between the eyes , while shortnose sturgeon have large mouths that measure greater than 60 percent of the distance between the eyes .\nbecause atlantic sturgeon are similar to humans in life span , recovery is slow and easily unnoticed .\n) designed in hybridlab 1 . 0 clustered baltic sturgeon together with atlantic sturgeon , and produced no evidence for a historic hybrid population ( figure\nfailure to confirm previous identification of two putative museum specimens of the atlantic sturgeon , acipenser sturio , as the adriatic sturgeon , a . naccarii\nhe p , jones n . design and test of a low profile gillnet to reduce atlantic sturgeon and sea turtle bycatch in mid - atlantic monkfish fishery .\natlantic sturgeon were harvested heavily in the twentieth century , particularly for their eggs ( or roe ) used for caviar . overfishing led to a decline in abundance of atlantic sturgeon , and in 1998 the atlantic states marine fisheries commission issued a coast - wide moratorium on the harvest of atlantic sturgeon , and noaa fisheries followed with a similar moratorium in federal waters .\nkeeping atlantic sturgeon on the planet won\u2019t be easy or cheap ; but now we know it\u2019s possible .\natlantic sturgeon status review team . 2007 . status review of atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ) . report to national marine fisheries service , northeast regional office . february 23 , 2007 . 174 pp .\ngrunwald c , maceda l , waldman j , stabile j , wirgin i . conservation of atlantic sturgeon\ngenetic protocol of atlantic sturgeon acipenser oxyrinchus ( l . ) fry for restocking the vistula river , poland\nfox dj , armstrong jl , brown lm , wark k . the influence of sink gillnet profile on bycatch of atlantic sturgeon in the mid - atlantic monkfish fishery .\nkahnle aw , hattala ka , mckown a , shirey ca , collins mr , squiers ts , savoy t . stock status of atlantic sturgeon of atlantic coast estuaries .\natlantic sturgeon have large snouts for rooting out bottom - dwelling prey . matt balazik / vcu rice rivers center\nby may 30 , 2016 . this rule proposing to designate critical habitat for the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon is complemented by a concurrent rule proposing to designate critical habitat for the gulf of maine , new york bight , and chesapeake bay dpss of atlantic sturgeon .\nthe lateral extent for all critical habitat units for the south atlantic dps of atlantic sturgeon is the ordinary high water mark on each bank of the river and shorelines . critical\natlantic sturgeon at various life stages are found within most estuarine waters of north carolina throughout the entire year . due to their highly migratory behavior , atlantic sturgeon spawned in other regions often enter north carolina waters . sturgeon from the hudson , chesapeake , carolina , and south atlantic distinct population segments have been identified in north carolina waters .\nchesapeake bay atlantic sturgeon\u2014acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus\u2014is listed as a federally endangered species , and its catch or possession is prohibited .\nthe largest atlantic sturgeon ever recorded was caught in canada . it measured 14 feet long and weighed 811 pounds .\nkolman r , kapusta a , duda a , wiszniewski g . review of the current status of the atlantic sturgeon\nbiology and conservation of the european sturgeon acipenser sturio l . 1758 . the reunion of the european and atlantic sturgeons\nnoaa fisheries designated critical habitat for atlantic sturgeon in parts of coastal rivers from maine to florida . ( noaa )\n2014 study . there were seven atlantic sturgeon detected in the cooper river that had been tagged in other systems .\nin the maritimes region , there are aboriginal food , social and ceremonial allocations for atlantic sturgeon , as well as a strict quota - controlled commercial gill - net fishery and a recreational angling fishery where most anglers employ live release . there is also an atlantic sturgeon aquaculture and processing facility in new brunswick , which operates using wild atlantic sturgeon caught via the commercial fishery . commercially , the atlantic sturgeon is valued for its flesh and caviar ( eggs ) .\nlength and cumulative frequency distribution of atlantic sturgeon encountered in albemarle sound , north carolina from april to october , 2014 .\nwhite rr , armstrong jl . survival of atlantic sturgeon captured by flounder gillnets in albemarle sound . fishery resource grant program\ncritical habitat for the gulf of maine , new york bight , and chesapeake bay distinct population segments of atlantic sturgeon .\n2013 . year three , the influence of sink gillnet profile on bycatch of atlantic sturgeon in the mid - atlantic monkfish fishery . ( ea - 133f - 12 - rq - 0697 )\natlantic sturgeon in the hudson river region - what nysdec is doing to help conserve sturgeon in the hudson river region . ( long - term monitoring and additional research ) .\nbecause of the bony plates covering its body , the atlantic sturgeon has few natural predators . human activities such as pollution , historic overfishing and damming of rivers threaten sturgeon .\natlantic sturgeon that are spawned in u . s . rivers or are captive progeny of atlantic sturgeon that were spawned in u . s . rivers are listed under the esa as five distinct population segments ( dpss ) read more . . .\nreproduction : atlantic sturgeon are anadromous , entering large freshwater river systems to spawn during the spring . only a few states still have spawning populations of the atlantic sturgeon . the hudson river in new york has the only spawning population in new england .\nthe anadromous atlantic sturgeon is among the oldest fish species in the world . this species is a north american member of the\natlantic sturgeon are opportunistic bottom feeders that prey on various types of worms , shrimps , crabs , snails and small fishes .\nfernandes sj , zydlewski g , zydlewski jd , wippelhauser gs , kinnison mt . seasonal distribution and movements of shortnose sturgeon and atlantic sturgeon in the penobscot river estuary , maine .\nthe satilla river was identified as a spawning river for atlantic sturgeon based on the capture of adults in spawning condition . ong et al . ( 1996 ) captured four reproductively mature atlantic sturgeon on spawning grounds during the spawning season in the satilla river .\n( 2014 ) indicates that atlantic sturgeon do not utilize the sampit , ashley , ashepoo , and broad - coosawhatchie rivers in south carolina . these rivers are short , coastal plains rivers that most likely do not contain suitable habitat for atlantic sturgeon . post\n( a ) the physical features essential for the conservation of atlantic sturgeon belonging to the carolina and south atlantic distinct population segments are those habitat components that support successful reproduction and recruitment . these are :\nplans to rear thousands of young sturgeon for release in bay tributaries this year were dashed as biologists failed to successfully spawn either of two\nripe\nfemale atlantic sturgeon this summer .\natlantic sturgeon , one of the most expensive and imperiled fish in the world , made it onto the endangered species list wednesday .\nthe atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus ) is a large - bodied and late - maturing fish with distinctive features . these include :\n) near major rivers ( pasquotank , perquimans , chowan , alligator , and roanoke rivers ) to optimize the probability of encountering atlantic sturgeon . we specifically selected this location because the largest atlantic sturgeon commercial fishery once occurred in the roanoke river , north carolina (\nstein ab , friedland kb , sutherland m . atlantic sturgeon marine bycatch mortality on the continental shelf of the northeastern united states .\njune 2016 - proposed critical habitat for the gulf of maine , new york bight , and chesapeake bay dpss of atlantic sturgeon .\nthe roanoke river was identified as a spawning river for atlantic sturgeon based on the capture of juveniles , the collection of eggs , and the tracking location of adults . further , there was information indicating the historical use of the roanoke river by atlantic sturgeon .\nthis fish was an atlantic sturgeon \u2014 the largest , longest - lived creature that reproduces in north american rivers collected by the atlantic . its species is at least 70 million years senior to my own .\nhistorically , atlantic sturgeon were present in approximately 38 rivers in the united states from st . croix , maine to the saint johns river , florida . scientists identified 35 of those as spawning rivers . atlantic sturgeon are currently present in approximately 32 of these rivers , and spawning occurs in at least 20 of them . overfishing was one of the primary factors that led to the widespread decline in the abundance of atlantic sturgeon . atlantic sturgeon was valued particularly for its roe or eggs , which were in high demand as caviar .\ndesignating critical habitat for the gulf of maine , new york bight , chesapeake bay , carolina and south atlantic distinct population segments of atlantic sturgeon . the effective date of the rule is september 18 , 2017 .\n< 0 . 05 ; power > 80 % ) . the cpue for the control ( 0\u20130 . 1988 atlantic sturgeon per hour ,\nthe restoration program for the baltic population of the atlantic sturgeon acipenser o . oxyrinchus in polandus | ryszard kolman | research project on researchgate\n\u201cthis is do - or - die time for the atlantic sturgeon , \u201d mr . estrin said . \u201cthe numbers are pretty damning . \u201d\n) . a firth regression test did not find a significant interaction effect between the number of atlantic sturgeon encounters and net section , month , or water depth . the best model fit did suggest that month and depth were significant predictors of a positive outcome for atlantic sturgeon encounters .\nnumber of atlantic sturgeon incidentally encountered by mean water depth ( m ) in albemarle sound , north carolina from april to october , 2014 .\n1999 . movement , habitat selection and growth of early - life juvenile atlantic sturgeon in albemarle sound , north carolina ; p . 87 .\nvan eenennaam jp , doroshov si , moberg gp , watson jg , moore ds , linares j . reproductive conditions of the atlantic sturgeon (\n( c ) critical habitat boundaries of the carolina dps . the lateral extent for all critical habitat units for the carolina dps of atlantic sturgeon is the ordinary high water mark on each bank of the river and shorelines . critical habitat for the carolina dps of atlantic sturgeon is :\nthe atlantic sturgeon is managed and protected under a fishery management plan implemented by the atlantic states marine fisheries commission ( asmfc ) . the gulf of maine population segment is listed as threatened under the endangered species act ( esa ) . throughout the rest of its range , the atlantic sturgeon is considered endangered and is locally extirpated in some of its original habitats .\nwirgin i , grunwald c , stabile j , waldman j . genetic evidence for relict atlantic sturgeon stocks along the mid - atlantic coast of the usa . n am j fish manage . 2007 ; 27 : 1214\u201329 .\nthe genetics information for atlantic sturgeon captured in six specific areas of the marine range demonstrates that atlantic sturgeon belonging to the chesapeake bay dps were present in at least four of the sampled areas : the connecticut river , long island sound , the atlantic ocean off of rockaway , new york , and the atlantic ocean off of delaware bay . the dps comprised approximately 5 percent to 21 percent of the atlantic sturgeon sampled in these areas ( waldman et al . , 2013 ; o ' leary et al . , 2014 ; wirgin et al . , 2015a ) . the chesapeake bay dps was not detected in the relatively small number of samples collected from atlantic sturgeon captured in the winter off of north carolina ( laney et al . , 2007 ) , and comprised no more that 1 percent of atlantic sturgeon sampled in the minas basin in the summer ( wirgin et al . , 2012 ) . the results suggest that chesapeake bay dps atlantic sturgeon travel great distances , including into canadian waters , but occur most predominantly in marine waters of the new york and mid - atlantic bight .\nboth males and females may remain in the river until late fall before migrating back to the atlantic . after hatching , the young tend to remain in their natal areas up to five years before beginning their journey to the ocean . immature atlantic sturgeon may also wander in and out of the atlantic coastline .\natlantic sturgeon are managed in the u . s . through amendment 1 to the interstate fmp for atlantic sturgeon and its associated addenda i - iv . the primary goal of the amendment is to achieve stock recovery . under amendment 1 , each state and jurisdiction \u201cmust maintain complete closure , through prohibiting possession of atlantic sturgeon , and any and all parts thereof including eggs , of any directed fishery for and landings of atlantic sturgeon until the fishery management plan is modified to reopen fishing in that jurisdiction . \u201d exceptions to the moratorium on possession were approved via technical addendum # 1 ( 2000 ) for the purposes of scientific research and educational display . the amendment also addresses atlantic sturgeon mortality associated with bycatch from other fisheries .\nreason for decline : populations of atlantic sturgeon have declined due to overfishing , loss of habitat , limited access to spawning areas and water pollution .\nelvira b , almod\u00f3var a . morphology and taxonomy of the atlantic sturgeon acipenser sturio from spain . folia zool . 2000 ; 49 : 221\u201330 .\ngessner j , arndt g - m , fredrich f , ludwig a , kirschbaum f , bartel r , et al . remediation of atlantic sturgeon\n( e ) critical habitat boundaries of the chesapeake bay dps . critical habitat for the chesapeake bay dps of atlantic sturgeon is the waters of :\natlantic sturgeon utilize estuarine areas for foraging , growth , and movement . atlantic sturgeon subadults and adults in non - spawning condition use estuarine waters seasonally , presumably for foraging opportunities , although evidence in the form of stomach content collection and analysis is limited ( savoy and pacileo , 2007 ; dzaugis , 2013 ) . we considered all studies that have collected atlantic sturgeon stomach contents . all of the prey species identified are indicative of benthic foraging , but different types of prey were consumed and different substrates were identified for the areas where atlantic sturgeon were foraging ( bigelow and schroeder , 1953 ; johnson\nthe shortnose sturgeon salvage network was formed to improve documentation of endangered shortnose sturgeon found dead in the wild read more . . .\nbut the state\u2019s department of environmental conservation , which banned atlantic sturgeon fishing in 1996 , and the new york thruway authority say it is impossible to link the increase in sturgeon deaths to construction work around the bridge .\nfr ( federal register ) endangered and threatened wildlife and plants : threatened and endangered status for distinct population segments of atlantic sturgeon in the northeast region .\nthe regulatory baseline conditions , including the listing of the atlantic sturgeon , will greatly affect the number of incremental consultations . specifically , the number of incremental\nthe atlantic states marine fisheries commission manages atlantic sturgeon under a fishery management plan . in 1998 , the commission instituted a coast - wide moratorium on the harvest of atlantic sturgeon , in effect until there are at least 20 protected age classes in each spawning stock ( anticipated to take up to 40 years ) . noaa fisheries followed the commission moratorium with a similar moratorium for federal waters .\nthose life stages , and conservation objectives that can be supported by identifiable physical or biological features ( hereafter also referred to as \u201cpbfs\u201d or \u201cessential features\u201d ) . in the final rule listing the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon (\nludwig a , makoviecki d , benecke n . further evidence of trans - atlantic colonization of western europe by american atlantic sturgeons . archaeofauna . 2009 ; 18 : 185\u201392 .\nwas likely displaced by atlantic sturgeons due to the cooling during the little ice age .\nin 2009 , the atlantic sturgeon was petitioned to be listed under the esa . since 1998 , there has been a moratorium on fishing for atlantic sturgeon throughout its entire range . in addition , efforts are in place to preserve and restore habitat as well as explore breeding and stocking efforts . dam removals and water quality improvements can contribute to improved populations . research throughout its range aims to document atlantic sturgeon movements and other habits to better understand the species .\n) ; all protected species were released alive . no mortalities of atlantic sturgeon were documented in either the control or experimental sections . it should be noted that two of the atlantic sturgeon had external t - bar tags at the base of the left dorsal fin musculature ( # 49364 and # 48022 ) .\nhudson river fisheries unit , division of marine resources and other state and local agencies work cooperatively to gather information about the atlantic sturgeon through a variety of programs and surveys . to read more about long term monitoring and research being done by the nysdec to better conserve the atlantic sturgeon , visit the pages below .\n, while atlantic sturgeon have a spleen length averaging 5 . 7 % of their fork length . lesser morphological differences include relative head length , shape of dorsal\ndesse - berset n . first archaeozoological identification of atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus mitchill 1815 ) in france . cr palevol . 2009 ; 8 : 717\u201324 .\nthe st . marys river was identified as a spawning river for atlantic sturgeon based on the capture of yoy atlantic sturgeon . atlantic sturgeon were once thought to be extirpated in the st . marys river . however , nine atlantic sturgeon were captured in sampling efforts between may 19 and june 9 , 2014 . captured fish ranged in size from 293 mm ( yoy ) to 932 mm ( subadult ) . this is a possible indication of a slow and protracted recovery in the st . marys ( d . peterson , uga , pers . comm . to j . rueter , nmfs prd , july 8 , 2015 ) .\n( c ) critical habitat boundaries for the gulf of maine dps . critical habitat for the gulf of maine dps of atlantic sturgeon is the waters of :\n( d ) critical habitat boundaries of the new york bight dps . critical habitat for the new york bight dps of atlantic sturgeon is the waters of :\nlazzari , m . a . , j . c . oherron , ii & r . w . hastings . 1986 . occurrence of juvenile atlantic sturgeon ,\nthe family acipenseridae consists of 25 anadromous and freshwater sturgeon species of circumpolar distribution in the northern hemisphere . unfortunately , sturgeons are seriously threatened due to overfishing , damming of rivers and pollution [ 1 \u2013 3 ] . three species lived in southwestern europe : the european sturgeon acipenser sturio , the atlantic sturgeon acipenser oxyrinchus and the adriatic sturgeon acipenser naccarii [ 4 ] .\nwirgin i , grunwald c , stabile j , waldman jr : genetic evidence for mid - atlantic coast relict atlantic sturgeon stocks . na j fish manag . 2007 , 27 : 1214 - 1229 . 10 . 1577 / m06 - 269 . 1 .\natlantic and shortnose sturgeon can be found in major rivers , estuaries , bays and coastal waters along the eastern seaboard of the united states read more . . .\n2016 ) . however , there is still a paucity of data to inform distribution of subadult and adult atlantic sturgeon within the marine environment and their habitat use .\nthe connecticut river has long been known as a seasonal aggregation area for subadult atlantic sturgeon , and both historical and contemporary records document presence of atlantic sturgeon in the river as far upstream as hadley , ma ( savoy and shake , 1993 ; savoy and pacileo , 2003 ; nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) . the enfield dam located along the fall line at enfield , ct prevented upstream passage of atlantic sturgeon from 1827 until 1977 when it was breached ( nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) . although atlantic sturgeon may generally remain below the fall line , an atlantic sturgeon was captured at the holyoke dam fish lift in 2006 , upstream of enfield ( nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) . as noted previously , the capture of juvenile atlantic sturgeon in the connecticut river in may 2014 ( t . savoy , ct deep , pers . comm . ; connecticut weekly diadromous fish report , report date may 20 , 2014 ) suggests spawning may be occurring in the river .\naddendum i ( 2001 ) exempts the state of florida from the possession moratorium in order to develop private aquaculture facilities for cultivation and propagation of the species . addendum ii ( 2005 ) exempts a private company in north carolina from the moratorium on possession , propagation , and sale of atlantic sturgeon meat and eggs , and allows a canada - based exporter to export atlantic sturgeon fry and fingerlings into north carolina . addendum iii ( 2006 ) similarly allows a private company in north carolina to import atlantic sturgeon from a canada - based exporter . addendum iv ( 2012 ) updates habitat information for atlantic sturgeon and identifies areas of concern and research needs .\nthere are two subspecies of atlantic sturgeon\u2014the gulf sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi ) and the atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ) . historically , the gulf sturgeon occurred from the mississippi river east to tampa bay in florida . its present range extends from lake pontchartrain and the pearl river system in louisiana and mississippi east to the suwannee river in florida . the gulf sturgeon was listed as threatened under the esa in 1991 . this proposed rule addresses the atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ) , which is distributed along the eastern coast of north america . historically , sightings of atlantic sturgeon have been reported from hamilton inlet , labrador , canada , south to the st . johns river , florida . reported occurrences south of the st . johns river , florida , have been rare but have increased recently with the evolution of acoustic telemetry coupled with increased receiver arrays .\nrange : atlantic sturgeon range along the entire east coast of north america , from the st . john river in new brunswick , canada , to the st . johns river along the east coast of florida . a separate subspecies , the gulf sturgeon , is found along the west coast of florida and throughout the gulf of mexico . atlantic sturgeon native to connecticut waters are believed to be extinct .\natlantic sturgeon are found on the east coast of north america and range from new brunswick , canada , down to the eastern coast of florida . when the first settlers came to north america , the atlantic sturgeon was in great abundance . their populations have since declined due to human factors , such as overfishing and water pollution .\ngenetic information is available for atlantic sturgeon captured in six specific areas of the marine range : minas basin , bay of fundy , canada ; the connecticut river estuary ; long island sound ; the atlantic ocean off of rockaway , new york ; the atlantic ocean off of delaware bay ; and , the atlantic ocean off of virginia / north carolina ( laney et al . , 2007 ; wirgin et al . , 2012 ; waldman et al . , 2013 ; o ' leary et al . , 2014 ; wirgin et al . , 2015a ) . atlantic sturgeon belonging to the gulf of maine dps comprised 35 percent of the minas basin , bay of fundy samples collected in the summer , suggesting this is an important foraging area for the gulf of maine dps . the dps comprised less than 2 percent to 14 . 5 percent of atlantic sturgeon sampled in the connecticut river , long island sound , the atlantic ocean off of rockaway , new york , and the atlantic ocean off of delaware bay . the dps was not detected in the sampled atlantic sturgeon incidentally captured during winter from waters off of virginia / north carolina .\nsample size ( i . e . , number of sets ) was estimated using historical atlantic sturgeon fishery interaction rates and standard power analyses procedures . to detect various corresponding reductions ( control vs experimental ) in atlantic sturgeon encounter rates ( 50\u201380 % ) , we used the mcnemar test ( \u03b1 = 0 . 05 level ) ; power curves were generated to estimate the number of sets necessary to achieve optimal power ( i . e . , sample size ) according to gillnet length and historical atlantic sturgeon encounters . power curves were based on the mean annual atlantic sturgeon catch rate ( 0 . 03 sturgeon / 914 m of net / 24 h soak ) in pamlico and albemarle sounds ( ncdmf observer program ( 2001\u20132009 ) and white & armstrong ( 2000 ) ) . applying this power analyses approach , the number of sets necessary to detect an 80 % reduction in atlantic sturgeon encounters was 70 .\nthe atlantic sturgeon is protected as an endangered species by the federal endangered species act and as a federally - designated endangered species by florida\u2019s endangered and threatened species rule .\nwirgin i , breece mw , fox da , maceda l , wark kw , king t . origin of atlantic sturgeon collected off the delaware coast during spring months .\nthe atlantic sturgeon was once a major commercial fishery . this fishery was so productive that atlantic sturgeon were once referred to as\nalbany beef\nas they were a common source of protein throughout the hudson valley . unfortunately , due to overfishing and their susceptibility to getting caught as bycatch in other fisheries , their populations collapsed and have been slow to recover . the atlantic sturgeon fishery was shut down in 1998 after an unsuccessful attempt to restore the population . in 2012 , the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ) ( link leaves dec ' s website ) , fisheries listed the atlantic sturgeon as endangered . even though the atlantic sturgeon is no longer fished , and possession is illegal , they are still vulnerable to many threats such as climate change , environmental events , and a variety of human activities that result in population impacts .\nhistorically , atlantic sturgeon inhabited approximately 38 rivers in the united states spanning from maine to florida . scientists identified 35 of those as spawning rivers . atlantic sturgeon can now be found in approximately 32 of these rivers , and spawn in at least 20 of them . critical habitat areas in coastal rivers were identified based on physical and biological features , such as substrate type in the river bed , water temperature and salinity , that are essential to the conservation of atlantic sturgeon , particularly for spawning and development .\nthe coastwide atlantic sturgeon population is made up of five distinct population segments : ( 1 ) gulf of maine , ( 2 ) new york bight , ( 3 ) chesapeake , ( 4 ) carolina , and ( 5 ) south atlantic . in north carolina ( carolina distinct population segment ) , sturgeon are currently included in the north carolina interjurisdictional fishery management plan , which defers to the atlantic states marine fisheries commission plan for compliance requirements . in 1990 , the atlantic states marine fisheries commission adopted a fishery management plan for atlantic sturgeon . the goal was to restore sturgeon to fishable abundance throughout its range . as of april 1998 , all atlantic coast states had implemented total closures in state waters . an amendment to the plan was passed in june 1998 . objectives of the amendment were to establish at least 20 protected year classes of females in each spawning stock . in may 1999 , the national marine fisheries service extended the ban on sturgeon fishing into federal waters . addendum i to amendment 1 of the atlantic states marine fisheries commission fishery management plan ( passed in 2001 ) allowed for the importation of non - indigenous atlantic sturgeon and to permit development of private aquaculture facilities for this species . the atlantic states marine fisheries commission has begun the initial steps of conducting a stock assessment for atlantic sturgeon with an initial projected completion date of 2015 . however , due to data constraints , the assessment has been delayed and will not be completed until the fall of 2017 .\natlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus ) are an anadromous species , which means they reside primarily in oceans as adults but migrating up rivers to spawn . the species is found from the st . john river , canada , south to the st . johns river , florida . atlantic sturgeon spend their first few years of life in their natal estuary before becoming highly migratory and travelling throughout the coastal atlantic waters and various estuaries to feed .\nnoaa fisheries is proposing to protect important river habitat for the threatened gulf of maine population segment and the endangered population segments of the new york bight , chesapeake bay , carolina and south atlantic . noaa fisheries listed the atlantic sturgeon under the endangered species act in 2012 .\natlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrhynchus ) are ancient fish dating back at least 70 million years , and can be found along the entire atlantic coast from florida to labrador , canada . they are anadromous , migrating from the ocean into coastal estuaries and rivers to spawn . atlantic sturgeon may live up to 70 years old , with females reaching sexual maturity between the ages of seven to 30 , and males between the ages of five to 24 .\nthe fishing effort was distributed relatively similar by mean depth ( 1 . 3\u20136 . 4 m ) , but more atlantic sturgeon were incidentally encountered in deeper than shallower waters (\nludwig a , gessner j . what makes the difference ? sea sturgeon on both sides of the atlantic ocean . am fish soc symp . 2007 ; 56 : 285\u2013300 .\n2013 ; wippelhauser and squiers , 2015 ) . existing and new technologies are providing additional information for the life history and distribution of the atlantic sturgeon in marine waters ( nelson\n\u201cthe proposed critical habitat identifies areas that provide important spawning and rearing grounds , plus migratory corridors for the atlantic sturgeon , \u201d added sobeck . \u201cby protecting the sturgeon\u2019s habitat , we are helping preserve this important species for future generations of americans . \u201d\nwe considered a no action ( status quo ) alternative to the proposed designation under which nmfs would not propose critical habitat for the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon . under this alternative , conservation and recovery of the listed species would depend upon the protection provided under the \u201cjeopardy\u201d provisions of section 7 of the esa . compared to the status quo , there would be no increase in the number of esa consultations or project modifications in the future that would not otherwise be required due to the listing of the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon . however , we have determined that the physical features forming the basis for our proposed critical habitat designation are essential to the conservation of the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon . thus , the lack of protection of the essential features from adverse modification and / or destruction could result in decline in abundance of the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon , and loss of associated economic and other values this species provides to society . thus , the no action alternative is not necessarily a \u201cno cost\u201d alternative for small entities .\nthe hudson river is one of the most studied areas for atlantic sturgeon . the upstream limit for atlantic sturgeon on the hudson river is the federal dam at the fall line , approximately river kilometer 246 ( dovel and berggren , 1983 ; bain , 1998 ; kahnle et al . , 1998 ; everly and boreman , 1999 ) . recent tracking data indicate atlantic sturgeon presence at this upstream limit ( d . fox , desu , pers . comm . ) . sturgeon occurring in the upstream limits of the river are suspected , but not yet confirmed , to belong to the new york bight dps .\nthe nmfs has major concerns about the project , warning that \u201cdredge gear used in the delaware is known to injure or kill atlantic sturgeon\u201d and that saltwater intrusion may inhibit reproduction .\natlantic sturgeon spawn in either fresh , or brackish waters over hard clay , rubble , gravel , or shell , usually in fast moving water in the spring or early summer .\n= 20 ) of the fishing effort . the number of atlantic sturgeon incidentally encountered was positively associated with mean water depth , and it was explained by a quadratic polynomial regression (\n2011 . gillnet configurations and their impact on atlantic sturgeon and marine mammal bycatch in the new jersey monkfish fishery : year 1 . ( ea133f - 10 - rq - 1160 )\ndadswell mj . a review of the status of atlantic sturgeon in canada , with comparisons to populations in the united states and europe . fisheries . 2006 ; 21 : 218\u201329 .\ndespite the small sample size , the data showed that most of the atlantic sturgeon incidental encounters were associated with deeper water . many incidental encounters occurred at depths between 5 . 1 and 6 . 3 m . relating the number of the atlantic sturgeon encounters to southern flounder catch by depth showed that atlantic sturgeon seemed to prefer slightly deeper waters in september ; most southern flounder ( 39 . 7 % ) were taken in water depths between 3 . 75 and 5 m . we cannot be certain given the distribution of fishing effort and annual fluctuations in water temperature , but it is probable that atlantic sturgeon prefer slightly cooler waters than southern flounder . if this is the case , then a potential best management practice to reduce interactions with atlantic sturgeon could be for fishermen targeting southern flounder in albemarle sound to set their gillnet in more shallower water ; we recommend testing this hypothesis in the future .\nfor the susquehanna and potomac rivers , the 1998 and 2007 atlantic sturgeon status reviews provided the information for presence of atlantic sturgeon in the rivers , including : ( 1 ) historical newspaper accounts of large sturgeon in the lower reaches of the susquehanna river during the period 1765 to 1895 ; ( 2 ) personal communication of a limited but more recent sturgeon fishery on the susquehanna near perryville , maryland ( r . st . pierre , usfws , personal comm . ) ; ( 3 ) several sightings of sturgeon near the susquehanna river mouth during the period 1978 to 1987 ; ( 4 ) a historical fishery for atlantic sturgeon in the potomac ; and ( 5 ) observations of a large mature female atlantic sturgeon in the potomac river in 1970 ( ( nmfs and usfws , 1998 ; nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) . since the commercial fisheries targeted spawning sturgeon , historical captures of sturgeon in the susquehanna and potomac rivers , as well as the presence of the features necessary to support reproduction and recruitment in each river , indicate that there is the potential for spawning to occur in both the susquehanna and potomac .\ncitation : elvira b , leal s , doadrio i , almod\u00f3var a ( 2015 ) current occurrence of the atlantic sturgeon acipenser oxyrinchus in northern spain : a new prospect for sturgeon conservation in western europe . plos one 10 ( 12 ) : e0145728 . urltoken\nby - catch : atlantic sturgeon are incidentally caught by fisheries operations throughout the marine range of the species and in some riverine waters as well . because atlantic sturgeon mix extensively in marine waters and may use multiple river systems for spawning , foraging , and other life functions , they are subject to being caught as fishermen target species in other fisheries throughout their range .\nin the chesapeake watershed , atlantic sturgeon runs have recently been discovered in the james , york , marshyhope , nanticoke , and rappahannock rivers . and balazik thinks they\u2019re in the potomac .\nhistorically , native american populations in the eastern united states harvested atlantic sturgeon for food using traps , weirs , snares , and spears . following european colonization , there was a commercial fishery for atlantic sturgeon in maine from the 1600s to the 1800s on the kennebec and androscoggin rivers . however , overfishing of the species caused commercial harvest to cease by the early 1900s .\nhenderson - arzapalo a , king tl . novel microsatellite markers for atlantic sturgeon ( acipenser oxyrinchus ) population delineation and broodstock management . mol ecol notes . 2002 : 2 : 437\u20139 .\nfamily , and when mature , the atlantic sturgeon travels from the ocean upstream in rivers to spawn . female sturgeon lay eggs about every six years , and can lay up to about 8 million eggs in a single year . juveniles spend their first two to six years of age in fresh and brackish water before moving to the ocean . atlantic sturgeon can reach 60 years of age , 15 feet in length , and 800 pounds in weight .\natlantic sturgeon that are spawned in u . s . rivers or are captive progeny of atlantic sturgeon that were spawned in u . s . rivers are listed under the esa as five distinct population segments ( dpss ) . as of february 6 , 2012 , the new york bight , chesapeake bay , carolina , and south atlantic dpss were listed as endangered . the gulf of maine dps was listed as threatened . the greater atlantic region of noaa fisheries service has jurisdiction for implementing the esa with respect to the gulf of maine , new york bight , and chesapeake bay dpss . noaa fisheries service , southeast region oversees implementation of the esa for the carolina and south atlantic dpss .\nwhen data were not available for certain rivers or portions of occupied rivers , we used our general knowledge of atlantic sturgeon spawning and applied river - specific information to determine the location of features essential to spawning . we considered salinity tolerance during the earliest life stages to determine appropriate habitat for larvae to develop as they mature . available telemetry data suggest that most atlantic sturgeon spawning activity in the savannah and altamaha start around river kilometer ( rkm ) 100 ( post et al . , 2014 ) . similar evidence from the edisto , neuse , and tar - pamlico rivers indicates spawning activity starts around rkm 80 . peer review comments on the draft economic and biological information to inform atlantic sturgeon critical habitat designation indicated that atlantic sturgeon spawn below the fall line , unlike shortnose sturgeon that may spawn well above the fall line .\nat the time of listing , the delaware and hudson rivers were the only known spawning rivers for the new york bight dps of atlantic sturgeon ( dovel and berggren , 1983 ; bain , 1998 ; kahnle et al . , 1998 ; nmfs and usfws , 2007 ; calvo et al . , 2010 ) . in spring 2014 , several small atlantic sturgeon were captured in the connecticut river ( t . savoy , ct deep , pers . comm . ) . we presume these to be juveniles less than a year old based on their apparent size seen in a photo provided in the connecticut weekly diadromous fish report , report date may 20 , 2014 . though it was previously thought that the atlantic sturgeon population in the connecticut had been extirpated ( savoy and pacileo , 2003 ; nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) , capture of these juvenile atlantic sturgeon strongly suggests that spawning is occurring in this river . for the housatonic river , the 1998 and 2007 status reviews for atlantic sturgeon described information for historical presence of atlantic sturgeon in that river , including whitworth ' s ( 1996 ) reference to a large fishing industry for atlantic sturgeon ( nmfs and usfws , 1998 ; nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) . since the commercial fisheries targeted spawning sturgeon , historical captures of sturgeon in the housatonic river as well as the presence of the features necessary to support reproduction and recruitment in this river indicates that there is the potential for spawning to occur in the housatonic .\nthe atlantic sturgeon salvage program is a network run by noaa to help conserve atlantic and shortnose sturgeon . in new york state , nysdec marine protected resources and hudson river fisheries unit work together to effectively protect this endangered species in both its marine and freshwater habitats . information regarding washed up sturgeons is sent to noaa , fisheries and they may provide a unique identification number for that particular sturgeon . we rely on assistance from the general public to help conserve this endangered species and encourage individuals to report any sturgeon they may come across .\na primitive fish , sturgeon has a fossil record dating back 85 million years .\ngulf sturgeon jumping near rock bluff , suwannee river , florida ; july 2007 .\ncurrent research projects on wild populations of shortnose sturgeon include read more . . .\na gill net survey for adult shortnose and juvenile atlantic sturgeon was conducted in the cape fear river drainage from 1990 to 1992 , and replicated from 1997 to 2005 . each sampling period included two overnight sets . the 1990 - 1992 survey captured 100 atlantic sturgeon below lock and dam # 1 ( rkm 95 ) . in 1997 , 16 atlantic sturgeon were captured below lock and dam # 1 , an additional 60 atlantic sturgeon were caught in the brunswick ( a tributary of the cape fear river ) , and 12 were caught in the northeast cape river ( moser et al . 1998 ) . additionally , ross et al . ( 1988 in moser and ross , 1995 ) reported the capture of a gravid female in the cape fear river .\nwirgin i , waldman jr , rosko j , gross r , collins mr , rogers sg , stabile j . genetic structure of atlantic sturgeon populations based on mitochondrial dna control region sequences .\nlassalle g , crouzet p , gessner j , rochard e . global warming impacts and conservation responses for the critically endangered european atlantic sturgeon . biol conserv . 2010 ; 143 : 2441\u201352 .\n( 2005 ) previously reviewed available information on substrate , salinity , and dissolved oxygen for the pamunkey and mattaponi rivers and concluded that atlantic sturgeon spawning habitat was likely present in each river .\ncritical habitat is designated for the carolina and south atlantic dpss of atlantic sturgeon as described in paragraphs ( a ) through ( b ) of this section . the textual descriptions in paragraphs ( c ) through ( d ) of this section are the definitive source for determining the critical habitat boundaries .\nriverkeeper attributes rising deaths of atlantic sturgeons to construction on the replacement for the tappan zee bridge , above .\nthere is a fisheries awareness programme co - ordinated between national fishermen associations in atlantic north sea and wwf .\natlantic sturgeon spawning behavior and early life history have been extensively studied and are fairly well understood , though the exact location of spawning sites on many rivers ( particularly in the southeast ) is not known , or can change from time to time as water depth and substrate availability changes . however , there is substantial information in the scientific literature indicating the physical characteristics of atlantic sturgeon spawning and early life history habitat . therefore , to evaluate potential critical habitat , we focused on identifying the physical or biological features that support atlantic sturgeon reproduction and survival of early life stages .\natlantic states marine fisheries commission ( asmfc ) ( link leaves dec ' s website ) is responsible for the cooperative interstate management of atlantic sturgeon . during 1993 through 1995 , new york regulated the atlantic sturgeon fishery with size limits , seasons , area closures , and as more data became available , it became apparent that the hudson river stock was being overfished . new york implemented a harvest moratorium in 1996 . new jersey followed with a zero quota in the same year . in 1998 , the asmfc adopted amendment 1 to the interstate fishery management plan for atlantic sturgeon . this amendment banned possession of atlantic sturgeon in all u . s . atlantic coastal states . it also recommended that states with spawning populations sample adults every five years and identify bycatch losses in state waters . in 2012 , the hudson river stock was listed as an endangered species as part of the ny bight distinct population segment . a benchmark stock assessment is scheduled to be completed in the fall of 2017 .\natlantic sturgeon are collected in various independent sampling programs conducted by the north carolina division of marine fisheries . only the albemarle sound independent gill net survey data are used in the current stock assessment . young - of - year , juvenile , and an occasional adult atlantic sturgeon are collected in this survey . the survey shows an increasing trend in abundance for juveniles ( figure 1 ) .\nfalls , the head - of - tide , is the upstream limit of atlantic sturgeon distribution in the androscoggin river . the dam is located approximately 10 kilometers upstream of the confluence of the kennebec and androscoggin rivers ( asmfc , 1998 ; nmfs and usfws , 2007 ; nmfs , 2013 ; wippelhauser and squiers , 2015 ) . the lockwood dam at river kilometer 103 is the current upstream limit for atlantic sturgeon in the kennebec river ; it is located at the site of a natural falls ( nmfs and usfws , 2007 ) . from 1837 to 1999 , the edwards dam was the upstream limit of atlantic sturgeon in the kennebec river . located near the head - of - tide , approximately 29 kilometers downstream of the lockwood dam at augusta , the edwards dam ( rkm 74 ) prevented atlantic sturgeon from accessing historical habitat . sturgeon were sighted above the former edwards dam site after removal of the dam and in june 2005 , an atlantic sturgeon was incidentally captured at river kilometer 102 ( nmfs and usfws , 2007 ; wippelhauser , 2012 ) .\nphylogenetic relationships of ancient and recent atlantic sturgeon haplotypes . median - joining network of american atlantic and baltic sturgeon haplotypes calculated in network 4 . 2 . 0 . 1 based on control region sequences . black circle white dots represent mutations and orange circle white dots represent inferred haplotypes introduced by the algorithm . dot colors for haplotypes are congruent with colors used for mitochondrial haplotypes in figure 1 ."]}
{"id": 864, "summary": [{"text": "chilorhinophis gerardi , commonly known as gerard 's black and yellow burrowing snake , is a species of venomous snake in the family atractaspididae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the species is endemic to africa . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "chilorhinophis gerardi", "paragraphs": ["apostolepis gerardi boulenger 1913 : 103 parkerophis gerardi \u2014 barbour & amaral 1927 chilorhinophis gerardi \u2014 de witte & laurent 1947 : 54 chilorhinophis gerardi gerardi \u2014 loveridge 1958 chilorhinophis gerardi gerardi \u2014 broadley 1959 chilorhinophis gerardi \u2014 frank & ramus 1995 chilorhinophis gerardi \u2014 welch 1994 : 43 chilorhiniophis [ sic ] gerardi \u2014 broadley 1998 chilorhinophis gerardi \u2014 broadley et al . 2003 : 96 chilorhinophis gerardi \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 158 chilorhinophis gerardi \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 465 chilorhinophis gerardi tanganyikae loveridge 1951 : 195 chilorhinophis gerardi tanganyikae loveridge 1958 chilorhinophis gerardi tanganyikae \u2014 broadley & howell 1991 : 29\nchilorhinophis gerardi by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\nbattersby , j . c . 1950 . a new amphisbaenid lizard from tanganika territory and notes on the rare snake chilorhinophis . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 12 ) 3 : 413 - 417\nchilorhinophis carpenteri , or the liwale two - headed snake , is a species of venomous snake in the atractaspididae family . = = geographic range = = it is endemic to africa and is found in mozambique and southeastern tanzania . = = taxonomy = = it was originally named parkerophis carpenteri . = = etymology = = the specific name , carpenteri , honors the type specime . . .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsnake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )\nworking manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,\nsnake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nupdate 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !\nimages provided by flickr - / inaturalist - api . sporadic false assignments may occur .\n? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )\ngerard ' s black and yellow burrowing snake can be identified by its small slender body , the round pupils of its eyes , the 3 black stripes on a yellow background that are distinctive and it strictly nocturnal lifestyle . it grows to an average length of 40 cm and a maximum length of 50 cm .\neats other small snakes ( including its own species ) , amphisbaenids and other burrowing reptiles .\noviparous ( egg - laying ) , lays up to six eggs in summer .\nbroadley , d . g . 1983 . fitzsimons ' snakes of southern africa . delta books , johannesburg .\nmarais , j . 2004 . a complete guide to snakes of southern africa . struik publishing , cape town .\ntanganyikae : w tanzania , se zaire , n zambia ; type locality : nyamkolo , lake tanganyika , zambia .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nholotype : mrac 1205 , a 315 mm male ( g\u00e9rard ) . holotype : mcz r - 30402 [ tanganyikae ]\nvenomous ! taxonomy : broadley et al . 2003 listed this species under atractaspididae : aparallactinae . habitat : dry savannah\nnamed after dr . pol gerard ( 1886 - 1961 ) a physician , histologist , anatomist , and naturalist and professor of histology and ( 1931 - 1961 ) at the institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique . gerard collected the holotype .\nbarbour , t . ; amaral , a . d . 1927 . studies on african ophidia . bulletin of the antivenin institute of america 1 ( 1 ) : 25 - 27\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1913 . description de deux reptiles nouveaux provenant du katanga . revue zoologique africaine , 3 : 103 - 105 - get paper here\nbroadley , d . & blaylock 2013 . the snakes of zimbabwe and botswana . chimaira , frankfurt , 387 pp . [ book review in sauria 35 ( 2 ) : 59 and copeia 2014 : 388 ] - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1\u201470\nbroadley , d . g . 1959 . the herpetology of southern rhodesia . part i - - the snakes . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 120 ( 1 ) : 1 - 100 [ reprint 1972 ] - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]\nbroadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here\nchifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .\nhaagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 \u2013 25\nloveridge , a . 1951 . on reptiles and amphibians from tanganyika territory collected by c . j . p . ionides . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 106 ( 4 ) : 175 - 204 . - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1958 . revision of five african snake genera . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 119 : 1 - 198 ( 141 ) - get paper here\nspawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwitte , g . f . de & laurent , r . f . 1947 . revision d ' un groupe de colubridae africains : genres calamelaps , miodon , aparallactus , et formes affines . m\u00e9m . mus . roy . hist . nat . belgique ( s\u00e9r . 2 ) 29 : 1 - 134\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook"]}
{"id": 870, "summary": [{"text": "the noble snipe ( gallinago nobilis ) is a small stocky wader .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "it breeds in the andes of colombia , ecuador , peru and venezuela above or just below the treeline .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is entirely sedentary . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "noble snipe", "paragraphs": ["noble snipe ( gallinago nobilis ) is a species of bird in the scolopacidae family .\na 300 page book that summarises the available literature on the biology and demography of the 3 snipe species ( common snipe , great snipe , and jack snipe ) and the management techniques for their habitats .\nfluctuations of common snipe , jack snipe and golden plover in tiree , argyllshire - j . morton boyd\ngiant snipe can be distinguished from sympatric common and magellan snipe by its huge size and rounded wings . the other large species , andean , fuegian and imperial snipe , are upland species which lack the well - defined upperpart markings and white belly shown by giant snipe . noble snipe is more similar to giant , but obviously smaller - bodied .\nunstoppable noble train . creating operations , where first nuke land at 100ms , second nuke at 120ms , third nuke at 140ms , fourth nuke at 160ms , first noble at 200ms , second noble at 220ms , third noble at 240ms and fourth noble at 260ms , is very easy . 20ms timespan can be lowered to 0ms for nukes and nobles , but timespan between last nuke and first noble should be at least 10ms - for safety purposes . take a quick look at my screenshot on the right with accurately executed attacks as planned .\n\u00a91997 - 2018 barnes & noble booksellers , inc . 122 fifth avenue , new york , ny 10011\nyou can with easy send army tasks to backtime other players . i like to snipe every incoming attack - thanks to attacks detection system i know which incoming attacks has a nobleman . players couldn ' t believe their eyes , when i snipe noble attacks between 100ms each .\nthree different calls . birds not seen but earlier in the afternoon two birds were flushed here , see photo . the birds here are known to be south american snipe but i found only noble . i have still to see convincing evidence that sa snipe has ever occurred here .\nsame bird ( s ) as xc77712 . birds not seen but earlier in the afternoon two birds were flushed here , see photo . the birds here are known to be south american snipe but i found only noble . i have still to see convincing evidence that sa snipe has ever occurred here .\nyea this is what i usually tell people to do until they learn how to snipe properly .\nthis volume contains 16 papers covering topics such as breeding biology , ecology , behaviour , population dynamics , monitoring and hunting bags . the papers focus on woodcock ( scolopax rusticola ) common snipe ( gallinago gallinago ) , great snipe ( gallinago media ) , jack snipe ( lymnocryptes minimus ) and african snipe ( gallinago nigripennis ) . a general paper describes the conservation status of the world ' s woodcocks and snipes .\nyeah well that ' s mostly the best method of killing a good timed - noble train , congratz for posting it mellow .\nhabitat use and diet of common snipe gallinago gallinago breeding on moorland in northern england : c . . .\nthis is a bit different than normal noble trains , in normal noble trains you aim to launch as fast as possible , in sniping trains you aim to launch as regularily as possible , this is because by doing so you increase the chances of landing one between clearing and nobles .\nthe noble snipe is rare is and appears to be local in elfin forest bogs at or near treeline . it ranges at elevations of about 3300 m and is restricted to extreme northern peru only on the north and west side of the mara\u00f1on river . it also occurs in\n. the noble snipe has a patterned head and rest of the upperparts . the back shows conspicuous pale or buff stripes . the neck , breast , and sides are barred with a pale unbarred center of belly . it is secretive in marshy and muddy habitats . it is very similar to the\nthe giant snipe has a kek - kek call when flushed , and a rasping trisyllabic call is given in its nocturnal display flight .\nwhen i first read this guide i thought of it as new way to overcome very tight noble train . when you got 5second lag between first noble and the last , its easy to snip with one shot but what if your opponents send very tight train ? the only way to do it is mass snipping attempts as explained in the guide .\nno plumage differences related to age or sex are known , but in other snipe the sexes are similar and immature birds differ only in showing pale fringes on the wing coverts .\n30\u201333 cm ; 188\u2013197 g . medium - sized , bulky snipe with disproportionately long , two - toned bill ; underwing relatively dark ; wings rather broad and rounded ; tail . . .\nin the future , more functions like\ndetection of village owner change ( village was nobled ) in 30 range from my villages\nwill be added . in this case you will be able to very fast village re - noble .\nthe puna snipe is a small snipe of high elevation bogs and stream margins , fairly common in moist areas of puna from 3 , 000 to 4 , 600m . it ranges from northern peru into bolivia and northern chile and argentina . a miniature version of the south american snipe ( and sometimes considered a subspecies thereof ) , the puna snipe has a shorter bill and bright yellow legs . it can be distinguished by an unmarked , white belly , a nearly white underwing , and a thin white trailing edge to the wings . in flight , it displays a web of narrow white markings on the upperside , the result of a white tips on the wing coverts , white edges of the tail , and distinct pale stripes along the mantle . flushes with vertical flight followed by \u201cjumps\u201d .\ncapsule : moorland breeding birds were associated with marshy grassland , acid flush and unimproved acid grassland , where their diet was dominated by earthworms and tipulid larvae . aims : to quantify breeding snipe densities in upland habitats and to examine diet and the structural characteristics of feeding areas . methods : snipe were surveyed on four areas ( total 44 km 2 ) near otterburn , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nvan gils , j . , wiersma , p . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . noble snipe ( gallinago nobilis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe great snipe gallinago media is considered to be an endangered species . this paper examines its food and habitat use on a sub - alpine / low - alpine breeding area in central norway . it was estimated that earthworms constitute more than 90 % of great snipe food ( by weight ) . feeding birds selected the low herb willow scrub vegetation community and to a lesser degree eutrophic fen . birds did not . . . [ show full abstract ]\ni created noble train example video on youtube . this is the proof of perfectly synchronized 3 nukes and 4 nobles from 4 different villages . first attack land at 91ms and the last one at 130ms . there is this video . you can watch it to see how it is done .\napproximately 900 separate vocalisations from 240 species including vocalisations from distinct subspecies . includes : puna , noble , andean , and imperial snipe ; 29 species of hummingbird ; greater scythebill , jocotoco and crescent - faced antpitta ; 6 species of tapaculo , tufted , agile , and black - crested tit - tyrant ; 7 species of chat - tyrant including jelski ' s ; chestnut - crested cotinga . ; giant conebill ; tit - like dacnis ; 5 species of flowerpiercer and mountain - tanager ; masked saltator , 6 species of brush - finch and many others .\nthis species is rarely seen on the ground , and its habitat , reluctance to flush until almost trodden on , cryptic plumage , and nocturnal feeding mean its habits are almost unknown . its diet apparently includes frogs . the giant snipe is usually seen alone when flushed .\nthe giant snipe has a stocky body and relatively short legs for a wader . it has broad rounded wings like a woodcock and a very long bill . its upperparts , head and neck are streaked and patterned with black and brown , and chestnut edges to the feathers form distinct lines down its back . the belly is white with brown barring on the flanks . the flight feathers are barred , a feature unique to this snipe . the horn - coloured bill is very long and straight . the legs and feet are greyish - green .\nthis is the largest snipe at 40\u201343 . 5 cm in length . g . u . gigantea , as its name suggests , is larger than the nominate subspecies with little overlap in size ; for example , its bill length is usually more than 12 . 0 cm , whereas g . u . undulata is usually less than 11 . 5 cm .\nthe giant snipe is hunted through most of its range , its large size making it easier to shoot than other snipes . habitat loss is also a threat , at least in part of its range . it is nowhere common , and is local and uncommon in colombia and venezuela , but its nocturnal habits and extremely secretive behaviour might exaggerate its apparent scarcity , and it is currently not thought to be threatened .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . puna snipe ( gallinago andina ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\naccepting the requirement for accurate information regarding the status of common and jack snipe populations in great britain , and the problems associated with conventional survey methods for secretive , largely nocturnal or crepuscular , rarely aggregating species with a preference for little observed habitat , this report presents and discusses a range of alternative survey methodologies taken from the literature . survey methods discussed are : simple transects , nets and ringing , nocturnal surveys , calls and playback . each alternative approach is discussed in relation to likely effectiveness and feasibility in relation to : time constraints , habitat characteristics , locating the birds and welfare issues .\n. . . recent initiatives such as the push to develop markets for wood fuel ( anonymous , 2007 ) offer the possibility of providing financial incentives to bring woodlands into active management . from the perspective of woodland bird conservation , the recent declines are well documented ( fuller et al . , 2005 ; amar et al . , 2006 ; hewson et al . , 2007 ; hewson and noble , 2009 ) and our knowledge of habitat requirements of woodland birds continues to increase ( fuller , 1995 ; hinsley et al . , 2007 hinsley et al . , , 2009 hoodless and hirons , 2007 ; lewis et al . , 2009 ) . opportunities should now be taken to establish long - term monitoring of habitat structure and biodiversity in broadleaved woodlands where active management is being reinstated . . . .\nfrom the preface :\nthis little book is not intended as an exhaustive book of instruction either scientific or sporting . it is merely a reprint , with additions , of sundry papers jotted down in the rare idle hours of a busy life . these papers having , i am told , amused many in the pages of ' maga , ' may perhaps amuse more when collected in booklet form . if they should do for the reader the kindness which they performed for the writer - namely , that of bringing a whiff from the snipe - haunted marshes into the stuffy prison of everyday life in parlour and street - scolopax will feel that he has at any rate done some one a good turn , and nobody any harm .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\nthis species is classified as near threatened as there is evidence that hunting and the loss and degradation of its habitats are likely to be driving an on - going and moderately rapid decline in its population . if evidence were to suggest a more rapid decline in its population , it might be eligible for a higher threat category .\n. 1996 ) . localised declines have been noted in recent years , for example at la mica lagoon in ecuador ( cisneros - heredia 2006 ) .\nno population estimates of this species are available , but it is described as fairly common .\nthis species is suspected to be experiencing a moderately rapid population decline owing to the on - going threats of localised over - hunting and habitat conversion and degradation ( ridgely and greenfield 2001 , cisneros - heredia 2006 ) .\n. 1996 ) . it is usually found at 2 , 500 - 3 , 900 m , but may range from 2 , 000 to 4 , 000 m . it breeds from march to september , probably laying a clutch of only two eggs ( del hoyo\nthe species is targeted by both indigenous people and sports - hunters and is threatened by localised over - hunting , as well as the desiccation , transformation and degradation of its habitats ( ridgely and greenfield 2001 , cisneros - heredia 2006 , d . cisneros - heredia\n2011 ) . suitable habitat is converted for agriculture and degraded by fires ( cisneros - heredia 2006 , d . cisneros - heredia\ncarry out surveys in order to estimate the total population size and rate of decline . implement an outreach and education campaign to reduce hunting pressure . increase the area of suitable habitat that receives protection .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nover open pasture near humid forest . reference : lxb 122 - 163 marantz counter ( galnob10 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ncall from ground . p\u00e1ramo marsh . reference : ilb 3 - 40 ( galnob8 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nfrom ground ? p\u00e1ramo marsh . reference : xviia 63 - 64 ( galnob6 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\np\u00e1ramo marsh . reference : xviia 34 - 34 ( galnob5 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\np\u00e1ramo marsh . reference : xvib 412 - 414 , 436 - 451 ( galnob3 - 4 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ncollected ( mecn 553 ) . p\u00e1ramo marsh . reference : xia 422 - 423 ( galnob2 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nrush bed in shallow lake on pumice flat . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nref : tape ohm065b 1204 . frightened by my presence . bird in groun along the stream . natural vocalization . 10m to mic .\nat least 4 displayed and called between 5 : 35 and 5 : 45 . my mic is very sensitive to wind so most of the display is ruined , also some traffic on the road . the display was nice though .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nn andes from extreme nw venezuela ( s t\u00e1chira ) through c colombia and ecuador to nw peru ( piura , n cajamarca ) .\ndisplay flight by male is given at dawn and dusk , or for most of the night if moonlit , is typically . . .\nmontane grassy wetlands , swamps and bogs , wet savannas , rushy pasture and reedy marsh adjoining . . .\nseason mar\u2013sept , probably mainly during wet season , with eggs collected in jul ( venezuela ) and sept ( colombia ) and a pullus also in . . .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . no population estimates available ; locally fairly common in colombia . very poorly known ; research required . . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsequence of species in this family is based largely on findings of a recent phylogenetic study # r .\nformerly referred to as capella , because this name was erroneously thought to pre - date gallinago .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\n, but is distinguished by having an unbarred and pale center of belly and by preferring bogs in elfin forests . it is larger than the\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .\nmaterial published in urltoken belongs to the author ( s ) and is protected by copyright laws . contributor ( s )\ncontribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :\ncorbidi is a peruvian non - profit organization , whose goal is to develop foundations that support biodiversity conservation .\nok im celebrating my return to tribalwars by releasing a secret i promised myself i would never release , sniping has really been left to the last resort way of defending due to its innacuracy , you basically have 1 shot to put defence between nobles , that is till now . . . . .\n2 . jot down support times to each village with train incomings from each available defence village from the longest to shortest time . work out a brief plan of order , if you are sniping from a defence village with train incomings make sure it snipes another train before it is hit .\ninstead of preping a timed launch of support , open opera and prep up a train , if you have a defence village with 10k / 10k in it load 10 tabs and put 1k / 1k in each , aim this support for the village you are sniping the trains from .\nfactor in lag + 1 second or so to be on the safe side and launch lag + 1 seconds before the support time matches the incoming time on the targetted village .\n4 . clear the misses , the other great advantage of this tactic is that you can clear all the support that lands outside the train and then reuse the village to support another village .\ni ' ve mentioned this before , although i ' ve only actually used it in one instance ( successfully though ) .\ni think i mentioned it in mimelim ' s defense strat guide somewhere , but it could have been somewhere else . there are a lot of similar threads .\nactually , not alot of guides i have seen explained it with such simplicity .\nit ' s been released . . . a lot of times . . . . besides which anyone who knows about backtiming out to know about this .\ni think i heard about this somewhere . i believe there was a guide on the forums of one of the tribes i was on , but this one was much simpler and easier to understand what you were actually trying to say .\ni have used this quite a bit , it ' s not so secret .\ncommon but not put explicitly in a guide till now i think . i was actually planning on making a guide of how to do this for my w26 tribe , with more visuals . beat me to it .\n> _ > . don ' t bother , there ' s something else you ought to teach them instead of this .\ni thought i was really clever when i figured this one out all by myself , then realised that other people had been doing it since before i even started playing tw . . . then i felt stupid : icon _ redface :\nnice quide but as everyone has been saying , it ' s a well known idea . i kinda figured it out playing speed since i have never needed it in a slow world due to no attackers having any skill or timing ability .\nsw . venezuela ( tachira ) , c . and e . colombia and n . ecuador .\nclements , james f . birds of the world : a checklist . vista , ca : ibis publishing company , 2000 .\nif there is no family list to the left , you may have arrived at this page from a direct link . please select\nmangoverde world bird guide\nto view the entire bird site .\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nyl\u00e4nk\u00f6kurppa\nfrom\ngallinago nobilis p . l . sclater , 1856\nas trusted .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 1 / / en\nurltoken\nspreads are indicated by surrounding icons representing items on the same ( double page ) spread in a grey box .\nthe species list above is in systematic order , the taxonomy and nomenclature of which generally follows the wells world birds list on birder ' s diary v3 . 0 ( courtesy of thayer software : urltoken ) , with adaptations by wildsounds . the wells world birds list is based on a classification created by mic wells . please note that the above list may not be in the same order or be a full and accurate representation of the species on the title concerned . we take due care to ensure the accuracy of the list , but should you find any errors , please notify us .\n\u00a9wildsounds 2009 . no portion of this page ( including sounds , images , style - sheets and code ) may be copied or used without the express permission of wildsounds .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nla florida park is a maze of wetlands just outside bogota near the international airport .\nall content and design \u00a9 2004 - 2017 by exotic birding , llc . original banner photo \u00a9 laura l fellows . all rights reserved . no photos , descriptions , or other content may be copied or disseminated on any media without prior written permission . checklists may be copied or printed for personal use only but not for commercial purposes of any kind . website designed and produced by jim wittenberger and laura l fellows . photography by laura l fellows and jim wittenberger .\nauto suggestions are available once you type at least 3 letters . use up arrow ( for mozilla firefox browser alt + up arrow ) and down arrow ( for mozilla firefox browser alt + down arrow ) to review and enter to select .\npack your beach blanket for a bittersweet tale of love and summer ' s magic .\nlimited - time only : buy a season 1 colleggtible & get 50 % off a second .\nsave on classic and contemporary films online and in store through 8 / 6 .\nuh - oh , it looks like your internet explorer is out of date . for a better shopping experience , please upgrade now .\njavascript is not enabled in your browser . enabling javascript in your browser will allow you to experience all the features of our site . learn how to enable javascript on your browser\nisbn - 10 : 0323047211 isbn - 13 : 9780323047210 pub . date : 05 / 22 / 2008 publisher : elsevier health sciences\ncurrent price is $ 33 . 25 , original price is $ 36 . 95 . you save 10 % .\nreinforce your comprehension of pharmacologic concepts with this hands - on workbook . specially designed to parallel the material in pharmacology for pharmacy technicians , 3 rd edition , this workbook provides in - depth study and review of the terminology , principles , and applications of pharmacology needed for certification and practice as a pharmacy technician . its user - friendly format and engaging learning exercises include vocabulary quizzes , review questions , critical thinking exercises , research activities , and new case applications to help you build a solid foundation for pharmacy practice !\n\u2022 new ! case scenarios and questions promote real - world application of text content . \u2022 improved ! new and revised review questions offer a mix of recall , comprehension , and application for progressive learning \u2022 new ! coverage of advancements in the areas of vaccines , hiv / aids , cancer , and diabetes provide students with the latest information for these chronic conditions . \u2022 new ! additional artwork supports foundational and body - system pharmacology content .\nunit i : introduction to pharmacology 1 . fundamentals of pharmacology 2 . principles of pharmacology 3 . pharmacodynamics 4 . drug interactions and medication errors\nunit ii : drugs affecting the autonomic nervous system and central nervous system 5 . treatment of anxiety 6 . treatment of depression 7 . treatment of schizophrenia and psychoses 8 . treatment of alzheimer\u2019s , huntington\u2019s and parkinson\u2019s disease 9 . treatment of seizure disorders 10 . treatment of pain and migraine headache 11 . treatment of sleep disorders and attention - deficit hyperactivity disorder\nunit iii : drugs affecting the musculoskeletal system 12 . neuromuscular blockade and muscle spasms 13 . treatment of gout , osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis 14 . treatment of osteoporosis and paget\u2019s disease of the bone\nunit iv : drugs affecting the ophthalmic and otic systems 15 . treatment of diseases of the eye 16 . treatment of disorders of the ear\nunit v : drugs affecting the cardiovascular system 17 . treatment of angina 18 . treatment of hypertension 19 . treatment of heart disease and stroke 20 . treatment of arrhythmia\nunit vi : drugs affecting the gastrointestinal system 21 . treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease , laryngopharyngeal reflux , and peptic ulcer disease 22 . treatment of irritable bowel syndrome , ulcerative colitis , and crohn\u2019s disease\nunit vii : drugs affecting the respiratory system 23 . treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 24 . treatment of allergies\nunit viii : drugs affecting the endocrine system 25 . treatment of thyroid disorders 26 . treatment of diabetes mellitus\nunit ix : drugs affecting the reproductive system 27 . drugs that affect the reproductive system 28 . treatment of prostate disease and erectile dysfunction\nunit x : drugs affecting the immune system 29 . treatment of bacterial infections 30 . treatment of viral infections 31 . treatment of cancers 32 . vaccines and immunomodulators\nunit xi : drugs affecting the integumentary system 33 . treatment of fungal infections 34 . treatment of pressure injuries and burns 35 . treatment of acne 36 . treatment of eczema and psoriasis 37 . treatment of lice & scabies\nbrecknock birds sightings are now available via a rss feed . the link is : urltoken\nbelow are all sightings recorded on this website . the newest sighting is displayed first , there are ten sightings per page . we would love to hear your bird sightings - whether common or more unusual - click here to add a sighting . you can also search all sightings - click here .\nplease neter the os grid referance . whilst this is optional , it allows for the sighting to be accurately mapped . please use discretion if the sighting is of a sensitive nature .\nsighting location : craig y cilau nnr . sighting date : 22 / 03 / 08\nsighting location : talybont reservoir . sighting date : 21 . 3 . 08 - 12 . 45\n6 goldeneye , 1 tufted , 8 mallard , 2 gc grebe , 1 l grebe , 5 coot and 2 mute swan .\nsighting location : roman road and usk reservoir area . sighting date : 21st march 2008\n12 lapwing and a single curlew at the roman road . a pair of shellduck ( still present at 12 : 40 , record shots available to be uploaded ) , drake goldeneye , 5 cormorant at the usk reservoir ( willow tit calling near water tower on carms bank ) . little grebe on graiggoch pool near r usk .\nsighting location : cantref reservoir . sighting date : thursday 20 / 03 / 08\nlate news from thursday , osprey at cantref reservoir most of morning , observed by 2 anglers flyfishing . bird seen taking a fish , eating and resting before flying north at approximately 12 : 00 . ( i arrived at 12 : 30 )\nsighting location : sn8941 and sn911441 . sighting date : 19 . 3 . 08\nmale wheatear sighted near ' g ' range , and c . 1000 starlings ground feeding nr . penlanwen . 25 siskin and 2 redpoll on birdfeeders on tuesday .\nsighting location : mynydd aberyscir . sighting date : 18 / 3 / 08 - 8 . 45\nsighting location : pontfaen , brecon . sighting date : 16 / 13 / 08\nnot a sighting by me but by a workmate that lives near pontfaen . he observed an adult hobby from his conservatory perched in a large pine not 30 metres away . it flew off when he got up to get his camera ( typical ! ) .\nsong from ground comprises a fast - paced but mellow - sounding \u201ctip - tip - tip - tip . . . \u201d , \u201ccut - cut - cut - cut . . .\ninhabits boggy rivers high in puna zone of andes , between 3000 m and 4600 m in peru , at 2000\u20135000 m . . .\nvery poorly known ; season mainly oct\u2013dec in c peru , sept in n chile . downy young similar to that of\nnominate race at least locally moves to lower altitudes during austral winter , e . g . reaching . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . no population estimates available . range large and relatively little impacted by human activities over much of it . nominate race . . .\nultimate tribal wars bot can work all the time - 24 / 7 thanks to captcha recognition system . bot has also features like farming villages , construct buildings , recruit army , minting a gold coins , balancing resources between villages , detection of incoming attacks , interactive map and much more . utwb is still under development and will do whatever you want it to do - make an proposal and see it done . features are being added all the time so you can check home page for the latest release informations .\nbuilding system enables you to set static and dynamic queue . once you set building target level , let ' s say - wall 20 level , and this building will be destroyed by incoming attacks , it will be immediately queued to build . the same apply for rally point and other buildings .\nthere are also options like\nif storage is full , build storage first\n,\nconstruct building requirements first\n,\nbuild farm if free space is lower than 5 - 30 %\n.\nyou can set number of maximum queued building positions in headquarters . if you have premium account it will be helpful , because premium account allows you to queue more building positions in headquarters at once .\ninteractive map helps you to control farmed villages , creating attacks or selecting all villages of player / s . management of tribes relations is also available . village menu under right mouse click behaves the same like menu on the normal tribal wars map .\nyou can look into village details by double click on village . village details includes history of village points , history of owner ( player ) and your notes . if you have something important you can make a memo for each village , which help you in the future during your conquers .\ntime synchronization with high precision ( + / - 10ms ) . check image proof on the right and test this capabilities by yourself . before you start you need to properly configure time synchronization settings - tutorial .\nsynchronization of multiple attacks is very powerful . you can synchronize many attacks from many of your villages to other village or villages . basically you can synchronize and send : one to one ( 1 : 1 ) , one to many ( 1 : * ) , many to one ( * : 1 ) and many to many ( * : * ) attacks .\njust imagine 6 full trains ( 4 nobleman attacks for each ) with 20 full nukes and subsequent 20 supports . all are synchronized to land between 100ms and 300ms . all hit many oponent villages and are sent from many of your villages . that kind of waves are beautiful .\nrecruit army system will save you a lot of time . you don ' t need to worry that barracks or stable are on idle . once you set target count of specified unit , bot will recruit until that amount is reached .\nthis feature is very helpful when you send troops as support and some of them die . in this case utwb immediately start troops recruitment in villages where it is needed . you can configure ratio for specified units in order to create optimal recruitment troops package . along with ratio , you should also remember about maximal queue time , which is configurable too .\nyou can also recruit noblemen . i didn ' t forget about gold coins minting and resources storing . for that you should only specify amount of resources above which gold coins will be minted or resources will be stored .\nsending army is practically essence of ultimate tribal wars bot . on this registry you can create and manage previously created send army tasks .\nthere is a lot of informations at a glance . you see if options like\nsend accurately in time\n,\ntroops must be at home between specified time\nare enabled . you know if send army task has specified random interval or contains one or more target villages .\nattack or support , troops count , description , send time , land time , return time , travel time , target village name , target village owner name and much more informations are available to you .\nin short cut , it would be enough . there is a lot more functions , which you would want to use - all are listed below on the right . notice that you can use utwb for free ! read this tutorial to see how it is possible with referential system .\nupdate to version 2 . 021 . added 35 days of service to all ultimate tribal wars bot accounts .\nupdate to version 2 . 016 . added 4 days of service to all ultimate tribal wars bot accounts .\nupdate to version 2 . 015 . added 2 days of service to all ultimate tribal wars bot accounts .\nfixed issues related to sending army , ifarmer and time sync because of the game update .\nupdate to version 2 . 013 . bot cost 1\u00a3 more because of captcha solving .\nupdate to version 2 . 012 . captcha solving works again . added 11 days to all bot accounts .\nadded in sendingarmy view , on right click menu - > set the same - > target village - works only for tasks with one target village .\nadded to time synchronization - > minimal sync unit count . on some world it ' s impossible to send 1 unit in attack , so you can configure it now .\nadded to map - > select village by radius from ( open / exclusive ) - to ( close / inclusive ) .\nchanged option\nbarb to player\nto\nownership change\n. so each time village will change player ownership it will be disabled and bot message will be generated .\nfixed disabling village in ifarmer for all cities on red or red - blue report .\nchanged in map - > right click - > remove from all attacks . by default all attacks for selected villages will be removed . when holding ctrl key , only attacks for village under mouse pointer will be removed .\nfixed on map when mouse over village , village info control was in wrong place , now it works properly .\nupdate to version 2 . 008 . bot is now fully functional , all functions work fine .\ncefcache with cookies is stored in bot directory . cookies file is a sqllite db file so you can read it using any sqllite engine or sqlitebrowser .\nupdate to version 2 . 007 . 30 days has been added to each bot account .\nwhen google captcha appears , bot send email according to your settings - > mailing configuration , bot play captcha _ sound . wav ( you can replace it with your own . wav sound file ) and bot stops .\nupdate to version 2 . 002 . added 7 days of service to each bot account .\nbot is safe to use again . to all accounts 45days service have been added .\nupdate to version 1 . 094 . please use this version because previous versions have a major bug .\nupdate to version 1 . 091 . sorry for delays - busy life . main problem with starting bot is fixed . 3 days has been added to each bot account .\nmap missing scenery bug fix ( to reload scenery you need close bot , remove map . bin and run bot again ) .\nadded time synchronization on / off toggle . in some worlds , like w115 on\nthere is new tw feature - to each attack , 1 second is randomly added or substracted to landing time - hence time sync in this situation is pointless .\nadded max ongoing attacks for rams and cats ( building destruction logic ) . max ongoing attacks are splitted to two separated registers . first one is farming and ram attacks . second one is cats attacks .\nfarmed village history is wiped - villageid is not reliable ( it is changing for the same xy of the village ) , it has been changed to xyid . if you want to have village history again , please remove gamereports . bin file and allow bot to read reports again .\nchanges to reports reading . old reports will not have info about village , new reports works properly . if you want bot to read reports again please remove gamereports . bin file ( it will take few moments to read all reports ) .\nadded to ifarmer option to set custom interval for farmed village - two places , per city and per farmed village .\nadded to ifarmer option to set limit of max total ongoing attacks from all cities to one farmed village .\nfarmed village will be disabled also on red - blue report , previously was disabled only on red report .\nfixed reading population issue caused by tribal wars update 8 . 33 . 2 . resources balancer , recruit army and all building features works properly now .\nbot is now build for anycpu - so one . exe serves x86 and x64 machines .\ntime sync precision changed from 0 . 1 seconds to 0 . 001 - please check if time sync is working properly for you .\nchanged villages selection radius in map , was square ( taxicab geometry ) - now is circle radius .\nupdate to version 1 . 082 . ifarmer is about to come . . . - i ' m working on it . please remember to do backup of\nuserdata\nfolder !\nadded\nselect village\noption in map view - > mouse right menu .\nchanged behaviour of selected village dropdown in map view . on my village change map is not centered . to center map new button has been added .\nupdate to version 1 . 081 . if you want to see intelligent farming draft , please visit\nupdate to version 1 . 078 . please use\nautomatically set units speed\nfunction in settings to correct units speed . time synchronization should works good now .\ngroup selection - in sending army tasks view - works good now . only attacks from selected group will be listed .\nadded mint coins / store resources if\nany / all\nare over\nn\n, in recruit army ( beside recruit nobleman ) .\nadded possibility to assign many groups for city . ( please watch tutorial above )\nwhen you run utwb first time , you will have to choose main page again , but only first time .\nadded sorting , on column header click for task targets in send army task form .\nlowered minimal time span between attacks from 5 to 1 . was 1 - 5 , now it is 1 - 2 . it gives you possibility to send ~ 3600 farm attacks / h ( excluding\nsend accurately in time\nsait attacks )\nyou can add cities in other overviews for premium account . combined , production , troops , buildings , technology , groups view - all are working fine now .\nadded option to disable logs ( settings - > general ) . it will improve performance for users with many villages .\nthe species has been found in tall vegetation in swamps and flooded grasslands , and occasionally in dry savannas ( hayman et al . 1986 ) , from the tropical zone locally up to 2 , 200 m ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) . it apparently also occurs in degraded habitat following forest clearance ( j . mazar barnett verbally 1998 ) . its diet apparently includes frogs and it may feed only at night ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) . in brazil , nests have been found in september and from november to early january ; nests are generally placed on a small hillock between swamps , and 2 - 4 eggs are laid ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) . the movements of this species are very poorly understood , and it appears to arrive seasonally at some sites , apparently after rain ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 3 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is regarded as local and uncommon in colombia , and is nowhere common , but its nocturnal habits and extremely secretive behaviour might exaggerate the impression of its scarcity ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .\nit occurs in tall vegetation in swamps and flooded grasslands , and occasionally in dry savannah . it ranges from the lowlands up to 2 , 200 m altitude .\nit seems to arrive in some areas after rain , but its seasonal movements are very poorly understood .\nnests of the southern race have been found in brazil in september and from november to early january . they are placed on a hillock between swamps , and 2\u20134 eggs are laid . no nests of the nominate subspecies have been found .\nother gallinago snipes have an aerial display , which involves flying high in circles , followed by a powerful stoop during which the bird makes a drumming sound , caused by vibrations of modified outer tail feathers . this species displays at night , but it is not known whether it drums .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n. . . this study confirms that woodcock wintering in britain are frequently parasitized by cestodes , and suggests that the intensity of parasitization may be determined by the body condition of the host , as those birds with higher fresh weight and pectoral mass showed higher cestode burdens . given the fact that earthworms are intermediate hosts for several cestode species found in woodcock ( bondarenko & kontrimavichus , 2006 ) , and that earthworms are one of the woodcock ' s main prey items ( granval , 1987 ; hoodless & hirons , 2007 ) , the high prevalence found in all regions was not surprising . our results agree with an earlier suggestion of high prevalence levels ( shorten , 1974 ) and the prevalence in our sample was similar to that found by reguera et al . ( 1991 ) for woodcock harvested in spain ( 89 % ) , and to that found by paoletti et al . ( 2016 ) in italy ( 93 . 2 % ) . . . .\n. . . the intensity of cestodiasis in woodcock may be affected by differences in feeding patterns and earthworm availability in each region . earthworm availability and subsequent woodcock diet composition vary among different regions , as demonstrated by hoodless & hirons ( 2007 ) in spring , and by granval ( 1987 ) in autumn and winter . it may be , then , that those birds feeding more efficiently in each region were more prone to cestodiasis . . . .\n. . . moreover , unlike many woodland specialists , woodcock do not rely on mature forest and appear to require areas with at least some young growth or clearings . perhaps habitat complementarity is a more important consideration ( dunning et al . 1992 ) as radio - tracking studies suggest that habitats associated with nesting and chick - rearing differ ( hirons 1988 , hoodless & hirons 2007 . it may be that larger woods usually offer a greater diversity of stand type and ages as well as a more diverse range of micro - climates , ensuring the availability of wet feeding areas throughout the summer . . . .\n. . . the great disadvantage would be that these activities might require far more effort with less chance of success . the technique which is suitable for conditions in spring or in autumn might not be efficient in summer , when woodcocks may spend less time in open fields at night ( hoodless & hirons 2007 ) . the recovery rate \u2013 which is linked mainly to hunting \u2013 can be considered high . . . .\n. . . diet ) , as well as a number of bird species including thrushes ( gruar et al . 2003 ) and some predatory birds ( hounsome et al . 2004 ; schipper et al . 2012 ) are only facultative earthworm predators , consuming earthworms only at certain times , such as when they are present on the soil surface ( e . g . , during wet periods ) . other species , such as the european mole ( talpa europaea ) and birds like the american woodcock ( the eco\u2010ssl receptor ) feed predominantly on earthworms , with earthworms constituting greater than 75 % of the diet ( hoodless and hirons 2007 ) . prey selection can also represent an important exposure estimation variable for carnivores . . . .\n. . . the same phenomenon seems to occur at larger spatial scales both in britain ( hoodles et al . 2009 ) and in france ( ferrand et al . 2008 ) , where breeding woodcock are particularly scarce in the locations where they tend to be most abundant in winter . the seasonal change in altitudinal distribution is coupled with a seasonal change in activity patterns : in summer , woodcocks are almost continuously active over a 24 hour period but are more active during the day and in the forest ( hoodless & hirons 2007 , this study ) whereas during the winter their activity and feeding take place mainly at night and in the fields ( duriez et al . 2005a , b , bra\u00f1a et al . 2010 ) . change in earthworm availability could be the key factor in explaining this seasonal shift in habitat use and time schedule , as summer soil dryness prevents woodcock probing for food . . . ."]}
{"id": 884, "summary": [{"text": "the black-crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) is a species of hummingbird in the family trochilidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in belize , costa rica , guatemala , honduras , mexico , and nicaragua .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and heavily degraded former forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "black - crested coquette", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for black - crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) yet .\nthe black - crested coquette is sedentary in its range . some irregular seasonal altitudinal movements can be observed .\nrange : the black - crested coquette is found in s mexico and s to e costa rica , but also in belize , guatemala , honduras and nicaragua .\nthe black - crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) is a central american hummingbird that occurs naturally in southern mexico ( veracruz , oaxaca , chiapas ) south to eastern costa rica .\ndiet : the black - crested coquette feeds on nectar from several flowers such as clusia , cordia , dipterix , hampea and others . it also consumes arthropods gleaned from foliage and twigs .\nthe black - crested coquette has a very short red bill with a black tip . the back is glossy green ; the rump is blackish - and a white band separates the green back from the black rump . the under plumage is greenish bronze spotted . its most distinctive feature is the white rump band .\nbehaviour : the black - crested coquette usually forages at canopy level . it feeds on nectar from flowers of several plant species . it also gleans arthropods from the vegetation , foliage and tiny branches .\nhabitat : the black - crested coquette frequents semi - open habitats . it also can be seen at forest edges , in second growth and plantations . this species occurs between 100 and 1200 metres of elevation .\nthe black - crested coquette adult male has bronze - green upperparts and white band across the rump , whereas the uppertail coverts are black . wings are dark olive - green . tail is slightly forked , with dark green central rectrices and other tail feathers are rufous with dusky green edges .\nflight : the black - crested coquette performs active hovering to feed on nectar from flowers . it is able to fly forwards and backwards , and the wings draw flattened \u201c8\u201d . such active flight requires energy , and according to the temperature , the frequency of wing - beats changes , involving energy conservation .\nthe adult male has a long black and green crest . the throat is sparkling green with showy black - and - buff throat ( gorget ) feathers extending from his lower throat .\n6\u00b74\u20137 cm ; male and female 2\u00b76\u20132\u00b78 g . male has short straight bill , red , tipped black ; crown iridescent green , wispy crest hair - like , black , . . .\nprotection / threats / statuts : the black - crested coquette is uncommon , but the species is not threatened at this moment . this species frequents man - made habitats such as plantations , and the numbers of mature birds are relatively stable , in spite of some declines ( about 10 % ) in the last ten years .\nreproduction : the nesting behaviour of the black - crested coquette is poorly known . nest has been found in march , placed at the end of a twig , at about 8 metres above the ground . the tiny nest is cup - shaped and made with fine plant materials . the nest - site is probably near the feeding areas .\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nas other hummingbirds from small to large species , the black - crested coquette defends its feeding territory against intruders . even if many species are trap - line feeders on nectar sources too scattered to be defended , and do not establish true feeding territories , some intimidation behaviour occurs if two birds feed in close vicinity . they are mainly non - territorial but with limits , according to the situation .\ndescription : all members of genus lophornis have a conspicuous crest often raised during the displays . the hummingbirds named \u201ccoquette\u201d are among the tiniest birds .\nz\u00fcchner , t . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . black - crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the black - crested coquette , as other trochilid species , utters high - pitched , short calls . these unmelodious sounds are heard when the birds are feeding \u201cteek\u201d , or as advertising calls when they defend a rich food source . but usually , singing activity is closely associated to breeding season during which they utter a repeated upslurred \u201ctsuwee\u201d , and also to defence behaviour . when fighting , they give a high - pitched twittering .\nthe female black - crested coquette is responsible for building the cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location in a shrub , bush or tree . she lines the nest with soft plant fibers , animal hair and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing and other sticky material , giving it an elastic quality to allow it to stretch to double its size as the chicks grow and need more room . the nest is typically found on a low , skinny horizontal branch .\non the underparts , the throat is glossy green and the breast is black , bordered by bronze breast band . belly is white and shows conspicuous iridescent golden - bronze rounded spots . vent is white . undertail coverts are rufous .\nthe black - crested coquettes primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , herbs , shrubs and epiphytes . they favor flowers with the highest sugar content ( often red - colored and tubular - shaped ) and seek out , and aggressively protect , those areas containing flowers with high energy nectar . they use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .\non the head , the crown is iridescent green and shows a wispy crest made with some elongated dark feathers . face is darker , rather glossy blackish - green according to the lighting . we can see some other elongated lateral feathers on the throat sides . these feathers are black , with pale buff inner web .\nthe thin , straight bill is red with black tip . eyes are dark brown . short legs and feet are pinkish - grey . feet are reduced because the hummingbirds do not use them for hopping , walking or climbing as numerous other birds\u2019 species do . this criterion is common to all hummingbirds which spend most of the day hovering . such flight requires a lot of energy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) , thus it is placed in the band 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals here .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nauthors : mar\u00eea del coro arizmendi , claudia i . rodr\u00edguez - flores , carlos a . soberanes - gonz\u00e1lez , guy m . kirwan , and thomas s . schulenberg\narizmendi , m . d . c . , c . i . rodr\u00edguez - flores , c . a . soberanes - gonz\u00e1lez , g . m . kirwan , and t . s . schulenberg ( 2013 ) .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nmartin flack , claude king , jacqueserard , joseph c . boone , marc fasol , holger teichmann , david lingard , beat . r , ken havard , tadeusz rosinski , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\nformerly placed , together with its sister - species l . adorabilis , in a separate genus , paphosia . monotypic .\ns mexico ( veracruz , n oaxaca , chiapas ) s to ec costa rica .\nmostly silent . presumed song a repeated clear , upslurred \u201ctsuwee\u201d . calls include a quiet , metallic . . .\nsemi - open habitats , forest edge , second growth , gaps and plantations at 100\u20131200 m . forages . . .\nnest found in mar ; small , cup - shaped at end of twig 8 m above ground . no further information available .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . generally uncommon . may accept man - made habitats like plantations to some extent . species has been recorded in sierra de los tuxtlas ( . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent molecular analysis found that most genera in the following linear sequence , from heliangelus to metallura , are members of a monophyletic group # r ; authors of that study also proposed that polyonymus , sappho and taphrolesbia ( not sampled in their analysis ) be included in same group .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 664 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\na guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124\nl\u2019encyclopedie mondiale des oiseaux - dr christopher m . perrins - bordas - isbn : 2040185607\nfemale has whitish throat flecked dark . she has shorter crest , and the feathers of the throat sides are absent . tail is rounded . bill is blackish on the upper mandible .\nimmature male resembles female and shows vestige of crest . throat is whitish and upper breast is blackish .\nthis species feeds by \u201ctrap - lining\u201d technique , as several species do according to the bill - shape . the members of genus lophornis take advantage of their very small size , resembling large insects , and do not hesitate to feed in areas within a territory which is not directly visible or guarded by the owner . they forage in trap - line , following a repeated foraging circuit .\nduring the courtship displays , the male expose its glossy plumage . the crest is also displayed , as the elongated feathers of the throat sides . displays are accompanied by vocalizations . the white rump is probably exposed too , the male raising the back feathers to show off the white area . males are usually polygamous .\ntheir preferred habitats include subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests or moist montanes , as well as heavily degraded former forest .\njuveniles and adult females lack the crest and throat patch of the adult male . he plumage is more brownish and generally duller .\nhummingbirds are solitary in all aspects of life other than breeding ; and the male ' s only involvement in the reproductive process is the actual mating with the female . they neither live nor migrate in flocks ; and there is no pair bond for this species . males court females by flying in a u - shaped pattern in front of them . he will separate from the female immediately after copulation . one male may mate with several females . in all likelihood , the female will also mate with several males . the males do not participate in choosing the nest location , building the nest or raising the chicks .\nthe average clutch consists of two white eggs , which she incubates alone , while the male defends his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the young are born blind , immobile and without any down .\nthe female alone protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly partially - digested insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . the female pushes the food down the chicks ' throats with her long bill directly into their stomachs .\nas is the case with other hummingbird species , the chicks are brooded only the first week or two , and left alone even on cooler nights after about 12 days - probably due to the small nest size . the chicks leave the nest when they are about 20 days old .\nmany native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .\nthey may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .\nthey also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .\nmales establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nnatural vocalization ; calls and wing noise from a male bird visiting some porterweed at very close range . surrounding habitat was dense primary foothill forest . the bird was calling consistently , but this was all i could get due to very heavy traffic nearby .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\nbirding costa rica provides tour services with the highest levels of customer satisfaction . johan fernandez will share the beauty of nature and birds on costa rica and help those birdwatchers from different parts of the world who want to visit costa rica and do birdwatching , so he is ready to respond those questions to make your trip more successful .\ncontacted johan thru other tripadvisor reports , and we were not disappointed . he organised all hotel , dining and local travel arrangements . he is a\nhawk eye\nwhen it comes to tracking and spotting birds . very knowledgeable . our 10 day trip covered a good variety of local terrain types with a wide range of species seen and photographed . good company also . would . . .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content ."]}
{"id": 905, "summary": [{"text": "the singing honeyeater ( gavicalis virescens ) is a small bird found in australia , and is part of the honeyeater family , meliphagidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "the bird lives in a wide range of shrub-land , wood-land and coastal habitat .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is relatively common and is widespread right across australia west of the great dividing range , through to the west coast and on western australian coastal islands .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it does not occur in other countries . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "singing honeyeater", "paragraphs": ["black - faced honeyeater , forrest\u2019s honeyeater , large - striped honeyeater , singing honey - eater .\nthere are 66 species of honeyeater in australia that rely on feeding on nectar from the cups of flowering plants . the little & red wattlebird , noisy miner , singing honeyeater , white - plumed honeyeater , new holland honeyeater , white - naped honeyeater , crescent honeyeater and eastern spinebill are frequent sightings across kangaroo island , the great ocean road and gippsland , whilst kakadu & arnhem land provides opportunity to see the red - headed honeyeater , helmeted friarbird and blue - faced honeyeater . tasmania is home to four endemic species , including the black - headed honeyeater , yellow - throated honeyeater and yellow wattlebird .\nfiji wattled honeyeater is split from [ polynesian ] wattled honeyeater ( andersen et al . 2014 , pratt ms )\nthe singing honeyeater is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nsinging honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .\nsinging honeyeater at lajamanu an aboriginal settlement on the northern edge of the tanami desert . northern territory , australia .\na black band running from the bill through the eye and down the neck gives the singing honeyeater a masked appearance .\nlateral view of a singing honeyeater ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ cook , sa , june 2016 ]\nsinging honeyeater scavenging food from humans ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ shark bay , wa , may 2018 ]\nthere are four subspecies of singing honeyeater , each found in different ranges , and differing slightly in terms of colour and size .\npicture of the singing honeyeater has been licensed under a creative commons attribution . original source : picasa web albums author : wampycamera location\nthe singing honeyeater has a pleasant voice , and is one of the first birds to sing in the morning in its native australia .\nnear - frontal view of a singing honeyeater ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ shark bay , wa , may 2018 ]\nnear - lateral view of a singing honeyeater ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ shark bay , wa , may 2018 ]\nsinging honeyeater drinking water from a shallow puddle ( photo courtesy of m . mearns ) [ currawinya np , qld , october 2008 ]\nbelow a recording of three different species of honeyeaters competing for territorial supremacy : first to call is a singing honeyeater , with answers from a spiny - cheeked honeyeater and then also a pair of striped honeyeaters .\nthe singing honeyeater may breed in all months of the year , although most breeding occurs between mid - august and late november ( 2 ) , particularly in coastal areas ( 5 ) . a monogamous species , the singing honeyeater sometimes forms long - term bonds with its partner ( 3 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus virescens )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus virescens )\ntitle =\narkive species - singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus virescens )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthere are four recognised subspecies of singing honeyeater , each with a different range , although these ranges are known to overlap in places ( 2 ) .\nas it is a very widespread species with an extremely large range ( 7 ) ( 9 ) , the singing honeyeater is not considered to be globally threatened ( 2 ) . although some declines have been reported in certain parts of its range , the singing honeyeater is increasing in other areas ( 2 ) .\nthe singing honeyeater is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ngilbert ' s [ previously swan river ] honeyeater is split from ( paraphyletic ) white - naped honeyeater ( toon et al . 2010 , dolman & joseph 2015 ) .\nthe singing honeyeater , lichenostomus virescens is a small bird found in australia , and is part of the honeyeater family . although it is common there , it is not very well known in other places . singing honeyeaters are commonly found in western australia , mainly past the great dividing range and on western australian coastal islands . they can also be spotted in city parks , gardens and in bushlands . the singing honeyeater can vary in length from 18 - 22 cm long . more\nfrontal view of an adult singing honeyeater in a grevillea ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ the granites gold mine , inland nt , june 2015 ]\nwithin its habitat , the singing honeyeater may be mistaken for the purple - gaped honeyeater , l . cratitius , or the grey - headed honeyeater , l . keartlandi . it differs from the former by having a longer black face streak , white on its throat and chest , and streaked underparts . it differs from the latter by being larger and having white on its face and no obvious yellow plume at the end of its face mask . two other species that share the singing honeyeater ' s black , yellow and white face markings do not share its habitat or range : the mangrove honeyeater , l . fasciogularis , and the varied honeyeater , l . versicolor .\navoid planting weeds such as bridal creeper or african boxthorn , as birds like the singing honeyeater eat the berries and spread these invasive plants into other areas where they can take over and become a huge problem for other australian animals and their habitats . spreading native seeds , however , is a beneficial habit of the singing honeyeater .\ngiven the right conditions , singing honeyeaters can breed any time of the year .\nwhen singing honeyeaters mate , they stay together for a long time . singing honeyeaters live in noisy families of five or six birds , though they often feed alone .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) - current and future species distribution models . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) / suitability\nin western australia it can be common to have a male singing honeyeater every 50 m along a suburban street , with each male ' s territory centred around a flowering food source .\nvanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) / occurrences\nsinging honeyeaters were in the area where this call was recorded but i didn ' t see the birds calling . spiny - cheeked honeyeaters were also in the general area . this call was originally uploaded to xeno - canto as a mystery , til it was identified as singing honeyeater\nsinging honeyeater - video footage captured by our team of bird watchers at www . ej - birdwatching . com . learn from the pro ' s and start ticking off that list of lifers .\nthese striking little birds are hard to miss but they are easy to confuse with another bird . the white - cheeked honeyeater is about the same size and has similar colouring to the new holland honeyeater . the way to tell them apart is in their eyes . white eyes = new holland honeyeater and b . .\nmale singing honeyeaters have a melodious ' prrip , prrip ' call . they call regularly to signal their territory , which usually includes a flowering food source . listen out for singing honeyeaters in the early morning , when they will be one of the very first birds singing .\nif you ' re fond of a coffee on the balcony in the early morning , don ' t be surprised if a singing honeyeater wants to join you . some singing honeyeaters in victoria have discovered that the dregs of a camper ' s coffee cup may also contain a sweet drink .\nthe singing honeyeater has a varied diet , primarily feeding on nectar , but also eating fruit and various insects and spiders . impressively , it has also been known to take finch eggs and nestlings .\nlateral view of a fledgling singing honeyeater , left , with one of its parents on the right ( photo courtesy of j . greaves ) [ boolardy station , murchison , wa , august 2016 ]\nthe call of the singing honeyeater varies according to where it lives . scientists have found that singing honeyeaters from mainland australia did not respond to the songs of singing honeyeaters from an island off australia ' s west coast . this study showed that the songs of the birds on the island were smaller , had less song types , syllable types , and fewer syllables and notes per song .\n( after kimberley honeyeater ) , noting gender agreement ( driskell & christidis 2004 , higgins et al . 2008 )\nthe singing honeyeater feeds on nectar , insects and fruit . it forages in low shrubs or on the ground , usually alone , but sometimes in loose flocks . it feeds at lower levels than most other honeyeaters\nfollowing white - plumed honeyeater ( driskell & christidis 2004 , higgins et al . 2008 , christidis & boles 2008 )\nknown for its pleasant voice ( 3 ) , the singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus virescens ) is one of the first birds to call in the morning , with the male bird singing from its roost 20 to 30 minutes before dawn ( 2 ) . while its common name is derived from its vocal capabilities , the singing honeyeater\u2019s scientific name is presumably related to its plumage colour . the name of this species , virescens , means \u2018greenish\u2019 ( 4 ) and relates to the faint olive tint throughout the bird\u2019s deep greyish - brown upperparts ( 2 ) .\nsinging honeyeater size : 17 - 22cm habitat : found west of the great dividing range , this honeyeater prefers shrubland , woodlands and suburbia . feeds on nectar , seeds and native fruits . notes : grey / brown bird with black stripe through eye and down neck , yellow stripe under eye . green / yellow on wings , belly pale with grey streaks . breeds winter - spring - summer . for more information on singing honeyeater see references . images have been uploaded in low resolution for storage efficiency , ( they do not reflect the true image quality ) . more\nthe singing honeyeater may have benefited from land - clearing and fragmentation in southern western australia and is readily able to fly over open agricultural lands . it has been implicated in the spread of the noxious weed bridal creeper , asparagus medeoloides .\nsinging honeyeater found right throughout australia except for the east coast and cape york . inhabits woodlands , various drier inland scrublands , mangroves and town gardens . near an overflowing cattle trough by the gibb river road , kimberley , western australia .\none of first birds to call in morning , male singing from roost 30\u201320 minutes before dawn . . . .\nmale and female singing honeyeaters are similar in appearance ( 2 ) . although the juveniles look much like the adults , they tend to have paler upperparts , particularly on the forehead and crown , as well as a narrower , duller face mask ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the pale buffish - brown underparts of the juvenile singing honeyeater also tend to be mottled rather than streaked ( 2 ) . there are some differences in size and colouration between the various subspecies of singing honeyeater , with northern populations tending to be smaller than more southern populations ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . interestingly , the singing honeyeaters on rottnest island have been found to be 25 percent larger than those on the mainland ( 7 ) .\nsinging honeyeaters , race\nsonorus\n, are regularly seen and heard by a . lines at ashley , nsw .\nsinging honeyeater , lichenostomus virescens , is a medium sized honeyeater , with a size of 18 - 22cm . a thick black stripe runs through the eye and part way down the neck . a thin yellow line is underneath the eye . the dark bill is slightly curved . the body is off - white with dark streaking . has a loud whistling call and can be quite aggressive towards other species .\na relatively versatile feeder ( 12 ) , the singing honeyeater primarily feeds on nectar ( 5 ) , but also eats fruit and a range of invertebrates ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 12 ) , including insects , spiders and molluscs ( 2 ) . interestingly , this species is known to rub bees against a hard surface before swallowing them , although the reasons for this are unclear . on occasion , the singing honeyeater has been recorded taking the eggs and nestlings of certain taeniopygia finches ( 2 ) .\nthis dataset consists of current and future species distribution models generated using 4 representative concentration pathways ( rcps ) carbon emission scenarios , 18 global climate models ( gcms ) , and 8 time steps between 2015 and 2085 , for singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) .\nthere are no known targeted conservation measures currently in place for the singing honeyeater . however , it is thought to be benefitting from ongoing habitat degradation , which is creating new areas of suitable habitat and leading to a population increase in this species ( 3 ) ( 9 ) .\nsinging honeyeaters , race\nsonorus\n, were also spotted by us in flinders ranges np , sa , in march 2008 .\nthe female singing honeyeater lays a clutch of between one and three eggs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , although two is most common , and the eggs are thought to be incubated by the female alone ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the eggs are a pallid , pinky - yellow colour marked with rusty spots ( 5 ) , and are incubated for a period of between 12 and 14 days ( 2 ) , with the chicks remaining in the nest for a further 13 days or so ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . while the male singing honeyeater is not involved in the incubation of the eggs , it does assist with feeding and raising the young ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . singing honeyeater nests are often parasitised by the pallid cuckoo ( cuculus pallidus ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nfrom macgregor ' s lappetface to macgregor ' s honeyeater ; it is a honeyeater ( cracraft and feinstein 2000 ) . letters to de vis confirm that the english name should be\nmacgregor ' s\nwith capital\ng\ncontra previous change ( a knox , b . beehler oct 2015 ) .\nsinging honeyeaters , lichenostomus virescens , are one of australia ' s most widespread species of honeyeater , preferring open shrub lands and low woodlands , especially where acacias are abundant . it also lives in swamplands , along creeks and drainage channels , in urban parks and gardens and around farms .\nm . mearns reports spotting singing honeyeaters , race\nsonorus\n, at currawinya np , southern inland qld , in october 2008 .\nthe singing honeyeater is a habitat generalist ( 11 ) , and is found in most open wooded areas across the australian outback ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) ( 10 ) , particularly those dominated by acacia trees ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . it also occurs in open shrublands , on plains , or around swamps and other wetlands , as well as in parks , gardens , farmland and towns ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the singing honeyeater is occasionally seen in mangroves ( 2 ) ( 10 ) and along small creeks ( 2 ) .\nsince we arrived in 2007 , singing honeyeaters , race\nsonorus\nare permanent residents at eulah creek , 20 km east of narrabri , in the foothills of the nandewar range . together with a strong contingency of spiny - cheeked honeyeaters , they are the dominant species of honeyeater in the area .\nthis dataset includes observations of singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus ( gavicalis ) virescens ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :\nsinging honeyeaters , nominate race\nvirescens\n, were spotted by j . greaves at dianella , perth , wa , in december 2014 .\nsinging honeyeaterthe singing honeyeater ( lichenostomus virescens ) is a regular resident to city parks , gardens and bushland . they associate with brown honeyeaters and red wattlebirds , feeding on nectar , grubs , insects and berries . they will forage on the ground or in grass for insects . breeding birds can be very territorial and aggressive , and won ' t hesitate to attack much larger animals . they can be fairly aggressive with members of their own species also . more\nsinging honeyeaters are pollinators of several species of plants , particularly grevilleas and hakeas , and unfortunately also help spread bridal creeper , a noxious weed .\nresident year - round throughout its range , the singing honeyeater is only thought to make local movements ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . however , this species is known to be a vagrant in certain areas at the edges of or beyond its normal range , including on kangaroo island , south australia ( 2 ) .\nkikau is split from [ polynesian ] wattled honeyeater ( andersen et al . 2014 , pratt ms ) ; accept proposed use of local name kikau ( pratt , watling )\nprovide a bird bath or dish of water for birds like the singing honeyeater to drink from and bathe in . keep the water fresh and clean , and don ' t let it dry out for long periods of time . once birds find that your garden is a reliable place for a drink , they will visit often .\nat the two places where we live ( d ) , we observe ( d ) an anti - coincidence of singing honeyeaters and white - plumed honeyeaters .\nthe birds have a soft metallic song and have been known to mimic other birds such as wattlebirds and friarbirds . when singing , they bob their heads .\nwhile breeding , singing honeyeaters may form a mob to aggressively drive away or attack other birds or even larger animals , as they fight to defend their territory .\nsinging honeyeaters , race\nsonorus\n, were a rare sight at the place where we lived in 2003 - 2006 , 20 km south of narrabri , nsw .\ncompared with varied honeyeaters , singing honeyeaters are much less yellow down their front . compared with mangrove honeyeaters , they are much less grey and lighter of colour down their front .\nthe singing honeyeater has a plain grey - brown body with a distinctive black streak through the eye from the bill to the neck . the black streak is bordered by a yellow streak below the eye . they also have a small , inconspicuous white ear - tuft , usually hidden by yellow feathers over the ears . they build a delicate nest among the foliage of the shrubs they live in .\nthe singing honeyeater is faintly streaked with darker brown on the top of its head ( 2 ) , and has a small , inconspicuous white ear - tuft , which is usually covered over by yellow ear - coverts ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . this species sports a black mask which extends from the bill through the eye and to the neck . the striking mask is bordered below by a yellow stripe under the eye , which fades into the whitish or grey underparts ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) , giving the throat a yellowish wash ( 2 ) . heavy , dense grey - brown streaks pepper the singing honeyeater\u2019s pale breast , flanks and upper belly ( 2 ) , while fainter , paler streaks mark the rest of the underparts ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe singing honeyeater is a common species in suitable habitat throughout much of australia . it tends to be absent only from the eastern coastal areas , most of victoria ( except the south coast ) , and the far north of queensland and the northern territory . it\u2019s preferred habitats include mallee scrubs , mulga , roadside vegetation , orchards , vineyards and gardens . it tends to be rather solitary in habit . more\non our trip to the west in 1990 we saw singing honeyeaters virtually everywhere from the little desert in victoria to shark bay in wa . they were eating berries wherever we saw them .\nsinging honeyeaters are commonly found in western australia , mainly past the great dividing range and on western australian coastal islands . they can also be spotted in city parks , gardens and in bushlands .\nthe singing honeyeater is found mostly in open shrublands and low woodlands , especially dominated by acacias . it is also be found in swamplands , along creeks and drainage channels . it is often seen in urban parks and gardens and around farmyards , particularly in south - west western australia . it is also found in partly cleared lands with remnant woodlands and has been seen in plantations and in african boxthorn thickets or isolated shrubs .\nthis active and conspicuous species usually forages alone ( 2 ) , but may sometimes feed in pairs or in loose flocks of four to six individuals ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . such flocks usually contain family members ( 2 ) . feeding at lower levels than most other honeyeater species ( 3 ) , the singing honeyeater generally feeds in low shrubs or on the ground ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , probing at flowers for nectar ( 2 ) . its invertebrate prey is usually gleaned from foliage , branches and tree trunks ( 2 ) ( 12 ) , or caught by flying out from a perch to catch it in the air or on the ground ( 2 ) .\nyellow - olive outer edges are present on some of the greyish - brown to brown uppertail and upperwing feathers , creating a conspicuous panel on the folded wing . the underwing is creamy with a brown trailing edge and tip and an orange - buff wash on the coverts ( 2 ) . the singing honeyeater has a black bill and dark brown or black - brown eyes , while its legs are dark grey ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .\nresident breeding species the singing honeyeater is a resident breeding species in our garden . their numbers never seem to go over about four or five on our 2 hectare ( 5 acre ) block of land . the dominant plant species is mallee scrub ( click here for a photo ) . they were perhaps more numerous more than ten years ago , but in recent times the new holland honeyeaters have become the dominant \u2013 and very bossy \u2013 species .\nhiggins , p . , christidis , l . & ford , h . ( 2018 ) . singing honeyeater ( gavicalis virescens ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nj . greaves reports spotting singing honeyeaters , race\nforresti\n, at the granites gold mine , inland nt , in june 2015 , and at boolardy station , murchison , wa , in august 2016 .\nfrom mid year to the end of summer , you may find a singing honeyeater searching for a mate in your garden , park or local bushland . they breed from july to february each year , in flimsy open nests built from grasses and often lined with hair or root fibres . their nests are a target of the pallid cuckoo , who like almost all cuckoos , looks for an existing nest to lay their eggs in instead of building their own .\nthe singing honeyeater has a plain grey - brown upperbody , a distinctive black streak through the eye from the bill to the neck , bordered by a yellow streak below the eye grading into a white throat , and a white to grey underbody streaked dark grey - brown . there is a small , inconspicuous white ear - tuft , usually hidden by the yellow ear coverts ( feathers ) . the bill is black and the eye is dark brown . more\nthe singing honeyeater is an australian species ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) , and is very widespread across the mainland ( 5 ) ( 7 ) . however , this species tends to be absent from the forested coastal areas ( 5 ) ( 10 ) , as well as from the east and far north of the country ( 7 ) ( 10 ) , including upper queensland , and tasmania ( 5 ) .\nthe springtime brings out beautiful flowering eucalypts , with honeyeaters abundant at this time including red and little wattlebirds , eastern spinebills , new holland , yellow - faced , tawny - crowned and white - plumed honeyaters . other sightings that are possible include the black - chinned , white - naped , spiny - cheeked , yellow - tufted , fuscous and singing honeyeater . lorikeets often accompany the honeyeaters feeding on the nectar including the rainbow , musk and purple - crowned species .\nthe singing honeyeater forms monogamous pairs , with some long - term bonds . the open , often flimsy cup - nest is formed from matted grasses and lined with roots , wool or other mammal hairs . it has once been observed nesting in the top ' false nest ' cup of a yellow - rumped thornbill nest while the lower nest chamber was occupied . the female incubates the eggs alone but both adults feed the young . this species is parasitised by the pallid cuckoo .\nsinging honeyeaters are a resident breeding species in our garden in murray bridge . we see several of them every day , usually when they come to one of our bird baths . we often hear their beautiful \u2018preet preet preet\u2019 call . singing honeyeaters are found throughout mainland australia with the exception of the east coast . they are not found in tasmania . one of their preferred habitats is mallee scrubland , of which we have plenty around here . more\nsinging honeyeaters , nominate race\nvirescens\n, were also found by j . greaves at cook , sa , on the edge of the nullarbor , in june 2016 , and at shark bay , wa , in may 2018 .\nother bushbirds that are typically active include laughing kookaburras , superb fairy - wrens , white - winged choughs , singing , new holland & white - plumed honeyeaters , australian magpies , magpie - larks , common bronzewing and crested pigeons .\nsinging honeyeaters can usually be found in low shrubs and trees , both in the interior and along the coastline . they have a preference for eremophilas , grevilleas and bottlebrushes , where present . they are normally not found in dense forest .\nsinging honeyeaters will eat a variety of foods . this includes nectar , small insects , fruits , grubs , and berries . this makes them omnivorous creatures . the singing honeyeaters breed between july and february . they are capable of forming long time relationships with partners . when they are breeding , they show aggressive actions . also they don\u2019t have any particular color for their eggs , they all are different colors . their nest is a cup of grass , plant stems , and spider webs . more\nthe singing honeyeater is widespread on mainland australia . it is found west of the great dividing range from queensland through to new south wales , but is rare around canberra or on the eastern slopes of new south wales . it is widespread in western victoria and in all regions of south australia , except the mt lofty ranges . widespread in western australia except for the extreme south - west or northern kimberley region , and not common in the top end but otherwise widespread in the northern territory . also found on groote eylandt and sir edward pellew islands in the gulf of carpentaria .\nin victoria the singing honeyeater is a bird of the coastal scrub west of western port bay and the drier mallee area in the north west of the state . it is often heard calling \u201cprtt prtt prtt\u201d from the top of a tall bush or tree on the bluff or along the dune system of 13th beach . this bird also utter a peevish \u201cscree\u201d . it feeds on insects , nectar and fruit . its preferred food is the berries of local shrubs , but it also feeds on nectar . some innovative birds have discovered that the dregs of a camper\u2019s coffee cup may also contain a sweet drink .\nlike many other bird species , in particular those that are being predated on , singing honeyeaters keep their nest clean ; after feeding a chick , the parent bird sticks around to see whether a back side is being lifted . . . [ eulah creek , nsw , january 2016 ]\nlike many other honeyeaters , singing honeyeaters do not exclusively feed on nectar , but take insects too . while previously we had seen them looking for insects in trees and bushes only , the photo below shows a bird foraging on our lawn - behaviour we do not regularly observe from honeyeaters .\nthis species performs a lively range of loud , high and clear musical phrases consisting of double or multiple notes ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , with the most common call being a repeated , drawn - out \u2018 preet \u2019 , \u2018 queek \u2019 or \u2018 sheek \u2019 . loud , sharp rippling or trilling whistles signal alarm , while continuous chirping and intense chattering and bill snapping usually accompanies territory defence ( 2 ) . the singing honeyeater\u2019s song is known to vary geographically ( 2 ) ( 8 ) , with individuals on islands using fewer syllables and having fewer song - types . however , island populations have also been found to use some unique syllables ( 8 ) .\nthe singing honeyeater has a plain grey - brown upperbody , a distinctive black streak through the eye from the bill to the neck , bordered by a yellow streak below the eye grading into a white throat , and a white to grey underbody streaked dark grey - brown . there is a small , inconspicuous white ear - tuft , usually hidden by the yellow ear coverts ( feathers ) . the bill is black and the eye is dark brown . young birds are similar to adults , with a lighter forehead and crown and a narrower , duller face marking . this widely - distributed species is known for its pleasant voice and is usually seen in small noisy groups of five or six birds .\nsinging honeyeaters were a rare sight at the place where we lived in 2003 - 2006 , 20 km south of narrabri , nsw . first spotted in december of 2005 , then again in april of 2006 in the area of bohena , 15 km west of narrabri and later in august and september in both areas . more\nthe nest is an open cup created from woven grasses and leaves , occasionally with additional flowers and bark ( 2 ) , and bound with wool or spider web ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is usually lined with wool , roots , fur ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) and occasionally with plant down or fine grasses ( 2 ) . oddly , the singing honeyeater\u2019s nest tends to be a flimsy structure in the eastern parts of its range , but quite substantial in the more western regions . the nest is usually suspended from a fork in a tree or from small twigs in a low , thorny shrub , at an average of two metres above the ground ( 2 ) .\nwhile feeding in eucalypts , honeyeaters often stay high up in the crowns of trees and are therefore hard to spot . but many species , including singing honeyeaters , will also visit lower plants to feed on nectar in gardens , such as e . g . eremophila , banksia , grevillea or callistemon . there they are much easier to spot .\nsuperb fairy - wrens are a common site across the south - east corner of australia including tasmania , with males singing long choruses to stake their territory . splendid fairy - wren males during breeding season are even more striking with shades of violet - blue , turquoise and pale - blue and are found in the interior of the country , especially around uluru .\nto attract singing honeyeaters to your garden , plant acacias and insect - attracting plants and avoid pesticides , as these birds will happily eat up small insects , beetles , moths , flies , spiders , caterpillars and grubs . they are omnivores , so they will also sip nectar , and eat fruits and berries . they will also take finch eggs and nestlings given the opportunity .\nat this time of year it is normal to hear the lyrebird\u2019s perfectly - imitated calls from yellow - tailed black cockatoos , crimson rosellas , golden whistlers , pied currawongs , eastern whipbirds and laughing kookaburras , all coming from the same location on the ground . patience and a quiet approach will usually reveal a singing , dancing male lyrebird with it\u2019s remarkable lyre - shaped tail feathers .\none of the world\u2019s most amazing songbirds , the superb lyrebird , is in full voice at this time . these birds reside in east gippsland year round but early breeding season brings out their best . during may , males can be heard singing loudly from specially - constructed dancing mounds used to attract females . males with complex songs featuring the largest number of mimicked sounds are successful breeders .\nrainbow bee - eaters and red - capped robins are an opportune sighting with the beautiful bee - eaters arriving around august from their northern migration . a host of bush birds can be seen across the mulga , grasslands , rocky terrains and spinifex and including crested pigeons , mudlarks , butcherbirds , fairy martins , yellow - throated miners , crested bellbirds , chiming wedgebills , grey shrike thrush and grey - headed honeyeater and occasionally the spinifex pigeon and major mitchell cockatoo .\nthe endemic and rare forty - spotted pardalote can be seen living in community groups in creek gullies and amongst the upper foliage of flowering white gums forests . these patches are some of the last remaining sanctuaries for this attractive and active tree dweller . all of tasmania\u2019s eight honeyeaters can be found feeding on nectar around the island including the raucous yellow wattlebird , which is the largest honeyeater in the world . black - headed and strong - billed honeyeaters prefer to feed on the browntop stringybarks scattered around the island .\nwith its prettily patterned breast , the regent honeyeater is striking and distinctive . its head is black with a cream eye - patch , the upper breast is black , flowing to speckled black , and its lower breast is pale lemon . wings and tail feathers are tipped with bright yellow . the birds grow to about 20cm long with a wingspan of 30cm . females are similar to males , though slightly smaller . in the past , flocks of several hundred were common , but now flock numbers are typically less than 20 .\neremophila glabra the resident singing honeyeaters are regular visitors to our bird baths . i don\u2019t think i\u2019ve seen them actually bathing in the water ; they just tend to come for a drink . next to the bird bath is a sprawling bush called eremophila glabra . in the photo this plant has the bright red tube - shaped flowers . ( click on the photo to enlarge ) . the honeyeaters frequently stay for five minutes or more feeding on these flowers . a quick return trip to the water for a drink and then they are off to feed elsewhere .\nsinging honeyeaters are small to medium - sized nectar - eating birds . their most prominent feature are conspicuous black eye stripes above a narrow yellow line and a white line on each side of the head . they have a white front from throat to undertail coverts , with the chest and part of the belly streaked with yellow and grey feathers . the back , from the crown to the tail , is mostly grey . only the flight feathers have olive - green leading edges . the undertail is light - grey . the irises are dark - brown . the slightly down - curved bill is dark - grey , while the legs and feet are grey .\noriginally described as meliphaga virescens lipferti mathews 1942 now lichenostomus virescens ( vieillot 1817 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2\n( driskell & christidis 2004 , higgins et al . 2008 , christidis & boles 2008 )\nas masculine . ( christidis & boles 2008 , schodde in litt . see also lecroy 2011 . contra higgins et al 2008 , dickinson & christidis 2014 )\ndistinct ssp ( reddish myzomela ) ; detailed review with vocalizations needed ( gregory , in litt . )\nto papuan black myzomela to conform to ioc modifier rules and local use ( gregory in litt . )\nnew guinea , aru is . ( sw of new guinea ) , yapen i . and louisiade arch . ( off se new guinea )\nnew species described on the basis of morphology and vocalizations ( eaton et al 2016 , prawiradilaga et al . 2017 )\nn , c and se sulawesi , sula is . ( e of sulawesi )\ntorres is . ( vanuatu ) and santa cruz is . ( e solomons )\nto simpler black - bellied myzomela in current use ( gregory in litt . )\n( nyari and joseph 2011 ; cf driskell & christidis 2004 , higgins et al . 2008 , christidis & boles 2008 )\ntrobriand is . and d ' entrecasteaux arch . ( off se new guinea )\ndubious and awaits results of new studies in progress . may be endemic ne au species or more likely conspecific with new guinea / helmeted friarbird complex ( sibley and monroe 1990 , christidis and boles 2008 ) . h & m4 lump\nbatanta and waigeo is . ( west papuan islands ) , yapen i . and nc new guinea\nsalawati and misool is . ( west papuan islands ) , w , s and e new guinea , aru is . ( sw of new guinea )\nrecognized as a valid subspecies of hybrid origin with fixed , stable phenotypic characteristics rather than part of a hybrid swarm . traditionally placed within\n. beehler & pratt 2016 . ( see mayr & gilliard , 1952 ) .\nrecognized as a valid subspecies of hybrid origin with fixed , stable phenotypic characteristics rather than part of a hybrid swarm . lecroy 2011 , beehler & pratt 2016 . ( see mayr & gilliard , 1952 ) .\ns new guinea , aru is . , islands in the torres strait and cape york pen . ( ne australia )\n( norman et al . 2007 , christidis and boles 2008 ) . treat as monotypic . includes\n( norman et al . 2007 , christidis and boles 2008 , miller & wagner 2015 )\nau : west papuan islands , new guinea , aru i . and d ' entrecasteaux arch .\ngiant\nhoneyeaters on viti levu i differ in behavior , vocals , and genetics ( andersen et al . 2014 ; watling , pratt ms ) . english name options under discussion\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\na large range of clear , noisy calls , usually lively and melodious : ' prrip , prrip ' . dawn choruses may last for an hour , starting before sunrise .\nhandbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds , volume 5 { ( tyrant - flycatchers } to chats ) .\nformerly considered conspecific with g . versicolor . races intergrade where they meet : cooperi with forresti in n northern territory ; forresti with sonorus in narrow band from n queensland ( e drainage of gulf of carpentaria ) s through c cooper creek drainage to n flinders ranges and gawler ranges ( south australia ) , and with nominate from w western australia ( between north west cape and shark bay ) e to w eyre peninsula ( south australia ) ; in s south australia , nominate , forresti and sonorus overlap in three - way melange sw of gawler ranges . proposed race insularis ( rottnest i , in western australia ) is indistinguishable from nominate , and westwoodia ( westwood , in s queensland ) synonymized with sonoru s . four subspecies recognized .\n( mathews , 1912 ) \u2013 tiwi is ( bathurst i , melville i ) and n northern territory ( s to victoria r and sw gulf of carpentaria , including groote eylandt and sir edward pellew is ) , in n australia .\n( c . ingram , 1906 ) \u2013 western australia from kimberley division s to shark bay and wheatbelt , e to se gulf of carpentaria and nc queensland , south australia ( n eyre peninsula and n flinders ranges ) and nw new south wales .\n( gould , 1841 ) \u2013 cn queensland ( burdekin\u2013flinders rivers to dawson\u2013mackenzie basin ) s , w of great divide , to se south australia ( e from eyre peninsula ) and w victoria ( w of westernport bay ) .\n( vieillot , 1817 ) \u2013 coastal and subcoastal sw & s western australia from carnarvon\u2013shark bay s ( including rottnest i ) to sw capes ( absent from wetter far sw ) , inland to wheatbelt , and e to sc south australia ( e to w eyre peninsula ) .\nopen wooded habitats . primarily open shrublands and low open woodlands , frequently dominated by . . .\ndiet includes nectar , invertebrates ( mainly insects , also spiders and molluscs ) and fruit ; ratio of nectar to invertebrates estimated at 26 . . .\nbreeds in all months ; of 219 clutches , most ( 72\u00b76 % ) mid - aug to late nov . nest an open cup , typically substantial ( at least in w of . . .\nresident , usually with some local movements or fluctuation in numbers at specific locations . at . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally common ; recorded densities of up to 4\u00b733 birds / ha and 1\u00b73 breeding pairs / ha . declines reported in some areas but may have . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ninternal sequence based mainly on findings of recent phylogenetic studies # r # r , with a few modifications # r # r .\npreviously treated as a subgenus within lichenostomus , but molecular data # r support treatment as a full genus . sister to ptilotula . see also manorina ( below ) .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . a . ( 2008 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 13 : penduline - tits to shrikes . lynx edicions , barcelona .\njobling , j . a . ( 2009 ) helm dictionary of scientific bird names . a & c black publishers , london .\nwaybill , s . ( 2007 ) our australian feathered friends . lulu . com .\nschodde , r . and mason , i . j . ( 1999 ) directory of australian birds : passerines . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\nthomas , r . , thomas , s . , andrew , d . and mcbride , a . ( 2011 ) the complete guide to finding the birds of australia . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\navital , e . and jablonka , e . ( 2000 ) animal traditions : behavioural inheritance in evolution . cambridge university press , cambridge .\nsibley , c . g . and monroe jr , b . ( 1991 ) distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , connecticut .\nwiens , j . a . ( 1995 ) habitat fragmentation : island v landscape perspectives on bird conservation . ibis , 137 ( 1 ) : 97 - 104 .\nwiens , j . a . ( 1992 ) the ecology of bird communities . volume 1 . cambridge university press , cambridge .\nflpa - images of nature pages green house wetheringsett stowmarket suffolk ip14 5qa united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 861 113 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 1728 860 222 pictures @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is found in barrow island . visit our barrow island topic page to find out more .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nsongs at dawn from a bird perched high in a small tree in fairly open mulga . different individual than in xc328822 .\nsongs at dawn from a bird perched high in a small tree , part of a copse of trees around a small pond surrounded by an open , barren area .\nseveral song types ( or some calls ? ) from the same bird as in xc328819 , in response to playback .\none song from a bird ( part of a pair ) moving at mid - height at the edge of tall mulga .\nsame bird as xc 107797 . recording equipment : telinga pro 7 stereo dat mic , sound devices 702\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\na blue bird ( western scrub jay ) sings outside my window . . .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\ngavicalis virescens cooperi : n australia ( arnhem land , melville i . , groote eylandt )\ngavicalis virescens sonorus : cent . queensland and nsw to s victoria and se south australia\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 658 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhome | biography | resources | photo library | top shots | contact copyright \u00a9 2005 - 2016 graeme chapman . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common ( morcombe 2000 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat ( higgins et al . 2001 ) ."]}
{"id": 910, "summary": [{"text": "the black baza ( aviceda leuphotes ) is a small sized bird of prey found in the forests of the eastern himalayas , china and southeast asia .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "many populations are migratory .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the races in the indian region are migratory , wintering in the south of the peninsula and sri lanka .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the black bazas have short , stout legs and feet with strong talons .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "a prominent crest is a feature of the bazas .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "they are found in dense forest often in small groups .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "they are also known to spend a lot of time perching on bare branches of tall trees rising above the forest canopy . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "black baza", "paragraphs": ["other names : black - crested baza , indian black - crested baza , lizard - hawk .\nwake up and first thing i look forward to is my morning cup of wanderoo by black baza coffee company .\nthe company currently promotes coffee under three names \u2013 the black baza roast , aspire to otter and luna roast .\nthe black baza are partially migratory . some flocks have been observed to move to thailand , malaysia and indonesia for wintering .\nyou\u2019re viewing a free company profile from the pitchbook platform . to explore black baza coffee\u2019s full profile , request a free trial .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : black baza aviceda leuphotes . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\napart from selling through prominent retail stores , black baza coffee company does a lot of cup - tasting , coffee tasting events as well .\nshe calls herself an accidental entrepreneur . meet arshiya urveeja bose , an environmental conservationist by training and proprietor of black baza coffee company by chance .\ndescription : the black baza is a small raptor , often seen in groups of several birds perched on branches in the same tree in the forest .\nthe black baza species has an extremely large range and are considered least vulnerable . the loss of forest cover may make the survival of these birds vulnerable .\nit\u2019s the reason why black baza founder arshiya bose\u2019s focus is on conservation of forests , wildlife and water , and on how growers deal with climate change .\nthe baza is a small bird of prey found in the forests of south and south east asia . bazas are most commonly seen in dense forests perched high in the tree canopy . sightings of black bazas in coffee farms would thereby indicate the farms are forest - like and that indeed is the brand black baza coffee\u2019s dream .\nthe black baza occupies deciduous woodlands , both within the forest interior and scrub country . they are also seen near human habitations , hunting near clearings and farmed acreage .\ndescription : a winter visitor to singapore ( september to april ) , the black baza is a small eagle that comes across as slightly comical due to its crest plumes that wiggle about as it moves its head . with mostly black upperparts and some white patches on its back and wings , the black baza also has a very distinctive underside , with a triangular white patch on its breast fringed with black and leads down to white legs with chestnut brown stripes running across \u2013 resembling some sort of vest . in flight , this pattern on its underparts makes the black baza quite an unmistakeable bird as well although its small size does tend to lead to most people dismissing it as a crow .\nflight : the black baza soars high in the air during the migrations . but usually , it flies low with deep wing - beats interspersed with short glides on almost flat wings .\nthe black baza ( aviceda leuphotes ) is a medium - sized bird of prey of the family accipitridae , and found in much of the forested regions of southern and southeastern asia .\nprotection / threats / status : the black baza is generally scarce to uncommon , but its unobtrusive habits make it very difficult to see . however , this raptor can be seen in good numbers during the migrations . the species is threatened by habitat loss due to the deforestation throughout most of its range . the black baza is currently evaluated as least concern by birdlife international .\ndiet : the black baza feeds primarily on large insects such as grasshoppers , beetles , mantids and moths . it also catches lizards and tree frogs , and occasionally small mammals , bats and birds .\n) belongs to the family accipitridae . the black baza species is distributed in central china , india , bhutan , myanmar , malaysia , thailand , indonesia , sri lanka and andaman islands of india .\nthe black baza is a medium - sized and handsome bird of prey found in the forests of south and southeast asia . it is rare and local in much of its range in the indian subcontinent .\nupon returning to the forest rest house at kolsa , i consulted a few forest officials and naturalists and they confirmed that it was a black baza and it was possibly the first record of the species from western maharashtra .\non the underparts , the throat is black . we can see a conspicuous white breast band bordered below by narrow black stripe and variable chestnut band . the belly is more or less rufous barred buff . vent , undertail - coverts and thighs are black . on the underwing , the coverts are black . the primary flight feathers are greyish , whereas secondaries and tertials are darker grey . undertail feathers are greyish .\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nthe superb black - and - orange flycatcher , which occurs only in southern india , by simon colenutt .\nthe head is black with conspicuous long , black crest on the hind crown . the hooked bill is blackish with dark blue - grey cere . we can see two typical \u201cteeth\u201d on both edges of the upper mandible , one on each side . the eyes are reddish - brown . legs and feet are dull greyish - black .\nadult male has black head , neck and upperparts . some variable chestnut markings are visible on lower back , scapulars and greater wing - coverts . the secondary flight feathers show chestnut and white patches . the tail is black .\ntholpetty ws black - footed langur . also a chance of chevrotain , rusty - spotted cat and indian porcupine .\nthe black baza feed on large insects , frogs , small reptiles and small birds . they have been observed to eat ripe fruits of oil palm . the call is a\nchu - weep\nand they also sound a soft squeal .\ngood for the forest it comes from , good for the people who grow it . good for the trees we help conserve and the wildlife that it supports . and just as good to drink . these are the cornerstones of black baza coffee co .\nmales are black in color above , with some chestnut showing on the lower back , scapulars , and greater wing coverts . a black crest on the head is prominently displayed . the underside of the bird is black from the neck to upper chest , broken by a large patch of white . the lower chest to the belly is also white , with chestnut - colored horizontal bars ; between the belly and tail the area of the legs is black in color . in flight the underside of the wings bear light - grey primaries , dark - grey secondaries and tertials , and black coverts .\nbehaviour : the black baza feeds primarily on large insects such as grasshoppers . it also catches lizards and tree frogs , and occasionally small mammals , bats and birds . it hunts from concealed perch , but also in open . it may briefly hover in front of the vegetation to snatch preys from foliage . it performs short flights through the canopy , from perch to perch , and through insect swarms or passerine communal roosts . the black baza hunts sometimes in small flocks and it is more active at dusk .\nthe black baza feeds on small reptiles and insects , and usually from a still - hunting position on a perch within the forest or at the forest edge on a clearing . bats , birds , and small mammals also form an occasional part of the diet .\nootacamund , nilgiri hills black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , indian and nilgiri blue robins , black - chinned laughingthrush , indian scimitar babbler and nilgiri langur . also a chance of painted bush quail , nilgiri wood pigeon and forest wagtail .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated these baza birds and has listed them as of\nleast concern\n.\nthe black baza is a small bird , measuring 30 to 35 cm in length and weighing 170 to 220 grams . the wingspan is 65 to 80 cm . its head is pigeon - like and has a long crest , often held erect . these baza species has short , stout legs and feet with strong talons . the male has white scapulars and secondary coverts and on the secondaries . the female has several chestnut bands on the underside .\nthese baza species inhabit deciduous or evergreen tropical forests . they are often seen perched on the top branches of the tall trees rising above the forest canopy .\nonly those range states and territories listed below , and shown in black on this map , are included within the scope of this mou .\nthe black baza has a wingspan is about 3 feet , with an overall body length of 16 to 18 inches . like other members of the genus aviceda , it bears two distinctive tooth - like notches near the edge of the bill . legs are short and stout , and bear powerful talons .\nsighting of montagu\u2019s harrier from ponmudi , white rumped shama from bonacaud , booted eagle from arippa , black baza from the kottur forests , lesser sand plover from the veli beach , amur falcon from punchakkary , and asian openbill from the aruvikkara wetlands were significant as these are not so common in these areas .\nblue tokai identifies the estates from which it sources the coffee on its packaging , for transparency . seven beans brings together indian growers with italian roasters . black baza\u2019s ambition is to improve biodiversity , while estate craft is a single - estate coffee . vero sources the beans and makes capsules in - house .\nthe black baza is a small bird of prey found in the forests of south and southeast asia . bazas are most commonly seen in dense forests perched high in the tree canopy . sightings of bazas in coffee farms would indicate our farms are forest - like . . . and that ' s the dream !\ncoffee production in india has a very unique history but is becoming increasingly unsustainable in terms of its impact on the environment . \u201cour enterprise aims to incentivise sustainable farming through the company . black baza is the only social entrepreneurship project on coffee in india and perhaps one of the few such projects globally as well ! \u201d\nthese baza species in north india breed in april . both the pair take part in nest building , incubation , brooding and feeding . the nest is firm platform on tall trees .\nsome of these new companies , many retailing online , include the indian bean , flying squirrel , seven beans , the coffee company , black baza and estate craft . some existing sellers have expanded in scope , like halli berri , kerala\u2019s riverine and goa\u2019s sussegado . some others , like vero , sell espresso capsules with machines and caf\u00e9 rio also does instant coffee .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the black baza is vocal in flight and when perched . it utters soft , quavering , plaintive or whistling notes , usually one , two or three . it also gives shrill mewing , something similar to gull\u2019s calls , and a weak scream \u201cchu - weep\u201d or \u201ck - leeep\u201d . harsh squawks are also given when in groups .\nthe backwaters waterbirds including cinnamon and yellow bitterns , bronze - winged and pheasant - tailed jacanas , and stork - billed kingfisher . also a chance of black - capped kingfisher .\npampadum shola np , near munnar nilgiri wood pigeon , kerala laughingthrush and black - and - orange flycatcher , as well as stripe - necked mongoose . also an outside chance of nilgiri marten .\nfor her , coffee has become the means to look at conservation from a social as well as environmental perspective . the work she does is interesting \u2013 she has currently engaged with four coffee estate owners in the district of kodagu and signed \u2018conditional conservation agreements\u2019 with them . the conditions she lays down are fairly simple \u2013 follow environment - friendly best practices and black baza would market your coffee in the commercial market .\nthe black baza occurs in open deciduous or evergreen tropical forest , often around clearings and near streams or rivers . this species can be seen from sea - level up to 1500 metres of elevation . this species breeds between 100 and 1200 metres . they spend the night at communal roost outside the breeding season , and at this period , they often frequent orchards and gardens near villages and they hunt over the ricefields .\nthe juvenile resembles adults but its plumage is duller and it has white streaks on the black throat , and brown streaks on the white breast band . the crest is slightly shorter than in adults .\nhabitat : the black baza occurs in open deciduous or evergreen tropical forest , often around clearings and near streams or rivers . this species can be seen from sea - level up to 1500 metres of elevation . this species breeds between 100 and 1200 metres . they spend the night at communal roost outside the breeding season , and at this period , they often frequent orchards and gardens near villages and they hunt over the ricefields .\nclark , w . s . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black baza ( aviceda leuphotes ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n28\u201335 cm ; 168\u2013224 g ; wingspan 64\u201380 cm . small , chunky black kite with long crest ( often held erect , except in flight ) on pigeon - like head ; in flight , . . .\nthattekad ( salim ali ) bs grey slender loris , indian chevrotain , southern flying lizard , malabar gliding frog , red spurfowl , malabar trogon , asian fairy bluebird and white - bellied blue flycatcher . also a chance of indian giant flying squirrel , travancore flying squirrel , black baza , slaty - legged crake , sri lanka bay owl , sri lanka frogmouth , jerdon ' s nightjar , chestnut - headed bee - eater , heart - spotted woodpecker and indian pitta .\nrange : the black baza occurs in s and se asia . most of the populations are migratory . the race \u201c syama \u201d from ne india and e nepal to s china , winters southwards through indochina and malay peninsula to sumatra . the race \u201c leuphotes \u201d occurs in sw india , s burma and w thailand , and breeds in several parts of indochina . the race \u201c andamanica \u201d occurs in s andaman islands . the northernmost populations move southwards through the malay peninsula to winter in sumatra .\nperiyar np nilgiri langur , oriental darter , black baza , malabar trogon , great and malabar grey hornbills , white - bellied treepie , asian fairy bluebird and indian scimitar babbler , as well as nilgiri langur . also a chance of heart - spotted woodpecker , indian pitta , orange - headed thrush , wynaad laughingthrush , forest wagtail , asian elephant , gaur , leopard and rusty - spotted cats , sloth bear , dhole , indian crested porcupine , and oriental small - clawed and smooth - coated otters .\nsouthern india endemics grey junglefowl , grey - fronted ( pompadour ) green pigeon , nilgiri wood pigeon , malabar parakeet , malabar grey hornbill , malabar ( crimson - fronted ) and white - cheeked barbets , white - bellied treepie , malabar ( large ) woodshrike , malabar lark , white - spotted ( white - throated ) fantail , indian ( chestnut - bellied ) nuthatch , flame - throated ( black - crested ) and grey - headed bulbuls , black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , white - bellied blue flycatcher , nilgiri blue and white - bellied blue robins ( both formerly white - bellied shortwing ) , malabar whistling thrush , black - chinned ( nilgiri ) and grey - breasted ( kerala ) laughingthrushes , ( indian ) rufous babbler , malabar white - headed ( chestnut - tailed ) starling , nilgiri ( plain ) flowerpecker , crimson - backed sunbird , nilgiri pipit and rufous - bellied ( black - throated ) munia . also a chance of broad - tailed grassbird and wynaad laughingthrush .\nthe black baza is a small and distinctively coloured raptor . when perched , the upright crest and contrasting patterns make it difficult to misidentify . the male has white scapulars , secondary coverts and on the secondaries . the female has white only on the scapulars and more chestnut bands on the underside unlike the few bands in the male . in flight it is crow like and is often seen in small groups or flocks during migration . during migration , they are gregarious at their roost . they are somewhat crepuscular and more active at dusk and in overcast weather\nthe black baza is a small and distinctively colored raptor . when perched , the upright crest and contrasting patterns make it difficult to misidentify . the male has white scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) , secondary coverts and on the secondaries ( shorter , upper\narm\nfeathers ) . the female has white only on the scapulars ( shoulder feathers ) and more chestnut bands on the underside unlike the few bands in the male . in flight it is crow like and is often seen in small groups or flocks during migration . during migration , they are gregarious at their roost .\nimportant references : carey , g . j . , m . l . chmabers , d . a . diskin , p . r . kennerley , p . j . leader , m . r . leven , r . w . lewthwaite , d . s . melville , m . turnbull , and l . young . 2001 . the avifauna of hong kong . hong kong bird watching society , hong kong . clark , w . s . 1994 . black baza . p . 108 in del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( eds . ) , handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\neravikulam np ( rajamalai - closed during breeding season , jan - feb ) and chinnar ws , munnar , cardamom hills black - and - orange and nilgiri flycatchers , white - bellied blue robin , asian fairy bluebird , grey - breasted laughingthrush and nilgiri pipit , as well as nilgiri langur . also a chance of nilgiri wood pigeon , lion - tailed macaque ( eravikulam ) , nilgiri tahr ( eravikulam ) , gaur ( chinnar ) , grizzled giant squirrel ( chinnar ) , and an outside chance of painted bush quail and broad - tailed grassbird , as well as nigiri marten .\nspecies shared only with sri lanka painted francolin , crested ( changeable ) hawk eagle , blue - faced malkoha , sri lanka frogmouth , jerdon\u2019s nightjar , indian swiftlet , malabar trogon , malabar pied hornbill , crimson - fronted barbet , orange ( scarlet ) minivet , jerdon\u2019s ( rufous - winged ) bush lark , hill ( pacific ) swallow , square - tailed black , white - browed and yellow - browed bulbuls , indian blackbird , indian ( white - browed ) scimitar babbler , dark - fronted and yellow - billed babblers , lesser hill myna , jerdon\u2019s ( blue - winged ) leafbird and long - billed ( loten\u2019s ) sunbird .\nthe key papers for the booted eagles ( aquilinae ) are bunce et al . ( 2005 ) , helbig et al . ( 2005 ) , lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , haring et al . ( 2007b ) , and lerner et al . ( 2017 ) . the spizaetus hawk - eagles belong in two different clades within aquilinae . thus spizaetus is divided into nisaetus and spizaetus . the black - and - chestnut eagle ( oroaetus ) must be merged into the remaining spizaetus . the rufous - bellied hawk - eagle ( lophotriorchis ) is separated from hieraaetus . while the spotted eagles are separated from aquila as clanga . hieraaetus loses a couple of species to aquila , which also gains cassin ' s hawk - eagle from spizaetus .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe female is similar to the male but she lacks the white patches on secondaries .\nwe can find three subspecies , a . l . leuphotes , a . l . syama and a . l . andamanica . the race \u201c syama \u201d has longer primaries and blacker barring on the underparts . the race \u201c andamanica \u201d has only two bars on the upper belly , and differs by unbarred flanks .\nthis raptor is often seen in pairs or in family groups , but this gregarious species occurs also in small groups of 4 - 5 birds perched in the same tree . during winter , they sleep at communal night - time roosts in groups of up 20 - 25 birds .\nreproduction : the breeding season varies according to the range , but usually occurs between february and june . both sexes build a small compact nest with twigs and thin sticks in a large tree in the forest , between 20 and 30 metres above the ground and often near water . the shallow cup is lined with soft materials such as grass , plant fibres and green leaves . the female lays 2 - 3 eggs and the incubation is shared by both parents . the chicks are fed with insects .\nfinds of race : lesser sand plover , common sand piper and montagu\u2019s harrier are among the species sighted at the bird race in the city .\nas many as 157 species of birds were spotted from seven locations in and around the capital during the 8th kerala bird race held on sunday .\nvarious threats , especially habitat degradation , to bird population were noticed during the dawn - to - dusk event , said a . k . sivakumar , wwf - india senior education officer and coordinator of the race .\nakkulam lake , once a haven for waterbirds , is now more like a sewage drain with large - scale reclamation , invasive species , and all kinds of pollutants .\nthe sighting of birds such as the indian peafowl in the arippa forests and asian openbill at aruvikkara is clear indicators of the increasing temperature profile .\nthe museum and zoo premises still remain a healthy habitat for birds . as many as 42 species of birds with an active heronry of endangered oriental darters were spotted here .\nthe kottur forests , part of the neyyar wildlife sanctuary , and the kallar - ponmudi forests also have a very good bird population , the numbers crossing 75 . the sighting of mammals such as nilgiri marten , barking deer and malabar giant squirrel came as a bonus to the teams .\nas many as 78 birdwatchers participated in the annual race held in connection with the birthday of salim ali .\nthe event was organised jointly by the yuhina eco media and wwf - india with the support of hsbc .\nadditional principal chief conservator of forests , biodiversity cell of forests & wildlife department , o . p . kaler , who was the chief guest , asked the participants to submit their findings and recommendations for further action and to document the sightings for scientific planning of conservation initiatives . renjan mathew varghese , state director of wwf - india , spoke .\nfollow - up activities such as sunday bird walk once in a month , annual asian waterfowl census and birdwatching camps are in the pipeline .\ntojo mathew was leaving the uae for good to join his wife in delhi .\nour purpose is to enable coffee producers to enjoy secure and stable livelihoods and strengthen coffee farming practices that conserve biodiversity . we invite coffee drinkers to participate in the process .\nour partner farms grow coffee under the shade of forest trees . farms keep at least 60 % tree canopy cover and a minimum of 100 trees and 20 species of indigenous trees per acre .\nwe restore farms by planting rare and endemic forest trees that provide critical habitat for a wide variety of wildlife .\nsustainable and secure livelihoods for coffee growers and workers is a critical part of our programme . we ensure this through stable prices , financial inclusion and long - term guaranteed contracts .\nmost of our packaging ( except 100g sizes ) is fully biodegradable . the outer bag is made from sugarcane waste . the inner bag is a biodegradable plastic that disintegrates between 6 - 24 months in landfill conditions .\nall partner farms commit to growing coffee that is free of chemical pesticides . an overwhelming majority ( 97 . 5 % ) also restrict the use of any chemical fertiliser .\neach cup of coffee can be traced back to the farm \u2013 or , at the least , cluster of farms \u2013 from which the beans were harvested .\nwe enable producers to establish and run farmer institutions for collective marketing . these institutions are also responsible for building people\u2019s capacity for quality production .\nour commitment to sustainable coffee means that we have to meticulously monitor the impact of our involvement . livelihood - related changes are monitored through questionnaire surveys and focus group discussions . biodiversity - related changes are monitored through measuring diversity of trees , birds , insects , mammals , soil and water . we have a long way to go but here ' s a start . . .\nour community is 160 members strong . we work with numerous smallholder producer organisations to resolve various challenges that undermine livelihoods security , financial inclusion and weaken producer autonomy in coffee markets .\nthe interaction between spotted hyenas and humans is 500 years old . the presence of moon moths is three times that . any impact we have to make cannot be measured in years or even decades . a thousand years seems like just enough time . ours is a thousand - year brew .\nour limited run monthly editions . one podu . one harvest . one time .\nthe microlot coffees celebrate the uniqueness in heterogeneity . smallholder producers harvest tiny volumes and these beans find themselves in our limited edition coffees .\ncoffee grounds is a collection of stories about people , place and ecology in coffee landscapes .\nform wolfei , based on single specimen , doubtfully distinct from nominate . validity of forms syama and andamanica also questioned # r ; further study needed . birds from myanmar and thailand ( sometimes awarded separate race , burmana ) may belong to race syama , as opposed to rather similar nominate leuphotes . in view of doubts over validity of races , species sometimes treated as monotypic # r . four subspecies provisionally recognized .\nopen deciduous or evergreen tropical forest , including second growth and bamboo - dominated areas , . . .\nmainly large insects ( and their larvae ) , especially grasshoppers ( also beetles , mantids and moths ) , but also lizards and tree - frogs ; . . .\nconsidered probably resident , or only partially migratory , in sw india , on andaman is , and from . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . generally uncommon , but probably passes undetected due to unobtrusive habits , and may be commoner than thought ; e . g . . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nstill on the fence about which coffee suits you the best ? give one of our all coffee packs a go . . . the entire gamut of our beans , blends and roasts . . . in six , completely biodegradable packages in one neat box .\nmers directly received rs 6758 . 4 from the sale of coffee to me and so much more . more strength to bbcc : )\namazing coffee ! thanks for bringing the taste from south to my home . . .\nbangalore municipal elections - 44 % voter turnout . disappointing . luckily some things never fail ! order your solid roast at team @ urltoken # probat\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population is estimated to number > c . 10 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees et al . 2001 ) , while the population in china has been estimated at c . 100 - 10 , 000 breeding pairs and c . 50 - 1 , 000 individuals on migration ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .\nwidespread forest loss across its range poses the most significant threat ( clark and kirwan 1994 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nis distributed in north india , bhutan , southeast china , myanmar , laos and thailand . these subspecies winter in thailand , malaysia and indonesia . the subspecies\nis distributed in south india , sri lanka , myanmar and thailand . the subspecies\ntiger reserves are not just about spotting and photographing tigers , but also a standing testimony to the preservation of larger landscapes and the biodiversity they support . as the saying goes , the jungle is full of surprises and animals or birds can make their appearance when you least expect them . such was one of our early morning drives on 9th april , 2015 in the kolsa range of tadoba andhari tiger reserve . we were driving through dense bamboo at shivanzari when i suddenly noticed a bird that looked very different . it was definitely a lifer for me and i was able to quickly make a few images of the raptor with my 500mm lens .\npraveen siddannavar bangalore - based praveen is an engineer by profession and an award - winning natural history photographer by choice .\nci is a non - profit , non - commercial portal that aims to facilitate wildlife and nature conservation by providing reliable information and the tools needed to campaign effectively . we define conservation as knowledge - driven actions that lead to the effective management and recovery of wildlife . that means giving priority to meeting the ecological needs of wildlife populations in decline , and to the recovery and expansion of their habitats . read more\nci is a non - profit , non - commercial portal that aims to facilitate wildlife and nature conservation by providing reliable information and the tools needed to campaign effectively . we define conservation as knowledge - driven actions that lead to the effective management and recovery of wildlife . that means giving priority to meeting the ecological needs of wildlife populations in decline , and to the recovery and expansion of their habitats . read more \u00bb\nthe species is found throughout much of southern and southeastern asia , from the indian subcontinent to the larger islands of indonesia , and northwards to southern china .\nthe species breeds from february to june ; what little observation was done indicates the birds choose nesting sites high in the tree canopy in dense forests and often near rivers , laying two to three eggs .\nthis page was last modified on 24 june 2016 , at 18 : 36 .\nthey feed mainly on insects by making aerial sallies . they have been noted to join mixed - species foraging flocks . it has also been known to feed on the fruits of the oil palm . they are somewhat crepuscular in habit . the call is a\nchu - weep\nsomewhat similar to the call of the large cuckoo - shrike .\nlike others in the genus aviceda they have two tooth like indentations on the edge of the upper bill .\nthe bird was first described based on a specimen from pondicherry under the name of falco leuphotes . several geographic races have been described including wolfei which is based on a single specimen from sichuan and may belong to the nominate subspecies . the named forms include the following but have been questioned and further study has been called for :\nthis species is found in southeast asia and parts of south asia . they are migratory in parts of their range . migratory birds may be seen in large numbers at some locations such as chumphon in thailand where they account for nearly 40 % of the raptors on passage . in some parts of hong kong , they have established themselves in recent times changing from summer visitors to residents in small numbers .\nin india the species is regularly reported in winter from the western ghats ( breeding records have been questioned ) , eastern ghats ( mainly on spring passage ) and known to breed in northeastern india and burma . winter records of the species include stray occurrences in or near metropolitan areas such as the guindy national park in chennai , near trivandrum and bangalore . more recent studies have suggested that the species may be a regular winter visitor in the eastern part of peninsular india , and not just a passage migrant .\nthe birds in northeastern india begin to breed in april . both sexes take part in nest building , incubation , brooding and feeding . the eggs take about 26\u201327 days to hatch . insects are the predominant food of the chicks .\ncopyright : wikipedia . this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from urltoken . . . additional information and photos added by avianweb .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\noperator of a coffee company that conserves forests , wildlife and water by selling coffee . the company connects coffee drinkers to coffee growers and also empowers coffee growers to cultivate coffee under the shade of indigenous trees , without chemical pesticides and alongside wildlife endemic .\n\u00a9 2018 pitchbook data . all rights reserved . pitchbook is a financial technology company that provides data on the capital markets .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nthey feed mainly on insects by making aerial sallies . they may also pick insects off a leaf , the insects always seized with their feet . they have been observed to attempt capturing small birds such as wagtails by making dashes into flocks . they have been noted to join mixed - species foraging flocks . it has also been known to feed on the fruits of the oil palm . they are somewhat crepuscular in habit .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe breeding season varies according to the range , but usually occurs between february and june . both sexes build a small compact nest with twigs and thin sticks in a large tree in the forest , between 20 and 30 metres above the ground and often near water . the shallow cup is lined with soft materials such as grass , plant fibres and green leaves . all were composed almost entirely of lagerstroemia reginae sticks , with a few sal sticks . both sexes participated in nest - building , incubation , brooding and feeding the chicks . the female lays 2 - 3 eggs and the incubation is shared by both parents . the chicks are fed with insects . the incubation period at two nests was 26 - 27 days . at 21 days old the chicks were frequently seen preening , hopping to nearby branches and flapping their wings .\nmigrants from north parts of range move south through malay peninsula in nov - dec to winter in sumatra , returning in feb - mar . a few migrants recorded in southeast india and sri lanka .\nrange : oriental region : widespread in south asia . the race ? syama ? from ne india and e nepal to s china , winters southwards through indochina and malay peninsula to sumatra . the race ? leuphotes ? occurs in sw india , s burma and w thailand , and breeds in several parts of indochina . the race ? andamanica ? occurs in s andaman islands . the northernmost populations move southwards through the malay peninsula to winter in sumatra .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\npay on delivery ( pod ) includes cash on delivery ( cod ) as well as debit card / credit card / net banking payments at your doorstep .\nthis shopping feature will continue to load items . in order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading .\nwhile we work to ensure that product information is correct , on occasion manufacturers may alter their ingredient lists . actual product packaging and materials may contain more and / or different information than that shown on our web site . we recommend that you do not solely rely on the information presented and that you always read labels , warnings , and directions before using or consuming a product . for additional information about a product , please contact the manufacturer .\njan ' 17 the best indian coffee i have had byfar . . . may ' 17 after my second order , this time 1 / 2 kg coarse grind i have to revise the perfect part . the 250 gm coffee bag had a great ziplock and one way air channel . the 1 / 2 kg one has a faulty ziplock and no air channel . i had to pack my coffee in three different airtight places .\ni must have already gone through five kilos of this coffee . after experimenting with a wide range of brands and flavours settled on this for my morning espresso . mildly aromatic with a really intense flavour . high quality coffee at a very reasonable price .\nthe coffee has a nice smokey aroma to it . the coffee was fine grained , not very good for french press . but tastewise , it is very good . would purchase again .\nthe last time i ordered was smoke flavored and i was happy , basis which i re ordered but find same lacking of any standard . . , this time i give 1 basis inconsistency of quality\ngood quality at very reasonable price . delivered on time as promised . highly recommended .\nexcellent , excellent coffee . best indian coffee i ' ve bought so far , and will no longer be searching further . : )\ngreat coffee ! am hooked . . . and can ' t go back to any other coffee , especially considering the conservation value of this coffee .\ngreat teast at great price . its a strong coffee gives me an hour and half uninterrupted focus .\ntip : to have maximum effectiveness add very less water and make it . . .\nprime members enjoy unlimited free , fast delivery on eligible items , video streaming , ad - free music , exclusive access to deals & more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nthe small villages that we passed by had such character ; i was tempted to pause and take pictures . elders huddled under a peepal tree , children rolled moped tyres along dusty streets . full story by\nriding through a forest was a sublime experience . we drifted , keeping the revs on the lower side , coaxing our engines to a hum . keeping a good distance between us made it even more personal . from ' new love , new territories ' by\nwobbling at a speed of 10 km / h , we had time to look around . my highlight : the plum - headed parakeet and the summer hues that these dry - deciduous forests put on display . excerpt from\nnew love , new territories\nby\nlater that evening , we headed to muthugadagaddepodu hamlet . we invited a few coffee farmers for a quick chat . the conversations revolved around their relationship with the local buyer and middleman .\nwe broke our journey for our customary otter - spotting from the bridge across the river kaveri . while we witnessed the creatures bob their heads up and down , a human was diving into the waters to retrieve coins flung by passers - by . full story at :\n, gives us a glimpse into india\u2019s chequered coffee - growing history , introduces her fledgling business and explains why biodiversity - friendly brews make for a better cuppa .\nwhat does it meant to stay relevant in today ' s world ? i asked karthik - over whatsapp mind you . \u2026\nbarley coffee , you said ? erm . very interesting experimenting sessions with snow leopard\u2026\nmany thanks to our fantastic venue partner @ gi _ bangalore and shoonya , our filmmakers , friends , our sponsors @ blackbazacoffee @ innersightblr our volunteers from asq , the audience , and everybody else who helped make this a fantastic festival .\nall the queerness + all the @ blackbazacoffee for three days , starting tomorrow . we ' ll be @ gi _ bangalore for @ bqff 2018 . come by ! say hi ! # bqff2018\nmicrolot alert ! for 1 month only . neralu noorembathu or ' the shade of 180 ' is available from our website :\n: bonded labour . as an estate owner told me ,\nit ' s about how you exploit . . . nicely .\nedition01 / episode03 , coffee grounds is now published ! . not - an - ape , and other notes from a\u2026\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\ntelluraves contains slightly more than 3 / 4 of all bird species . athough there ' s some residual uncertainty about the other main branches of passerea , the land bird clade telluraves is well - supported by jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) where it receives 100 % bootstrap support . further , hackett et al . ( 2008 ) and ericson et al . ( 2006a ) both found the hawks and american vultures to be closer to the picimorphae than to the falcons ( see also suh et al . , 2011 ; mccormack et al . , 2013 ; yuri et al . 2013 ) . other papers ( e . g . , morgan - richards et al . , 2008 ) are less supportive , putting all of them somewhere between the ardeae and the passerines . the order here follows jarvis et al .\nthe main division in telluraves is between the group containing the mousebirds , hawks , owl , and woodpeckers ( afroaves ) and the group containing the falcons , parrots , and passerines ( australaves ) ( ericson et al . , 2006a ; hackett et al . , 2008 ; ericson , 2012 ; jarvis et al . , 2014 ) . australaves is by far the larger group , containing about 64 % of all bird species . in contrast , afroaves only has about 11 & half ; % of the species . still , afroaves is much larger than any other high - level group than branches off sooner .\ni ' m not fond of the names afroaves and australaves , mainly because the names suggest some knowledge of their origin that we don ' t have . as you will note in some of comments in the next few pages , some of the groups where the crown group appears to originate in africa or australia today ( ericson , 2012 ) have fossil records that are quite different . the earliest fossils throughout the clade come from the northern hemisphere . more precisely , they come from eupore and north america , which were connected in paleocene and early eocene .\nin the tif list , afroaves is divided into four groups : coliiformes , accipitrimorphae , strigiformes , and picimorphae . there is some uncertainty about whether strigiformes are closer to accipitrimorphae or to picimorphae . suh ( 2016 ) and jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) prefer the latter , and that is followed here .\nthe coliiformes are a relict afrotropical group consisting of 6 species in 2 genera . it wasn ' t always so . there ' s a fairly extensive fossil record from europe and north america . primitive coliiformes ( sandcoleidae ) are known from the early eocence ( 48 - 56 mya ) . by the late eocene , only modern forms are known ( mayr , 2009 ) .\nthe phylogeny of cathartidae is based on johnson et al . ( 2016 ) ."]}
{"id": 913, "summary": [{"text": "furcifer lateralis , also known as the carpet chameleon or the white-lined chameleon , is a species of chameleon that is endemic to madagascar .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it was described in 1831 by john edward gray . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "carpet chameleon", "paragraphs": ["the carpet chameleon is a charming addition to the chameleon collection and ours \u2018tamed\u2019 quickly , allowing hand feeding and more interaction than the larger chameleons such as panther and veiled .\nthey live in carpet chameleon mainly on the island of madagascar . they can be seen in the woods , overgrown savannas , grasslands , plantations even .\nthe colors and patterns on this female furcifer lateralis lateralis might remind people of an oriental carpet .\naccording to international union for conservation of nature ' s red list of threatened species , many species of chameleon are endangered . some species that are considered in danger of extinction are the tiger chameleon , elandsberg dwarf chameleon , namoroka leaf chameleon and the decary ' s leaf chameleon .\nhello all , i recently completed a detailed care sheet on how i keep and breed furcifer lateralis , the carpet chameleon . i hope it is helpful .\nabate , ardie 1995 . chameleon profile [ chamaeleo lateralis ] . chameleon information network 1995 ( 18 ) : 15 - 16\nas the structure of the chameleon ' s eye , allows the chameleon to have complete 360 degree vision around its body . this special adaptation , allows the chameleon to be able to hunt\ncarpet chameleons can easily climb branches but not smooth surfaces . a top is only necessary to contain food items .\ncarpet chameleons eat mostly small insects and grubs . the most popular foods for captive chameleons are crickets and flies .\ngenera & species : within the two subfamilies are nine genera and 171 species . a few examples \u2014 calumma parsonii ( parson\u2019s chameleon ) , furcifer oustaleti ( oustalet ' s chameleon ) , brookesia minima ( pygmy leaf chameleon ) , chameleo jacksonii ( jackson\u2019s chameleon )\nhouse carpet chameleons in full - screen enclosures . provide each chameleon with a space at least 1 foot long , 1 foot wide and 2 feet tall . bigger enclosures are better .\nmy friend who has a store is selling a carpet chameleon . i want to make sure they have a good number of sources for info , and have a prinout of links to give to customers for further info before & after they purchase the chameleon .\nthe carpet chameleon is found in the mixed woodlands and forests of madagascar . it is arboreal ( a tree dweller ) . adults require a 18\nx 18\nx 36\nenclosure with branches .\n10 . the american chameleon is not actually a chameleon . the american chameleon , or anole ( anolis carolinensis ) , is not a true chameleon , but a small lizard of the iguana family . it is found in the se united states and is noted for its colour changes . [ source ]\nmales are light green with a mid - body white stripe . females are dark brown to black with a mid - body yellow stripe and numerous white to multi - coloured spots , hence the name , carpet chameleon .\ni ' m also in port elizabeth and picked up a chameleon . . .\nthe female chameleon then lays a clutch of around 20 eggs , although the exact number of eggs can vary from just one to nearly 100 . the chameleon eggs take from 4 - 12 months to hatch , depending on the chameleon species .\nlearn many facts about the chameleon , a wonderful creature with many remarkable abilities .\nsimulate a chameleon\u2019s natural environment as close as possible . carpet chameleons like to bask in the sun , so give them the opportunity to do so , but make sure they have a shady retreat . never leave a chameleon in direct sunlight without giving it the opportunity of shade . otherwise they might get too warm .\nthe carpet chameleon comes from madagascar and is also known as jewelled chameleons because of its stunning colours . it is the female that sports the familiar eye pattern but the male can display lovely greens with shades of blue around the eyes and feet .\ninformation on the jewel chameleon is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ncarpet chameleons may hibernate for 1 to 3 months during the winter . after hibernation , keep adults well fed with a variety of vitamin / mineral enriched foods .\nit is important to give a gravid female carpet chameleon high - quality food and supplementation during the initial period shortly after breeding has taken place . she most likely will go off food after her body becomes so engorged with eggs that she no longer has room .\nand can grow to nearly 70 cm in length . parson ' s chameleon , also found in\nteam , ben .\ndescription of chameleon color phases\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\ncarpet chameleon eggs should be artificially incubated in slightly moist vermiculite . a cool phase is needed during egg incubation : 25c for the first 45 days , 15c for 40 days , then 28c until hatching ( around 100 days following the end of the cool phase ) .\nthe largest chameleon is the parson\u2019s chameleon , according to encyclopedia britannica . it can grow up to 27 inches ( 69 . 5 centimeters ) long . the madagascan , also known as the oustalet ' s chameleon , is also very large and grows up to 23 inches ( 60 cm ) long .\ncarpet chameleons will not drink from standing water so daily misting , or a dripping / splashing water source is necessary , e . g . waterfall . clean terrarium as needed .\n, due to the large eyes and curled tail of the chameleon . chameleons are found throughout jungle and\nprefer to be vegetarians . a chameleon will generally eat anything though including berries , leaves , fruits ,\nlike many chameleons , the colours are at their best when either displaying to a mate or rival . when the female is gravid the jewelled effect is most pronounced . environment and mood play their part and a basking carpet chameleon can exhibit combinations of deep reds , blues or black .\nthis is flim flam , a male furcifer lateralis lateralis , also known as a carpet of jeweled chameleon . smaller in size than a veiled or panther they can be housed in a smaller cage . if you can help it avoid buying wild caught ! seek captive bred or captive hatched .\ncarpet chameleon \u2013 a small family pet lizards . its easy to keep at home . small animal has an unusual variegated coloring . small size body ( about twenty centimeters ) . the backrest is slightly raised , has a small crest , which runs through the entire spine . the tail is long , curved . in the wild , the life expectancy of carpet chameleon no more than one year . but in captivity , he can expect to live twice , even three times longer . females differ from males in body coloring . the color scheme of female individuals is much brighter . chameleon size depends on the environment . for example , in the warm regions of much larger animals . another distinctive feature of the sexes is the tail of the chameleon . in males , it is a little thicker .\nother chameleon species lay eggs that have an incubation period of four to 24 months , depending on species , according to the san diego zoo . the size of the chameleon predicts how many eggs she will lay . small chameleon species lay two to four eggs while larger chameleons lay 80 to 100 eggs at one time .\nteam , ben .\ndescription of chameleon color phases .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / description - chameleon - color - phases - 5111 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nteam , ben . ( n . d . ) . description of chameleon color phases . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / description - chameleon - color - phases - 5111 . html\nif breeding was successful , the female carpet chameleon shows gravid coloration . a gravid female displays this coloration , hisses and possibly bites males even if she is carrying infertile eggs . after she lays eggs and has time to fatten up , reintroducing her to a male may still elicit a gravid , unreceptive coloration .\nphotos of a smith\u2019s dwarf chameleon blending in when facing two decoy predators , a shrike and a mamba . photo by\nthe smallest chameleon has a special distinction . it is also one of the smallest vertebrates ever discovered . the leaf chameleon grows to just 0 . 5 inches ( 16 millimeters ) and can sit comfortably on the head of a match .\n) , we recovered dates that are consistent with previously documented chameleon fossils . for instance , the age of the genus\na wonderful chameleon with wonderful colors and patters and now a wonderful care sheet to take care of them wonderfully . . .\nwater is very important to chameleon growth and health . they either slurp water up using their tongues or the inhale it .\nwild - caught imports of furcifer l . lateralis can be found quite often in pet stores due to the number and wide distribution of this particular subspecies . be warned , however , that purchasing an adult carpet chameleon may not have favorable results . they may not live long if they are purchased too old or if there is a parasite issue .\nthe challenge of keeping and finally breeding carpet chameleons under captive conditions is both fascinating and worthwhile . sperm retention is common in all chameleons . it is possible that if a female breeds once , she can have fertile eggs clutch after clutch . technically , a female chameleon can breed for one season and still produce viable eggs for her entire life .\nwhen a gravid female carpet chameleon is ready to lay eggs , a nesting site should be available . i provide a plastic container measuring 1 . 5 feet long , 1 . 5 feet wide and 1 foot tall placed in the bottom of the female\u2019s enclosure . i position it next to her plant with a stick leading into the nesting site .\n. then a chameleon\u2019s green coloration is acquired by the blue light reflected by the iridiophores that goes through the outer yellow chromatophores .\nwhen frightened , the chameleon can make a hissing sound . they can bite ( which is non - toxic and harmless ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - male jewel chameleon\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - male jewel chameleon\ntitle =\narkive photo - male jewel chameleon\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\na female carpet chameleon may dig several test holes . this may take days or hours to accomplish . leave her alone , and let her dig . do not remove her until she is finished covering her holes or returns to her branch for a length of time . she may return to the test holes repeatedly and cover only a few them . be patient .\nsource / reference article learn how you can use or cite the chameleon article in your website content , school work and other projects .\nlook for chameleon eggs to start swelling and sweating after four to five months . eggs hatch between five to seven months on average .\nallow the female carpet chameleon to rest at least a week or two after egg deposition , and then reintroduce the female to the male in his enclosure . the female retains the active sperm and automatically fertilizes more than one clutch of eggs , so it is possible to have an impregnated female lay several clutches of fertile eggs without being exposed to a male for many months .\nsome chameleons display so many different colors that it is difficult to characterize them . panther chameleons from ambilobe are kaleidoscopic animals , they can display red , orange , yellow , blue , white and green colors at the same time . carpet or jeweled chameleons ( furcifer lateralis ) display a variety of colors . females of the species are often marked with purple , blue and white markings on a dark background . male carpet chameleons are usually green with blue , orange or white markings .\nfound in tropical rainforests , prairies and cities , where they live in bushes or trees . this chameleon has adapted to living around humans .\nto bury her eggs to keep them safe and warm , the female chameleon first digs a hole in the forest floor in which to bury them . the hole can be from 10 to 30 cm deep , but the depth of the hole generally depends on the chameleon species .\n) . each of these hypotheses results in specific patterns that we use here to assess support between diversification models for our target chameleon group .\n) . we have clarified the range of these chameleon species . from the point locality data alone , we found that the range of the\ncarpet chameleons are the most common and plentiful species of chameleon found on madagascar , which is off the coast of africa . they live in varied habitats and favor humid areas in the central to southern regions , where most of the native population can be found . carpet chameleons have adapted to mountains , deserts and rain forest habitats , but they seem to be most numerous where there is ample humidity . there is little question that within reason most chameleons can adapt to varying temperatures , humidity and dryness , but the fact remains that they will only adjust to some semblance of their native environment . adaptability does not mean lizardkeepers should push the extreme limits of the chameleon\u2019s environmental needs . all subspecies of furcifer lateralis are generally collected where humidity averages 70 percent or higher .\nstuart - fox & moussalli ( 2008 ) . selection for social signalling drives the evolution of chameleon colour change . plos biol vol . 6 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - jewel chameleon ( furcifer lateralis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - jewel chameleon ( furcifer lateralis )\ntitle =\narkive species - jewel chameleon ( furcifer lateralis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbreeding your own insects as food will allow you to give your chameleon a varied diet . you will also have better control over the quality of food .\nflorio , a . m . , ingram , c . m . , rakotondravony , h . a . , louis , e . e . and raxworthy , c . j . 2012 . detecting cryptic speciation in the widespread and morphologically conservative carpet chameleon ( furcifer lateralis ) of madagascar . journal of evolutionary biology 25 : 1399 - 1414 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1420 - 9101 . 2012 . 02528 . x .\ndifferences in the colouring of a panther chameleon when it\u2019s relaxed and excited , and its relation with the composition and distribution of the iridiophore nanocrystals . image extracte from\nunfortunately , females of all chameleon species , especially short - lived ones such as furcifer lateralis , can breed with a potentially infertile male and not show signs of infertility until they have expired , and the eggs all turn up useless . i recommend all chameleon females breed with several males per season to ensure proper fertilization .\nflorio , a . m . , ingram , c . m . , rakotondravony , h . a . , louis , e . e . and raxworthy , c . j . 2012 . detecting cryptic speciation in the widespread and morphologically conservative carpet chameleon ( furcifer lateralis ) of madagascar . journal of evolutionary biology , 25 : 1399\u20131414 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1420 - 9101 . 2012 . 02528 . x - get paper here\nkrysko , kenneth l . and louis a . somma 2017 . the status of two species of nonindigenous lizards in florida , the slender chameleon , chamaeleo gracilis hallowell 1842 and the white - lined chameleon , furcifer lateralis ( gray 1831 ) : a corrigendum . ircf reptiles & amphibians 24 ( 1 ) : 65\u201366 - get paper here\na chameleon\u2019s tongue is not really sticky . it\u2019s hollow and composed of three main elements : accelerator muscles , retractor muscles and the sticky tip , which is more like a toilet plunger . the tip hits prey hard and creates suction around it before the chameleon retracts it . because of this suction , the tip can get stuck on a feeder dish . irreversible damage can result . sometimes the tongue no longer retracts , and it atrophies or even causes death if the chameleon cannot be taught to be hand - fed .\non the long drive from ranomafana national park north to antananarivo , we stopped along national route 7 for this beautiful chameleon crossing the road , and moved him over to safety .\nthe chameleon can move one eye in one direction while moving the other eye in a different direction . it also has the ability to view its surrounding with nearly 360\u00b0 vision .\nalthough there are many fun and interesting facts about the chameleon , it is recommended by some to not keep them as pets because they are hard to care for in captivity .\nwild - caught carpet chameleons are often heavily parasitized and stressed , frequently with short life expectancy . another problem with wild - caught specimens is the ease with which they mate . young females kept in crowded cages awaiting shipment will often mate too small , resulting in poor quality eggs and often a dead female .\nsuch as pink , blue , red , orange , green , black , brown , light blue , yellow and turquoise , all so that the chameleon can blend in more easily .\nmany people believe the chameleon changes color to blend in with their environment . scientists disagree with this . studies have shown that mood , temperature , and light causes their color to change .\nthis chameleon is endemic to madagascar and is distributed in the east of the island ( florio et al . 2012 ) . it has a large estimated distribution of > 130 , 000 km\u00b2 .\n1 . almost half of the world\u2019s chameleon species live on the island of madagascar , with 59 different species existing nowhere outside of the island . there are approximately 160 species of chameleon . they range from africa to southern europe , and across south asia to sri lanka . they have also been introduced into the united states in places such as hawaii , california and florida . [ source 1 , source 2 ]\ncarpets require the basic chameleon care , such as uv lighting , the correct delivery of water and heating , etc . i always recommend natural sunlight for health and best colours , if your location is suitable .\n. this allows them to control the wavelength of the light reflected by the iridiophores and so , the colour . combined with the chromatophores , the different chameleon species can cover most of the visible spectrum of colours .\ncoming from various parts of madagascar , they are not restricted to one habitat or ecosystem . this means they are fairly tolerant of temperature ranges but the following are optimum : daytime between 25\u00b0c and 30\u00b0c , dropping at night by 5\u00b0c to 10\u00b0c . do not let the temperature fall below 12\u00b0c or rise above 32\u00b0c . the carpet chameleons may survive but they could become stressed .\nalso provide nontoxic plants ( such as a ficus benjamina ) , sticks of various sizes and vines , so they may feel secure . chameleons become stressed when they see other chameleons , even if they see one across the room . if you notice a chameleon stressing \u2014 changing to gravid or unreceptive colors , hissing or puffing up for no apparent reason \u2014 it may see its reflection or have view of a chameleon in another cage .\nwhen you purchase any chameleon , please do the animal and yourself a favor : get a fecal check . it\u2019s the only way to be completely sure the animal doesn\u2019t have parasites . veterinarians can do this simple test . all you have to take to the vet office is a fresh stool sample . even a healthy - looking , active chameleon with a tight grip and strong tongue can harbor a fatal parasite load . parasites are commonly aggravated by stress , which can grow to unmanageable levels in a relatively short amount of time in captivity . even a very heavy load of parasites , if caught early in an otherwise healthy chameleon , can be treated and cured .\nhatchling carpet chameleons can be kept in much the same way as the adults , but even more care should be taken to make sure the temperature and humidity are precise . hatchlings are very strong and usually eat voraciously in a day or two . furcifer lateralis subspecies grow so quickly that it is imperative that supplements contain a high - quality form of calcium to ensure proper growth of bones and muscles .\nscheme of a chameleon\u2019s skin section in which the iridiophores ( blue ) with nanocrystal layers and the different kinds of chromatophores can be seen ; xanthophores ( yellow ) , erythrophores ( red ) and melanophores ( black ) . image by\nchameleons ( chamaeleonidae family ) are extremely cryptic lizards , as their coloration is usually very similar to that of their habitat\u2019s . also , many chameleon species present the ability to actively shift their colours , making their camouflage even more complex .\nas long as no aggressive behavior is present , a clutch of 10 to 15 hatchling carpet chameleons can be housed together in a screen cage measuring 1 foot long , 1 foot wide and 2 feet tall for no more than a month . after that time , keep no more than five hatchlings per cage . furcifer lateralis subspecies grow quickly , and adults require their own cage after they reach 3 months old .\nchanging skin color is an important part of communication among chameleons . according to the san diego zoo , a chameleon ' s skin changes colors in response to its emotions , such as anger or fear , changes in light , temperature or humidity .\n] . to help alleviate this , we estimated chameleon divergence both ways and then assessed concordance . while the dates inferred using the nd2 molecular rate were generally older , the dates did not largely vary between analyses with respect to geologic period ( see\nas we\u2019ve just seen , the variety of colorations among the distinct chameleon species is huge . yet , their incredible abilities haven\u2019t saved chameleons from being on the endangered species list , as many of them are in danger of extinction , mainly because of the destruction of their habitat due to the logging industry and because of poaching for the illegal exotic animal trade . we hope that with a better awareness of these spectacular and colourful lizards , future generations can still delight with chameleon colour shifts for a long time .\nmany chameleon species , including panther ( furcifer pardalis ) , jackson\u2019s ( chamaeleo jacksonii ) and senegal ( chamaeleo senegalensis ) chameleons will display dark brown colors if they are cold , sick or stressed . other chameleons , including many of the stump - tailed chameleons ( brookesia sp . ) , always display brown or other earth tones that help them to blend in to their natural habitat . outstalet\u2019s chameleons ( furcifer outstaleti ) , potentially the largest chameleon species in the world , usually exhibit grey or brown colors .\nsupply water to your chameleon twice daily in the form of a mist , spray or dripper . i use tap water in a hudson sprayer to mist my enclosures . a humidifier also helps to keep humidity in check . do yourself a favor and get the more expensive one with the auto shut - off . i use only distilled water in the humidifier . this keeps minerals from building up and causing the misting nebulizer to malfunction . make sure to wet the chameleon\u2019s body as well as the plants in the enclosure .\n2 . colour changing . most chameleons change from brown to green and back , but some can turn almost any colour . a change can occur in as little as 20 seconds . chameleons are born with special cells that have a colour or pigment in them . these cells lie in layers under the chameleon\u2019s outer skin . they are called chromatophores . the top layers of chromatophores have red or yellow pigment . the lower layers have blue or white pigment . when these pigment cells change , the chameleon\u2019s skin colour changes .\nthere are more than 160 sub species of the chameleon and they have a huge diversity when it comes to where they are located . some of those common areas include florida , california , hawaii , asia , sri lanka , spain , madagascar , and portugal .\n] that offer possible explanations for the production of this biodiversity . in this study , we focused on four hypotheses that we consider the most likely candidates for diversification , based on our chameleon target group distributions ( e . g not montane ) and ecology ( see\ncarpet chameleons do well on a diet of medium - sized crickets , flies and other small insects . offer five to six gut - loaded feeder insects per meal . i generally feed my chameleons twice a week , and i allow the feeder insects to roam the cage freely . this forces chameleons to use their hunting abilities and keep their tongues strong . dish feeding is also an option , but there is a higher risk of tongue damage when using a dish .\nthe time period for actual mating can vary from a few minutes to more than an hour . the carpet chameleons should not be disturbed during this time . after mating has taken place , the pair pulls apart , and the female usually tries to escape the vicinity of the male . remove the female , place her in her enclosure , offer food and water , and let her relax . if the female doesn\u2019t show signs of being gravid , try mating her again .\nif you intend to breed carpet chameleons ( furcifer [ chamaeleo ] lateralis ssp . ) , please purchase only unrelated animals . some species are represented by very small gene pools , and extra effort must be made to keep these animals genetically divergent and pure to avoid genetic depression and hybridization . captive - bred or wild - caught furcifer lateralis subspecies mature and breed at the early age of 8 to 12 months , and they are subsequently gravid for the rest of their reproductive lives .\nthe chameleon is a very popular type of lizard due to the fact that it has the ability to change colors based on their mood . this also allows them to blend into the surroundings for safety . other factors influence color too including mating season and even the temperature around them .\nthe mating season for the chameleon can vary based on the time of year and the location of them . the sub species that is being evaluated will also influence that period of time . all chameleons lay eggs and that typically will occur in four weeks or less after mating takes place .\nmany people think chameleons change colour to blend in with their surroundings . scientists disagree . their studies show that light , temperature and mood cause chameleons to change colour . sometimes changing colour can make the chameleon more comfortabl . sometimes it helps the animal communicate with other chameleons . [ source ]\nthere aren\u2019t many chameleons who can make their whole body red , but several types of panther chameleon display some red in their pattern . one exception is male panther chameleons from the east coast of madagascar , notably those from tamatave , who display bright red or orange coloration over their entire body .\nchameleon owners need to be prepared to spend not only time on this creature but also money . the lizard is normally the most inexpensive part of startup costs . hidden costs include parasite checks , possible treatment , follow - up fecal checks , possible blood work , tests for bacterial infections and other expenses .\nany animal that can change colours and look in two directions at once is worth learning more about . armed with a tongue you have to see to believe , the chameleon may be one of the coolest reptiles on the planet . here are ten things you may not have known about our lizard friend .\nchameleons are famous for changing colors . they don\u2019t do it to camouflage themselves , as is commonly thought ; they change color in response to temperature , stress level , reproductive state and mood . male chameleons are usually more boldly colored than females and usually display their most intense colors when confronted by another chameleon .\neven when you are familiar with the various locations where the chameleon you may not see them . they do blend in exceptionally well to their surroundings . as a result you will have to try to focus on a given area and be patient to wait to see if you can make out the shape of one of them .\ni have had much better luck breeding and maintaining healthier captive animals with a humidity higher than 70 percent . if humidity in the enclosure drops below 70 percent , a weekly deep hydration is necessary . even with a humidifier present i prefer this shower method . gently place the chameleon on a clothes - drying rack or plant in the shower stall . turn the shower on so a light , lukewarm rain falls on the chameleon for 30 to 60 minutes . in drier climates the shower method may be used twice a week or more . outdoor enclosures can be fitted with automatic mister systems , which reduce the risk of dehydration and make watering easier for the lizardkeeper .\nchameleons are loners . in fact , most of the time females don ' t want males to even come near them . during the rare moments when the female is willing to be touched , the male will approach for mating . a brighter colored male chameleon is more likely to convince a female to mate than a duller colored male .\nbreeding only the strongest and healthiest chameleons adds to the future strength of the gene pool . all subspecies of f . lateralis are avid breeders . in my experience , once sexual maturity is reached , female carpet chameleons have produced a clutch every six to eight weeks . maturity can occur as early as 2 or 3 months of age . once bred , females lay between five and 20 eggs depending on the subspecies . generally larger subspecies produce more eggs than the smaller ones . eggs hatch in as few as five to seven months . they can produce upwards of 200 eggs in a lifetime .\nthe most obvious motive ( even if not the most important ) is camouflage . even if the standard coloration of most chameleon species is cryptic enough , in case of necessity chameleons are able to blend in even more with their surroundings . this helps them not to be detected by their prey , but mainly to go unnoticed by their predators .\nthe chameleon has a body that is wide and appears to be puffed up . they have a head that is narrow so you can see their shoulders from the front . they have wide eyes on the sides of the head and a tongue that is wide and long . they move from side to side when they walk with a gait that appears to be quite awkward .\nthis species , as with most other chameleon species , is strictly diurnal . they generally spend the early part of the day warming up their bodies by assuming a very dark coloration and exposing as much surface area as possible to sunlight . after they have reached the desired body temperature , they begin hunting for prey , an activity which usually lasts for the rest of the daylight hours .\n5 . ballistic tongues that are 1 . 5 - 2 times the length of their body . chameleons feed by ballistically projecting their long tongue from their mouth to capture prey located some distance away . while the chameleon\u2019s tongue is typically thought to be 1 . 5 to 2 times the length of their body ( their length excluding the tail ) , it has been recently discovered that smaller chameleons have proportionately larger tongue apparatuses than their larger counterparts . tongue projection occurs at extremely high performance , reaching the prey in as little as 0 . 07 seconds , having been launched at accelerations exceeding 41 g . the chameleon tongue\u2019s tip is a bulbous ball of muscle , and as it hits its prey it rapidly forms a small suction cup . [ source 1 , source 2 ]\nmay contain chameleons in small terrariums . the main thing that creature felt roomy , comfortable . the bottom is littered with a thick ball of a special substrate . since the heat - loving animals , it requires special care . above the house your pet arrange lamps with ultraviolet radiation . daytime temperature should be about twenty - five degrees , the lamp can not use at night . daily moisturize the air in the terrarium . sprinkling the bottom wall of the water drops . this procedure is recommended in the morning . as feed , use of cockroaches , beetles . they also eat green food ( spinach , lettuce , dandelion leaves ) . insects can be purchased at a pet store . carpet chameleon eats a lot . so feed him every day . drink animals ordinary water . at the bottom of the cage , place a sustainable capacity in water . but as chameleons do not like to drink , you need to water them occasionally violently . the main thing is not to overdo . in the mouth , pour a few drops . for ease of use the syringe , pipette .\n3 . chameleon eyes have a 360 - degree arc of vision and can see two directions at once . chameleons have the most distinctive eyes of any reptile . their upper and lower eyelids are joined , with only a pinhole large enough for the pupil to see through . they can rotate and focus separately to observe two different objects simultaneously , which lets their eyes move independently from each other .\nthe tongue is another interesting feature of the chameleon . the tip of their tongue is covered with a sticky secretion that grabs its prey . they can\nshoot out\ntheir long tongue ( which can be as long as their body ) and have their prey in their mouth in a fraction of a second ( faster than what the human eye can see ) . they can repeat this action immediately afterwards .\nchameleons live in madagascar , africa , spain , portugal and asia in rain forests , savannas , semi - deserts and steppes , according to the san diego zoo . they typically stay in trees or bushes , though some species do live on the ground . for example , the horned leaf chameleon lives in dead leaves on forest floors according to the national wildlife federation . [ photos : 11 colorful chameleons of madagascar ]\nno matter what species , chameleons become mature at 1 to 2 years of age . the exception is the madagascan chameleon . it has been labeled as the vertebrate with the world ' s shortest life span , according to encyclopedia britannica . their eggs hatch in november , the young become adults in january , they lay eggs in february , and then the entire adult population perishes after a lifespan of just three months .\na gravid female chameleon that does not like to be in the proximity of an amorous male usually exhibits unreceptive coloration , which is different from her normal resting colors . this beautiful display of color announces to the male that female does not want anything to do with him . yet some males will try to mount anyway , so to prevent unnecessary stress , it is advisable to remove a gravid female after mating has taken place .\ncarefully dig up the chameleon eggs , and place them in a plastic container with a sealed lid for incubation . i use a tupperware cupcake container without holes . the container should be filled halfway with damp vermiculite purchased at a garden center . mix in enough water so when it\u2019s squeezed , a few droplets dribble off . too much water drowns the eggs . place eggs in rows 1 inch apart and half - buried in vermiculite .\nalthough i believe chameleons should be in natural sunlight as much as possible , an indoor environment is fine for most animals . they require a full - spectrum fluorescent light and a heat dome light . i position the dome light so the highest point the chameleon can reach is no more than 90 degrees fahrenheit . ambient temperatures can range from 70 to 80 degrees . chameleons should not be able to touch bulbs , or burns can result .\nchameleons are different from many reptiles because some of the species , like the jackson\u2019s chameleon , have live births . these species can give birth to eight to 30 young at one time after a gestation of four to six months . while the young are born live instead of in an egg , they started as an egg . these mothers incubate the eggs , minus a shell , inside of her body instead of laying them in a nest .\nis almost entirely insectivorous , and prefers insects which normally reside in trees or shrubs . these include most flies , grasshoppers and crickets , and various insect larvae . adult specimens are also known to consume very small lizards and even small newborn rodents ( in captivity ) . this species hunts for food in the typical chameleon style of slowly creeping through tree or shrub branches , using its excellent eyesight to spot insects . as the desired prey is selected ,\nthe chameleon tends to be a timid type of lizard and they will retreat rather than fight when they can . they are often kept as pets due to their calm nature and the fact that they can amazingly change colors . however , they can be tough to care for because they need the right balance of food , heat , and places to climb in order to really thrive . they are believed to be a very intelligent species of lizard .\nalso watch them for signs of overheating while in direct sunlight . chameleons showing dark green or solid black are basking . blanching , turning very light green , yellow or even white , indicates that the animal should be removed from the sun and given shade and water . a trip to the shower for \u201cdeep hydration , \u201d a watering method i discuss later , is a good idea for any chameleon found overheated , blanched or panting with an open mouth .\nthe main function of chameleons colour change is intraspecific communication . chameleons use different colour patterns known as liveries in some countries , which are changed in order to transmit information to other individuals of their same species like their stress degree , their reproductive or health status , etc\u2026 a chameleon\u2019s standard coloration is usually similar to that of their habitat . so , this colour pattern usually indicates a healthy animal , while if they feel sick or have some physical problem , they usually present paler and duller colorations .\na total of 129 individuals belonging to furcifer oustaleti ( n = 89 ) and furcifer verrucosus ( n = 40 ) , collected between 1990 and 2012 , were included for analysis . the closely related species furcifer labordi , furcifer major , and furcifer antimena were included to test the sister species relationship of f . verrucosus and f . oustaleti [ 1 , 2 , 5 ] . furcifer campani was used as the furcifer outgroup taxon to root all phylogenetic trees . the following chameleon species were also included in the species tree analysis to estimate divergence dates : chamaeleo namaquensis , chamaeleo chamaeleon , furcifer cephalolepis , and furcifer polleni . these species are distantly related to the ingroup taxa , and were only included to allow for the fossil calibration in the divergence dating analysis .\nanother in the too - long list of chameleons which avoided having its picture taken . i guess i ' ll just have to go back to madagascar soon .\ni went back , and i got pictures , just as promised . not exactly\nsoon\nthough .\nthese chameleons vary in appearance from beautiful greens and yellows to outrageously colorful patterns . this species does well in degraded habitat and is considered a\nfollower of civilization\n.\nhere is a list of all the reptiles and frogs i saw on this trip to madagascar .\nabate , a . , and abate , e . 2004 . the chameleons of madagascar ( dvd )\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nsyntypes : bmnh 1946 . 8 . 22 . 12 - 13 ( 2 specimens ) . holotype : mnhn = mhnp 1921 . 269 ( lambertoni )\nsubspecies : florio et al . 2012 elevated f . l . major to species status without providing much detail . however , they do state that \u201cbrygoo\u2019s ( 1971 ) description of f . lateralis major from tanandava , south - western madagascar , closely corresponds with the morphology of the southern group recovered in our study . these individuals have higher head casques and have a larger svl . \u201d klaver & b\u00f6hme 1997 listed major as a synonym of f . lateralis .\nandrews , r . m . , brandley , m . c . and greene , v . w . 2013 . developmental sequences of squamate reptiles are taxon specific . evolution & development , 15 : 326\u2013343 . doi : 10 . 1111 / ede . 12042 - get paper here\nangel , f . 1921 . contribution \u00e0 l\u00b4\u00e9tude des chamaeleons de madagascar . bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . , paris 27 ( 5 - 6 ) : 328 - 331 , 406 - 412 . - get paper here\nbarbour , thomas 1918 . vertebrata from madagascar . 2 . amphibia and reptilia . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 61 ( 14 ) : 479 - 489 . - get paper here\nb\u00f6hle , a . 2004 . eine reise durch das madagassische hochland . draco 5 ( 19 ) : 82 - 86 - get paper here\nboumans , louis ; david r . vieites , frank glaw and miguel vences 2007 . geographical patterns of deep mitochondrial differentiation in widespread malagasy reptiles . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 45 ( 3 ) : 822 - 839 - get paper here\nbrygoo , e . r . 1971 . reptiles sauriens chamaeleonidae . genre chamaeleo . faune de madagascar , orstom et cnrs , paris 33 : 1 - 318 .\nd ' cruze , neil ; annette olsonn , david henson , sunil kumar , and david emmett . 2009 . the amphibians and reptiles of the lower onilahy river valley , a temporary protected area in southwest madagascar . herp . cons . biol . 4 : 62 - 79 - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . and g . bibron . 1836 . erpetologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles . vol . 3 . libr . encyclop\u00e9dique roret , paris , 528 pp . - get paper here\ngehring , p . s . & witte , k . 2007 . ultraviolet reflectance in malagasy chameleons of the genus furcifer ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . salamandra 43 ( 1 ) : 43 - 48 - get paper here\nglaw , f . & vences , m . 1994 . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . vences & glaw verlag , k\u00f6ln ( isbn 3 - 929449 - 01 - 3 )\nglaw , f . 2015 . taxonomic checklist of chameleons ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . vertebrate zoology 65 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013246 - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1831 . a synopsis of the species of class reptilia . in : griffith , e & e . pidgeon : the animal kingdom arranged in conformity with its organisation by the baron cuvier with additional descriptions of all the species hither named , and of many before noticed [ v whittaker , treacher and co . , london : 481 + 110 pp . [ 1830 ]\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1865 . revision of the genera and species of chamaeleonidae , with the description of some new species . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 15 : 340 - 354 - get paper here\nkr\u00fcger , jens 1999 . neue erkenntnisse zur faunistik einiger reptilien madagaskars . salamandra 35 ( 2 ) : 65 - 76 - get paper here\nleptien , r . 2003 . getting started keeping chameleons . reptilia ( gb ) ( 26 ) : 11 - 14 - get paper here\nlutzmann , n . ; kremer , g . ; van steendam , n . & flamme , a . 2004 . auf cham\u00e4leonsuche entlang der route national 2 von antananarivo bis an die ostk\u00fcste bei ambila - lemaitso . [ madagascar ] . draco 5 ( 19 ) : 50 - - 55 - get paper here\nnecas , p . 2012 . im portr\u00e4t : das teppichcham\u00e4leon , furcifer lateralis . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 17 ( 95 ) : 34 - 37 - get paper here\nnecas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )\nneukirch , k . 2003 . versuche zur auswirkung verschiedener parameter bei der aufzucht von furcifer pardalis ( cuvier 1829 ) . chamaeleo 13 ( 2 ) : 5 - 9 . - get paper here\nraxworthy , c . j . ; enrique martinez - meyer ; ned horning ; ronald a . nussbaum ; gregory e . schneider ; miguel a . ortega - huerta & a . townsend peterson 2003 . predicting distributions of known and unknown reptile species in madagascar . nature 426 : 837 - 841\nrusch , d . 2003 . erfahrungen mit furcifer lateralis . chamaeleo 13 ( 1 ) : 19 . - get paper here\nschmidt , w . 1985 . chamaeleo lateralis gray , 1831 . sauria 7 ( 4 ) suppl . : 025\u2013026 - get paper here\nschmidt , w . 1986 . \u00fcber die haltung und zucht von chamaeleo lateralis ( gray , 1831 ) . salamandra 22 ( 1 ) : 105 - 112 - get paper here\nschmidt , w . 1988 . zeitigungsversuche mit eiern des madagassischen cham\u00e4leons furcifer lateralis ( gray , 1831 ) ( sauria : chamaeleonidae ) . salamandra 24 ( 2 - 3 ) : 182 - 183 - get paper here\nschmidt , w . 2001 . haltung und zucht von furcifer lateralis in mehreren generationen . mitteilungsblatt ag cham\u00e4leons 22 : 9 - 10 - get paper here\nschmidt , w . ; tamm , k . & wallikewitz , e . 2010 . cham\u00e4leons - drachen unserer zeit . natur und tier verlag , 328 pp . [ review in reptilia 101 : 64 , 2013 ] - get paper here\nvan beest , piet 2004 . herpetologische waarnemingen op madagascar - deel 1 . lacerta 62 ( 2 ) : 48 - 55 - get paper here\nvan hoof , j . et al . 2006 . kameleons , een fascinerende hobby . lacerta 64 ( 5 - 6 ) : 1 - 96 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nthis species has not yet been classified by the iucn and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\none of the things that attract people to chameleons is their ability to change color . contrary to popular belief , chameleons do not change color to match the exact color of their surroundings . instead , their color changes reflect fluctuations in temperature and emotion , and these remarkably swift changes are believed to occur from a shift in hormones or a reaction by the nervous system .\na male furcifer lateralis lateralis ( pictured ) is less ornate than a female of the subspecies . ."]}
{"id": 924, "summary": [{"text": "crotalus lepidus is a venomous pit viper species found in the southwestern united states and northern central mexico .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "four subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "crotalus lepidus", "paragraphs": ["comparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus , crotalus lepidus klauberi and crotalus lepidus morulus from mexico .\ncrotalus lepidus lepidus ( kennicott 1861 ) caudisona lepida kennicott 1861 : 206 crotalus lepidus lepidus \u2014 gloyd 1936 crotalus lepidus \u2014 cope 1883 crotalus semicornutus taylor 1944 crotalus lepidus lepidus \u2014 klauber 1952 : 45 crotalus lepidus castaneu crotalus lepidus \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 227 crotalus lepidus lepidus \u2014 conant & collins 1991 : 237 crotalus lepidus lepidus \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus lepidus \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 287 crotalus lepidus lepidus \u2014 tennant & bartlett 2000 : 535 uropsophus lepidus \u2014 hoser 2009 crotalus lepidus \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 191 crotalus lepidus klauberi gloyd 1936 crotalus lepidus klauberi gloyd 1936 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 klauber 1952 : 53 crotalus lepidus kaluberi [ sic ] \u2014 van devender & lowe 1977 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 228 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 tanner 1985 : 663 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 conant & collins 1991 : 237 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 dixon 2000 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 tennant & bartlett 2000 : 538 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 bryson 2007 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 love 2011 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 monzel 2012 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 werning 2012 crotalus lepidus klauberi \u2014 weima 2013 crotalus lepidus maculosus tanner , dixon & harris 1972 crotalus lepidus maculosus tanner , dixon & harris 1972 crotalus lepidus maculosus \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus lepidus maculossus \u2014 welch 1994 : 47 ( in error ) crotalus lepidus maculosus \u2014 beaman & hayes 2008\ncomparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus , crotalus lepidus klauberi and crotalus lepidu . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ncrotalus lepidus morulus klauber 1952 : 52 crotalus lepidus morulus \u2014 liner 1994 crotalus lepidus morulus \u2014 bryson 2007 crotalus morulus \u2014 bryson et al . 2014 crotalus morulus \u2014 ter\u00e1n - ju\u00e1rez et al 2016\nthese are relatively small rattlesnakes . crotalus oreganus was included in crotalus viridis until recently ( see crotalus viridis account ) .\ncomparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus , c . l . klauberi and c . l . morulus from mexico .\nvenom phenotypes of the rock rattlesnake ( crotalus lepidus ) and the ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( crotalus willardi ) from m\u00e9xico and the united states .\nbeaupre , s . 1993 . an ecological study of oxygen - consumption in the mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus - lepidus - lepidus , and the black - tailed rattlesnake , crotalus - molossus - molossus .\nvenom phenotypes of the rock rattlesnake ( crotalus lepidus ) and the ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( crotalus willardi ) from m\u00e9xico and the united states . - pubmed - ncbi\nliner , e . a . , and a . h . chaney . 1986 . crotalus lepidus lepidus ( mottled rock rattlesnake ) . reproduction . herpetological review 17 ( 4 ) : 89 .\na characteristic distinguishing it quite well ( apart from the livery ) from the crotalus lepidus lepidus is the absence of the typical dark line going , in this last one , from the buccal rima to the eye .\nwe characterized the venom of three subspecies of c . lepidus complex from mexico .\nstrimple , pete 1993 . report on the feeding and growth of a juvenile mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus lepidus , during three years in captivity . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 3 ) : 89 - 94 - get paper here\nvelde , hans v . d . 1995 . breeding results : crotalus lepidus klauberi . litteratura serpentium 15 ( 5 ) : 134 - get paper here\ngoldberg , stephen r . 2000 . reproduction in the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus ( serpentes : viperidae ) . herpetological natural history 7 ( 1 ) : 83 - 86\non these background colours stand out some well spaced bands , of dark colour , black or brown , and , among them , are often spread small dark spots which , however , are never so thick and close as is the case of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus .\ngoldberg , s . 1999 . reproduction in the blacktail rattlesnake , crotalus molossus .\nportrait of a southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis helleri ) on white background .\nthe greatest recorded length for a c . l . lepidus specimen is 775 mm ( boundy , 1995 )\nmata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson and arturo rocha . 2011 . crotalus lepidus ( rock rattlesnake ) feeding behavior . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 439 - get paper here\ndesantis , dominic l . , vicente mata - silva and jerry d . johnson . 2015 . crotalus lepidus ( rock rattlesnake ) diet / scavenging . herpetological review 46 ( 2 ) : 268 - 269\ngloyd , howard k . 1936 . the subspecies of crotalus lepidus . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 337 ) : 1 - 5 + 1 plate - get paper here\nmata silva , vicente ,\necology of the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in the northern chihuahuan desert\n( 2011 ) . etd collection for university of texas , el paso . aai3489984 . urltoken\nbeaupre , s . j . 1995 . comparative ecology of the mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in big ben national park . herpetologica 51 ( 1 ) : 45 - 56 . [ links ]\nbanda - leal , javier , david lazcano , manuel nev\u00e1rez - de los reyes and alejandro huereca - delgado . 2015 . crotalus lepidus ( rock rattlesnake ) diet . herpetological review 46 ( 1 ) : 102\n1 , 434 crotalus stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .\nbeaupre , s . j . 1996 . field metabolic rate , water flux , and energy budgets of mottled rock rattlesnakes , crotalus lepidus , from two populations . copeia 1996 ( 2 ) : 319 - 329 .\n51 - swinford , g . w . 1994 . project summary 1991 - 1994 , a continued study of the mottled race of the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus lepidus , in southeastern new mexico currently listed state endangered . share with wildlife , new mexico department of game and fish . contract # 93 - 516 . 6 - 2 . view document\nwestern diamondback bites camera ! ! ! red crotalus atrox a . k . a . blood diamond\ntanner , wilmer w . , james r . dixon and herbert s . harris 1972 . a new subspecies of crotalus lepidus from western mexico . great basin naturalist 32 ( 1 ) : 16 - 24 - get paper here\nfor information on c . lepidus klauberi , which is also found in new mexico , texas , and arizona , see 030174 .\njacob , j . s . , and j . s . altenbach . 1977 . sexual dimorphism in crotalus lepidus klauberi gloyd ( reptilia , serpentes , viperidae ) . journal of herpetology 11 ( 1 ) : 81 - 84 .\njohnson , t . b . , and g . s . mills . 1982 . a preliminary report on the status of crotalus lepidus , c . pricei , and c . willardi in southeastern arizona . arizona natural heritage program , phoenix .\nmccrystal , h . k . , c . r . schwalbe , and d . f . retes . 1996 . selected aspects of the ecology of the arizona ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( crotalus willardi willardi ) and the banded rock rattlesnake ( crotalus lepidus klauberi ) in arizona . report to the arizona game and fish department , heritage grant iipam 192034 .\nthe rock rattlesnakes , labelled with the scientific name of crotalus lepidus - kennicott , 1861 , are small viperids ( viperidae ) , afferent to the well known subfamily of the crotalides ( crotalinae ) having an elegant look , as suggested by the latin scientific name , \u201clepidus\u201d , which , besides being a proper name of the old rome , means something like \u201cgraceful\u201d , \u201celegant\u201d , or \u201ccoy\u201d .\ncarbajal - marquez , rub\u00e9n alonso and gustavo e . quintero - diaz . 2015 . diet of crotalus lepidus ( serpentes : viperidae ) in mesa montoro , aguascalientes , m\u00e9xico . revista mexicana de herpetolog\u00eda 1 ( 1 ) : 18\u201321 - get paper here\n( crotalus viridis viridis , ) . paper presented at meeting of the animal behavior society , tucson , az .\nchristman , b . l . , a . barkalow , r . d . jennings , g . l . hamilton and j . bain 2016 . crotalus lepidus kaluberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) diet / mortality . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 477 .\nthe treatments represent the phenotypic extremes of crotalus l . lepidus found in eastern and western regions of west texas ( refer to figure 1a ) . the treatments are ( from left to right ) eastern unblotched , eastern blotched , western unblotched , and western blotched .\nnatureserve explorer , 2004 .\ncrotalus molossus\n( on - line ) . accessed july 06 , 2004 at urltoken .\ngreat basin rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis lutosis ) are the only venomous reptiles in most of the great basin desert . night scene\nrattlesnake of the reeds . rattlesnakes are a group of venomous snakes of the genera crotalus and sistrurus of the subfamily crotalinae .\ntanner , wilmer w . ; dixon , james r . ; and harris , herbert s . jr . ( 1972 )\na new subspecies of crotalus lepidus from western mexico ,\ngreat basin naturalist : vol . 32 : no . 1 , article 2 . available at : urltoken\nthe northwestern neotropical rattlesnake is characterised by its large size , pronounced vertebral ridge , and a highly potentent venom . crotalus culminatus .\nan examination of additional specimens of crotalus lepidus from western durango and the adjacent parts of sinaloa and nayarit have demonstrated the validity of klauber ' s ( 1956 ) suggestion that a new subspecies may occur . the new subspecies ( c . l . maculosus ) is described and compared to other subspecies .\nmata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson , arturo rocha , and steven dilks 2014 . rainwater - harvesting by the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in the chihuahuan desert of western texas . southwestern naturalist jun 2014 , vol . 59 , no . 2 : 303 - 304 . - get paper here\npanamint rattlesnake ( crotalus mitchellii stephensi ) under a pinyon pine tree in basin and range national monument , lincoln county , nevada , usa .\ngeographical distribution of crotalus durissus with stomach contents from central region of brazil covering forest formations of amazon and atlantic forest , caatinga and cerrado .\nfood composition in individual males , females , newborns and juveniles of crotalus durissus from central region of brazil ( n = 30 snakes ) .\nwinchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here\nmolecular model of snake venom toxin convulxin found in a tropical rattlesnake crotalus durissus terrificus , 3d illustration . this toxin causes blood clot formation after snake bite\necheverrigaray , s . , grazziotin , g . , grazziotin , f . & agostini , g . 2000 . random amplified polymorphisms between two south american subspecies of rattlesnakes ( crotalus durissus collilineatus e crotalus durissus terrificus ) . braz . arch . biol . techn . 313 - 317 . [ links ]\nholycross , a . t . , c . w . painter , d . b . prival , d . e . swann , m . t . schroff , t . edwards , and c . r . schwalbe . diet of crotalus lepidus klauberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) . journal of herpetology 36 ( 4 ) : 589 - 597 .\nlepidus : usa ( se new mexico , sw texas ) , ne mexico ( chihuahua [ hr 31 : 113 ] , coahuila ) ; type locality : presidio del norte and eagle pass , texas .\na further odd and interesting characteristic is the longevity of these small viperids : often bigger animals do have a longer life than the small ones , but it is not always the case , and the crotalus lepidus may live up to 25 and more years , third in ranking , among the crotalides , after crotalus atrox and agkistrodon contortrix ( 30 and 29 years respectively ) \u2026 . maybe thanks to its retired and monastic life , as a hermit of the mountains , little prone to the stress and lover of its own privacy .\nmodels were placed in the eastern region on limestone rocks and western region on volcanic rocks ( refer to figure 1a ) during the course of the predation study . the upper graph ( a ) is showing the proportion of attacks on models that mimicked the coloration of crotalus l . lepidus from the eastern region . the lower graph ( b ) is showing the proportion of attacks on models that mimicked the coloration of c . l . lepidus from the western region . the x - axis indicates the type of damage the models sustained as either avian attacks or non - predator disturbances .\nthe western diamondback rattlesnake or texas diamond - back ( crotalus atrox ) is a venomous rattlesnake species found in southwestern united states , mexico . likely responsible for snakebite fatalities\nfood item , ameiva ameiva , recorded in the stomach of a female crotalus durissus . specimen deposited in the cole\u00e7\u00e3o herpetol\u00f3gica da universidade de bras\u00edlia ( chunb 49673 ) .\nto cite this page : desai , m . 2004 .\ncrotalus molossus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nclark , r . w . 2002 . diet of the timber rattlesnake crotalus horridus . j . herpetol . 36 ( 3 ) : 494 - 499 . [ links ]\nprival , d . b . , and j . p . porter . 2016 . rock rattlesnake crotalus lepidus ( kennicott 1861 ) . pages 433 - 459 in g . w . schuett , m . j . feldner , c . f . smith , and r . s . reiserer ( eds ) . 2016 . rattlesnakes of arizona , volume 1 . eco herpetological publishing , rodeo , nm .\nprival , d . b . 2008 . morphology , reproduction , and habitat use of a northern population of banded rock rattlesnakes , crotalus lepidus klauberi . pages 431 - 440 in w . k . hayes , k . r . beaman , m . d . cardwell , and s . p . bush ( editors ) , the biology of rattlesnakes . loma linda university press , loma linda , california .\ni was interested to here your description of color variants to c . l . klauberi . i have seen specimens at the arizona sonora desert museum and also have been on trips to the chiricahuas and huachucas where we collected them on talus slopes . all of these specimens were green . at the museum and in the snakes of arizona by fowlie , crotalus lepidus klauberi is referred to as the green rock rattlesnake .\nsuch small litters mean that although c . l . lepidus breeds every year , it still has a low reproductive rate . most young are born in mid - to late summer , 8 to 10 after mating ( tennant , 1984 )\nholycross , a . t . , painter , c . w . , prival , d . v . , shawnn , d . e . , schroff , m . j . , edwards , t . & schwalbe , c . r . 2002 . diet of crotalus lepidus klauberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) . j . herpetol . 36 ( 4 ) : 589 - 597 . urltoken ; 2 [ links ]\ncrotalus molossus is a venomous pit viper species found in the southwestern united states and mexico . common names : black - tailed rattlesnake , green rattler , northern black - tailed rattlesnake .\nborja , miguel ; david lazcano , gerardo mart\u00ednez - romero , jes\u00fas morlett , elda s\u00e1nchez , ana c . cepeda - nieto , yolanda garza - garc\u00eda , and alejandro zugasti - cruz 2013 . intra - specific variation in the protein composition and proteolytic activity of venom of crotalus lepidus morulus from the northeast of mexico . copeia dec 2013 , vol . 2013 , no . 4 : 707 - 716 . - get paper here\nbig curve creepy viperidae crotalus asp serpentine on white backdrop . outline black ink hand drawn zoo pictogram emblem logo sketchy in art retro doodle style pen on paper space for text . closeup view\nhoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here\nlate pleistocene and holocene snakes from the great basin and the colorado plateau include the genus , crotalus , and the species , c . viridis ( mead and bell , 1994 ) * 34 * .\nmacarthney , j . m . 1989 . diet of the northern pacific rattlesnake , crotalus viridis oreganus , in british columbia . herpetologica 45 ( 3 ) : 299 - 304 . urltoken [ links ]\nsantos , s . m . & germano , v . j . 1996 . crotalus durissus ( neotropical rattlesnake ) prey . herpetol . rev . 27 ( 3 ) : 143 . [ links ]\nconsidering data to other viperids ( sawaya et al . 2008 ; marques et al . 2009 ; barbo et al . 2011 ) the frequency of individuals of crotalus durissus with prey in the stomach was low .\nthe specific name apparently comes from the latin word lapidis , meaning\nstone ,\nin reference to the snakes ' affinity for living in rocky terrain , or perhaps from the latin adjective lepidus , meaning\npleasant or charming\n( lemos - espinal & dixon 2013 ) .\npifano , f . & rodriguez - acosta , a . 1996 . ecological niche and redescription of crotalus vegrandis ( serpentes : crotalidae ) in venezuela . brenesia 45 - 46 : 169 - 175 . [ links ]\nty - jour ti - a new subspecies of crotalus lepidus from western mexico t2 - the great basin naturalist . vl - 32 ur - urltoken pb - m . l . bean life science museum , brigham young university , cy - provo , utah : py - 1972 sp - 16 ep - 24 do - 10 . 5962 / bhl . part . 25765 sn - 0017 - 3614 au - tanner , w w au - dixon , j r au - harris , h s er -\nhoyos , m . a . 2012 . a cascavel neotropical crotalus durissus : uma abordagem morfol\u00f3gica e da hist\u00f3ria natural em popula\u00e7\u00f5es do brasil . tese de doutorado , universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e3o paulo . [ links ]\nw\u00fcster , w . & b\u00e9rnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417\u2013419\nthe head of the lepidus is triangular and distinct from the neck , also if less evidently than what happens in other crotalides , the eye has elliptic and vertical pupil , and , in fact , this serpent is of mainly crepuscular and nocturnal habits , even if it may be met during the day .\ntozetti , a . m . , & martins , m . 2008 . habitat use by the south - american rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus ) in southeastern brazil . journal of natural history 42 : 1435 - 1444 . urltoken [ links ]\ncollection sites with voucher numbers of studied specimens of crotalus durissus and stomach contents from central region of brazil . chunb , cole\u00e7\u00e3o herpetol\u00f3gica da universidade de bras\u00edlia ; ibsp , instituto butantan ; mzusp , museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo .\ndiller , l . v . & wallace , r . l . 1996 . comparative ecology of two snake species ( crotalus viridis and pituophis melanoleucus ) in southwestern idaho . herpetologica 52 ( 3 ) : 343 - 360 . urltoken [ links ]\nsant ' anna , s . & abe a . s . 2007 . diet of the rattlesnake crotalus durissus in southeastern brazil ( serpentes , viperidae ) . stud . neotrop . fauna e . 42 ( 3 ) : 169 - 174 . urltoken [ links ]\nbeaupre , s . j . , duvall , d . & o ' leile , j . 1998 . ontogenetic variation in growth and sexual size dimorphism in a central arizona population of the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . copeia 1 : 40 - 47 . [ links ]\nbryson jr , robert w . ; robert w . murphy , amy lathrop and david lazcano - villareal 2011 . evolutionary drivers of phylogeographical diversity in the highlands of mexico : a case study of the crotalus triseriatus species group of montane rattlesnakes . journal of biogeography 38 : 697\u2013710 - get paper here\nsalom\u00e3o , m . g . , almeida - santos , s . m . & puorto , g . 1995 . activity pattern of crotalus durissus ( viperidae , crotalinae ) : feeding , reproduction and snakebite . stud . neotrop . fauna e . 30 ( 2 ) : 101 - 106 [ links ]\nprairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) exhibited a sustained high rate of tongue flicking after a predatory strike whether or not rodent odors were present in the poststrike environment . for the lizard specialist , c . pricei , strike - induced chemosensory searching was maintained at a high level only when chemical cues were available following the strike .\ncampbell , j . a . , e . d . brodie , jr . , d . g . barker , and a . h . price . 1989 . an apparent natural hybrid rattlesnake and crotalus willardi ( viperidae ) from the peloncillo mountains of southwestern new mexico . herpetologica 45 ( 3 ) : 344 - 349 .\nnorthern populations of black - tailed rattlesnakes recently have been recognized as actually consisting of two species , crotalus molossus and c . ornatus ( anderson and greenbaum 2012 ) . populations west of southwestern new mexico are recognized as c . molossus , but relatively little change in the boundary would put c . ornatus into the california wash area .\nthe herpetologist james bear , tragically passed away in 2008 due to the bite of a crotalus horridus , reported the following variants : in the chiricahua zone , a marbled or mottled livery with silver and black shades , a black predominance on the franklin mountains , whilst other specimens show light blue , or lavender , or pink or green colours .\nthe south - american rattlesnake crotalus durissus , is restricted to south america ( campbell & lamar 2004 ) and has a discontinuous distribution ( w\u00fcster et al . 2005 ) from colombia to argentina ( vanzolini et al . 1980 ) . some populations exhibit considerable ecological variation , with closeby populations differing greatly from each other ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) .\na free - ranging specimen of crotalus durissus unicolor on aruba island was observed after striking rodent prey ( calomys hummelincki ) and after no - strike presentations . strike - induced chemosensory searching and trail following were seen after strikes . when a chemical trail was not present following a strike , the snake searched extensively near its refuge , but never emerged from it .\nprival , d . b . , goode , m . j . , swann , d . e . , schwalbe , c . r . & schroff , m . j . 2002 . natural history of a northern population of twin - spotted rattlesnakes , crotalus pricei . j . herpetol . 36 ( 4 ) : 598 - 607 . urltoken ; 2 [ links ]\nthe venom , besides the cytotoxins , which cause skin and muscular necrosis , has an haemotoxic action , with possible seemingly paradoxical and opposite phenomena of haemorrhages and thrombosis , but it has also neurotoxins which , even if not so much strong as in other species of rattlesnakes ( crotalus durissus o cascavel ) and of many elapids , may worsen the symptoms and cause breathing and cardiac problems .\nw\u00fcster , w . , ferguson , j . e . , quijada - mascare\u00f1as , j . a . , pook , c . e . & salom\u00e3o , m . d . 2005 . tracing an invasion : landbridges , refugia , and the phylogeography of the neotropical rattlesnake ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalus durissus ) . mol . ecol . 14 ( 4 ) : 1095 - 1108 . urltoken [ links ]\nbryson , robert w . ; jr . , charles w . linkem , michael e . dorcas , amy lathrop , jason m . jones , javier alvarado - d\u00edaz , christoph i . gr\u00fcnwald & robert w . murphy 2014 . multilocus species delimitation in the crotalus triseriatus species group ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) , with the description of two new species . zootaxa 3826 ( 3 ) : 475\u2013496 - get paper here\nquijada - mascare\u00f1as , j . a . , ferguson , j . e . , pook , c . e . , salom\u00e3o , m . g . , thorpe , r . s . & w\u00fcster , w . 2007 . phylogeographic patterns of trans - amazonian vicariants and amazonian biogeography : the neotropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus complex ) as an example . j . biogeogr . 34 : 1296 - 1312 . urltoken [ links ]\neach of 10 prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) was exposed to three types of trails after striking rodent prey ( mus musculus ) . one trail was made with mouse urine , another was made with tap water , and the third consisted of materials from mouse integument . the snakes exhibited trailing behavior only when integumentary trails were available . it was concluded that prairie rattlesnakes do not utilize urinary cues ; instead they attend to materials associated with rodent skin and fur .\nthe copperhead and cottonmouth occur only east of our region . however , the region hosts a large number of species of rattlesnake , all of which are placed in the genus crotalus except for the massasauga ( sistrurus catenatus ) . although crotalid vertebrae are distinctive from those of other snakes of our region , few if any species are identifiable with certainty on the basis of vertebrae . although there are differences in adult size among the species , this seldom is conclusive in identification .\nall food items were removed from the stomach and identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level . each of the contents was deposited in a glass container with the same identification number as the specimen ( voucher number ) . the intestinal content was determined while taking into account the type of food residue . in addition , available literature records of prey were included in this study , which analyzed the food composition for crotalus durissus from southeastern brazil ( santos & germano 1996 ; sant ' anna & abe 2007 ) .\n2013 : rattlesnakes , primarily of the genus crotalus , are harvested in rattlesnake round - ups for the meat and skin trade * 54 * . 2013 : although the effect of snake harvest on some local populations should be taken seriously , the numbers are not nearly as staggering as the number of snakes lost to road mortality * 54 * . 2016 : as the climate changes this species\u2019 range is predicted to decrease by 4 % by 2039 and 8 % by 2099 from its current range * 53 * .\nmammal specialization may be related to several life history strategies ( martins et al . 2002 ) . in some species of pitvipers , it could be associated with the increased venom toxicity in juveniles ; this may be a consequence of the need to immobilize larger prey such as a mammal ( andrade & abe 1999 ) . furthermore , the adoption of a juvenile diet based on mammals is more profitable energetically than an ecthothermic diet ( martins et al . 2002 ) . in crotalus durissus populations , the low frequency of ectothermic prey could explain such eventual facts .\nwe placed 40 models in each of the twelve sites to test the prediction that selective predation maintains the color polymorphism in snakes . we had 10 replicates of each combination of color and blotching per site ( = 480 total models ) . models were left in place for a period of 14 d . we secured individual models to rocks with adhesive backed velcro\u00ae at approximately 10 m intervals within typical c . l . lepidus habitat . where possible , models were placed along a single linear transect ( all following the edge of a cliff ) ; and multiple transects were used to accommodate all 40 models when a single linear transect was not possible ( multiple transects stacked above the cliff edge ) . models were randomly placed on rocks with the lowest amount of overhead obstruction ( vegetation , large rock formations , etc . ) as possible .\npatrones de alimentaci\u00f3n fueron investigados en la composici\u00f3n de la dieta de 452 ejemplares de crotalus durissus de brasil central . treinta y tres \u00edtems fueron registrados , correspondientes a cuatro categor\u00edas : roedores ( 75 . 76 % ) , marsupiales ( 6 . 6 % ) , mam\u00edferos no identificados ( 9 . 09 % ) y reptiles ( 9 . 09 % ) . los adultos de ambos sexos e individuos j\u00f3venes se alimentaron b\u00e1sicamente de mam\u00edferos , en espec\u00edfico de roedores , esta es la presa m\u00e1s activa y abundante durante todo el a\u00f1o , principalmente en las \u00e1reas de cerrado . adem\u00e1s fue observado que en c . durissus existe una tendencia a que la dieta de las hembras sea m\u00e1s diversa , factor que podr\u00eda estar relacionado a las diferencias sexuales que implican diferentes estrategias de alimentaci\u00f3n en la biolog\u00eda de esta serpiente cascabel .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhome \u00bb resources \u00bb categories and criteria \u00bb 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1\nsee below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .\nthe iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .\nextensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .\nbefore 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .\nto give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .\nsince their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .\nthe proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :\nversion 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .\nversion 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 2 : mace and stuart ( 1994 ) following further comments received and additional validation exercises , some minor changes to the criteria were made . in addition , the susceptible category present in versions 2 . 0 and 2 . 1 was subsumed into the vulnerable category . a precautionary application of the system was emphasised .\nversion 2 . 3 : iucn ( 1994 ) iucn council adopted this version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from iucn members , in december 1994 . the initial version of this document was published without the necessary bibliographic details , such as date of publication and isbn number , but these were included in the subsequent reprints in 1998 and 1999 . this version was used for the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals ( baillie and groombridge 1996 ) , the world list of threatened trees ( oldfield et al 1998 ) and the 2000 iucn red list of threatened species ( hilton - taylor 2000 ) .\nversion 3 . 0 : iucn / ssc criteria review working group ( 1999 ) following comments received , a series of workshops were convened to look at the iucn red list criteria following which , changes were proposed affecting the criteria , the definitions of some key terms and the handling of uncertainty .\nversion 3 . 1 : iucn ( 2001 ) the iucn council adopted this latest version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from the iucn and ssc memberships and from a final meeting of the criteria review working group , in february 2000 .\nall new assessments from january 2001 should use the latest adopted version and cite the year of publication and version number .\nin the rest of this document , the proposed system is outlined in several sections . section ii , the preamble , presents basic information about the context and structure of the system , and the procedures that are to be followed in applying the criteria to species . section iii provides definitions of key terms used . section iv presents the categories , while section v details the quantitative criteria used for classification within the threatened categories . annex i provides guidance on how to deal with uncertainty when applying the criteria ; annex ii suggests a standard format for citing the red list categories and criteria ; and annex iii outlines the documentation requirements for taxa to be included on iucn ' s global red lists . it is important for the effective functioning of the system that all sections are read and understood to ensure that the definitions and rules are followed .\nthe information in this section is intended to direct and facilitate the use and interpretation of the categories ( critically endangered , endangered , etc . ) , criteria ( a to e ) , and subcriteria ( 1 , 2 , etc . ; a , b , etc . ; i , ii , etc . ) .\nextinction is a chance process . thus , a listing in a higher extinction risk category implies a higher expectation of extinction , and over the time - frames specified more taxa listed in a higher category are expected to go extinct than those in a lower one ( without effective conservation action ) . however , the persistence of some taxa in high - risk categories does not necessarily mean their initial assessment was inaccurate .\nall taxa listed as critically endangered qualify for vulnerable and endangered , and all listed as endangered qualify for vulnerable . together these categories are described as ' threatened ' . the threatened categories form a part of the overall scheme . it will be possible to place all taxa into one of the categories ( see figure 1 ) .\nfor listing as critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable there is a range of quantitative criteria ; meeting any one of these criteria qualifies a taxon for listing at that level of threat . each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria . even though some criteria will be inappropriate for certain taxa ( some taxa will never qualify under these however close to extinction they come ) , there should be criteria appropriate for assessing threat levels for any taxon . the relevant factor is whether any one criterion is met , not whether all are appropriate or all are met . because it will never be clear in advance which criteria are appropriate for a particular taxon , each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria , and all criteria met at the highest threat category must be listed .\nthe different criteria ( a - e ) are derived from a wide review aimed at detecting risk factors across the broad range of organisms and the diverse life histories they exhibit . the quantitative values presented in the various criteria associated with threatened categories were developed through wide consultation , and they are set at what are generally judged to be appropriate levels , even if no formal justification for these values exists . the levels for different criteria within categories were set independently but against a common standard . broad consistency between them was sought .\nthe criteria for the threatened categories are to be applied to a taxon whatever the level of conservation action affecting it . it is important to emphasise here that a taxon may require conservation action even if it is not listed as threatened . conservation actions which may benefit the taxon are included as part of the documentation requirements ( see annex 3 ) .\ntaxa at risk from threats posed by future events of low probability but with severe consequences ( catastrophes ) should be identified by the criteria ( e . g . small distributions , few locations ) . some threats need to be identified particularly early , and appropriate actions taken , because their effects are irreversible or nearly so ( e . g . , pathogens , invasive organisms , hybridization ) .\nthe data used to evaluate taxa against the criteria are often estimated with considerable uncertainty . such uncertainty can arise from any one or all of the following three factors : natural variation , vagueness in the terms and definitions used , and measurement error . the way in which this uncertainty is handled can have a strong influence on the results of an evaluation . details of methods recommended for handling uncertainty are included in annex 1 , and assessors are encouraged to read and follow these principles .\nin general , when uncertainty leads to wide variation in the results of assessments , the range of possible outcomes should be specified . a single category must be chosen and the basis for the decision should be documented ; it should be both precautionary and credible .\nwhen data are very uncertain , the category of ' data deficient ' may be assigned . however , in this case the assessor must provide documentation showing that this category has been assigned because data are inadequate to determine a threat category . it is important to recognize that taxa that are poorly known can often be assigned a threat category on the basis of background information concerning the deterioration of their habitat and / or other causal factors ; therefore the liberal use of ' data deficient ' is discouraged .\nlisting in the categories of not evaluated and data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made , though for different reasons . until such time as an assessment is made , taxa listed in these categories should not be treated as if they were non - threatened . it may be appropriate ( especially for data deficient forms ) to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa , at least until their status can be assessed .\nall assessments should be documented . threatened classifications should state the criteria and subcriteria that were met . no assessment can be accepted for the iucn red list as valid unless at least one criterion is given . if more than one criterion or subcriterion is met , then each should be listed . if a re - evaluation indicates that the documented criterion is no longer met , this should not result in automatic reassignment to a lower category of threat ( downlisting ) . instead , the taxon should be re - evaluated against all the criteria to clarify its status . the factors responsible for qualifying the taxon against the criteria , especially where inference and projection are used , should be documented ( see annexes 2 and 3 ) . the documentation requirements for other categories are also specified in annex 3 .\nthe category of threat is not necessarily sufficient to determine priorities for conservation action . the category of threat simply provides an assessment of the extinction risk under current circumstances , whereas a system for assessing priorities for action will include numerous other factors concerning conservation action such as costs , logistics , chances of success , and other biological characteristics of the subject .\nre - evaluation of taxa against the criteria should be carried out at appropriate intervals . this is especially important for taxa listed under near threatened , data deficient and for threatened taxa whose status is known or suspected to be deteriorating .\na taxon may be moved from a category of higher threat to a category of lower threat if none of the criteria of the higher category has been met for five years or more .\nif the original classification is found to have been erroneous , the taxon may be transferred to the appropriate category or removed from the threatened categories altogether , without delay ( but see point 10 above ) .\nthe term ' population ' is used in a specific sense in the red list criteria that is different to its common biological usage . population is here defined as the total number of individuals of the taxon . for functional reasons , primarily owing to differences between life forms , population size is measured as numbers of mature individuals only . in the case of taxa obligately dependent on other taxa for all or part of their life cycles , biologically appropriate values for the host taxon should be used .\nsubpopulations are defined as geographically or otherwise distinct groups in the population between which there is little demographic or genetic exchange ( typically one successful migrant individual or gamete per year or less ) .\nthe number of mature individuals is the number of individuals known , estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction . when estimating this quantity , the following points should be borne in mind :\nmature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted ( e . g . densities are too low for fertilization ) .\nin the case of populations with biased adult or breeding sex ratios , it is appropriate to use lower estimates for the number of mature individuals , which take this into account .\nwhere the population size fluctuates , use a lower estimate . in most cases this will be much less than the mean .\nreproducing units within a clone should be counted as individuals , except where such units are unable to survive alone ( e . g . corals ) .\nin the case of taxa that naturally lose all or a subset of mature individuals at some point in their life cycle , the estimate should be made at the appropriate time , when mature individuals are available for breeding .\nre - introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals .\ngeneration length is the average age of parents of the current cohort ( i . e . newborn individuals in the population ) . generation length therefore reflects the turnover rate of breeding individuals in a population . generation length is greater than the age at first breeding and less than the age of the oldest breeding individual , except in taxa that breed only once . where generation length varies under threat , the more natural , i . e . pre - disturbance , generation length should be used .\na reduction is a decline in the number of mature individuals of at least the amount ( % ) stated under the criterion over the time period ( years ) specified , although the decline need not be continuing . a reduction should not be interpreted as part of a fluctuation unless there is good evidence for this . the downward phase of a fluctuation will not normally count as a reduction .\na continuing decline is a recent , current or projected future decline ( which may be smooth , irregular or sporadic ) which is liable to continue unless remedial measures are taken . fluctuations will not normally count as continuing declines , but an observed decline should not be considered as a fluctuation unless there is evidence for this .\nextreme fluctuations can be said to occur in a number of taxa when population size or distribution area varies widely , rapidly and frequently , typically with a variation greater than one order of magnitude ( i . e . a tenfold increase or decrease ) .\nthe phrase ' severely fragmented ' refers to the situation in which increased extinction risk to the taxon results from the fact that most of its individuals are found in small and relatively isolated subpopulations ( in certain circumstances this may be inferred from habitat information ) . these small subpopulations may go extinct , with a reduced probability of recolonization .\nextent of occurrence is defined as the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary which can be drawn to encompass all the known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon , excluding cases of vagrancy ( see figure 2 ) . this measure may exclude discontinuities or disjunctions within the overall distributions of taxa ( e . g . large areas of obviously unsuitable habitat ) ( but see ' area of occupancy ' , point 10 below ) . extent of occurrence can often be measured by a minimum convex polygon ( the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180 degrees and which contains all the sites of occurrence ) .\nfigure 2 . two examples of the distinction between extent of occurrence and area of occupancy . ( a ) is the spatial distribution of known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence . ( b ) shows one possible boundary to the extent of occurrence , which is the measured area within this boundary . ( c ) shows one measure of area of occupancy which can be achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares .\nthe term ' location ' defines a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present . the size of the location depends on the area covered by the threatening event and may include part of one or many subpopulations . where a taxon is affected by more than one threatening event , location should be defined by considering the most serious plausible threat .\na quantitative analysis is defined here as any form of analysis which estimates the extinction probability of a taxon based on known life history , habitat requirements , threats and any specified management options . population viability analysis ( pva ) is one such technique . quantitative analyses should make full use of all relevant available data . in a situation in which there is limited information , such data as are available can be used to provide an estimate of extinction risk ( for instance , estimating the impact of stochastic events on habitat ) . in presenting the results of quantitative analyses , the assumptions ( which must be appropriate and defensible ) , the data used and the uncertainty in the data or quantitative model must be documented .\nextinct ( ex ) a taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died . a taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .\nextinct in the wild ( ew ) a taxon is extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation , in captivity or as a naturalized population ( or populations ) well outside the past range . a taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .\ncritically endangered ( cr ) a taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for critically endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .\nendangered ( en ) a taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nvulnerable ( vu ) a taxon is vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for vulnerable ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nnear threatened ( nt ) a taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable now , but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .\nleast concern ( lc ) a taxon is least concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered , vulnerable or near threatened . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nnot evaluated ( ne ) a taxon is not evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria .\nnote : as in previous iucn categories , the abbreviation of each category ( in parenthesis ) follows the english denominations when translated into other languages ( see annex 2 ) .\n( e ) the effects of introduced taxa , hybridization , pathogens , pollutants , competitors or parasites .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 % within 10 years or three generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) ."]}
{"id": 925, "summary": [{"text": "potamonautes lirrangensis , the malawi blue crab , is a species of freshwater crab in the family potamonautidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this common and widespread species is found in lake malawi , lake kivu , the upper congo river basin and malagarasi river in the democratic republic of the congo , malawi , rwanda , and tanzania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in the freshwater aquarium trade it is sometimes sold under the synonym potamonautes orbitospinus . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "potamonautes lirrangensis", "paragraphs": ["potamonautes lirrangensis by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\ncumberlidge , n . 2004 . potamonautes lirrangensis . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 10 august 2007 .\nbott ( 1955 ) treated this species as potamonautes ( lirrangopotamonautes ) lirrangensis lirrangensis . cumberlidge ( 1998 ) referred to this species as potamonautes lirrangensis . the name malawi blue crab is used only for the subpopulations of this species found in lake malawi , and not for subpopulations from other parts of the range of this species .\npotamonautes lirrangensis preys on : aufwuchs based on studies in : malawi , lake nyasa ( lake or pond ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\npotamonautes lirrangensis is prey of : mastacembelus shiranus bathyclarias worthingtoni based on studies in : malawi , lake nyasa ( lake or pond ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\npotamonautes lirrangensis is widespread with an extent of occurrence ( eoo ) of over 1 . 5 million km\u00b2 . it is found in central africa in the upper congo river basin , further downstream in the congo river in the cuvette centrale , and in a significant part of the african rift valley from lake kivu south to lake malawi , including rivers in tanzania that flow into lake tanganyika , although this species is not found in lake tanganyika itself .\njustification : potamonautes lirrangensis has been assessed as least concern . it has an estimated extent of occurrence ( eoo ) of over 1 . 5 million km\u00b2 and is known from 65 localities primarily across central africa . although it is not found in any protected areas , it does not face any known threats . the fact that a lot of material has been collected in the past 10 years from different localities throughout its range suggests that the population size is large .\npotamonautes lirrangensis has a wide distribution over several countries and is well represented in museum collections . a lot of recent material has been collected in the past 10 years , suggesting that this is a widespread and abundant species . this species is the subject of a commercial fishery in malawi and has been collected in the region recently . despite this its population is estimated to be stable and there are no known long - term major threats to this species . not considered threatened at present and currently assessed as least concern .\nits population is estimated to be stable based on indirect measures such the fact that it is a common and widespread species that has been collected recently from rocky areas in lake kivu and from small fast flowing rivers , as well as from large slow flowing rivers flowing into lake tanganyika . in addition , p . lirrangensis supports a local fishery in lake malawi , and this species is well represented in museum collections .\nit is likely that the subpopulations of p . lirrangensis are large and stable , although the current subpopulation sizes of this species across its range have not yet been assessed . this statement is based on the fact that it has been collected from several new localities in the past ten years that have resulted in a significant range expansion , and it is now reasonably well represented in museum collections . the species supports a local fishery in lake malawi where large numbers of crabs are caught regularly . in addition this species is a favourite with the aquarium trade and many specimens from lake malawi are caught for export .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nreed , s . k . & cumberlidge , n . 2006 . taxonomy and biogeography of the freshwater crabs of tanzania , east africa ( brachyura : potamoidea : potamonautidae , platythelphusidae , deckeniidae ) . zootaxa 1262 : 1 - 139 .\nthis species lives in large rivers and has been collected from several different localities in the upper congo river basin in the democratic republic of the congo and rwanda . in tanzania , it is found in rivers that flow into lake tanganyika , while in malawi this species lives in lake malawi itself but not in the tributaries of the lake in malawi or in any other rivers in that country .\nthis species supports small commercial fisheries in lake malawi for human consumption and for the aquarium trade . the crabs are exported to the aquarium trade internationally to sites in europe ( germany and the uk ) , the usa ( texas and california ) , and australia .\nthere are no conservation measures in place for this species . it has not been collected from any protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\nlist & earn rs . 250 * extra . available in bangalore , mumbai , chennai , hyderabad .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy unlimited free , fast delivery on eligible items , video streaming , ad - free music , exclusive access to deals & more .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nlirranga , middle congo , d . r . congo , central africa ; tanzania , west coast of lake malawi ( nyasa ) , malawi . the type locality is lirranga , at the confluence of the congo and the oubangi rivers , democratic republic of congo . this species is found in the upper reaches of the congo river , democratic republic of congo ; lake kivu , rwanda ; malagarasi river near lake tanganyika , tanzania ; lake malawi , malawi .\nin the dr congo , this species is found in large rivers in the central african rainforest , under rocks . in malawi this species is found in lake malawi .\ng . fryer , the trophic interrelationships and ecology of some littoral communities of lake nyasa , proc . london zool . soc . 132 : 153 - 281 , from p . 217 ( 1959 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\ndobson , m . ( 2004 ) . freshwater crabs of africa . freshwater forum 21 : 3 - 26 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =\nurltoken\n> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on the quaternary structure of a protein and on interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes . < p > < a href = ' / help / interaction _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' interaction ' < / a > section provides information about the protein quaternary structure and interaction ( s ) with other proteins or protein complexes ( with the exception of physiological receptor - ligand interactions which are annotated in the < a href =\nurltoken\n> ' function ' < / a > section ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / subunit _ structure ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nthe nucleosome is a histone octamer containing two molecules each of h2a , h2b , h3 and h4 assembled in one h3 - h4 heterotetramer and two h2a - h2b heterodimers . the octamer wraps approximately 147 bp of dna .\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018family and domains\u2019 section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 ."]}
{"id": 948, "summary": [{"text": "lava man ( foaled on march 20 , 2001 in california ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse who was once claimed for $ 50,000 but wound up being inducted into the national museum of racing and hall of fame in 2015 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "in a forty-seven race career , he won seventeen times with his major victories including three hollywood gold cups , two santa anita handicaps and the pacific classic stakes . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "lava man", "paragraphs": ["lava man\u2019s connections considered sending him to an equine retirement home . but they believed that lava man would be happier at the track .\nwatching lava man win race after race hasn ' t been easy for him .\nfor the third straight year , lava man had won the hollywood gold cup .\nlava man may be going home to california for the last time . order this photo\nthere are no days off for lava man , the 2015 hall of fame inductee .\nhey , lava man could not win at stockton , or santa rosa , either . that was three summers ago . this summer , it is all about lava man .\nlava man was inducted into the national museum of racing\u2019s hall of fame in 2015 .\nfour races later , lava man won a maiden special weight on the grass at golden gate . four races after that , lava man was 57 - 1 in the snow chief at hollywood park , a race restricted to california - breds . lava man finished last .\nlava man retired as the richest horse ever to have been actually claimed during its career .\nwith his performances on the track , lava man answered that question with a definite no .\no\u2019neill praised steve kenly , one of the partners in std racing , for noticing lava man .\nreally , what would you expect of lava man ? yes , that lava man - fourth in a maiden race at stockton , beaten by 3 3 / 4 lengths with a 27 beyer .\nsince his retirement from the track , however , lava man has transitioned into a new career .\nit was a lackluster field ,\nsaid doug o ' neill , who trains lava man .\nwhat horse overcomes what lava man overcame last saturday ? it was one of those races you see , but don ' t quite comprehend . lava man really should not have won , but he did .\nlava man and corey nakatani winning the 2007 sunshine millions turf . ( blood - horse / benoit )\nlava man ' s total of seven grade 1 victories is the highest ever for a california - bred .\nback in california , however , blacksmith jimmy jimenez made a special plate for lava man ' s foot .\na month later , he was retired for good . this time , lava man stayed at the track .\nduring the course of his career , lava man won seven grade 1 races and placed in four more .\nlava man\u2019s highest beyer speed figure was a massive 120 , earned for the 2005 hollywood gold cup win .\na lava man first appears in\nincendium ,\nwalking through the fire kingdom . notably , finn and jake mention another lava man that is sleeping in their front yard in\nprisoners of love\n; however , early storyboards for the episode reveal that it was a different lava man that looked very different . jake also mentions a lava man in\nmorituri te salutamus\nwhile singing\non a tropical island .\nthe goodwood victory was lava man ' s fourth consecutive grade i triumph and seventh straight overall this year .\nkenly and wood envision a mixture of stakes on the turf and main track for lava man in 2007 .\nthough horses often peak at 5 , o ' neill is awed by lava man ' s consistency this year .\nhall of fame inductee lava man , right , ponying dual classic winner i ' ll have another in 2012 .\nlava man\u2019s three straight wins in the hollywood gold cup equaled the record set by native diver in the 1960s .\nafter the race , veterinarians worked for an hour to stop the bleeding in lava man ' s right front foot .\nstill , lava man gave an outstanding performance , finishing 1 1 / 4 miles in 1 : 59 . 63 .\no ' neill says he hopes lava man will become a\nposter boy\nfor stem cell research in thoroughbreds .\nbut one last time , lava man reminded the world that champion horses can come from anywhere . even with an unfamiliar surface under his feet and dozens of miles of racing behind him , lava man\u2019s courage and determination never wavered . in the final strides , with jockey corey nakatani urging him on , lava man seemed to dig deep and find something extra .\na hawaiian man was filmed swimming in waters near a lava zone , where lava is flowing into the open ocean . aside from the obvious danger , the lava hitting the water is also releasing dangerous amounts of steam and shards of volcanic glass .\nlava man is scheduled to move to old friends , near georgetown , ky , on sept . 16 . order this photo\nwhile lava man has been retired from racing for nearly five years , the barn is still grateful to have him around . it is easy to see just how many lives lava man has impacted and how loved he is in his second career .\nno matter what happens regarding lava man\u2019s hall of fame hopes , team lava man will always have the gelding\u2019s best interests at heart , and the racing public can be content with the knowledge that \u201cthe coach\u201d is undoubtedly enjoying his days at the track .\nlava man was named for a triathlon held on the big island of hawaii by co - breeder eve kuhlmann , a triathlete .\nlava man plays such a special role in our barn now that he is retired from racing . here ' s his story :\nlava man returned to form following two lopsided losses , finishing powerfully to win saturday ' s sunshine millions classic at santa anita .\ni ' m getting hate mail all the time ,\nsays doug o ' neill , lava man ' s trainer .\nwith his induction into the hall of fame today here is a reprint of lava man ' s story from may 23 , 2012 .\na young man at vureas bay , southern cross in background , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beattie\no ' neill says the earliest lava man would race , assuming no training complications , would be mid - november at hollywood park .\nlava man is also attached to some two - legged friends . during his racing career , lava man bonded closely to his groom noe garcia . when garcia suffered the loss of an arm in a car accident several years ago , his time away from the barn caused lava man\u2019s mood to shift to one of depression until garcia\u2019s return . sabas rivera , the stable\u2019s foreman , was the man tasked with teaching lava man to transition into his new career , and he is apparently the only one that can or is willing to ride him . among both horses and humans , \u201cthe coach\u201d evokes healthy respect from all .\nlava man takes care of business in his new job as a stable pony . \u00a92012 jessica morgan . used by permission of jessica morgan .\nreaction to news that the venerable lava man is back in training and may race again speaks volumes about the current state of the sport .\na popular horse because of his humble beginnings , lava man often is credited for bringing doug o\u2019neill into the national spotlight as a trainer .\nlava man still gets frequent visitors and gifts , and has a special connection with a make - a - wish child named hope hudson .\nby all logic , lava man shouldn\u2019t have won \u2026 but then again , logic never seemed to apply to lava man . as the crowd cheered and racing fans watched in amazement , lava man and a . p . xcellent crossed the finish line together with almost nothing between them . the finish was too close to call for many , but not for nakatani ; moments after the wire , he raised his whip in triumph .\nstrapped for money , arterburn ran lava man in a $ 50 , 000 claiming race at del mar ( calif . ) racetrack in august 2004 . steve kenly liked what he saw in lava man ' s second - place showing and persuaded the ownership group to pay the claiming price .\nlava man won the gold cup by a record 8 3 / 4 lengths , the widest winning margin in the 66 - year history of the race . lava man was always close to the front , stalking the pacesetter , congrats , to the top of the stretch before drawing off .\nlast summer at del mar , wood and the father - son team of david and steve kenley claimed lava man for $ 50 , 000 .\nwho knew ? certainly , lava man ' s trainer doug o ' neill could not have known . nor could owners std racing and jason wood . they went in for $ 50 , 000 to claim lava man out of a del mar grass race on aug . 13 , 2004 .\nbeattie , j . w . a young man at vureas bay , southern cross in background , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 . urltoken\nlava man had a blend of talent and versatility that comes along very rarely ; some might argue there has never been a horse with a greater combination of both than lava man . in the united states , horse racing is conducted over dirt , grass , and synthetic tracks , and lava man is the only horse in history to win grade 1 races on all three surfaces . he was so naturally fast that he frequently set the pace in his races , but if another horse wanted the early lead , lava man was perfectly content to take back and rally in the stretch .\nin 2006 , lava man became the first horse since vanlandingham in 1985 to win grade i stakes on both dirt and turf in the same year .\nlava man ' s 2007 hollywood gold cup win made him the first horse ever to win grade i races on dirt , turf and synthetic surfaces .\nlava man was guided to most of his major wins by jockey corey nakatani , but was ridden by a total of 13 jockeys during his career .\nwhile i\u2019ll have another was the one racing for history during that time period , lava man was a worthy challenger to the kentucky derby and preakness winner in terms of popularity . lava man was one of the first thoroughbreds to be seen on twitter and sanders credits that as part of his appeal .\nlava man won three hollywood gold cups - - only native diver had done that - - as well as two santa anita handicaps and a pacific classic . when lava man won the big ' cap and the hollywood gold cup in 2006 , it was the first time that double had been achieved since affirmed did it in 1979 . then , when he completed the triple by winning the pacific classic at del mar , lava man had established a first .\nbernardini is the even - money , early - line favorite , but lava man , the 6 - 1 third choice , will have plenty of backers .\nlava man had three wins , four seconds and a third in 13 starts under arterburn ' s training , and he ran his best races on grass .\nlava man was claimed by o\u2019neill after finishing second in a race at del mar in august 2004 . he returned to the track for his new owners a month later with a victory in the fairplex park derby trial . lava man ran four more times that year , finishing second three times and third once .\nthe attention lava man gets during his public appearances lets him keep the ego he developed when racing , and that is still evident to those around him .\nwhen the lava stops , quickly draw around the flow edge with a pencil .\nyou only feel the heat when you\u2019re very close or if the wind is blowing over the lava towards you . in some places collecting lava is easy . \u2026\nlava man was winless in his five starts outside of california , which made his induction to the hall of fame even more of a surprise for steve kenly .\nfor the 2006 edition , lava man came in as the defending champion , and the heavy favorite , but this one turned out to be anything but easy .\nback in california , arterburn will be among lava man ' s rooters saturday . after all , he and his partners have collected almost $ 350 , 000 , based on lava man ' s earnings , from the california thoroughbred breeders association , which has an incentive program that rewards breeders of california - bred horses for top - three finishes throughout a horse ' s career . lava man also made them close to $ 100 , 000 before he was claimed for $ 50 , 000 .\nbut even with his social media presence and i\u2019ll have another\u2019s retirement , lava man still has to work . from the time the first set of racehorses from o\u2019neill\u2019s barn hits the track until 10 a . m . , lava man\ncoaches\nthe racehorses on the track before a bath and being walked to cool down .\no ' neill heard about it and thought it was nice , because if this worked it would improve lava man ' s comfort around the retirement farm . then he got the word about three months ago that lava man was doing some light galloping . the reports were amazing . herthel told o ' neill that , were lava man to return to racing he ' d have the strongest bones of any of the horses . finally , about a month ago , o ' neill went north .\nthat ' s all changed . in september , they spent $ 480 , 000 on eight yearlings at keeneland , money from lava man ' s unlikely success story .\nin 46 starts , lava man ' s in - the - money record was 17 - 8 - 5 . his winnings were $ 5 , 268 , 706 .\nlava man showed the way on the racetrack , too . from september 2004 , when he won the derby trial stakes at fairplex park in his first start after being claimed for $ 50 , 000 , to the end of his career in december 2009 , lava man made 34 starts , and won 14 races , including 13 stakes .\nthis year , lava man ' s form took a turn for the worse in his first few starts . he lost three stakes before o ' neill added blinkers and dropped him into an optional claimer in may , risking him for $ 100 , 000 . lava man won and was not claimed , but the experience rattled steve kenley .\na few more highlights awaited in 2007 . after winning the sunshine millions turf and a second straight edition of the santa anita handicap , lava man shipped to dubai and finished last in the dubai duty free . another defeat followed in the whittingham memorial , and lava man seemed to be slowing down . as the hollywood gold cup approached , there were surely questions as lava man prepared for a historic third straight victory in the prestigious race . the 2007 hollywood gold cup would be run on a synthetic track and , as versatile as lava man had been , the question was could he handle the new surface at a point in his career when he seemed to be declining ?\nsanders relayed a particularly interesting situation that has become a part of lava man\u2019s repertoire : \u201cone of his favorite tricks is deciding when he will come back in for his bath after ponying horses . sometimes we feel sorry for whichever hotwalker has him ; there have been many standoffs , with lava man winning eight times out of ten . \u201d\nlava man is back training at hollywood park . just 11 days ago , he turned three furlongs in 36 seconds flat , faster than any other horse on the track that day . friday morning , according to steve kenly , lava man\nworked slower , worked longer , galloped like he did when he was at his best .\nthe answer , sadly for him , was yes . on august 13 , lava man was back at del mar , this time for a $ 50 , 000 tag .\nlava man earned nine triple - digit beyer speed figures during his career , including a career high of 120 for the 2005 hollywood gold cup ( usa - i ) .\nhe also says that any setback , even a small one , will end this grand experiment and send lava man back to the farm . he is so concerned about public perception that he says any of his training winnings from lava man will be donated to carma , a charity that helps pay for horses ' care once they are retired .\nlava man\u2019s warranted confidence has certainly come in handy in his new career as a pony for younger horses . among those youngsters , kentucky derby and preakness stakes winner i\u2019ll have another was one lava man immediately connected with it , but he apparently didn\u2019t mesh well with goldencents . \u201cyou never really know why they do or don\u2019t get along well with one horse over another , \u201d sanders mused . \u201cfor the most part lava man has the respect of his pupils , but right now he doesn\u2019t really have a favorite . \u201d\nlava man never showed his greatness outside of california . for one reason or another he ran poorly in all his forays outside the golden state . but he still was the king of california . he still was a racing treasure . he still was a legend . in short , he still was lava man . and that\u2019s enough in anyone\u2019s lifetime .\nthat summer , lava man won the grade 1 pacific classic at del mar , one of the finest performances of his career . \u201cthat was goose bumps , \u201d o\u2019neill said .\nthe victory has given lava man a temporary position at the top of the california handicap division , at least until santa anita handicap winner rock hard ten returns in the fall .\nlava man , a two - time winner of the hollywood gold cup and a horse closing in on $ 3 million in earnings , got off to a famously slow beginning .\na young man at vureas bay , southern cross in background , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beat . . . | national library of australia\nhad lava man won the bc classic in november , he probably would have been horse of the year . but he launched another campaign with an emphatic stakes win on saturday .\nthat all changed in early 2005 , however . lava man hit the skids in his first three races , finishing seventh , fifth and sixth . at o ' neill ' s urging but against steve kenly ' s wishes , the partnership put lava man in a $ 100 , 000 claiming race at hollywood park in may . he won but went unclaimed .\nlava man\u2019s halters and shoes have been sold at auction to benefit multiple aftercare programs , and the barn helps with events that promote the retirement of ex - racehorses . lava man also has taken his turn as a racehorse - turned - showhorse , competing in a 2013 show for off - track thoroughbreds , and winning all the classes in which he competed .\naccording to o\u2019neill , no decision on where lava man turns up next will be made for several weeks , but he\u2019s sure it will be in the california - bred\u2019s home state .\nlava man is the subject of a dvd biography that was given away to fans at hollywood park in december 2007 . narrated by jim forbes ( whose other credits include vh1 ' s\nsteve kenly , however , persisted and finally persuaded the group to claim lava man a month later , after his runner - up showing in the $ 50 , 000 claiming race .\nlava man will have a chance for a third consecutive major stakes win in the $ 1 million pacific classic at 1 1 / 4 miles at del mar on aug . 21 .\nfew such stories can compare with that of the remarkable gelding lava man , who went from claimer to hall of famer to dominate california horse racing for much of three unforgettable years .\nafter escorting horses to the track , retired racing great lava man is turned loose for a few minutes to grab a bite to eat in doug o ' neill ' s barn .\nbeattie , j . w . a young man at vureas bay , southern cross in background , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beattie < urltoken >\nlava man still looks fit with a well - dappled gleaming bay coat . after retiring in january 2010 , he began the career transition with the help of stable foreman sabas rivera .\nevery so often , the old competitive juices flow . lava man started to act up during the post parade for the santa anita derby , having a flashback to when he raced .\nwhenever you have a star in the barn , owners are more likely to bring you their horses to train . so lava man has been significant in the career development of doug .\nof course , hudson isn\u2019t lava man\u2019s only admirer . the barn has been told about fans who\u2019ve gone to extreme lengths to make sure they wouldn\u2019t miss a race during his career .\nboth cited the desire to make lava man a rare repeat winner of the big cap as a reason to point for the richest race of the santa anita winter - spring meeting .\nbut the lure of the $ 5 million dubai duty free on turf on march 31 remains very much on their minds , and lava man could run there after the big cap .\nsuddenly , it seemed like the light had gone on . with 23 starts under his belt , lava man was at the point where the talent level of most racehorses is readily apparent , but lava man wasn\u2019t like most horses . perhaps some considered his win in the californian a fluke , but that was far from the case . instead , lava man came back even better in the 1 \u00bc - mile , grade 1 hollywood gold cup , which he won by a stunning 8 \u00be lengths in the brilliant time of 1 : 59 . 63 .\ndeath is forced to retire in reaper man , but this also doesn ' t stick .\nlava man\u2019s incredible talent , however , wasn\u2019t obvious from the start . as a son of slew city slew out of a mare by nostalgia\u2019s star , the california - bred lava man didn\u2019t have the most fashionable pedigree , which may have been one reason why he started his career in a 4 \u00bd - furlong , $ 12 , 500 maiden claiming race at stockton , a county fair track in california . sent off at odds of 35 . 50 - 1 , lava man trailed the field early on before rallying to finish fourth , beaten by 3 \u00be lengths . it was an inauspicious beginning , and his next two starts\u2014a third and a fifth in similar maiden claiming races\u2014did little to dispel the notion that lava man was nothing special .\nlong before lava man became one of the best horses in america , he was trained in northern california by lonnie arterburn , who bred and owned him in partnership with veterinarian kim kuhlmann .\nlava man is closing in on $ 3 million in earnings . the only thing left for him to prove is whether he can win somewhere other than in california . the horse was beaten by 45 1 / 2 lengths in the 2005 jockey club gold cup at belmont park . in his next race , the japan cup , lava man lost by 17 1 / 2 lengths .\ncoast near vureas bay at vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beattie\nsunset over vureas bay , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beattie\neven though lava man remains quite aloof and difficult to handle , his affection can be bought with treats ! the fan favorite is regularly visited and showered with gifts by his loyal following . in addition to his typical gifts of cards and cookies , lava man once received an entire box of stories , poems , and drawings of which he was the focus from a class of fifth grade students . the gelding even has a large following on social media . \u201coftentimes a photo or status update about lava man or from lava himself will generate tens of thousands of views , \u201d sanders described . \u201cwe are very happy that the racing public has not forgotten the champ ! \u201d\nlava man returned to the track january 28 , won the sunshine millions classic at santa anita \u2014\ni could hardly talk ,\ndave kenly said \u2014 and hasn ' t lost since .\nat the age of 14 , lava man thrives on activity . he is a pony for longtime trainer doug o\u2019neill at los alamitos , guiding the stable\u2019s young horses to and from the track .\nlava man won his first major stakes in the grade 2 californian stakes at 1 1 / 8 miles on june 18 , but the win in the gold cup left o ' neill stunned .\nlava man led all the way under corey nakatani , accelerating at the top of the stretch to pull away and win by 2\u00bc lengths over brother derek , who was undefeated at santa anita .\nkenly realizes that an unsuccessful trip to the other side of the world could foil the rest of the 2007 campaign for lava man , forcing him and his owners to regroup in the summer .\nas lava man developed into a grade i winner and then a legend , becoming the first horse to sweep the grade i santa anita handicap , hollywood gold cup , and pacific classic in the same year , arterburn became more distressed over his misfortune . now he\u2019s had to watch lava man make more history by emulating native diver\u2019s feat of winning three consecutive runnings of the hollywood gold cup .\nlava man , a son of slew city slew \u2013 li\u2019l ms . leonard , by nostalgia\u2019s star , had previously been trained by lonnie arterburn , who also was the horse\u2019s co - owner and co - breeder . it was steve kenly who had o\u2019neill claim lava man . kenly raced the horse under the name std stable , along with his parents dave and tracey , and partner jason wood .\nsteve kenly broke out the new lava man caps at the goodwood . they didn ' t go unnoticed at the track . fans cheered him everywhere he went , then rooted the horse to victory .\nthat ' s lava man ' s next order of business \u2014 proving to skeptics in the east that he can win outside his home state . he ' s winless in three starts outside california .\nbreeders ' cup hopeful lava man , shown with groom albert zumaya during bathtime oct . 30 in louisville , is one of the favorites in the $ 5 million classic at churchill downs on saturday .\nlava man was retired after a series of losses in the summer of 2008 , and was sent to magali farms in santa ynez , calif . within a year , he was back at the track and in training . despite criticism that lava man had done enough , he made one additional start , finishing last of seven in the grade 2 san gabriel handicap at santa anita in december 2009 .\nlava man was named the 2005 california - bred horse of the year in voting by the california thoroughbred breeders association , it was announced at the ctba ' s annual awards dinner feb . 7 .\nsouthern cross ( ship ) - - photographs . | ni - vanuatu - - vanuatu - - vanua lava - - photographs . | young men - - vanuatu - - vanua lava - - photographs . | boats and boating in missionary work - - vanuatu - - vanua lava - - photographs . | veutu\u0308mboso bay ( vanuatu ) - - photographs . | vanua lava ( vanuatu ) - - photographs .\nthe racing world has certainly not forgotten lava man , and if all goes well on april 20 , 2015 , the gelding could officially be installed into the annals of horse racing\u2019s hall of fame . announced in march , lava man is one of the four finalists for induction into the national museum of racing and hall of fame . while black tie affair , xtra heat , and kona gold are also excellent contenders for induction , lava man still holds a solid grip on the hearts of racing fans , and his initiation into racing\u2019s highest honor would simply be the cherry on top of a fantastic career .\nlast fall , kenly was looking for an appropriate slogan for lava man . he inadvertently came up with a perfect one when he said about owning a horse like this : \u201cwe\u2019re having a blast . \u201d\nstd racing and jason wood\u2019s grade i - winning multi - millionaire lava man is scheduled to return to his hollywood park base from his unsuccessful trip to dubai late wednesday night , trainer doug o\u2019neill said .\nlava man ( usa ) march 20 , 2001 \u2013 living slew city slew ( usa ) x li ' l ms . leonard ( usa ) , by nostalgias star ( usa ) family 8 - k\nin 2013 , lava man made his debut as a show horse at the thoroughbred classic horse show held at the rancho mission viejo riding park . he won all three classes in which he was entered .\nfor her permission to use her pictures of lava man . please do not copy or distribute these photos without her permission . if you would like to contact her , send me at e - mail at\nhe is already two - thirds of the way there . lava man won the santa anita handicap by three - quarters of a length on march 4 . he was fortunate to prevail by a nose in the hollywood gold cup on july 8 . lava man is unbeaten in five starts this year , including three grade 1 stakes , while racking up more than $ 1 . 8 million in purse money .\nlava man , who was vanned off the track following a third - place finish in sunday ' s pacific classic ( gr . i ) at del mar , was reported in good shape monday morning .\nhudson\u2019s wish was to meet lava man , something she was able to do during kentucky derby week in 2012 . that encounter has turned into a lasting relationship between the girl\u2019s family and the o\u2019neill barn .\nkenly , who had been looking specifically for 3 - year - old cal - breds , because of the state\u2019s lucrative program , had his eye on several horses and lava man was one of them .\nbut the racing life is in lava man\u2019s blood , and he can still be seen at racetracks in california , where he serves as a stable pony for o\u2019neill . in 2012 , he was back in the headlines again as he accompanied i\u2019ll have another through a campaign that included victories in the kentucky derby and preakness stakes . for a horse like lava man , it\u2019s hard to picture a more fitting ending .\nwith one good local prep under his girth , lava man was ready for another defense in the gold cup . the fans and bettors who bet him down to 7 - 5 in the field of nine had no way of knowing that this would turn out to be his last career victory , but they were treated to something special on this afternoon . it was lava man at his gritty , determined best .\nlava man came back into the limelight in 2012 as the regular lead pony for that year ' s kentucky derby / preakness stakes winner i ' ll have another , also trained by doug o ' neill .\nin his first start for his new connections , lava man returned to dirt and won the derby trial stakes at fairplex park , taking command in the homestretch and pulling away to win decisively . three more solid performances in stakes races followed before lava man took a big step up in class and tackled the seven - eighths of a mile , grade 1 malibu stakes at santa anita park . lava man had never run in a graded stakes race , let alone a grade 1 , but outperformed the expectations of most racing fans when he rallied to finish second , beaten by just a half - length by rock hard ten .\nbeattie , j . w . n . d . , a young man at vureas bay , southern cross in background , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beattie < urltoken >\nlava man easily put away his california competition in the $ 500 , 000 goodwood breeders ' cup handicap yesterday at santa anita . now he ' s ready for a showdown with his vaunted east coast rivals .\nlava man ( $ 3 . 20 ) covered 1 1 / 8 miles in 1 : 48 . 15 . giacomo , the 50 - 1 winner of last year ' s kentucky derby , finished third .\nvureas bay at st . peters , vanua lava , banks islands , 1906 / j . w . beattie\nas a 2 - year - old , lava man made his career debut in june 2003 in a $ 12 , 500 maiden claiming race at the san joaquin county fair in stockton , calif . , by finishing fourth at odds of 36 - 1 . lava man finally broke his maiden in his fifth career start , winning a maiden special weight at bay meadows in his final race as a 2 - year - old .\nthe racing world has certainly not forgotten lava man , and if all goes well on april 20 , 2015 , the gelding could officially be installed into the annals of horse racing\u2019s hall of fame . photo : benoit\nin the bc classic , lava man will face bernardini , a 3 - year - old who won his sixth in a row yesterday , in the $ 750 , 000 jockey club gold cup at belmont park .\nlava man won his next two races , including $ 450 , 000 with his eye - popping 8 3 / 4 - length victory in the hollywood gold cup . his win was so impressive that a representative for sheik mohammed bin rashid al maktoum , the owner of bernardini , the ruler of dubai and a horseman who spent $ 60 million at the keeneland sales in september , offered $ 1 . 5 million for lava man .\nhe was scheduled to be sent to old friends in kentucky to enjoy a peaceful life in a pasture , but lava man didn\u2019t seem to care for this lifestyle , and after receiving stem cell therapy that healed his ankles , lava man was put back into training . he thrived with his return to a daily schedule of exercise and made a brief comeback , finishing last in the 2009 san gabriel handicap before being retired for good .\nthe events of captain america civil war brings iron man and hawkeye out of retirement to help the avengers .\nfor the kenly family , the trip to lava man\u2019s induction will be their first to the historic racing town of saratoga springs , n . y . \u201cwe have no idea what to expect , \u201d steve kenly said .\nthe summertime retirement of lava man left a void in this division . then again , replacing a horse that rose from claiming ranks to win seven grade 1 races in his career is difficult for any regional breeding industry .\nok , obviously i did not make that earth background , i got it from google urltoken this is the cover art for my lava man series on da . it will also be the index to all parts of the series and will put facts about lava man in the description every now and then , so check it out for some ! index : page 1 : [ link ] page 2 : [ link ] page 3 : [ link ] page 4 : [ link ] page 5 : [ link ] page 6 : [ link ] page 7 : [ link ] page 8 : [ link ] page 9 : [ link ] page 10 : [ link ] page 11 : [ link ] page 12 : [ link ] page 13 : [ link ] page 14 : [ link ] page 15 : [ link ] page 16 : [ link ] fun fact ! : lava man was originally an idea for a video game called\nlava man vs . the grim reaper\ni thought of lava man ( inspired by the lava suit on the video game\nvexx\n) and my little bro ( jackeduppanda [ link ] ) thought of the grim reaper .\nhow original .\nlol\nas best you can , use a thin layer of play dough to cover the entire area where lava flowed .\na jubilant michael blowen announced thursday that lava man , one of the great geldings of all time , is scheduled to arrive at old friends on sept . 16 , where he will live out the rest of his days .\nlava man , ridden by corey nakatani , puts the field away en route to winning the grade ii $ 500 , 000 goodwood breeders ' cup handicap horse race oct . 7 at santa anita park in arcadia , calif .\nlava man certainly seems to be happiest at the track with a routine and being surrounded by \u201chis\u201d people . in fact , attempts to retire the gelding to pasture life have been less than appealing to lava man . \u201conce at a layup farm , while he was still in racing , he ran up and down the fence line checking out the horses on the training track , \u201d sanders supplied . \u201che wanted to be part of the action . \u201d\nafter undergoing stem - cell therapy during what had been billed as a retirement , lava man attempted a comeback in december 2009 . however , after finishing seventh in that comeback race , he was retired from racing for good .\nin 2006 , lava man became the first horse to sweep the three major dirt stakes for older horses in southern california in the same year - the big cap , hollywood gold cup , and pacific classic at del mar .\nbreeders cup classic hopeful lava man tries to bite his groom noe garcia after an early morning workout at churchill downs in louisville , kentucky , october 31 2006 . trainer doug o ' neill is preparing his horse . . . more\n\u201call credit goes to steve kenly . he picked him out and really liked him , \u201d o\u2019neill said . \u201che was looking for a nice cal - bred at the time and lava man was that and so much more . \u201d\nlava man did not start his career on the other side of the tracks . he started his career in a place where there are no tracks . apparently , the horse needed a change of venue and a bit more distance .\nlast saturday , nearly 27 months after his first visit to hollywood park , lava man was 3 - 5 in the grade 1 hollywood gold cup . this is about as close to seabiscuit as this sport has seen since seabiscuit .\nclaimed for $ 50 , 000 in the summer of 2004 , lava man earned $ 550 , 000 for owners jason wood and steve and david kenly and now has earned more than $ 1 . 5 million in his career .\non aug . 13 , 2004 , doug o\u2019neill put in a $ 50 , 000 claim on a gelding named lava man for std racing and jason wood . what happened over the next five years became a real life fairytale .\nwhen transitioning from racehorse to pony , lava man learned where the barn stored the grain and would help himself to it every morning . but as the barn quickly found out , the routine made him return to his racehorse roots .\nkenly said , \u201cmichael called us about retiring lava man , and he was just so energetic and excited . i didn\u2019t think there was that much interest in the horse outside of the west coast , and michael just said , \u2018are you kidding me ? \u2019 we\u2019re not blue - blood , we\u2019re not the uber - wealthy . lava man is a small guy\u2019s horse and michael is a small - guy\u2019s farm , so we thought it was a perfect fit . \u201d\nlava man retired with a record of 17 wins , 8 seconds , and 5 thirds from 47 starts , with earnings of $ 5 , 268 , 706 , the fourth - highest total ever accumulated by a california - bred horse .\nlava man first caught steve kenly ' s eye when he ran for a $ 62 , 500 tag in july 2004 at del mar . kenly wanted to claim lava man at the time but got what he called a\nchilly\nreception from his father , stepmother tracy , wood and trainer doug o ' neill . none was sold on the horse ' s sixth - place finish and modest record of three wins and $ 98 , 000 in earnings in 12 races .\nbecause i\u2019ll be away in kentucky until late next week , and with the announcement that lava man will be going to old friends , i\u2019m putting this look back at the lava man story ( from last year ) on here , in good part just to get this latest curlin vs . big brown feud off . just the mere mention of either of them in any context turns the blog into the blob \u2013 a creature that keeps growing and consumes everything in its path .\nlava man finished sixth in the race , but had a ton of trouble , getting squeezed and trapped between horses . kenly remembered that and stored it in the back of his head in case the horse showed up again for a price .\nwhat if , when the opportunity arose to re - claim lava man , arterburn hadn ' t been in the midst of a career move that saw him buy a farm in ocala , fla . , and move there with his family ?\ninglewood , calif . - when lava man walked into the starting gate at 6 - 1 for saturday ' s $ 750 , 000 , co - owner jason wood shrugged and thought to himself that the gelding just cannot earn any respect .\nin addition to his typical gifts of cards and cookies , lava man once received an entire box of stories , poems , and drawings of which he was the focus from a class of fifth grade students . photo : doug o\u2019neill racing stable\nbefore his third attempt in the gold cup , lava man would have another unsuccessful sojourn , this time for the rich dubai world cup . the story of this wonderful horse is not complete without the telling of his fondness for california racing .\nunlike his first two hollywood gold cup wins , this one came on their new synthetic racing surface . the legend of lava man deservedly grows , when you consider that he was a grade 1 winner on dirt , turf , and synthetic .\nthe message to the fans is two things ,\no ' neill says .\nfirst , nobody is doing this for the money . and second , lava man is being monitored daily by the top people in the business .\narterburn arranged for the breeding that produced lava man by sending a mare that he had claimed , li ' l miss leonard , to kentucky in 1998 . the sire was slew city slew , a son of 1977 triple crown winner seattle slew .\nlava man won seven grade 1 races , ending his career with earnings of $ 5 , 268 , 706 . he earned $ 5 , 170 , 103 for owners steve , tracy , and david kenly and jason wood after they claimed him .\nlava man\u2019s apparent intelligence and confidence have also provided for some interesting situations around the barn . as an \u201cold soul , \u201d he watches everything around him , and the now fourteen - year - old gelding has developed a mind of his own .\nis out of the nostalgia ' s star mare li ' l ms . leonard and was bred by lonnie arterburn , eve kuhlmann and kim kuhlmann . steve , tracy and david kenly ' s std racing stable and jason wood own lava man .\nlava man followed up his maiden win with a starter allowance victory , but lost his next four starts before winning an allowance race on the grass at bay meadows by a nose . arterburn had removed his blinkers for the race , and lava man showed tremendous courage to win after a stretch - long duel . it was that same tenacity and courage under fire that would enable to him to win back - to - back gut - wrenchers in the hollywood gold cup ( gr . i ) .\nlava man was foaled in california in 2001 and began his racing career with a fourth - place finish in a $ 12 , 500 maiden - claiming event for 2 - year - olds at the san joaquin county fair on june 19 , 2003 .\nevery single one of his career victories came in his home state . for whatever reason , lava man never ran his best outside california , going a non - threatening 0 - for - 4 in new york , tokyo , louisville , and dubai .\nit turns out that he - man didn ' t really hurt anybody , and the whole incident was a batman gambit ( and evil plan of the week ) that skeletor devised to demoralize he - man and trick him into giving up his powers .\nwith lava man all the rage again , we thought this would be a good time to reprint a column we wrote back on sept . 6 , 2008 , telling the story of one of the greatest claims in racing history , if not the greatest .\n\u201cwhat an amazing honor , \u201d trainer doug o\u2019neill said of lava man being elected to the hall of fame . \u201che\u2019s family to me and to everyone connected with him . you are lucky if you get a horse like this once in a lifetime . \u201d\nsince being claimed , lava man has won four races , including the derby trial stakes at fairplex park last september . he was second in the california cup classic , on trust stakes , and grade 1 malibu stakes in his final three starts of 2004 .\nlava man is an 8 - year - old gelding . in his prime , he acquired cult status reserved for the likes of john henry and cigar , older horses who stuck around long enough to win lots of races and build a large fan base .\nsteve kenly says ,\nevery workout , we got closer . we put it out there for lava man to tell us , and he kept passing tests . everybody was reluctant at first . now , after seeing him , everybody is on board .\nlava man was key in bringing the o\u2019neill barn to the minds of racing fans , and certainly accomplished a great deal in his time as a racehorse ,\nsaid sharla sanders , operations manager for doug o\u2019neill racing stable .\npeople connected with his \u2018blue collar\u2019 beginnings and followed his career with enthusiasm . lava man gave 100 percent all the time , even when he shipped out of state or the country . he never duplicated the same success outside of [ california ] , which is too bad because we feel that he should be considered for the racing hall of fame . whenever you have a star in the barn , owners are more likely to bring you their horses to train . so lava man has been significant in the career development of doug .\nthe original lava man was supposed to appear in\nprisoners of love ,\nbut was cut from the final version . nonetheless , he is mentioned to be sleeping outside the tree fort , forcing finn and jake to seek relief in the ice kingdom .\ntrained by doug o ' neill , lava man has never won a stakes outside of california , losing such races as the jockey club gold cup and japan cup dirt in 2005 and finishing seventh in the breeders ' cup classic last november at churchill downs .\nsince being claimed for $ 50 , 000 in august 2004 , lava man has won 10 stakes in california for wood and the kenly family ' s std racing . that record makes staying home for the big cap an easy decision , steve kenly said ."]}
{"id": 962, "summary": [{"text": "the streak-breasted woodpecker ( picus viridanus ) is a species of bird in the family picidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is found from far southeastern bangladesh to central may peninsula .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "streak - breasted woodpecker", "paragraphs": ["nobody uploaded sound recordings for streak - breasted woodpecker ( picus viridanus ) yet .\nthe streak - breasted woodpecker ( picus viridanus ) is a species of bird in the picidae family .\nwinkler , h . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . streak - breasted woodpecker ( picus viridanus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon and locally fairly common ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : the species is suspected to be in decline within its restricted range owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( del hoyo et al . 2002 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclosest relatives appear to be p . rabieri , p . xanthopygaeus and p . vittatus # r . often considered conspecific with last of those , but appears to be separated by habitat , although some possible overlap in this respect ; further study needed . birds from malay peninsula described as race weberi , being slightly smaller and darker , but differences insignificant and probably due to clinal variation . monotypic .\nsw bangladesh , sw & se myanmar and sw thailand s to extreme nw peninsular malaysia # r # r .\n30\u201333 cm ; c . 90\u2013120 g . male has red forehead to nape and slight crest , black base of forehead , upper lores and narrow line bordering crown ; thin white supercilium . . .\nants . commonly forages on the ground ; also on moss - covered trees and boulders .\nfeb\u2013apr . nest - hole excavated in tree . clutch 4 eggs . no other information .\nnot globally threatened . uncommon , locally fairly common ; possibly overlooked . occurs in kaeng krachan national park and khao nor chuchi reserve ( thailand ) . has a very small . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously included chrysophlegma , which was found in recent molecular analyses to represent a clearly divergent , separate clade # r ( see above ) .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na female drinking on a watering point and flying off ( lesser necklaced laughingthrush and racquet - tailed treepies bathing . . .\na male on a big trunk adopting different postures , including upside down , for feeding .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\npicus viridanus : lowlands of myanmar and sw thailand to extreme nw malay pen .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 248 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : picus viridanus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nit is found in malaysia , myanmar , thailand and perhaps bangladesh . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests .\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines .\nplease note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .\nimportant note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .\n\u00a9 thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )\nour search server encountered a problem during your search . please copy this error code { { spperror _ message } }\nmore in { { topic . val } } ( { { topic . numarticles - topic . articles . length } } )\nthe cornell lab will send you updates about birds , birding , and opportunities to help bird conservation . you can unsubscribe at any time . we will never sell or give your email address to others .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers"]}
{"id": 969, "summary": [{"text": "adelaide 's warbler ( setophaga adelaidae ) is a bird endemic to the archipelago of puerto rico belonging to the setophaga genus of the parulidae family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species is named after adelaide swift , daughter of robert swift , the person who captured the first specimen . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "adelaide ' s warbler", "paragraphs": ["adelaide\u2019s warbler is currently classified as \u201cleast concern\u201d in the iucn red data list .\nadelaide ' s warbler ( dendroica adelaidae ) was named after adelaide swift , daughter of robert swift - the person who captured the first specimen .\nthis theory is consistent with research regarding adelaide\u2019s warbler . once considered a single species , the american ornithologists\u2019 union split then - existing subspecies into three full species in 2000 : barbuda warbler ( setophaga subita ) , st . lucia warbler ( setophaga delicata ) , and adelaide\u2019s warbler . genetic analysis suggests that adelaide\u2019s warbler expanded from west to east and two isolated populations ultimately developed into the recently recognized species .\nreal - time colonization : puerto rican warbler expands to u . s . virgin islands\nadelaide\u2019s warbler ( eng . ) , reinita mariposera ( sp . ) , dendroica adelaidae ( sci . ) , endemic species \u2013 puerto rico and vieques islands .\nunlike the other endemic warbler \u2014 the threatened elfin - woods warbler \u2014 the population of adelaide\u2019s warbler on puerto rico appears to be stable . the bird is common in its preferred habitat , including gu\u00e1nica commonwealth forest and cabo rojo national wildlife refuge . \u2014 jason a . crotty\nreal - time colonization : puerto rican warbler expands to u . s . virgin islands - birdwatching\nindividual adelaide\u2019s warblers have also been occasionally sighted by scientists in the luquillo experimental forest , a section of the el yunque national forest .\nadelaide\u2019s warbler is found only on the main island of puerto rico and on the offshore island of vieques . it occurs primarily in the dry forests of the southern region , although it has been seen to occur in moist forests that include tangled vines and thickets along the cordillera central ( central mountain range ) and in the north and northeast sectors of the island . adelaide\u2019s warbler was formerly \u201clumped\u201d with related species on the caribbean islands of barbuda and st . lucia \u2013 taxonomists have recently split them into three separate species based on variations in plumage and song . the puerto rico species retained the adelaide\u2019s warbler name , while the other species were renamed barbuda warbler ( d . subita ) and st . lucia warbler ( d . delicate ) .\nadelaide\u2019s warbler has long been considered non - migratory and endemic to puerto rico . in his guide to the birds of puerto rico and the virgin islands in 1989 , herbert raffaele stated that it is \u201cunknown from the virgin islands . \u201d now , however , it appears that several groups have flown more than 30 miles to st . thomas and st . john , two of the u . s . virgin islands . both have suitable habitat for adelaide\u2019s warbler .\nepisode 1 : adelaide ' s warbler ( reinta mariposera ) this is just a hobby and is what i got until now . hope you like it . music by toe - path graphic artist : nidza burgos castellanos produced by living wolf studios and edit with cyberlink powerdirector 9\nrange : adela\u00efde warbler lives in porto rico , but also in st lucia , and barbuda .\nreproduction : adela\u00efde warbler\u2019s nest is located at up to 3 to 20 feet above the ground , in a tree . female lays 2 to 4 white eggs , spotted with brown .\n) helps to place information for grace ' s warbler into a larger and historical context . some gaps are filled by unpublished information , but there is still much to learn about the species , especially those populations breeding south of the u . s . border .\nadelaide\u2019s warbler ( setophaga adelaidae ) is a small predominantly gray and yellow insectivore most frequently found in the dry lowlands and scrub of southern puerto rico . however , it is a habitat generalist and can be found in other areas . it is less common on the eastern side of puerto rico , which is closest to the virgin islands .\nrosenstock , s . s . 1996 . habitat relationships of breeding birds in northern arizona ponderosa pine and pine - oak forests . phoenix : arizona game fish dep . close\nstaicer , c . a . 1989 . characteristics , use , and significance of two singing behaviors in grace ' s warbler ( dendroica graciae ) . auk no . 106 : 49 - 63 . close\nadelaide\u2019s warblers have been spotted ( flocking with other avian species ) in guama trees on the el portal nature trail and near the palo colorado interpretive site . the flowering guama seems to be a very popular assembly point for flocking and gleaning birds .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto adela\u00efde warbler\u2019s call is a sharp \u201cchick\u201d . song is variable with ascending and descending trill . it sings at any time of year , but it sings strongly into late morning .\nformerly considered conspecific with s . subita and s . delicata , but the three have recently been shown to have a level of genetic differentiation similar to that of some continental american species . monotypic .\ncurson , j . ( 2018 ) . adelaide ' s warbler ( setophaga adelaidae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nnot aware of these sightings , a team of researchers led by richard r . veit of the college of staten island had been surveying birds near lameshur bay since 2011 , and they discovered two adelaide\u2019s warblers in january 2015 . further surveys that year found three singing males that appeared to be defending territories . they enthusiastically responded to recordings of male birds from puerto rico . researchers also observed two probable females . photos , vocalizations , and subsequent comparisons with specimens confirmed them as adelaide\u2019s warblers . in 2016 , they found eight birds with six males defending territories .\n) . these studies have documented the range of habitats occupied , microhabitats used for foraging , and densities of some populations . the only studies to date solely on grace ' s warbler focused on the singing behavior of individuals in northern arizona (\ndistribution and habits make grace ' s warbler one of the least known north american passerines . its territories tend to be large , its nests well hidden , and individuals a challenge to follow . no comprehensive studies exist , and much basic information is lacking . few nests have been found , few individuals have been collected or measured , and no studies have thoroughly documented basic information such as molt , migration , or population dynamics . only 59 individual grace ' s warblers have ever been banded , far fewer than any other north american wood - warbler .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nbehaviour : adela\u00efde warbler feeds on insects , and gleans them at middle and higher elevations in trees . it travels with other species such as puerto rican todies , vireos and other warblers .\ndiet : adela\u00efde warbler feeds mainly on insects , such as lantern flies , grasshoppers , caterpillars , bugs , flies , weevils , beetles , and spiders . it may eat small frogs , but rarely .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\n) , geographic variation in songs of the northern subspecies ( cas ) , and nesting behavior of a few pairs in southwestern colorado ( s . hutchings unpubl . ) .\npreviously restricted to a single species ( s . ruticilla ) ; but comprehensive molecular phylogeny reveals that this species is deeply embedded within large clade that includes two species formerly in parula ( s . americana and s . pitiayumi ) and another ( s . citrina ) traditionally in wilsonia , as well as all species previously treated in dendroica # r ; catharopeza might also be subsumed into this genus # r , but better maintained as a separate monospecific genus , in view of unusual morphology and behaviour , as well as its basal position in the clade . as type species of parula , wilsonia and dendroica are all included in present grouping , these names become synonyms of oldest available name for this clade , setophaga .\nin march 2012 , sean m . rune and leann m . conlon of the university of maine observed four adelaide\u2019s warblers near santa maria bay on st . thomas , the first known observations outside puerto rico . the birds were identified by field marks and song and were later photographed . additional surveys found at least six birds that appeared to be permanently occupying the location , with at least one probable breeding pair . this location is secluded and infrequently visited by birders , so this group may have been there for some time .\nhabitat : adela\u00efde warbler lives in dry forests , lowlands , and moist forest areas . they like tangles of vines and thickets . it is common in dry scrublands on south coast , and in thickets on north coast . we can found a small number of birds in mountains .\nblock , w . m . and d . m . finch . 1997 . songbird ecology in southwestern ponderosa pine forests : a literature review . fort collins , co : u . s . dep . agric . close\nbird ranges are dynamic , and we may be seeing the early stages of expansion by a species in the caribbean . two groups of researchers have found evidence of possible colonization of the virgin islands by an endemic puerto rican warbler . they report their findings in two forthcoming papers in the journal of caribbean ornithology .\nblock , w . m . , j . l . ganey , k . e . severson and m . l . morrison . 1992 . use of oaks by neotropical migratory birds in the southwest . in general technical report rm : u . s . forest service . close\nnocedal , j . 1995 .\nseasonal dynamics of foliage - gleaning insectivorous birds in southern durango , mexico .\nin conservation of neotropical migratory birds in mexico . , edited by m . h . wilson and s . a . sader , 81 - 97 . misc . publ . 727 : maine agric . for . exp . stn . close\neditor ' s note : phylogenetic analyses of sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear dna indicate that all species formerly placed in dendroica , one species formerly placed in wilsonia ( citrina ) , and two species formerly placed in parula ( americana and pitiayumi ) form a clade with the single species traditionally placed in setophaga ( ruticilla ) . the generic name setophaga has priority for this clade . see the 52nd supplement to the aou checklist of north american birds for details . future revisions of this account will reflect these changes .\nthe introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library\u2019s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\nbecome a member ; get involved with the american ornithological society ( aos ) .\nthis site is for the american ornithological society ( aos ) and information on advancing the scientific knowledge and conservation of birds .\n, or \u201clittle queen\u201d , is the general term for warblers ) . at times , they appear to be perpetually in motion , actively searching twigs and leaves for arthropods , or squabbling with their neighbors . they are not shy of humans , and their striking colors and frequently repeated sweet song make them relatively easy to locate .\nare particularly common in the dry forests of southern puerto rico and vieques , but are also found in wet limestone forests and secondary forests on the northern coast of puerto rico . however , they are absent from higher elevations and the eastern end of the island . otherwise , they seem to be generalists both in terms of habitats used , and in the types of vegetation used within a habitat type . their populations appear to be stable over the long term , although strong fluctuations can be seen over shorter periods of time . although some aspects of their biology ( e . g . vocalizations ) have been well studied , many aspects of their behavior and ecology are not yet well known .\nonly one individual , jumping in the middle - upper strata of a bamboo patch , close to the wetland . id confirmed by david hollie .\nprimary song given low in tree near roadside . signal amplified several db . habitat is dry tropical forest .\nbird located up a hillside from trail , through dense under - and midstory . 5 strophes . habitat is tropical moist forest .\ntwo birds on either side of the trail , seemingly countersinging . signal amplified several db . habitat is tropical moist forest .\nunseen bird singing up hillsides above trail in thick understory . silence gap spans about 40 seconds . signal amplified several db . habitat is tropical moist forest .\nnatural song of a bird in canopy of semi - humid forest , with a second in background . this species has rather variable songs , but unfortunately , i only managed to record one individual .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nan adult singing on the tree branch . adulto vocalizando desde la rama de un \u00e1rbol .\nkristof zyskowski , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , luis r figueroa , mikko pyh\u00e4l\u00e4 , bob thompson , dubi shapiro , paul a guris , guy poisson .\n12\u201313\u00b75 cm ; 5\u00b73\u201310 g . crown grey , forecrown laterally edged black , short yellow supercilium becom\u00ading white behind eye , black lores , broken . . .\ntwo song types . type 1 song a variable trill , often ascending or descending in pitch , and type 2 . . .\nlowland dry scrub forest and forest edge ; replaced , with some overlap , in humid montane forest by . . .\nfeeds mainly on insects and other arthropods . forages by gleaning , mainly high in canopy . pairs apparently remain together on territory . . .\neggs laid in mar\u2013jul and nestlings observed in mid - may . nest a cup placed 1\u20132\u00b75 m up in shrub or tree ; clutch 2\u20133 . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . restricted - range species : present in puerto rico and the virgin islands eba . not uncommon . population thought to number more than 10 , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nit has grey upperparts . underparts are bright yellow on throat and breast . belly is white . wings show two white wing bars . it has a yellow and white eyebrow , and a white or yellow crescent below eye . the bill is blackish - brown . eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are brown .\nin addition of nominate race dendroica adelaidae living on puerto rico and vieques islands , there are two subspecies . race subita which lives in barbados resembles nominate , but its upperparts are more brownish - grey . it lacks the black stripe on the hood side , and its double wing bar is duller . it has less white on the tail . wings and tail have the same size that nominate race . race delicata which lives in st lucia is larger . its upperparts are darker and brighter bluish - grey . the head pattern is more conspicuous : broader and more conspicuous lateral black stripe on the hood , entirely yellow eyebrow , and yellow patch below the eye . we can see sometimes some fine black streaks on back and hood .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : setophaga adelaidae . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 131 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nphoto \u00a9 2008 , william hull . information compiled by alan mowbray , interpretive media writer , eynf / lef\nd . adelaidae has a gray upper body and yellow breast . it has a yellow and white line above each eye with a white or yellow \u201chalf - moon\u201d crescent below the eye . average bill to tail length is 4 . 7 inches ( 12 centimeters ) \u2013 typical weight is 0 . 25 ounces ( 7 grams ) .\nin december 2012 during a christmas bird count , rune found two birds near lameshur bay , on the southern coast of st . john .\nit is unlikely that these birds were involuntarily \u201cwind drifted\u201d or caught up in storms , as the prevailing easterly trade winds would have pushed them away from the virgin islands . it is more likely that they were pioneering vagrants that arrived via active dispersal , with at least two colonizing groups , one into st . thomas and one into st . john .\nthe group on st . john appears to have taken up permanent residence within virgin islands national park . according to laurel brannick , a ranger with the national park service , they continue to be regularly seen near the lameshur bay trail on the southern part of the island . the current status of the st . thomas population is unknown .\nfewer migrants are overwintering on puerto rico , puzzling researchers ( june 2016 ) .\nread about birding at el yunque national forest , hotspot near you no . 247 .\nsign up for our free e - newsletter to receive news , photos of birds , attracting and id tips , descriptions of birding hotspots , and more delivered to your inbox every other week . sign up now .\nlearn how the birds of cozumel were affected by hurricanes emily and wilma in 2005 .\n\u00a9 luis villanueva ( licence : creativecommons attribution - noncommercial 3 . 0 ) bosque estatal de gu\u00e1nica\nit is endemic to the archipelago of puerto rico , where it is found on the main island of puerto rico and in the island municipality of vieques .\nthey inhabit dry forests in the southern region of puerto rico such as the gu\u00e1nica state forest . although some have been sighted in the northern moist forests and the central mountain range , cordillera central .\nthey usually travel in mixed flocks , which may include puerto rican todies , vireos and other new world warblers .\nthere is a yellow line above the eye , with a white half - moon below it .\nthey mainly feed on insects , as well as spiders and small amphibians such as coqu\u00eds .\nthe average clutch consists of 2 to 4 eggs , which are white but typically with small brown spots . the nest is usually located at heights of 1 to 7 m in .\nfor updates please follow avianweb on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nsounds provided by macaulay library . listen to more sounds of this species from the ml archive .\nmales sing a sweet series of 6\u201310 whistled notes that accelerate over the course of the roughly 1 - second song and often end on a rising note . the tone is so sweet that people often remember it with the mnemonic sweet sweet sweet i\u2019m so sweet . the songs are a common sound of spring and early summer mornings and may be repeated as often as 10 times per minute .\nyellow warblers use a variety of short chip notes , some with a metallic sound and some with a lisping or buzzing quality . males sometimes alternate chip notes with their songs , and females may answer a song with a high - pitched chip . both sexes use a high , hissing note in territorial defense , and may confront cowbirds with a seet call .\ngreat diversity of habitats : lagoons , coastal forests , karst forests , rain forests , cliffs , ponds , coast , marsh and grassland . between 9 - 13 endemics . depending of the time we can try the yellow - breasted crake . pr screech owl on tj ranch . on the 2nd day will end on southwest and try the pr screech - owl and pr nightjar .\nfor iphone , ipod , & ipad running ios version 5 . 1 or higher\na subscription is needed to access the remaining account articles and multimedia content . rates start at $ 5 usd for 30 days of complete access .\nthis pine specialist breeds from mountains of the southwestern united states to the caribbean coast of northern nicaragua . one of the smallest warblers , it is an active forager , hopping and flitting rapidly among the outer foliage of high branches , perching on twigs and needles in search of insects and spiders , and occasionally fly - catching or hovering to obtain its prey . northernmost populations , from northern mexico and the united states , are migratory , whereas populations from central mexico south to nicaragua are only partially migratory or resident . the species prefers parklike stands of mature pines , a habitat that has declined over time through forestry practices of logging and fire suppression , at least in the northern parts of its range . little is known about mexican and central american breeding populations .\nmarshall , jr . , j . t . ( 1957 ) . birds of pine - oak woodland in southern arizona and adjacent mexico . pac . coast avifauna no . 32 . close\nbalda , r . p . 1969 . foliage use by birds of the oak - juniper woodland and ponderosa pine forest in southeastern arizona . condor no . 71 : 399 - 412 . close\nszaro , r . c . and r . p . balda . 1979a . bird community dynamics in a ponderosa pine forest . stud . avian biol . no . 3 . close\nbrawn , j . d . , w . j . boecklen and r . p . balda . 1987 . investigations of density interactions among breeding birds in ponderosa pine forests : correlative and experimental evidence . oecologia no . 72 : 348 - 357 . close\nnocedal , j . 1994b . local migrations of insectivorous birds in western mexico : implications for the protection and conservation of their habitats . bird conserv . int . no . 4 : 129 - 142 . close\nnocedal , j . 1994a . foraging ecology of foliage - gleaning insectivorous birds of an oak - pine woodland of southern durango , mexico . phd thesis , new mexico state univ . , las cruces . close\nhowell , t . r . 1971b . an ecological study of birds of the lowland pine savanna and adjacent rain forest in northeastern nicaragua . living bird no . 10 : 185 - 242 . close\nhowell , t . r . 1972 . birds of the lowland pine savanna of northeastern nicaragua . condor no . 74 : 316 - 340 . close\nthis account compiles information from the studies mentioned above , from various regional compendiums and atlases , and the breeding bird surveys and christmas bird counts . a synthesis of the ecology and dynamics of southwestern pine forests (\n) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( a . f . poole and f . b . gill , editors ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa ."]}
{"id": 974, "summary": [{"text": "urticina lofotensis is a species of sea anemone in the family actiniidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is commonly known as the white-spotted rose anemone or strawberry anemone . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "urticina lofotensis", "paragraphs": ["cowles , d . ( 2006 ) . urticina lofotensis ( danielssen , 1890 ) .\njennifer hammock added an association between\nimage of urticina lofotensis\nand\nasterina\n.\ngametogenesis and reproductive periodicity of the subtidal sea anemone urticina lofotensis ( coelenterata : actiniaria ) in california .\nidentification the species referred to as urticina lofotensis is actually cribrinopsis albopunctata sanamyan & sanamyan , 2006 ; urticina lofotensis is a junior synonym of u . eques , and does not occur in the pacific - see link to urltoken web site [ details ]\ngametogenesis and reproductive periodicity of the subtidal sea anemone urticina lofotensis ( coelenterata : actiniaria ) in california . - pubmed - ncbi\n( of urticina ( tealia ) felina var . lofotensis ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\njennifer hammock selected\ncomprehensive description\nto show in overview on\ntealia lofotensis ( danielssen , 1890 )\n.\n80 years - urticina anemones can live between 60 to 80 years in the wild .\nhow to distinguish from similar species : urticina columbiana has rough white tubercles in circumferential rows . urticina piscivora and urticina crassicornis have inconspicuous tubercles which are not white , and u . crassicornis also has transverse bands on its tentacles and greenish blotches on its column .\nurticina felina lives in full salinity situations and the factor is assessed as not relevant .\nsexes are separate in the sea anemone urticina crassicornis , as in most anemone species 0 . 3x\nthe dahlia anemone urticina felina fully retracted . column showing characteristic warts ( verrucae ) and adherent debris .\nmoen , f . e . , 1996 . urticina felina fjaeresjorose . , 2002 - 01 - 25\n( of tealia lofotensis dan . ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of madoniactis lofotensis danielssen , 1890 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nrasmussen , ( 1973 ) records urticina felina as being very common in banks of mytilus feeding mostly on gammarids .\nwedi , s . e . , & dunn , d . f . , 1983 . gametogenesis and reproductive periodicity of the subtidal sea anemone urticina lofotensis ( coelenterata : actiniaria ) in california . biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , woods hole , 165 , 458 - 472 .\nurticina means nettle , a stinging plant . like all sea anemones they do have a sting , but the urticina cold water sea anemones have much more . . . being very beautiful they are known as flowers of the sea !\nsol\u00e9 - cava et al . ( 1994 ) suggested that the large sub - littoral sea anemone urticina eques ( very similar to urticina felina ) with its large lecithotrophic larvae is probably not truly planktonic and has poor dispersive powers .\nsol\u00e9 - cava et al . ( 1994 ) suggested that the large sub - littoral sea anemone urticina eques ( very similar to urticina felina ) with its large lecithotrophic larvae is probably not truly planktonic and has poor dispersive powers .\n( of tealia ( madoniactis ) lofotensis dan . ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nurltoken to barcode of life ( 4 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 14 publications ) ( from synonym tealia lofotensis dan . ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 2 nucleotides ; 1 proteins ) to global biotic interactions ( globi ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym tealia lofotensis dan . )\n( of tealia felina var . lofotensis ( danielssen ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nurticina felina is predominantly a subtidal species so that decrease in emergence is likely to lead to more habitats for colonization becoming available .\nurticina felina is likely to have poor ability for detection of noise vibrations and as such is unlikely to be sensitive to noise .\nurticina felina has very limited , if any , ability for visual perception . the anemone is unlikely to be sensitive to visual presence .\n( of urticina lofotenesis ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nage at maturity is not known . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) working with the similar ( see ' taxonomy ' ) tealia crassicornis ( see below ) found no sign of gonad development at 14 months old . the smallest fertile urticina lofotensis , a similar species in california , are recorded as at least 18 months old ( wedi & dunn , 1983 ) .\ngeneral references : gotshall , 1994 harbo , 1999 morris et al . , 1980 niesen , 1997 o ' clair and o ' clair , 1998 ricketts et al . , 1985 ( as tealia lofotensis ) sept , 1999\nurticina felina has no known obligate relationships so removal of other species is unlikely to have any direct effect . the incidental physical effects of removal of other species can be assessed under the relevant factors .\nurticina felina is recorded from several estuarine sites including mucking in thames estuary and the river blackwater estuary and so will be subject to variable or low salinities . in the westerschelde estuary , braber & borghouts ( 1977 ) found that urticina ( as tealia ) felina penetrated to about the 11ppt chlorinity ( about 20 psu ) isohaline at mid tide during average water discharge making it tolerant of reduced salinity conditions .\nurticina felina is not currently subject to extraction . however if a cold water marine aquarium trade were to take - off , this species is likely to be collected . although urticina felina probably breeds every year there is no information regarding fecundity . although recolonization is likely to occur from nearby populations , frequency and success of recruitment is unclear and a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' is made . see ' additional information ' below .\nurticina eques is a similar but larger species ( up to 30 cm tentacle spread ) with longer tentacles and more commonly found offshore and in deeper water to 400 m . this species has fewer or no verrucae and no attached gravel or other particles .\nmign\u00e9 , a . , & davoult , d . , 1997a . ammonium excretion in two benthic cnidarians : alcyonium digitatum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and urticina felina ( linnaeus , 1767 ) . journal of sea research , 37 , 101 - 107 .\n% urticina eques % is a similar but larger species ( up to 30 cm tentacle spread ) with longer tentacles and more commonly found offshore and in deeper water to 400 m . this species has fewer or no verrucae and no attached gravel or other particles .\nhoutman , r . , paul , l . r . , ungemach , r . v . , & ydenberg , r . c . , 1997 . feeding and predator avoidance in the rose anemone urticina piscivora . marine biology , 128 , 225 - 229 .\nurticina felina anemones adhere strongly to the substratum . substratum loss would result in mortality . some individuals might , however , be left behind as they typically live in fissures . recruitment to replace lost individuals is likely to be slow ( see ' additional information ' below ) .\nurticina felina occurs in clear to highly turbid waters and occurs down to depths of at least 100m ( manuel , 1988 ) where light levels are low . the anemone is not known to contain symbiotic algae and is likely to tolerate changes in turbidity or the resulting change in light attenuation .\nrecent revision of pacific species of cribrinopsis : sanamyan n . p . , sanamyan k . e . , 2006 . the genera urticina and cribrinopsis ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) from the north - western pacific . journal of natural history , 40 ( 7 - 8 ) : 359 - 393 .\nthe plymouth marine fauna ( marine biological association , 1957 ) records urticina felina as breeding in may . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) record the similar tealia crassicornis from san juan island on the north - west coast of the usa as spawning in the morning during april , may and june .\nurticina felina occurs in clear to highly turbid waters and occurs down to depths of at least 100m ( manuel , 1988 ) where light levels are low . the anemone is not known to contain symbiotic algae and is unlikely to be sensitive to changes in turbidity or the resulting change in light attenuation .\nsol\u00e9 - cava , a . m . , thorpe , j . p . & kay , j . g . , 1985 . reproductive isolation with little genetic divergence between urticina ( = tealia ) felina and u . eques ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) . marine biology , 85 , 279 - 284 .\nno information has been found regarding the longevity of urticina felina but given the large size , slow growth rate and few predators it is likely that it survives for quite a long time . specimens in aquarium tanks are known to still be flourishing fifty years after collection ( p . g . moore pers . comm . ) .\n( of tealia lofotensis dan . ) van der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nreidy , s . 1996 . comparison of associations of the nudibranch aeolidia papillosa with two sea anemones urticina crassicornis and metridium senile . in proceedings of the 24th annual benthic ecology meeting , columbia , south carolina , march 7 - 10 , 1996 ( ed . s . a . woodin et al . ) , pp . 68 .\njackson , a . & hiscock , k . 2008 . urticina felina dahlia anemone . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nbeing an epibenthic species , urticina felina would be exposed to changes in siltation . increases in siltation may begin to cover the anemone or interfere with feeding . an energetic cost will result from efforts to clean off the silt particles , e . g . through mucus production and sloughing . repeated energetic expenditure in cleaning off silt particles may cause loss of condition . recovery of condition may take several months .\nwhite - spotted rose anemones can grow up to 4\n( 10 cm ) in diameter , with a length up to 6\u201d ( 15 cm ) . it is unknown how long anemones live , in fact , some anemones can be hundreds of years old in the wild and in captivity some have been known to last 80 years or more . it is believed urticina anemones can live between 60 to 80 years in the wild .\nthere is no information about urticina felina tolerance to changes in oxygenation but cole et al . , ( 1999 ) suggest possible adverse effects on marine species below 4 mg / l and probable adverse effects below 2mg / l . the large size and slow growth rate of this anemone suggests that it is quite long lived . although recolonization is likely to occur from nearby populations , frequency and success of recruitment is unclear and a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' is made ( see ' additional information ' below ) .\nproceeds within the gastrovascular cavity , through gastrulation ( 3d ) to swimming planula larva ( 10d ) , and then to release of the swimming larvae via the mouth ( 15d ) . the authors note that the embryonic development of cribrinopsis is similar to that of other anemones , e . g . , urticina crassicornis . the main difference is in the brooding behaviour of cribrinopsis , which lasts for two or more weeks . the authors note the lecithotrophic nature of the eggs and suggest that the function of brooding is protective rather than nutritive .\ndensities vary from solitary individuals to dense carpets in ideal locations such as crevices and gullies . measurements of size refer to the diameter across the base . growth is dependent on the level of feeding so size is not proportional to age . gosse ( 1860 ) notes [ most likely from aquarium observations ] that\nthe shore crab ( carcinus ) is its ordinary prey but it feeds on limpets , and other mollusca and nereids and shrimps and on echinus [ now psammechinus ] miliaris . rasmussen ( 1973 ) records urticina felina as feeding mainly on gammarids in banks of mytilus edulis .\ndo not belong to this species was recognized by european taxonomists for a long time ( e . g . manuel , 1981 , 1988 , den hartog , 1986 ) and discussed in details in our publication ( sanamyan , sanamyan , 2006 ) . actually even a brief look on the photos of living european and pacific specimens left no doubt that they belong to different species , the original\nis a very different species not resembling pacific anemone externally . the pacific species has white , always well visible verrucae on usually uniformly colored crimson column . in european species the verrucae are smaller , usually inconspicuous , they may be whitish , but often of the same colour as the column and the species look completely different . surprisingly , despite these pronounced differences many websites and internet databases still wrongly list\nas a valid pacific species . the internal morphological differences between pacific and european species are even more pronounced - actually these two species belong to two different genera having different internal morphology and different set of nematocysts ( stinging capsules ) : valid name for european\ndaly , m . ; fautin , d . ( 2018 ) . world list of actiniaria .\nfautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of rhodactinia crassicornis ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of bulocera eques ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nsetting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !\naiptasia grow like weeds , take over the reef tank , and are very hard to control ! a variety of approaches include chemical controls to using sea anemone predators .\naiptaisa means beautiful , and they can be . . . but they can be also reek havoc on reef tanks ! meet the aiptasia sea anemone species and discover the pros and cons of aiptasia in captivity\nenter your freshwater aquarium enter parameters for your freshwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nenter your saltwater aquarium enter parameters for your saltwater aquarium to get compatibility information while browsing .\nfish finder search our database for compatible pets ! enter characteristics of what you are looking for and find them instantly .\ndr . jungle ' s pets and animal speak - newsletter featured pet of the week and more . . .\ni ' d love to give your clam a new house . i have 110g reef tank set up 25 hrs . he ' d love it !\ni would like to purchase a quantity of aiptasia for my berghia nudibranch . if you have some available , please respond . bobtc100 @ urltoken\nsome other common names it is known by are spotted red anemone , white - spotted anemone and tealia anemone . the term\ntealia\nmeans blooming , likening these beauties to\nflowers of the sea .\nthe common name , tealia anemone is very enchanting and is also used for one of its flowery relatives , the\nthey are generally found alone or in small groupings . the white - spotted rose anemones attach to shaded rocks along rocky sand covered shore lines and in tide pools . like all anemones , they are carnivorous , feasting on sea urchins , small fish , crabs , and mussels that happen by .\n, using similar husbandry for other cold water anemones is suggested . like all anemones , they use their venomous cells , or nematocyst , found in their tentacles to sting and deflect any possible threats or attacks . but they mostly utilize them for stunning and capturing prey .\nsome predators of this anemone can be certain nudibranchs , sea stars , and snails . interestingly , in the wild painted greenling\njuveniles are found in association with this anemone , swimming or resting around its tentacles and column . adults may sleep near its base . the anemone gives them protection from predators and the opportunity to feed on copepods and other small invertebrates .\nthis video shows how the white - spotted rose anemone spends it ' s day . they do , of course , require cold water marine tanks and are found from the alaskan coast to the california coast . they only need to be fed a few times per month due to the cold water and they do not host clownfish . only reaching 6 ,\nthey are great for a cold water marine nano tank !\n, as those found in the pacific may be a different species than those found in the atlantic . the first scientific designation ,\n. this european species is very different in its appearance , with no external resemblance to the pacific anemone . however , this is unreviewed and currently not accepted by worms , the world register of marine species , sealifebase , nor the encyclopedia of life .\nwhite - spotted rose anemones are located in colder subtidal waters . they occur solitary or in small groupings , attached to shaded rocks along rocky , sand - covered shore lines and in tide pools . but they can also be found at depths down to 82 feet ( 0 - 25 m ) . they use their venomous cells or nematocyst found in their tentacles to sting and deflect any possible threats or attacks , but they mostly utilize them for stunning and capturing prey . this cold water anemone feasts on sea urchins , small fish , crabs , and mussels .\njuveniles are found in association with this anemone in more exposed environments where both these fish and the anemone is plentiful . they will swim or rest around its tentacles and column , giving them protection from predators and affording them the opportunity to feed on copepods and other small invertebrates . adults may sleep near its base . it is not thought that the anemone receives any benefit from this relationship , but these small fish seem to be immune to the anemone ' s sting . some predators include certain nudibranchs , sea stars , and snails .\nthis anemone has a red - to - orange cylindrical pedal column with distinct vertical rows of white dots , or tubercles , all over . these tubercles are non - adhesive , so are generally free of shell fragments , gravel , or other debris . the pedal column has a sticky foot at the bottom which they use to adhere to various surfaces . they also use this\nfoot\nto move around if conditions are not ideal . the color of the foot is brown , or reddish brown to orange , and has distinctive white spots .\nat the top of the column is an oral disc with an opening , or mouth , in the center . the\ntakes food in and expels waste through this opening . the mouth should be closed and tight . it will open when hungry , having an oval look . a gaping mouth is a warning signal that the anemone is not doing too well .\nwhite - spotted rose anemones have sturdy tentacles , well - spaced on the oral disc . they are situated in 5 or more rows surrounding the mouth . the tentacles are usually light gray , white , red , or orange , and a combination of those can be on each tentacle . the tentacles are thicker at the base and are thinner toward the top with a little\nbulbous\ntip . the oral disc and mouth are lighter in color .\n4 . 0 inches ( 10 . 16 cm ) - it can grow up to 4\n( 10 cm ) in diameter with a height up to 6\u201d ( 15 cm ) .\nthe white - spotted rose anemone is very rarely available to aquarists from a retailer . these anemones can be difficult to care for because they must be kept in cold water . a chiller should be able to keep the tank temperature between 55 and 68\u00b0f . as with most anemones , the tank should be at least 1 year old and stable before adding your new strawberry anemone .\nwhen selecting a white - spotted rose anemone , make sure the color is good , their mouth is not gaping open , and their foot and tentacles are sticky to the touch . also , they should be attached to something , but make sure there is no damage to the foot area , often a result of pulling the anemone off its surface .\nto take one of these anemones from another aquarium , use a thin blunt item like a credit card . gently wiggle it under the foot and slowly nudge the anemone away from the glass . if it ' s attached to a rock , ideally you can simply purchase the rock as well . if you cannot purchase the rock , then directing water at it or wiggling the rock gently upside down under water while tickling the foot can work .\nthe white - spotted rose anemone is a carnivore . in nature , they use their potent sting to immobilize small fish and invertebrates , primarily sea urchins , crabs , and mussels . in captivity feed your anemone chopped silversides , shrimp , krill , and mussels , fresh chopped fish ( from your grocery store ) , as well as frozen carnivore preparations .\nthe white - spotted rose anemones metabolism is not as fast as warmer water anemones . they are cooler water creatures , so usually only need to be fed once a week or twice a month .\nall of diet - sources of marine flesh and frozen / thawed preparations for carnivores .\nweekly - feed only once a week or twice a month , because cold water anemones have much slower metabolisms .\nwater changes of 10 % bi - monthly or 20 % a month are typical . monitor your water quality for your particular situation and adjust your water changes accordingly . waste production created by your anemone can be calculated in inches . basically , every inch of anemone is equal to an inch of fish , so an average - sized white - spotted rose anemone produces a bio - load equivalent to that of about one 4\nfish .\npurigen and poly - fiber are great products to help in maintaining water quality . purigen is a synthetic polymer that removes soluble and insoluble impurities from water at an exceptionally high rate and capacity , helping to control ammonia , nitrites and nitrates . additional chemical additives , such chemi - pure , gfo , and carbon also help maintain quality water parameters . poly - fiber can be cut and used in sumps , etc . a good protein skimmer is a must .\nalthough anemones are not as dependent on calcium as stony corals , magnesium and calcium is still needed to keep the ph and alkalinity stable and within the correct parameters . additions of trace elements are suggested . phosphates should be kept around 0 . 03 or less . control phosphates with products such as phosban and the phosban reactor . phosphates should be less than 0 . 03 ppm .\nbi - weekly - water changes of 10 % twice a month , or 20 % a month are typical .\n380 . 0 - 450 . 0 ppm - helps to balance alkalinity . aim for 420 ppm , or 385 ppm if you are using seachem calcium .\n7 . 0 - 11 . 0 dkh - ( 2 . 5 to 3 . 9 meq / l ) aim for 10 dkh ( 3 . 5 meq / l ) for reef tanks .\n1 , 250 . 0 - 1 , 350 . 0 ppm - test magnesium levels and adjust before checking calcium .\nthe white - spotted rose anemone can be kept in an aquarium of 50 - gallons or more when full grown . the typical reef environment is what is needed , but it must be a cold water reef . they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to . you can even use submersed bio - balls . provide some rock crevices as well as rocky overhangs .\nthey need a low to moderate water movement and moderate lighting . the temperature can be between 55 . 0 to 68 . 0\u00b0 f ( 12 . 8 to 20 . 0\u00b0 c ) , but keep it stable as fluctuations can be stressful to the anemone . a chiller will be needed , but this allows you to have both inter - tidal and sub - tidal animals . acrylic tanks are best for insulating against temperature fluctuations , each 1 / 2\nwill give a thermal barrier of 5\u00b0 f . be sure to have all of your pumps covered , most good quality pumps have guards on them .\n10 gal ( 38 l ) - they do best in 50 - gallons or more when full grown .\nthe white - spotted rose anemone is considered semi - aggressive because they can be mobile , yet most of the cold water anemones stay still if their needs are met . it has often been suggested to not put anemones in a reef environment since corals cannot move away from the stinging tentacles . once you get your anemone situated and it has not moved for several months , it might be safe to add other corals . just keep in mind these anemones will sting everything they can reach , like corals and other invertebrates . anemones will move if your lighting is not good , or the water quality is not to their liking .\nthese anemones may split often once settled , similar to others in their genus . after splitting , anemones will tolerate their own \u201cclones\u201d and sometimes their own species . all anemones in the tank need to have their own space , otherwise there can be a \u201cchemical\u201d warfare between species . this will usually cause one to not eat , shrink and eventually die . having excellent filtration and a large tank will usually allow 2 anemones at opposite ends to thrive . you can also build a natural blockade to help prevent them from wandering into each others \u201cspace\u201d .\nwhen housing them with fish , if the tank is very large and you are keeping larger cold water fish , they should be fine . the problem occurs when keeping small gobies , blennies or other small cold water fish that can easily become dinner if they wander into the very sticky ( more sticky than typical ) tentacles .\nthey multiply rather quickly once adjusted , so keeping corals in the tank may be a risky thing to do . if attempting to add cold water corals , allow the anemones to settle and once they are in place , try to place a coral away from them . this may work for a while , however , the way they reproduce will eventually have detrimental affects on any other corals or anemones .\nthe white - spotted rose anemone will divide captivity . there is no information on the propagation of cold water anemones , however , but it may be just like other anemones . similar to other cold water anemones , they reproduce by fission or external fertilization of egg and sperm .\nthey will spawn when the water temperature drops from its highest for the year . the best success for breeding them is when they spawn , in april and may . when they spawn , they produce larvae that will float away , and eventually finding a spot to land . they then attach and develop a pedal disk that grows into a new anemone .\nproblems for the white - spotted rose anemone are pretty minimal unless your lighting , water movement , feeding and water quality are low . then your anemone will detach to look for \u201cbetter conditions . \u201d in general , if your anemone moves , it is not happy . make sure your lighting and water quality is good , and that the food you are offering is to their liking . some predators include certain nudibranchs , sea stars , and snails .\nthe white - spotted rose anemone or strawberry anemone is generally unavailable to aquarists through retailers .\ncopyright \u00a9 [ animal - world ] 1998 - 2015 . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthis large anemone has no acontia . the column is red with smooth white tubercles in longitudinal rows . the margin of the oral disk has no white spherules . the tubercles usually do not hold sand , shells , or other debris . the oral disk is red and has no radiating white stripes . the slender tentacles are red , unbanded but with sometimes a yellow tinge at the base and pinker at the tips . diameter to 10 cm .\nhabitat : rocky , exposed coast , concrete pilings , marina floats . in the intertidal , is usually in surge channels and on vertical rock faces .\nbiology / natural history : shells or debris is occasionally found adhered to the tubercles , but not usually and not strongly . juvenile painted greenlings are often associated with this anemone , and adults may sleep near its base . the eggs are very large ( over 1 . 2 mm diameter ) and yolky . it has not been observed brooding the eggs .\nscientific articles : sebens , k . p . and g . laakso , 1977 . the genus tealia ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) in the waters of the san juan archipelago and the olympic peninsula . wasmann j . biol . 35 : pp 152 - 168\nbiology / natural history : shells or debris is occasionally found adhered to the tubercles , but not usually and not strongly . juvenile painted greenlings are often associated with this anemone , and adults may sleep near its base . the eggs are very large and yolky . it has not been observed brooding the eggs .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nis a species common in european and northern seas , but not occurring in pacific . for a long time this european species was known as\nis an older name , it become valid name of this species . note , that pacific species commonly called\n( which has much better developed nonadhesive vesicles on column and also differs in internal features ) .\nis usually buried , occurs in crevices , has the body densely covered with large strongly adhesive veruccae to which gravel and other particles are attached . third european species ( occurring also in north pacific ) ,\n, always has absolutely smooth body . ( note , that verrucose [ not smooth ] pacific species which is often called\nhave whitish or yellowish ground colour with wide or narrow , irregular , mainly longitudinal red patches . in some specimens the prevailing colour is red . small nonadhesive verrucae are distinctly visible on the living specimens , especially on the contracted anemones . the verrucae are of the same colour as the column or paler , and they probably do not become as inflated and blister - like as in pacific species\n. the oral disk and the tentacles are yellow - whitish , transparent , with the red longitudinal bands outlining tentacle bases on the disk ; the tentacles are encircled with the wide white and red bands in the middle .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmacrocystis pyrifera , calliarthron spp . , bossiella spp . , rhodymenia californica , cryptopleura ruprechtiana , chondracanthus corymbiferus\na variety of organizations and individuals have contributed photographs to calphotos . please follow the usage guidelines provided with each image . use and copyright information , as well as other details about the photo such as the date and the location , are available by clicking on the\nhayward et al . , 1996 , sol\u00e9 - cava et al . , 1985 , manuel , 1988 , picton & costello , 1998 , gosse , 1860 , chia & spaulding , 1972 . , stephenson , 1935 , howson & picton , 1997 ,\nhayward et al . , 1996 , sol\u00e9 - cava et al . , 1985 , chia & spaulding , 1972 . , manuel , 1988 , houtman et al . , 1997 , mign\u00e9 & davoult , 1997 ( a ) , rasmussen , 1973 , wedi & dunn , 1983 , elliott , 1992 , sol\u00e9 - cava et al . , 1994 , picton & costello , 1998 , moen , 1996 , gosse , 1860 ,\nthe species is boreal - arctic with a possible circumpolar distribution . found throughout europe from northern russia to biscay but not in the mediterranean . records from elsewhere are incomplete and there is considerable confusion in taxonomy .\nhayward et al . , 1996 , sol\u00e9 - cava et al . , 1985 , manuel , 1988 , mign\u00e9 & davoult , 1997 ( a ) , rasmussen , 1973 , picton & costello , 1998 , jncc , 1999 , moen , 1996 , george et al . , 1988 , bruce et al . , 1963 , braber & borghouts , 1877 ,\nstephenson ( 1935 ) reports that viviparity has been suspected because of the sudden appearance apparently from\nnowhere\nof individuals in aquaria .\nchia & spaulding ( 1972 ) bred and grew tealia crassicornis from the north - west coast of the usa . in tealia crassicornis , mucus containing gametes were expelled from the mouth . the yellow eggs ( 500 - 700 \u00b5m diameter ) formed little clusters which then broke apart and began to float .\nthe duration of the larval stage may vary . for tealia crassicornis , chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) found that nine days after fertilization , the planula was ready to settle and , a further four days after settling , had 4 tentacles . certain substrata ( such as phyllochaetopterus sp . and sabellaria cementaria tubes ) could induce settlement rapidly in the laboratory . in the absence of inducing substrata larvae could remain in the water column for at least 17 days but settled within the second month after fertilization .\nthe species is probably quite slow growing . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) found that fed individuals of the similar\nwere only 10mm in diameter after a year and there was no gonad development present in 14 month old anemones . however , at 18 months , individuals were 4 cm diameter with 60 - 70 tentacles .\nsol\u00e9 - cava et al . , 1985 , chia & spaulding , 1972 . , hand , 1955 , wedi & dunn , 1983 , spaulding , 1974 , sol\u00e9 - cava et al . , 1994 , sol\u00e9 - cava & thorpe , 1992 , mba , 1957 , stephenson , 1935 , wedi & dunn , 1983 , gosse , 1853 ,\nbiotic ( biological traits information catalogue ) by marlin ( marine life information network ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available at urltoken . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . based on a work at urltoken .\n( danielssen , 1890 ) . in : fautin , daphne g . 2011 . hexacorallians of the world . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\na large anemone ( base up to 15 cm diameter ) with up to 160 short ( up to 2 cm ) , stout tentacles arranged in multiples of ten . individuals from offshore tend to be larger . the coloration is very variable , ranging through white , yellow , orange , red , blue , grey , purple and brown being either plain or more commonly in some combination . perhaps most commonly with a red column blotched with green / grey and a prominent pattern of red lines amongst the tentacle bases . the tentacles are usually banded but may be plain . there are numerous grey warts on the column to which gravel and shell fragments stick . when the tentacles are fully retracted , the body of the anemones may be almost obscured by these adherent particles .\ntypically found on the lower shore and subtidally , particularly on shores with strong wave action or subtidal areas with strong tidal streams . small individuals may be found as high as the mid - tide line . attaches very firmly to rocks and boulders , typically in crevices and gullies , sometimes forming dense carpets . occurs in estuaries where hard substrata are present .\nlarge size , up to 15 cm across the base ( bigger than most other anemones ) .\nlarge verrucae or warts present on the column , often with gravel or shell fragments attached .\noccurring on the north - west ( pacific ) coast of north america . an attempt is made below to establish relationships important for using literature to support sensitivity and recoverability assessments elsewhere in this review . stephenson ( 1935 ) identifies\nof gosse ( 1860 ) . however , stephenson notes that , in his\nvar .\n, the embryos develop up to a late stage in the coelenteron of the parent and later describes it as\nviviparity\n. since appel\u00f6ff ( 1900 ) cited in chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) reported that , in europe ,\nreleases it ' s gametes freely into the sea ( i . e . is not viviparous ) and that the species they studied in the northwest usa similarly produced ova and sperm , it seems likely that their\nthe stinging nematocysts in the anemones tentacles are used to trap and paralyse prey . the nematocysts can also provoke itching and blistering of the skin in humans but the effects vary considerably between individual humans .\ndensities vary from solitary individuals to dense carpets in ideal locations such as crevices and gullies . measurements of size refer to the diameter across the base . growth is dependent on the level of feeding so size is not proportional to age . gosse ( 1860 ) notes [ most likely from aquarium observations ] that\nthe shore crab (\nmoderately strong 1 to 3 knots ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 m / sec . ) , strong 3 to 6 knots ( 1 . 5 - 3 m / sec . ) , very strong > 6 knots ( > 3 m / sec . ) , weak < 1 knot ( < 0 . 5 m / sec . )\nreleases its gametes into the sea and that larval development is independent of the adult . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) , in observing that\nthis marlin sensitivity assessment has been superseded by the maresa approach to sensitivity assessment . marlin assessments used an approach that has now been modified to reflect the most recent conservation imperatives and terminology and are due to be updated by 2016 / 17 .\nreduction of the need to keep the anemone surface clear of silt will mean less energy expenditure and mucus production and therefore likely benefit to the anemone .\nincrease in emergence is likely to result in exposure to desiccation and a decreased opportunity for feeding . increased emergence may have no effect for anemones in damp fissures or pools . assuming that desiccation or heat stress ( see ' increase in temperature ' below ) occurs , intolerance and recoverability will be as desiccation . recruitment to replace lost individuals is likely to be slow ( see ' additional information ' below ) . a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' recoverability is made but with a low confidence .\nin the absence of wave action , water flow is likely to be very important in preventing siltation and stagnation and in bringing food . therefore , in conditions where water flow rates fall to very low levels , anemones may be adversely affected , lose condition and , especially if some stagnation occurs , some may die . although recolonization is likely to occur from nearby populations , frequency and success of recruitment is unclear and a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' is made ( see ' additional information ' below ) .\nthe species favours areas with strong wave action ( manuel , 1988 ) and strong tidal currents ( mign\u00e9 & davoult , 1997 ) although it is also found in more calm and sheltered areas as well as deep water .\nin the absence of tidal streams , wave action is likely to be very important in preventing siltation and stagnation and in bringing food . therefore , in conditions where wave action falls to very low levels , anemones may be adversely affected , lose condition and , especially if some stagnation occurs , some may die . assuming that some individuals survive , local recruitment is likely to occur within a few years .\nrecoverability is likely to be slow in populations where nearby individuals do not exist . the large size , slow growth rate and evidence from aquarium populations suggests that\nis long lived . although it probably breeds each year there is no information regarding fecundity . breeding probably does not occur until the anemone is at least 1 . 5 years old . dispersal ability is considered to be poor in the similar\nfor north - west usa ) , is unlikely to travel far . however , assuming that there are populations surviving nearby ( further down the shore ) , recruitment is likely to occur over the short distances involved but how rapidly is uncertain . adults can detach from the substratum and relocate but locomotive ability is very limited . there is potential for some immigration of adults from other populations via water currents or rafting . gosse ( 1853 ) noted that an\nhad\neaten a hole the size of a pea in the side before being discovered\n. under its current name of\nin ideal conditions such as crevices and gullies on wave exposed shores the species can form dense carpets . the role of\n( ne pacific ) has been investigated by elliott ( 1992 ) . the same roles may be filled by species in the british isles although there are no records of this for\ncan constitute a large proportion of the biomass . in addition , they are thought to be responsible for the major part of carbon / nitrogen exchange at the sediment - water boundary ( mign\u00e9 & davoult , 1995 ; mign\u00e9 & davoult , 1997a ) . although ' culinary use ' is indicated as ' no ' , gosse ( 1853 ) describes methods of cooking the dahlia anemone and seemed reasonably impressed with it boiled or fried .\nbraber , l . & borghouts , c . h . , 1977 . distribution and ecology of anthozoa in the estuarine region of the rivers rhine , meuse and scheldt . hydrobiologia , 52 , 15 - 21 .\nbruce , j . r . , colman , j . s . & jones , n . s . , 1963 . marine fauna of the isle of man . liverpool : liverpool university press .\nchia , f . s . & spaulding , j . g . , 1972 . development and juvenile growth of the sea anemone tealia crassicornis . biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , woods hole , 142 , 206 - 218 .\ncole , s . , codling , i . d . , parr , w . & zabel , t . , 1999 . guidelines for managing water quality impacts within uk european marine sites . natura 2000 report prepared for the uk marine sacs project . 441 pp . , swindon : water research council on behalf of en , snh , ccw , jncc , sams and ehs . [ uk marine sacs project . ] , urltoken\ncrisp , d . j . ( ed . ) , 1964 . the effects of the severe winter of 1962 - 63 on marine life in britain . journal of animal ecology , 33 , 165 - 210 .\ndavis , d . s . , 1967 . the marine fauna of the blackwater estuary and adjacent waters . essex naturalist , 32 , 1 - 60 .\nelliott , j . , 1992 . the role of sea anemones as refuges and feeding habitats for the temperate fish oxylebius pictus . environmental biology of fishes , 35 , 381 - 400 .\neno , n . c . , clark , r . a . & sanderson , w . g . ( ed . ) 1997 . non - native marine species in british waters : a review and directory . peterborough : joint nature conservation committee .\ngeorge , j . d . , tittley , i . , price , j . h . , & fincham , a . a . , 1988 . the macrobenthos of chalk shores in north norfolk and around flamborough headland ( north humberside ) . nature conservancy council csd rep . 833 149p . , peterborough : nature conservancy council\ngosse , p . h . , 1853 . a naturalist ' s rambles on the devonshire coast . london : van voorst .\ngosse , p . h . , 1860 . actinologia britannica : a history of british sea anemones and corals . london : van voorst .\nhand , c . , 1955b . the sea anemones of central california . part ii . the endomyarian and mesomyarian anemones . the wassmann journal of biology , 13 , 37 - 99 .\nhayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .\nhoare , r . & hiscock , k . , 1974 . an ecological survey of the rocky coast adjacent to the effluent of a bromine extraction plant . estuarine and coastal marine science , 2 ( 4 ) , 329 - 348 .\nholme , n . a . & wilson , j . b . , 1985 . faunas associated with longitudinal furrows and sand ribbons in a tide - swept area in the english channel . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 65 , 1051 - 1072 .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\njncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken\nmanuel , r . l . , 1988 . british anthozoa . london : academic press . [ synopses of the british fauna , no . 18 . ]\nmba ( marine biological association ) , 1957 . plymouth marine fauna . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom .\nmign\u00e9 , a . , & davoult , d . , 1995 . role des organismes suspensivores dans les transferts p\u00e9lago - benthiques d ' une zone de fort hydrodynamisme : approche exp\u00e9rimentale . journal de recherche oceanographique , 20 , 9 - 14 .\nnmmp , 2001 . national marine monitoring programme ( nmmp ) . http : / / www . marlin . ac . uk , 2001 - 01 - 17\npicton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken\nrasmussen , e . , 1973 . systematics and ecology of the isefjord marine fauna ( denmark ) . ophelia , 11 , 1 - 507 .\nsmith , j . e . ( ed . ) , 1968 . ' torrey canyon ' . pollution and marine life . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nsol\u00e9 - cava , a . m . & thorpe , j . p . , 1992 . genetic divergence between colour morphs in populations of the common intertidal sea anemones actinia equina and a . prasina ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) . marine biology , 112 , 243 - 252 .\nsol\u00e9 - cava , a . m . , thorpe , j . p . & todd , c . d . , 1994 . high genetic similarity between geographically distant populations in a sea anemone with low dispersal capabilities . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 74 , 895 - 902 .\nspaulding , j . g . , 1974 . embryonic and larval development in sea anemones ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) . american zoologist , 14 , 511 - 520 .\nstephenson , t . a . , 1935 . the british sea anemones , vol . 2 . london : ray society .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\ngeneral characteristics : column diameter to 10 cm ( 4 inches ) , height to 15 cm ( 6 inches ) . column bright scarlet or crimson with white warty spots in longitudinal rows ; tentacles slender , elongate , scarlet to crimson .\ndistribution / habitat : se alaska to san diego , ca . found on rocks and walls of surge channels , low intertidal to 15 m ( 49 feet ) on exposed outer coast ."]}
{"id": 975, "summary": [{"text": "the african cuckoo-hawk , or african baza , ( aviceda cuculoides ) is a medium-sized raptor in the family accipitridae so named because it resembles the common cuckoo , which is found in sub-saharan africa and along the eastern parts of southern africa .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it prefers dense woodland and forest of either indigenous or exotic trees . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "african cuckoo - hawk", "paragraphs": ["other names : african baza , african cuckoo - falcon , african cuckoo falcon , cuckoo - falcon , cuckoo - hawk , west african cuckoo - falcon .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for african cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda cuculoides ) yet .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is mainly seen singly or in pairs in the wild .\nafrican cuckoo hawk ( aviceda cuculoides fam . accipitridae ) kruger park birds & birding .\nin terms of distribution of the african cuckoo hawk in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . african cuckoo hawk : see above distribution map .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is a bird about the size of a francolin now called spurfowl . the height of the african cuckoo hawk is about 40 cms and its weight is about 250 gms\nthe african cuckoo hawk ( latin name aviceda cuculoides ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 128 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 474 also a picture of the african cuckoo hawk on page 433 . the african cuckoo hawk belongs to the family of birds classified as accipitridae . according to the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology the african cuckoo hawk is also known by these other names : african cuckoo falcon , west african cuckoo falcon , cuckoo falcon .\nafrican cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda cuculoides ) is a species of bird in the accipitridae family .\nafrican cuckoo hawk nest with eggs , nylsvley area , south africa . [ photo warwick tarboton \u00a9 ]\nmuseum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of african cuckoo hawk were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of african cuckoo hawk here .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is mainly found in light and densely wooded forests , where there are mopane trees .\nthis bird is known as cuckoo hawk in the roberts 6th edition . there have been no changes in the latin name for the african cuckoo hawk between the roberts 6th and roberts 7th edition .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park . it is however a rare resident\nyou will normally see the african cuckoo hawk by itself rather than in the company of birds of the same species .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is a southern african bird that belongs to the accipitridae bird family group which includes birds such as raptors , old vultures , osprey .\nsubspecies and range : the african cuckoo - hawk has three subspecies which differ in size , extent of barring and intensity of plumage colour .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is monogamous unless its mate dies . in the event of a partner dying aviceda cuculoides will seek out a new mate\nbirds & birding in the kruger national park south africa . in roberts 6 this bird was called cuckoo hawk\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : african cuckoo - hawk aviceda cuculoides . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nthe african cuckoo - hawk or african baza ( aviceda cuculoides ) is a medium - sized bird of prey of the family accipitridae , and found in much of the forested regions of africa south of the sahara desert .\nthe nesting habit of african cuckoo hawk is to create the nest in branches of a tree or shrub . the bird lays eggs which are in colour and number between 1 to 2\nthe description for the african cuckoo hawk ( latin name aviceda cuculoides ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the aviceda cuculoides can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 128 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 474 . you will find a picture of the african cuckoo hawk on page 433 .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the african cuckoo - hawk is noisy before breeding , giving loud , far - carrying whistling calls \u201cteee - oooo\u201d and shorter ones \u201ctittit - eoo\u201d .\nthe african cuckoo hawk is a monogamous bird which means that the bird finds and breeds with one partner for the rest of its life . the bird lays between 1 to 2 eggs and they are coloured .\nthe african cuckoo - hawk often stands horizontally on branch with the wings slightly drooped . it prefers to perch under cover or below the canopy , rather than on open sites . it is often found in pairs .\nthe african cuckoo - hawks ( aviceda cuculoides ) - also known as african cuckoo falcons - are found in sub - saharan africa and along the eastern parts of southern africa . this species is mainly resident , but a partial - migrant in the east and south .\nafrican harrier - hawk , harrier hawk , or gymnogene ( polyboroides typus ) is a bird of prey . it is about cm in length , and is related to the harriers . it breeds in most of africa south of the sahara .\nintroduction : the african cuckoo - hawk is a long - winged raptor with short , pointed crest , and two tooth - like indentations on the edge of the upper mandible . the aviceda species were related to falcons because of the notched bill , but finally , it is mostly closely related to kites . they are also called cuckoo - falcons and bazas .\nthe african cuckoo - hawk is uncommon throughout its range , but that is mostly because of its secretive behavior and not because it is threatened . population size is for now deemed to be stable and it is listed as least concern on the iucn red list .\nryan , p . g . & moloney , c . l . 1995 . range extension and display flight of the cuckoo hawk in the southwestern cape province , south africa . gabar 9 : 25 .\nthe african cuckoo - hawk occupies evergreen forest and deciduous woodlands up to 6 , 000 feet elevation , both within the forest interior and edges , and often being seen in suburban gardens . it is also seen in savannahs and open bush country during migrations in east africa .\nthe african cuckoo hawk has a height of 40 cms and weighs around 250 gms . the head is coloured brown while the bill is coloured black . the aviceda cuculoides has a blue , grey coloured throat , yellow legs and a brown coloured back . the eyes are brown .\nexperiences with species raptors have always been my favourite group of birds . on a trip to mozambique in august 2008 , i was 11 species short of 700 on my southern african bird list . i got to 699 and speculated on what my 700th bird would be . it turned out to be the african cuckoo - hawk ! other names : -\nhabitat : the african cuckoo - hawk frequents dense woodland or second growth forest mixed with cultivated areas , but it is also present in exotic plantations in more open savanna , up to 3000 metres of elevation . it usually avoids desert and semi - desert , but it can be seen in suburban areas too .\nthe african cuckoo - hawk is mainly resident in most part of the range , but some seasonal movements can be observed , often related to prey availability such as chameleons and insects . the flight is fast and direct , with wingbeats interspersed with glides . but it soars rarely . the flight displays are spectacular .\ndistribution of african cuckoo hawk in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) .\nthe list of sought - after forest associated target species at the grootvadersbosch nature reserve include : terrestrial brownbul , olive bush - shrike , forest canary , blue - mantled crested - flycatcher , red - winged francolin , grey cuckoo - shrike , lemon dove , african crowned eagle , african cuckoo hawk , black - headed oriole , red - necked spurfowl , narina trogon , knysna warbler and yellow - throated woodland - warbler . the description of species abundance herewith is based on the latest sabap2 ( the bird atlasing project ) report cards for the region .\nthe african cuckoo - hawk feeds primarily on insects , reptiles and small birds , and usually from a still - hunting position on a perch within the forest or at the forest edge on a clearing . it has also been observed to search for prey on the wing , taking flying insects from the air or other prey on the ground .\nprotection / threats / status : the african cuckoo - hawk is widespread throughout its large range , but it is uncommon and difficult to see due to its secretive habits . this species is affected by the loss of its forest habitat , and it is preyed upon by larger raptors . however , the population appears stable and the species is not currently threatened .\nas the name implies , the african cuckoo - hawk bears a superficial resemblance to the unrelated cuckoos . its wingspan is about 3 feet , with an overall body length of 16 to 18 inches . like other members of the genus aviceda , it bears two distinctive tooth - like notches near the edge of the bill , and a crest of feathers at the top of the head . legs are short and stout , and bear powerful talons .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season usually takes place during the rainy season , but the laying period may vary according to the range . the african cuckoo - hawk nests in forest . the nest is placed fairly high up in a forest tree , often eucalyptus , and well concealed among the foliage . it is a typical platform made with sticks , roots and twigs with leaves still attached . the cup is lined with grass , green leaves and wool .\nchecklist of birds of the afrotropical and malagasy regions . volume 1 . species limits and distribution | african bird club\nkemp , a . c . , marks , j . s . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . african cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda cuculoides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nbehaviour in the wild : the african cuckoo - hawk feeds mainly on lizards , especially chameleons , and large insects such as grasshoppers , mantids and caterpillars . but its diet can be more varied too , including beetles , wasps , termites , crabs , fish , small birds taken in the nest , and bats . it often hunts from a perch , waiting for long periods within vegetal cover . once a prey is detected , it swoops slowly down to catch it from foliage or branch , but also by walking around or hopping along the ground . it may sometimes perform aerial sallies and hawk flying insects . or it flies low over the open vegetation before to drop onto the prey .\nthe southern african bird atlas project ( sabap1 ) in namibia gathered a huge amount of distribution data between 1970 and 1993 .\npreston , g . r . , siegfried , w . r . & wynberg , r . p . 1995 . attitudes and policies of the directors of south african nature conservation departments toward the protection of biological diversity . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 77 - 89 .\nkemp , a . c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . madagascar cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda madagascariensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe african cuckoo - hawk is a monogamous , solitary nester that breeds in the season september - march , with peaks in october - december . a breeding pair will build a nest together , generally in the highest branches of a tree 10 to 30 meters above ground . the nest is built of vines , twigs , and leaves . one or two ( rarely three ) eggs are laid and incubated by both sexes for 32 - 33 days . after hatching , the chicks will spend about 28 days in the nest as both parents feed them . they will depend on the parents for another week or so after leaving the nest .\nrange : africa : west , central , southcentral , southeast . the african cuckoo falcon is found in the southern half of africa , including the forested areas of west africa , in forest and wetter savannah country . there are two races , aviceda cuculoides cuculoides , occurring north and west of a line through north angola and the congo , and aviceda cuculoides verreauxi to the south and east .\nturpie , j . k . 1995 . prioritizing south african estuaries for conservation : a practical example using waterbirds . biological conservation 74 : 75 - 185 .\nallan , d . g . & jenkins , a . r . 1995 . editorial . j ournal of african raptor biology 10 ( 1 ) : 1 .\njenkins , a . r . 1995 . morphometrics and flight performance of southern african peregrine and lanner falcons . journal of avian biology 26 : 49 - 58 .\ncooper , j . & ryan , p . g . 1995 . sa scientists produce management plan for gough island . south african journal of science 91 : 107 .\nhockey , p . a . r . 1995 . review : bird atlas of botswana ( penry ) . south african journal of zoology 30 : 59 - 60 .\nallan , d . g . 1995 . habitat selection by blue cranes in the western cape province and the karoo . south african journal of wildllife research 25 : 90 - 97 .\ncrowe , t . m . 1995 . wildlife utilization : science vs . ethics and northern vs . southern perspectives . south african journal of science . 91 : 375 - 376 .\nlombard , a . t . 1995 . introduction to an evaluation of the protection status of south africa ' s vertebrates . south african journal of zoology 30 : 63 - 70 .\npredominantly a forest and woodland dwelling species , the african baza may be found in trees surrounding rivers , humid savannah woodland , eucalyptus and pine plantations and even suburban gardens ( 4 ) .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . one of the commonest and most conspicuous of the small hawks of african forested habitats , although no firm estimates of . . .\ndrummond , a . e . 1995 . reproduction of the sea urchins echinometra mathaei and diadema savignyi on the south african eastern coast . marine freshwater research . 46 : 751 - 755 .\nlombard , a . t . 1995 the problems with multi - species conservation : do hotspots , ideal reserves and existing reserves coincide ? south african journal of zoology 30 : 145 - 163 .\nsmith , b . s . 1995 . biodiversity : sell - out biology , renegade economics or the glimmer of a new conservation paradigm ? south african journal of science 91 : 377 - 380 .\nvan jaarsveld , a . s . & lombard , a . t . 1995 . towards the establishment of a national environmental information network . south african journal of science 91 : 9 - 10 .\nconservation : widespread , but probably uncommon throughout most of its range . probably overlooked to some extent because of its secretive habits . sympatric raptor species may prey on cuckoo hawks in secondary habitats or tree plantations ( verdoorn 2000 ) . categorized as a species of\nleast concern\nby birdlife international . more . . . .\ntucker , k . c . & richardson , d . m . 1995 . an expert system for screening potentially invasive alien plants in south african fynbos . journal of environmental management 44 : 309 - 338 .\ngelderblom , c . m . & bronner , g . n . 1995 . patterns of distribution and protection status of the endemic mammals in south africa . south african journal of zoology 30 : 127 - 135 .\nryan , p . g . , cowling , r . m . & costanza , r . 1995 . valuing ecosystems : is the fynbos worth conserving ? south african journal of science 91 : 572 - 573 .\nafrican cuckoo - hawks prefer dense woodland and forest habitats , as well as forest edges . it is solitary and rarely found in the company of an individual of the same species . it is a seldom seen bird with secretive habits , but can occasionally be seen gliding between branches amongst trees . it generally feeds on invertebrates , but will also feed on small lizards , snakes , frogs , birds , and rodents . hunting is often done in low vegetation and grass , where prey is caught on the ground . prey can also be caught in trees .\ndrinkrow , d . r . & cherry , m . i . 1995 . anuran distribution , diversity and conservation in south africa , lesotho and swaziland . south african journal of zoology . 30 : 82 - 90 .\nthe facility will assist , were possible , in any bona fide program or research that is beneficial to the long term conservation of raptors . the sanctuary also serves as a biological and genetic bank of southern african birds of prey .\ndean , w . r . j . & milton , s . j . 1995 . plant and invertebrate assemblages on old fields in the arid southern karoo , south africa . african journal of ecology 33 : 1 - 13 .\ndu plessis , m . a . , siegfried , w . r . & armstrong , a . j . 1995 . ecological and life - history correlates of cooperative breeding in south african birds . oecologia 102 : 180 - 188 .\nsiegfried , w . r . 1995 . conference report . in : robinson , r . , ed . african heritage 2000 : the future of protected areas in africa . pretoria : national parks board . pp . 133 - 135 .\nsiegfried , w . r . 1995 . the difference between education and training . in : robinson , r . , ed . african heritage 2000 : the future of protected areas in africa . pretoria : national parks board , pretoria .\nsiegfried , w . r . & brooke , r . k . 1995 . anthropogenic extinctions in the terrestrial biota of the afrotropical region in the last 500 , 000 years . journal of african zool ogy 109 : 5 - 14 .\nmalan , g . 1995 . cooperative breeding and delayed dispersal in the pale chanting goshawk melierax canorus . ph . d . thesis , univ . of cape town ( abstract ) . journal of african raptor biology 10 ( 1 ) : 40 .\nbenn , g . a . , kemp , a . c . & begg , k . s . 1995 . the distribution , size and trends of the saddlebilled stork ephippiorhynchus senegalensis population in south africa . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 98 - 105 .\npreston , g . r . & siegfried , w . r . 1995 . the protection of biological diversity in south africa : profiles and perceptions of professional practitioners in nature conservation agencies and natural history museums . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 49 - 56 .\nskelton , p . h . , cambray , j . a . , lombard , a . & benn , g . a . 1995 . patterns of distribution and conservation status of freshwater fishes in south africa . south african journal of zoology 30 : 71 - 81 .\ncrawford , r . j . m . , cooper , j . & dyer , b . m . 1995 . conservation of an increasing population of great white pelicans pelecanus onocrotalus in south africa ' s western cape . south african journal of science . 15 : 33 - 42 .\nbranch , w . r . , benn , g . a . & lombard , a . t . 1995 . the tortoises ( testudinidae ) and terrapins ( pelomedusidae ) of southern africa : their diversity , distribution and conservation . south african journal of zoology 30 : 91 - 102 .\nexcellent birding is available at the grootvadersbosch reception office and camping area . bar - throated apalis , cape batis , sombre greenbul , cape robin - chat , olive thrush and cape white - eye are abundant . cape canary , african dusky flycatcatcher , greater double - collared sunbird and common and swee waxbills are seen commonly . special species to look out for at the camp site include olive bush - shrike , forest canary and olive woodpecker , and small groups of cape siskin often forage in the area . brimstone canary , greater honeyguide and african olive - pigeon are also often conspicuous . amethyst sunbird and southern double - collared sunbird are seen less often , as are yellow bishop and rock martin . campers can expect to hear the calls of fiery - necked nightjar , spotted eagle - owl and barn owl at night . the beautiful call of african wood - owl represents a special treat .\nthe african baza ' s extensive range encompasses much of sub - saharan africa , from senegal in the west to cameroon , extending east across to kenya , and south as far as angola on the west coast and south - east south africa on the east coast ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .\nthere are two recognized subspecies of black - backed jackal . the southern african subspecies ( c . m . mesomelas ) and the larger east african subspecies ( c . m . schmidti ) . the black - backed jackal has been seen as a pest by farmers ever since colonization of south africa because they often kill livestock and carry rabies . attempts were made to eradicate them , but the species is so succesful and adaptable that any attempt generally failed . the species is to this day still widespread and fairly common within its range and it is listed as least concern on the iucn red list .\ndean , w . r . j . , hoffman , m . t . , kerley , g . i . h . & milton , s . j . 1995 . desertification in developed countries : in search of the silver bullet . south african journal of science 91 : 213 - 215 .\nbenn , g . a . 1995 . review : handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 2 : new world vultures to guineafowl ( eds . j . del hoyo , a . elliott & j . sargatal ) . journal of african raptor biology 10 ( 1 ) : 42 - 43 .\ngelderblom , c . m . , bronner , g . n . , lombard , a . t . & taylor , p . j . 1995 . patterns of distribution and current protection status of the carnivora , chiroptera and insectivora in south africa . south african journal of zoology 30 : 103 - 114 .\nmilton , s . j . , dean , w . r . j . , maricowitz , c . p . & kerley , g . i . h . 1995 . effects of the 1990 / 91 drought on rangeland in the steytlerville karoo . south african journal of science 91 : 78 - 84 .\nsiegfried , w . r . 1995 . conference report : african heritage 2000 : the future of protected areas in africa . an iucn - cnppa africa - region working session , held at skukuza , kruger national park , south africa , 11 - 17 october 1994 . biodiversity and conservation 4 : 442 - 444 .\nthe main reference source for this data was\nroberts - birds of southern africa , 7th edition\n. other references were\nnewmans birds of the kruger park\nby keith newman published circa 1980 . names in foreign languages were obtained from the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology , university of cape town website , urltoken\nmanongi , f . s . & hoffmann , j . h . 1995 . the incidence of parasitism in trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae ( froggatt ) ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) , a gall - forming biological control agent of acacia longifolia ( andr . ) willd . ( fabaceae ) in south africa . african entomology 3 : 47 - 151 .\nmugo , d . n . , lombard , a . t . , bronner , g . n . , gelderblom , c . m . & benn , g . a . 1995 . distribution and protection of endemic or threatened rodents , lagomorphs and macrosceledids in south africa . south african journal of zooogy 30 : 115 - 126\nlittle , r . m . , vester , k . c . & crowe , t . m . 1995 . temporal and spatial patterns of breeding activity of 12 duck species ( anatidae ) in the cape provinces , south africa , and their implications for hunting seasons . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 17 - 22 .\nwilson , r . p . & wilson , m . - p . t . 1995 . the foraging behaviour of the african penguin spheniscus demersus . in : dann , p . , norman , i . & reilly , p . , eds . the penguins . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty . pp . 244 - 265 .\nlittle , r . m . , perrings , j . s . a . , crowe , t . m . & witt , a . b . r . 1995 . notes on the diet of helmeted guineafowl numida meleagris on deciduous fruit farms in the western cape province , south africa . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 144 - 146 .\nresident in most areas but some seasonal movement into coastal kenya to breed in apr - nov and into transvaal highveld after breeding in may - aug . may move locally within deciduous woodland in response to fluctuations in chameleon and insect numbers , leading to irregular influxes in areas of e and s africa . small - scale seasonal movements have also been detected in w african savannas .\nmarshall , d . j . , crafford , j . e . , krynauw , j . r . , drummond , a . e . & newton , i . p . 1995 . the biology , physico - chemistry and geology of a nunatak pond at valterkulten , western dronning maud land , antarctica . south african journal of antarctic research 25 : 9 - 16 .\nkemp , a . c . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . african goshawk ( accipiter tachiro ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwhile the african baza is never found in great abundance at any particular location , its range is so large that , even with low population densities , its population is estimated to number between 10 , 000 and 100 , 000 individuals ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . although deforestation is reducing the area of its preferred forest habitat , it appears to adapt readily to secondary forest and plantations , and can even survive in suburban gardens , hence it does not appear to be particularly at risk at present ( 4 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npopulation size likely to exceed 10 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nit is affected by the loss of forest habitat and can be predated by larger raptors ( del hoyo et al . , 1994 ) . in south africa it has been known to drown in small reservoirs on farmland ( anderson et al . 1999 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\noccurs across much of sub - saharan africa ; in southern africa it is generally scarce in mozambique , zimbabwe , northern botswana , namibia ( including the caprivi strip ) and eastern south africa , with an isolated population in the east of the western cape . it generally prefers woodland , the understorey and edges of forest and plantations of alien trees .\nthe chicks have been recorded as prey of aquila wahlbergi ( wahlberg ' s eagle ) .\nit mainly eats reptiles and insects , hunting by flying from tree to tree , searching for from its perch before flying to pluck the prey item from the canopy or ground . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :\nmonogamous , solitary nester , performing spectacular aerial displays in the run - up to the breeding season .\nthe nest ( see image below ) is built by both sexes in about 11 days , consisting of an untidy platform of twigs , vines and leaves and lined with leaves , grass and small bits of sticks . it is typically placed in the highest branches of a tree , roughly 10 - 30 metres above ground .\nit lays 1 - 2 , rarely 3 eggs in the period from september - march ; egg - laying season peaks from october - december .\nthe chicks are fed and brooded by both parents , leaving the nest after about 28 days and taking their first flight a few days later , remaining dependent on their parents for another week or so .\npreviously suspected to be threatened in the early 1980 ' s , but it is now thought to be not threatened in southern africa .\nhockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 268 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ntwo birds in miombo woodland , one had just been doing a display flight above the other . this call was given right before they both took flight and left the area .\nvocalizations probably coming from an immature unseen while calling but seen in flight . listen for comparison ml69160\nrecorded on iphone . filtered by james bradley . recording is of one bird , but two birds were heard dueting , perched in tall trees in neighbouring garden , and seen as they flew off .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nmauriravasini , lars petersson , buchert , \u00e9ric roualet , james kashangaki , josep del hoyo , bruno schmetz , nik borrow , nachoaransay , tadeusz stawarczyk , lmarce .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : aviceda cuculoides . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nbirds of east africa vol 1 by c . a . w . guggisberg \u2013 mount kenya sundries ltd . \u2013 isbn : 9966889051\nthe adult has dark grey to blackish - brown upperparts . the rump is black , barred white . the black tail feathers show three grey bands and a narrow greyish - white terminal band . the flight feathers are dark grey and narrowly barred paler grey . on the underparts , chin , throat and upper breast are pale grey , whereas lower breast and underwing - coverts are white , broadly barred dark rufous . lower belly , vent and undertail - coverts are white .\non the pale grey head , the face is slightly paler . there is a small crest , often folded , with pale centre and rufous patch on nape . the bill is black with double - notched cutting and deep yellow cere . the eyes are deep red - brown in male and yellow in female . the short , bare legs and feet are deep yellow too .\nboth sexes are similar in size and plumage , except the eyes . the juvenile has brown upperparts with pale rufous - tipped feathers . the underparts are white , heavily streaked black , mostly spotted on flanks . we can see a white streaking on crown , forehead and eyebrow . the throat is white with indistinct brown streaks . the face shows a dark brown mask . the crest is less conspicuous than in adults . the eyes are dark brown . the subadult resembles adult but is has rufous - tinged chest and finely barred grey underparts . the eyes are pale yellow .\na . c . cuculoides ( here described ) is found in woodland from senegal , e to sw ethiopia , and s to nigeria and n zaire .\na . c . batesi occurs in lowland rainforest from sierra leone , e to uganda and s to n angola . this one has darker upperparts and heavy barring on underparts .\na . c . verreauxii is found in woodland and coastal , riparian and montane forests , from kenya , s to n namibia and south africa . it has distinctive white barred wing lining .\nduring the breeding season , it performs courtship displays and calls from perches . the pair engages in twisting display flights high in the air , usually at dawn and dusk . these flights consist of several undulating swoops and dives , with steep sideway banking , in order to display the rufous underwing - coverts . they may soar in small groups above the forest , while calling to one another .\nthe female lays 2 - 3 white eggs with bold brown spots . both sexes share the incubation during 32 - 33 days . at hatching , the chicks have white down . they are fed on insects by both parents . they fledge about 5 - 6 weeks after hatching , and still depend on adults for one week or more .\nmales are blackish - brown in color above , with a grayish color on the crown , mantle , cheeks , throat and upper breast . at the base of the neck is a chestnut - colored patch . tail is black , barred in gray , and tipped in white . the underside of the wings are white with black bars , with the underwing coverts chestnut . the belly is white with broad chestnut bars . females are browner , with the chestnut bars on the belly paler in color .\nthe species begins breeding in late - summer , building small nests in the season which lasts from september until the following february , depending on location ; it can occur in south africa in september through march , while in western africa it is june through august . nests are constructed high in the forest canopy . two red - blotched white eggs are laid , with both parents sharing the incubation , which can last just over a month . the feeding and rearing of the chicks until fledge takes an additional month .\nthis page was last modified on 24 june 2016 , at 18 : 40 .\nthe adult male of the nominate race is generally colour blackish brown above , slate on the crown and mantle , with white bases to the feathers , and a chestnut patch at the ase base of the neck . the upper tail coverts are black , tipped and barred with white . the tail is black , with three broad grey bars and a white tip . the throat , cheeks and upper breast are dove grey . the remainder of the underparts are white , with broad chestnut bars on the lower breast and belly , sometimes reaching the flanks . under wing coverts are chestnut , the rest of underwing being white , barred with black . the cere is greenish yellow , the legs and feet yellow , the eyes bright yellow , and the bill and claws black . the female differs from the male in being browner all over , with little slaty wash ; the chestnut bars on underside broader and paler than the male . immatures are dark brown above , with many feathers edged with buff , and the bars on tail are brownish grey . there are large irregular spots on the underside ; the barring on the underside develops as the bird matures . aviceda cuculoides verreauxi differs from the nominate race in having white bars on the chestnut under - wing coverts , and in being much larger .\nuncommon throughout its range and only rarely seen , this is a bird of secretive , skulking habits in dense woodland or second growth forest mixed with cultivation , only occasionally emerging into open ground .\ninsects and lizards ; occasionally small birds . prey is caught either in trees or on the ground .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nin display it calls from a perch and sometimes performs display flights high above the ground . these flights consist of undulating swoops and dives , with steep sideways banking exposing the chestnut underwing coverts . several individuals may soar together above forest , calling to one another . the nest is built high in a tree , well concealed in dense foliage . it is made of sticks , roots and grasses , lined with green leaves . a new nest is constructed every year , construction taking a month or more . two or three pale greenish blue eggs , spotted and streaked with brown and chestnut and with lilac markings , are laid . it times its breeding to coincide with the rains when insects are plentiful . incubation lasts for about a month and the young fledge about 6 weeks later . both sexes care for young .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\nthe map of the kruger you see on this page shows the areas ( coloured orange ) where this bird has been identified . the basic information was provided by the avian demographic unit based at uct and i created the maps from that information . . . the green dots show the locations of the various kruger national park rest camps\nfor in - depth birding information please refer to these authoritative avian references . . .\nit is often seen flying between trees in short glides with wings held high , swooping up at end of glide and perching .\ntheir primary diet consists of insects , particularly grasshoppers . however , they may also take small snakes and lizards , as well as birds and rodents .\nboth male and female participate in building the nest - which is a platform made of leafy twigs . it is situated in the upper foliage of a tall tree , about 10\u201325 m above ground .\nthe average clutch consists of 2 , rarely 3 , chalky - white eggs with reddish - brown blotches .\nthe eggs are incubated by either the male or the female for about 32 - 33 days .\nthe chicks are raised by both parents and leave the nest when they are about one month old .\nfor updates please follow avianweb on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nver time , these will give valuable information on population distribution , habitat requirements , trends and so on .\nif you have a lot of records and it would be very time - consuming to enter them manually you can also send us a spreadsheet with the details , and associated photos . use the contact us form to get in touch .\nioc world bird list ( v7 . 1 ) , gill , f and d donsker ( eds ) . 2017 .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\npopulation size likely to exceed 10 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .\nalthough there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species at present ( 1 ) , it is one of the many species found within the gamba protected areas complex in gabon ( 5 ) . this collection of eight protected areas , two of which have national park status , is helping to preserve gabon ' s unique wildlife from logging and hunting ( 5 ) .\nit is a mostly solitary and skulking bird , flying between trees in short glides with wings held high , swooping up at end of glide and perching . it is usually found hunting in grass and low vegetation , remaining still for a while and then moving to a new spot . its diet consists mainly of insects , with a preference for grasshoppers , but also takes small snakes and lizards , as well as birds and rodents .\nnesting takes place from september to february , and consists of a platform of leafy twigs , constructed by both sexes in the upper foliage of a tall tree and located from 10\u201325 m above ground , lofty eucalypts often being favoured . the clutch is of 2 ( rarely 3 ) chalky - white eggs with reddish - brown blotches . incubation is by both sexes or female only and lasts for 32\u201333 days . the nestlings are nest - bound for about a month and are fed by both parents .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nappears to be closely related to a . cuculoides , and possibly also to a . jerdoni and a . subcristata . monotypic .\n- like on perch , but slow heavy flapping flight ( using tail as rudder ) is baza - like ; has slight crest , large eyes ( . . .\ngives quick , run - together series of \u201cwik\u201d notes that falter slightly at terminus ; also . . .\nevergreen and dry deciduous forest from sea - level to 1600 m ( reports to 1800 m ) based on erroneous . . .\nmainly small reptiles ( e . g . chameleons and geckos ) , large insects and their larvae ( grasshoppers , beetles , bees , wasps , cicadas , mantises . . .\naerial display reported late sept and mid dec ; flying straight above canopy then tilting sideways while fluttering the wings 3\u20136 . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . formerly considered near threatened . occurs throughout madagascar and is fairly common in all forest zones , perhaps . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe grootvadersbosch nature reserve ( s33\u00b0 57 ' 52 . 46\u201d e20\u00b0 48 ' 24 . 70\u201d ) is situated on the r322 between swellendam and heidelberg and protects the most westerly patch of indigenous forest in south africa . the reserve also has large stretches of unique mountain fynbos , thus adding to the avian biodiversity of the region . from a bird - watching perspective the reserve offers several species associated with forest habitats in many cases on the most westerly limit of their distribution range . for this reason it is regarded as one of the top birding destinations for bird - watchers from the western cape and elsewhere . it further adds an unique suite of sought - after species to the already impressive list of birds to be found in the swellendam local municipal region .\nthe grootvadersbosch nature reserve protects a diversity of habitat types dominated by afromontaine forest . birding under the closed forest canopy is often difficult as many of the sought - after species forage high up in the canopy . the disturbed forest fringes and bracken covered slopes are often far more productive . the reserve further offers moist mountain fynbos where many of the special and often endemic species associated with this habitat type are to be found . the best time of year to visit is in spring when most of the birds are breeding . a variety of day walks and mountain bike trails are available and permits can be obtained from the reserve office . maps of the various trails are available at the office . the campsite has braai facilities , ablutions and a thatched lapa and advanced reservations are advised .\nredwoods road is clearly sign - posted along bosbokrand . it is on the slope\u2019s lower contour and is extremely popular with birders as it features most of the species mentioned in the melkhoutpad description and many , many more . red - necked spurfowl on its westernmost distribution is scarce and best found early in the morning . the calls of sombre greenbul , terrestrial brownbul , olive bush - shrike , yellow - throated woodland - warbler and olive woodpecker are heard often , but these species are notoriously difficult to spot visually . it is best to become accustomed to their calls and spend patient time in searching for them . a sharp turn to the left is reached where the road crosses the duiwenhoks river . the undergrowth along the stream is the best spot in the reserve to look for the inconspicuous and difficult to find knysna warbler . it is best located by its call and it tends to react well to ' splishing ' . this is also a good area for knysna woodpecker , with its single nasal shriek often leading one to its location . it unfortunately only calls every 10 to 15 minutes or so . look out for airborne raptors at the few forest clearings along the road ."]}
{"id": 978, "summary": [{"text": "hagnagora mirandahenrichae is a species of moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is only known from the sectors santa maria and pitilla from \u00e1rea de conservaci\u00f3n guanacaste , province guanacaste in north-western costa rica .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "adults are easily distinguished from hagnagora croceitincta by its wing patterns .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the yellow ground colour of mirandahenrichae is slightly more intensive than in hagnagora clustimena . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "hagnagora mirandahenrichae", "paragraphs": ["three new geometer moths : hagnagora richardi , h . hedwigae , h . mirandahenrichae\non average smaller than hagnagora croceitincta and slightly larger than hagnagora mirandahenrichae ( see hagnagora croceitincta ) . the white transversal blotch on the forewing stretches to the costal margin and the apical dark - brown area reaches vein cua 2 , as also observed in mirandahenrichae . hagnagora clustimena is slightly paler than hagnagora mirandahenrichae . the male genitalia of both species are similar , but the valves are broader and differently shaped to mirandahenrichae . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora mirandahenrichae ) is 4 . 6 % .\none species a day : three new geometer moths : hagnagora richardi , h . hedwigae , h . mirandahenrichae\nhagnagora clustimena was originally assigned by druce to heterusia and then transferred to hagnagora by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) . hagnagora clustimena and hagnagora croceitincta appear to occur allopatrically .\nhagnagora elianne was described and illustrated by sullivan ( 2011 ) . the species closely resembles the other species in the hagnagora anicata clade , particularly hagnagora unnia .\nresembles most closely hagnagora anicata and hagnagora richardi , but is larger than hagnagora anicata , and the signum of the bursa copulatrix is more complex than in hagnagora richardi . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora anicata ) is 3 . 1 % .\nthree new hagnagora druce species ( geometridae , larentiinae ) are described : hagnagora richardi brehm , sp . n . from ecuador , hagnagora hedwigae brehm , sp . n . from ecuador , and hagnagora mirandahenrichae brehm , sp . n . from costa rica . a checklist of taxa assigned to hagnagora is provided . hagnagora is provisionally divided into six clades : the anicata clade ( 6 species ) , the buckleyi clade ( 3 species ) , the croceitincta clade ( 3 species ) , the ephestris clade ( 3 species ) , the mortipax clade ( 4 species ) and hagnagora subrosea ( 1 species ) . two taxa are revived from synonymy : hagnagora catagrammina druce , stat . rev . and hagnagora luteoradiata thierry - mieg , stat . rev . two taxa are reinstated from subspecies to species level : hagnagora acothysta schaus , stat . rev . and hagnagora jamaicensis schaus , stat . rev . four taxa are provisionally removed from hagnagora :\nhagnagora\nignipennis ,\nhagnagora\nmesenata ,\nhagnagora\nvittata , and\nhagnagora\nceraria . after these changes , the genus hagnagora now comprises 20 valid species .\nthree new hagnagora druce species ( geometridae , larentiinae ) are described : hagnagora richardi brehm , sp . n . from ecuador , hagnagora hedwigae brehm , sp . n . from ecuador , and hagnagora mirandahenrichae brehm , sp . n . from costa rica . a checklist of taxa assigned to hagnagora is provided . hagnagora is provisionally divided into six clades : the anicata clade ( 6 species ) , the buckleyi clade ( 3 species ) , the croceitincta clade ( 3 species ) , the ephestris clade ( 3 species ) , the mortipax clade ( 4 species ) and hagnagora subrosea ( 1 species ) . two taxa are revived from synonymy : hagnagora catagrammina druce , stat . rev . and hagnagora luteoradiata thierry - mieg , stat . rev . two taxa are reinstated from subspecies to species level : hagnagora acothysta schaus , stat . rev . and hagnagora jamaicensis schaus , stat . rev . four taxa are provisionally removed from hagnagora : \u201c hagnagora \u201d ignipennis , \u201c hagnagora \u201d mesenata , \u201c hagnagora \u201d vittata , and \u201c hagnagora \u201d ceraria . after these changes , the genus hagnagora now comprises 20 valid species .\nhagnagora lex was described by druce ( 1885a ) together with hagnagora buckleyi . while buckleyi was collected on the western slopes of the andes , hagnagora lex originates from the amazon slopes of the eastern andes .\nclosely resembles other species of the hagnagora anicata clade . on average significantly larger than hagnagora anicata , but the female has about the same size as hagnagora hedwigae . the uncus of the male is larger and broader than in hagnagora anicata . the signum of the bursa copulatrix is less complex than in hagnagora anicata and hagnagora hedwigae . easily distinguishable from hagnagora marionae by the cream - white colour of the blotches on the forewing . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora marionae ) is 6 . 6 % .\n15 hagnagora croceitincta ( dognin ) female , holotype a dorsal view b ventral view 16 hagnagora epimena ( bastelberger ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 17 hagnagora croceitincta male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 18 hagnagora clustimena ( druce ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 19 hagnagora clustimena female from costa rica as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) 20 hagnagora clustimena male from costa rica as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 21 hagnagora mirandahenrichae brehm sp . n . male , holotype a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 22 hagnagora mirandahenrichae female , paratype a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia .\n15 hagnagora croceitincta ( dognin ) female , holotype a dorsal view b ventral view 16 hagnagora epimena ( bastelberger ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 17 hagnagora croceitincta male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 18 hagnagora clustimena ( druce ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 19 hagnagora clustimena female from costa rica as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) 20 hagnagora clustimena male from costa rica as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 21 hagnagora mirandahenrichae brehm sp . n . male , holotype a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 22 hagnagora mirandahenrichae female , paratype a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia .\nmost species of the hagnagora anicata clade are very similar , and the most reliable current method for diagnosis is the coi barcode . hagnagora anicata tends to be smaller than the other species occurring sympatrically , namely hagnagora richardi and hagnagora hedwigae : the wing length of the male ( holotype ) is only 17 . 5 mm in comparison to 19 mm in the male holotype of hagnagora richardi . the structures of the female signum are also more complex than in hagnagora richardi , but similar to those in hagnagora hedwigae . the uncus of the male is smaller and shorter than in hagnagora richardi . aedeagi of the known males are ( hagnagora anicata and hagnagora richardi ) similar . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumbably most closely related species ( hagnagora hedwigae ) is 3 . 1 % .\n2 hagnagora buckleyi druce male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 3 hagnagora buckleyi female , paralectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 4 hagnagora lex druce male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 5 hagnagora catagrammina druce male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 6 hagnagora catagrammina druce female , paralectotype ( paralt ) a dorsal view b ventral view .\nhagnagora subrosea has a unique combination of a pale brown wing colour with two white transversal bands on the forewings not found in any other species of hagnagora .\nthe species closely resembles other species of the hagnagora anicata clade , particularly hagnagora elianne ; see there for a diagnosis . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora elianne ) is 5 . 0 % .\nsmaller than hagnagora buckleyi and of similar size to hagnagora catagrammina . the extension of the blue blotches is significantly smaller than in hagnagora buckleyi . the form of the transversal band on the forewing is similar to that in hagnagora buckleyi , but the band does not stretch as far towards the wing margins . hagnagora lex is the species with the smallest extensions of metallic blue blotches on the underside , with the upperside completely devoit of these blotches .\nthe oldest described hagnagora species , assigned by guen\u00e9e to scordylia gn ( = heterusia ) .\ntwo new species of the hagnagora anicata clade ( geometridae , larentiinae ) from costa rica .\n23 hagnagora moripax ( druce ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 24 hagnagora mortipax male from costa rica as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 25 hagnagora mortipax male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 26 hagnagora flavipectus ( warren ) male , holotype a dorsal view b ventral view 27 hagnagora mortipax jamaicensis ( schaus ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo usnm ) 28 hagnagora mortipax acothysta ( schaus ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo usnm ) 29 hagnagora guatica ( schaus ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo usnm ) .\n23 hagnagora moripax ( druce ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 24 hagnagora mortipax male from costa rica as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 25 hagnagora mortipax male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 26 hagnagora flavipectus ( warren ) male , holotype a dorsal view b ventral view 27 hagnagora mortipax jamaicensis ( schaus ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo usnm ) 28 hagnagora mortipax acothysta ( schaus ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo usnm ) 29 hagnagora guatica ( schaus ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo usnm ) .\nmales are on average slightly larger than males in hagnagora unnia and can be distinguished from hagnagora anicata by a swollen as opposed to a gently tapered distal half of the uncus and by the absence of a moderately large , upcurved spine at the end of the costa in hagnagora elianne ( sullivan 2011 ) . females may be distinguished from females of hagnagora unnia by their longer , more complex signum . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora unnia ) is 5 . 0 % .\n7 hagnagora anicata ( f & r ) , male lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 8 hagnagora anicata ( f & r ) , male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 9 hagnagora richardi sp . n . , male holotype a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 10 hagnagora unnia sullivan , male a dorsal view b ventral view 11 hagnagora marionae brehm & sullivan , male a dorsal view b ventral view .\n7 hagnagora anicata ( f & r ) , male lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 8 hagnagora anicata ( f & r ) , male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 9 hagnagora richardi sp . n . , male holotype a dorsal view b ventral view c valvae d aedeagus 10 hagnagora unnia sullivan , male a dorsal view b ventral view 11 hagnagora marionae brehm & sullivan , male a dorsal view b ventral view .\nunusual flight activity of a new species of hagnagora druce , 1885 ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) from costa rica .\n30 hagnagora ephestris ( f & r ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 31 hagnagora discordata male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 32 hagnagora discordata male ( zsm lep 44128 ) from brazil as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) ( photo zsm ) 33 hagnagora luteoradiata ( t - m ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 34 hagnagora luteoradiata ( t - m ) male from costa rica ( cr ) as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 35 hagnagora luteoradiata ( t - m ) male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view .\n30 hagnagora ephestris ( f & r ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 31 hagnagora discordata male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 32 hagnagora discordata male ( zsm lep 44128 ) from brazil as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) ( photo zsm ) 33 hagnagora luteoradiata ( t - m ) male , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 34 hagnagora luteoradiata ( t - m ) male from costa rica ( cr ) as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view 35 hagnagora luteoradiata ( t - m ) male from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view .\non average larger than the closely related species hagnagora clustimena and hagnagora mirandahenrichae : forewing length of the female holotype reaches 23 mm in comparison to about 20 mm in the other species . on the forewing , the white transversal blotch does not stretch to the costal margin as seen in the other two species , and the apical , dark - brown area reaches beyond veins 1a + 2a . the species is also generally more vividly coloured than the other species in this clade , with white spots on the forewing between veins cua 2 and 1a + 2a and around m 3 on the upperside of the hindwing . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora mirandahenrichae ) is 7 . 1 % .\n12 hagnagora anicata ( f & r ) , female from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia 13 hagnagora richardi sp . n . , female , paratype a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia 14 hagnagora hedwigae sp . n . , female , paratype a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia .\n12 hagnagora anicata ( f & r ) , female from ecuador as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia 13 hagnagora richardi sp . n . , female , paratype a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia 14 hagnagora hedwigae sp . n . , female , paratype a dorsal view b ventral view c genitalia .\n36 hagnagora subrosea ( warren ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 37 \u201chagnagora\u201d ignipennis ( dognin ) male , lectotype dorsal view 38 \u201chagnagora\u201d mesenata ( f & r ) male , lectotype ( lt ) a dorsal view b ventral view 39 \u201chagnagora\u201d mesenata male ( ayk - 04 - 0533 - 2 ) from chile as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo k mitter ) 40 \u201chagnagora\u201d vittata ( philippi ) male ( m ) ( bc lp 0092 ) from chile as reference specimen with 380 bp coi fragment , dorsal view ( photo le parra ) .\nhagnagora mirandahenrichae is named in honour of ms . miranda henrich of california in recognition of her and her mother\u2019s critical support for understanding the taxonomy and biodiversity development of the \u00e1rea de conservaci\u00f3n guanacaste ( acg ) in northwestern costa rica , where this species has been found by the acg caterpillar inventory ( janzen et al . 2014 ) .\n36 hagnagora subrosea ( warren ) female , lectotype a dorsal view b ventral view 37 \u201c hagnagora \u201d ignipennis ( dognin ) male , lectotype dorsal view 38 \u201c hagnagora \u201d mesenata ( f & r ) male , lectotype ( lt ) a dorsal view b ventral view 39 \u201c hagnagora \u201d mesenata male ( ayk - 04 - 0533 - 2 ) from chile as reference specimen with barcode index number ( bin ) a dorsal view b ventral view ( photo k mitter ) 40 \u201c hagnagora \u201d vittata ( philippi ) male ( m ) ( bc lp 0092 ) from chile as reference specimen with 380 bp coi fragment , dorsal view ( photo le parra ) .\nboth discordata and ephestris show a pronounced yellow blotch on the hindwings that is absent in luteoradiata . the yellow transversal band on the forewing is narrower than in ephestris , and it does not reach the outer margin of the wing . the yellow blotch on the hindwing is much broader than in hagnagora discordata . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance of brazilian hagnagora discordata is 2 . 3 % to hagnagora luteoradiata from costa rica and 2 . 6 % to hagnagora luteoradiata from ecuador . these short distances suggest a relatively young split within this species clade .\nsummary tree of the available molecular genetic data based on genetic coi \u2018barcodes\u2019 using the kimura 2 parameter implemented in bold systems . four out of six clades are represented by the barcode data ; no data were available for the buckleyi clade and for hagnagora subrosea . \u201chagnagora\u201d mesenata groups outside hagnagora sensu stricto . the species name is followed by the individual identification number and the barcode index number ( bin ) . ht : holotype , pt : paratype .\nthree new species of hagnagora druce , 1885 ( lepidoptera , geometridae , larentiinae ) from ecuador and costa rica and a concise revision of the genus .\nhagnagora living specimens 41 hagnagora anicata ( ? ) , ecuador , zamora chinchipe , estaci\u00f3n biol\u00f3gica san francisco , 22 november 2008 in typical resting habitus , but alert because of disturbance by the photographer . the tympanal organ at the base of the abdomen is well visible 42 hagnagora luteoradiata from costa rica a young caterpillar ( 09 - srnp - 31840 - dhj458869 ) b caterpillar in last instar ( 09 - srnp - 31840 - dhj458860 ) 43 hagnagora mortipax caterpillar from costa rica a dorsal view ( 14 - srnp - 3240 - dhj487561 ) b lateral view ( 14 - srnp - 3240 - dhj487557 ) .\nsummary tree of the available molecular genetic data based on genetic coi \u2018barcodes\u2019 using the kimura 2 parameter implemented in bold systems . four out of six clades are represented by the barcode data ; no data were available for the buckleyi clade and for hagnagora subrosea . \u201c hagnagora \u201d mesenata groups outside hagnagora sensu stricto . the species name is followed by the individual identification number and the barcode index number ( bin ) . ht : holotype , pt : paratype .\nthe species resembles the other species of the hagnagora anicata clade , but is easily distinguished by large orange - yellow blotches on the forewing . males have a spatula - shaped uncus . coi barcode : the minimum observed distance to the presumably most closely related species ( hagnagora richardi ) is 6 . 6 % .\nby far the smallest hagnagora species . the species lacks the typical striation on the underside of the hindwing found in all other members of the mortipax clade .\nhagnagora richardi is named in honour of richard philipp from jena , germany , in recognition of his and his parents\u2019 support for the taxonomy of neotropical geometrid moths .\noverview of taxa assigned to hagnagora and excluded from the genus , sorted according to six provisional clades , ordered alphabetically . lt lectotype , ht holotype , st syntypes .\nthree new species of hagnagora druce , 1885 ( lepidoptera , geometridae , larentiinae ) from ecuador and costa rica and a concise revision of the genus . - pubmed - ncbi\ncontribution to an understanding of the biology and the morphology of the early stages of a neotropical larentiine : hagnagora vittata philippi , 1859 in chile ( insecta : lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\ndruce ( 1885b ) described catagrammina in the same year , but separately from hagnagora buckleyi and hagnagora lex . the taxon was put in synonymy with buckleyi by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) . as noted by druce , catagrammina is closely related to the other two species of the clade and particularly similar to hagnagora buckleyi . in agreement with druces\u2019 original description of the three taxa , i revive the species from synonymy with hagnagora buckleyi due to small but overall significant differences of the wing patterns . the morphological differences hint to different species , particularly given the experience from many other species complexes of neotropical geometridae in which often more subtle differences \u2013 ideally combined with results from genitalia morphology and barcoding \u2013 can be observed in different species .\ngiven as valpara\u00edso , [ chile ] , requires confirmation . the cool - dry climate of this chilean lowland region differs strongly from the wet montane habitats where other hagnagora species are typically found .\napart from its colombian type locality , hagnagora anicata has recently been collected and barcoded from sites in southern ecuador to central bolivia at elevations ranging from 2000 to 2920 m a . s . l .\nonly a single female is known from hagnagora hedwigae collected in southern ecuador ( 2677 m ) . the wing length of the holotype ( female ) is 21 mm ( same size as richardi ) .\nhagnagora mortipax is one of the earliest described species in the genus and among the smallest hagnagora species . together with hagnagora luteoradiata it also has the largest known geographical range . the taxon flavipectus remains in synonymy because it falls within the confirmed geographical range of mortipax and shows no significant deviations from the type specimen of mortipax . in comparison to the type specimen , the extension of the large white blotch on the forewing is smaller in ecuadorian specimens , where it does not reach the costal margin . since the barcode sequences of costa rican and ecuadorian populations are nearly identical , all respective specimens are treated as members of the same species , and slight differences in wing patterns are regarded as geographical variability .\ndruce ( 1885a ) described hagnagora buckleyi and hagnagora lex . the upper - and undersides of the wings in hagnagora buckleyi are very similar , with the colour of the hindwings generally being paler . the forewings feature a deep orange transversal band on a dark brown background , and the hindwings show metallic blue fields between the veins , with three located on the upperside between m 3 and cua 2 and one in the cell , and eight between all veins on the underside . the pattern of the female is similar , with the blue fields extending further on the forewing , including the blotch between veins cua 2 and a . in the female , metallic blue scales are also present at the base of the forewing at both the wing upper - and underside .\nbrehm g ( 2015 ) three new species of hagnagora druce , 1885 ( lepidoptera , geometridae , larentiinae ) from ecuador and costa rica and a concise revision of the genus . zookeys 537 : 131\u2013156 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 537 . 6090\nfelder & rogenhofer described this species from colombia . it closely resembles hagnagora discordata and hagnagora luteoradiata . parsons et al . ( 1999 ) put luteoradiata in synonymy with ephestris , but freshly collected material from costa rica and ecuador shows that luteoradiata consistently lacks yellow blotches on the hindwing . it appears therefore to be more likely that ephestris is a junior synonym of discordata , and an increased knowledge of coi sequences could help to solve this question . given the current state of knowledge , it appears to be the most appropriate solution to revive luteoradiata from synonymy and to treat the other two taxa as full species .\nonly known from sectors santa maria and pitilla from \u00e1rea de conservaci\u00f3n guanacaste , province guanacaste , nw costa rica , at elevations ranging from 675\u2013920 m a . s . l . , and therefore with a lower elevational range than hagnagora clustimena ( observed : 850\u20131550 m a . s . l . ) .\nboth ephestris and discordata show a pronounced yellow blotch on the hindwings that is absent in luteoradiata . different from discordata , the yellow transversal band on the forewing of hagnagora ephestris reaches the outer margin of the wing . moreover , the band is broader than in discordata , whereas the yellow field of the hindwing is narrower , particularly in the proximate half of the wing .\nhagnagora hedwigae is named in memory of hedwig seppelt ( * 1919 in baumgarten , silesia ; \u2020 2013 in korschenbroich , germany ) . mrs seppelt loved nature , and she took care that birds , small animals and insects found a habitat in her garden . the name is given in recognition of support for the taxonomy of neotropical geometrid moths provided by her daughter - in - law irmgard and her son winfried seppelt .\nwarren originally assigned subrosea to cophocerotis warren , but the genus - defining type species , cophocerotis jaspeata ( dognin ) , does not show the two prominent white transversal bands of the forewing present in subrosea . parsons et al . ( 1999 ) transferred the species to hagnagora . barcoding and genitalia dissections of fresh specimens from this species are required , but judging from the two transversal bands , subrosea might indeed be associated with the croceitincta clade .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ninstitut f\u00fcr spezielle zoologie und evolutionsbiologie mit phyletischem museum , vor dem neutor 1 , 07743 jena , germany .\npmid : 26798242 pmcid : pmc4714052 doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 537 . 6090\ncorresponding author : gunnar brehm ( ed . anej - inu @ mherb . rannug )\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nto accelarate the taxonomic progress and following a recently reached consensus amongst geometrid taxonomists ( forum herbulot 2014 ) , this study focuses not on extensive species descriptions , but on diagnostic characters and the synthesis of illustrated external characters , genitalia structures and coi barcodes .\nmoths were pinned and dissected following established techniques ( lafontaine 2004 , h\u00fcnefeld et al . 2011 ) . genitalia slides were embedded in euparal , stained with chlorazol black , and digitised using an olympus dotslide system with 10x magnification . adult moths were photographed in raw format using a 60 mm nikkor macro lens mounted on a nikon d700 camera . photos were adjusted and colour plates were mounted using photoshop and indesign software ( adobe systems , san jos\u00e9 , usa ) .\nsequencing of the barcode fragment of the coi gene was carried out at the canadian center for dna barcoding in guelph , ontario . barcode sequences were compared by nearest neighbour analyses ( kimura 2 parameter ) , as implemented on the barcode of life data systems website (\n) . the resulting trees represent preliminary hypotheses of taxa groupings and can form the basis of future phylogenetic work . fig .\nshows a summary tree of all available taxa with barcode data . it visualizes similarities and differences in the coi gene between the different taxa and it was instrumental in differentiating four of the six provisional larger clades indentified within\nusnm national museum of natural history [ formerly united states national museum ] , washington d . c . , usa\nwere described from a wide range of central and south american countries ranging from mexico and jamaica ( 17\u201318\u00b0 n ) to chile ( valdivia province , ca . 39\u00b0 s ) . table\n, but this record needs confirmation . judging from their type localities , most species have a predominantly montane distribution . this includes the three recently described costa rican species (\n) , as well as species described from the colombian , ecuadorian , peruvian and chilean andes and mountains in se brazil .\nimagines mandatorily fold their wings vertically while resting in the same way as most butterflies ( fig .\n( druce , 1885 ) due to differences in the wing shape . the colourful\n) : the forewings have an orange transversal band , and the hindwings display fields of metallic blue between the veins . notably ,\n) . parsons et al . ( 1999 ) , following the card index of the natural history museum , transferred several species previously assigned to\nin this revision share distinct wing patterns including a conspicuous white or yellow transversal band or blotch on the forewing . in addition , members of the clades\nclade display distinctly different hindwing patterns . molecular genetic data are available for all groups , but unfortunately with the exception of the\n) . this strongly suggests that at least these four clades form a monophyletic group ( see also fig .\nclade to test whether the entire group represents a monophyletic taxon or possibly consists of two distinct lineages .\nvoucher specimens ( types and reference specimens for barcode index numbers ( bins ) with identification numbers , genbank accession numbers and bins .\n{\ntype\n:\nentrez - nucleotide\n,\nattrs\n: {\ntext\n:\nam051082 . 1\n,\nterm _ id\n:\n110648728\n} }\nthe largest species of the clade . the extension of the blue fields is significantly larger than in\nnicaragua : chontales ; panama : volc\u00e1n de chiriqui ; bugaba , 800\u20131500 ft .\nwas re - described with a description also of the male genitalia , by sullivan ( 2013 ) . the lectotype is illustrated in fig .\n. a series of specimens collected in southern ecuador ( 1999\u20132013 ) ( fig .\n) is larger than the male . a living specimen is shown in fig .\nthe species has recently been collected and barcoded in honduras ( cortes province ) and in several provinces of costa rica at elevations ranging from 1480 to 2840 m a . s . l .\n( holotype ) : costa rica , cartago province , tapant\u00ed national park , 1275 m .\nthe species is known from several provinces in costa rica at elevations ranging from 587 to 2840 m a . s . l .\ncosta rica , heredia province , braulio carrillo national park , volc\u00e1n barva , 2730 m a . s . l .\nthe species has been collected only at two high mountain areas in costa rica at elevations > 2500 m a . s . l .\n, 2916 m , 20 november 2008 , g . brehm leg . ( id 18080 , genitalia preparation , barcode sequence 658 bp ) ( pmj ) .\n: ( deposited in cisec , pmj , rcgb , zsm ) 4 males , 2 females . 1 female : same as holotype but\n, 2897 m , f . bodner leg . ( id 15855 , barcode sequence 658 bp ) ; 1 female ( fig .\n, 2180 m , 16 november 2008 , f . bodner leg . ( id 16285 , barcode sequence 658 bp ) ; 1 male same as previous but 28 october 1999 , d . s\u00fc\u00dfenbach leg . ( bc zsm lep 04774 , barcode sequence 529 bp ) ; 1 male : same as previous but\n, 2677 m , 18 november 2008 ( id 16119 , barcode sequence 658 bp ) ; 1 male as previous but 25 november 2008 ( id 17863 , barcode sequence 621 bp ) .\n. the wing length of the holotype ( male ) is 19 mm . the wing length of a female paratype ( fig .\nonly known from a small region around podocarpus national park , provinces zamora - chinchipe and loja , ecuador , with an observed elevational range of 2180\u20133021 m a . s . l . apart from the\nand nearby sites , specimens were collected at elevations at ca . 3000 m at cerro toledo in the same national park ( 04\u00b023 ' s , 79\u00b007 ' w ) . however , this record is not fully reliable because genitalia preparation or barcoding was not conducted for these specimens .\n, 2677 m , 25 november 2008 , g . brehm leg . ( id 17397 , genitalia preparation , barcode sequence 595 bp ) ( pmj ) .\nepimena ( bastelberger , 1908 ) : type locality . peru ( east ) , cuschi [ cushi ]\nspecies , it is conspicuously coloured , with orange , dark brown and white patterns . the taxon\nrecently collected and barcoded specimens were sampled from central colombia to southeastern peru at elevations between 1750 and 2540 m a . s . l .\nbesides the type specimens described by druce from mexico and panama , recently collected and barcoded specimens were sampled in honduras and costa rica between 850 and 1550 m a . s . l .\n, 920 m a . s . l . , 20 june 2012 , s . rios & r . franco leg . ( voucher 12 - srnp - 103819 , genitalia preparation , barcode sequence 658 bp ) ( pmj ) .\n: ( deposited in pmj , usnm ) 5 males , 1 female . costa rica , guanacaste province , \u00e1rea de conservaci\u00f3n guanacaste , sector pitilla , estacion pitilla ,\n) 16 may 2007 , f . quesada & r . franco leg . ( voucher 07 - srnp - 103401 , genitalia preparation , barcode sequence 658 bp ) , 1 male same as previous but 17 may 2007 ( voucher 07 - srnp - 103498 ) , 2 males , 02 apr 2011 , h . cambronero & s . rios leg . ( vouchers 11 - srnp - 102035 and 11 - srnp - 102036 , barcode sequences 658 bp ) , 1 male 12 november 2012 , r . franco & h . cambronero leg . ( voucher 12 - srnp - 105462 ) .\nflavipectus ( warren , 1897 ) : type locality . [ colombia ] , bogot\u00e1 .\n) , from elevations ranging from 540\u20132180 m a . s . l . , and additional material from ecuador falls within the same elevational range (\nhas a dark brown base colour with a large cream - white blotch on the forewing . this blotch almost reaches the outer margin , also either reaching the costal margin ( costa rican specimens ) , or scantily not ( ecuadorian specimens ) . the white blotch is narrower in\noriginally described as a heterusia species by schaus ( 1901 ) , this taxon was down - ranked as a subspecies of mortipax by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) . in my view , the significantly different wing pattern in jamaicensis justifies schaus\u2019 original species rank , but further evidence from barcoding is desirable in order to consolidate its species status .\nin contrast to the other taxa in the mortipax clade , this species displays a very narrow , cream - white transversal band on the forewings . the striation on the underside of the hindwing is reduced in comparison to mortipax and acothysta .\ntogether with jamaicensis , schaus ( 1901 ) originally placed this species in the genus heterusia . it was then ranked down as a subspecies of mortipax by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) . the major characteristic of acothysta is the reduction of the white transversal band ( found both in mortipax and jamaicensis ) to a smaller blotch that reaches about half the area found in mortipax . as in jamaicensis , further evidence from barcoding is desirable for the consolidation of the species status .\nunlike mortipax and jamaicensis , this species shows no white transversal band on the forewing , but rather a reduced blotch that reaches only about 50 % of the size observed in mortipax .\nschaus described guatica as belonging to scordylia gn ( a junior synonym of heterusia ) . the wing pattern of guatica strongly resembles that of other members in the mortipax clade , but the species lacks the typical striation on the underside of the hindwing . further evidence from barcoding and the study of the genitalia will help to better understand the relationships of this species with other species of the mortipax clade .\napart from the doubtful type locality in chile , recently collected specimens were sampled in santa catarina , brazil ( 27\u00b0s ) , at elevations of 1300 m a . s . l .\n) are genetically very similar ( distance only ca . 1 . 1 % ) and , together with the highly similar appearance , are therefore regarded as conspecific . the\nspecimens , but shows a different wing pattern , i . e . a prominent yellow blotch on the hindwing and a different shape of the blotch of the forewing . the taxon\ncosta rica to ecuador . observed elevational range in ecuador 1800\u20132890 m and 560\u20131480 m in costa rica .\nthe most prominent difference is the absence of any yellow blotches on the hindwing that are present both in ephestris and discordata . the transversal yellow band on the forewing is broader than in discordata , and has a different shape than in ephestris .\nand set in quotation marks , following the convention applied by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) .\nbrehm g , bodner f , strutzenberger p , h\u00fcnefeld f , fiedler k . ( 2011 )\nneotropical eois ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) : checklist , biogeography , diversity , and description patterns .\na simple \u201chands - off\u201d apparatus to inflate eversible soft parts of the genitalia of small insect specimens .\na dna - based registry for all animal species : the barcode index number ( bin ) system .\nsihvonen p , mutanen m , kaila l , brehm g , hausmann a , staude hs . ( 2011 )\ncomprehensive molecular sampling yields a robust phylogeny for geometrid moths ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\ndna barcode sequencing from old type specimens as a tool in taxonomy : a case study in the diverse genus eois ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) .\nevery day scientists discover and describe new species . this blog introduces at least one each day .\nmany of the caterpillars of the geometridae pull their bodies into loops as they move . these caterpillars lack the first two or three pairs of prolegs , so that looping is their best means of progression . it is this movement that gave them their name which is latin and means\nearth measurer\n. they are also very often called inch worms because they measure off one inch at a time as they progress . this method of progression has been suggested as being specially suitable for moving over rough terrain .\nthe three new species were found in ecuador and costa rica and named after several sponsors ( mr richard philipp , mrs hedwig seppelt , ms . miranda henrich ) , of the taxonomic research on geometrids .\nmeet the domesticated silkmoth ( bombyx mori ) better known in its caterpillar state in which it is called silkworm though it\u2019s not a wor . . .\nisopods are an order of crustaceans that includes woodlice and their relatives . isopods can be found in the sea , in fresh water , or on la . . .\nblister beetles are phytophagous ( plant - eating ) , feeding on a variety of plants including cultivated crops like potatoes and tomatoes . th . . .\nlichens are fascinating organisms . in fact they are composite organisms build by algae or cyanobacteria living among filaments of multipl . . .\npsoralea is a genus with its own family . most species are actually poisonous , but the starchy roots of two species , p . esculenta ( pr . . .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a fact about hagnos ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for hagnos ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\n; > 90 percent ) are found in the tidal salt marshes of the northern san francisco bay region , primarily in san pablo and suisun bays ( manolis 1978 , evens et al . 1991 ) . smaller populations occur in san francisco bay , the outer coast of marin county , freshwater marshes in the foothills of . . .\ncorturniculus ) : science foundation chapter 5 , appendix 5 . 1 in the baylands and climate change : what can we do ?\nthe black rail is the smallest member of the avian family rallidae and has a wide - ranging but highly scattered distribution throughout the new world . of five subspecies , two occur in north america\u00e2\u0080\u0094the eastern black rail ( l . j .\n) . throughout its range , the black rail is a secretive inhabitant of tidal and freshwater wetlands and rarely ventures out from the cover of dense marsh vegetation . it is more likely to be heard than seen ; spontaneous vocalizations tend to be concentrated in the nesting season and are much less common during the rest of the year .\n) offers an example of the way that the social ecological systems ( ses ) framework can be used to analyze a natural resource problem . at the outset , it was . . .\nhull , joshua m . ; mindell , david p . ; mccormick , c . r . ; kay , emily h . ; hoekstra , hopi e . ; ernest , holly b .\nthese data suggest recent interbreeding and gene flow between\u00e2 b . j . harlani\u00e2 and the other\u00e2 b .\n\u00e2 subspecies examined , providing no support for the historical designation of\u00e2 b . j . harlani\u00e2 as a distinct species .\n) soaring low ( ca 15 m ) over the grass - covered slopes of the galiuro mountains in southern arizona . the bird had , probably just moments before , captured a ca i m snake ( probably a glossy snake , arizona elegans , judging by size , shape and color ) . when the hawk passed near us , it was holding the snake by both feet near the snake ' s midpoint . with head elevated and mouth open , the snake appeared intent upon biting the hawk . when the hawk was ca 100 m distant from us , it made several shallow stoops over a scattered group of large boulders . on some ( and perhaps all ) passes , the bird swept sharply upward as it passed over and nearly collided with a boulder . the centrifugal force associated with this change in direction caused the snake to pendulate below the hawk ' s talons and strike the boulder . during one pass , we observed the snake ' s head and tail flipping up behind the hawk after slapping the boulder . not all swoops were over the same boulder , but one particularly obtrusive ( ca 1 m tall ) boulder was used at least\n) . although first collected in 1859 or before and reported in 1874 ( ridgway 1874 ) , its life history , distribution , and status have remained so obscure that even a sight record of the bird is deemed worthy of a report in some ornithological publications . because degradation and loss of freshwater and saltwater marshlands in california may be detrimentally affecting the black rail , both the u . s . bureau of sport fisheries and wildlife ( 1973 ) and the california department of fish and game ( 1972 ) have classified it as rare and worthy of further study . \u00e2 the 84 papers and notes both summarized in this report and included in its bibliography include essentially all that is currently known about the california black rail . only 11 of these papers consider the life history of this rail in any detail . the rest are distribution notes and some of the more important papers on the closely related eastern black rail ( l . j .\n) . the latter are included for comparative purposes , or because they may lend clues to currently unknown facets of the life history of the western race .\ntributyltin oxide ( tbto ) is the main constituent of tin - based antifouling marine paint used on the hulls of ships to prevent the growth of fouling organisms . tbto was shown to be hazardous to nontarget organisms . the stingray , urolophus\n, may represent the ideal study organism for the adverse effects of tbto to elasmobranches . this study investigated the toxicity and accumulation of tin in the gill tissue of the stingray u .\nafter acute exposure to tbto . this work demonstrates the alterations in the morphological architecture of the gill using electron and light microscopy , the induction of stress proteins , and peroxidative damage in response to tributyltin ( tbt ) exposure . a captured population of u . jamaicencis was housed in isolated , static tank systems . after a minimum 30 - d acclimation period , the animals were exposed to one of 5 experimental doses of tbto ( 4 microg / l , 2 microg / l , 1 microg / l , 0 . 5 microg / l , or 0 . 05 microg / l ) . a sixth group served as a control population . at 3h following treatment , animals were sacrificed and gill tissue was extracted , processed , and stored for analysis . results indicate that u .\nis hypersensitive to tbt exposure . the elasmobranch gill showed a distorted , swollen epithelium with exfoliation following acute exposure to as little as 0 . 05 microg / l tbto for 3 h . graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy ( gfaas ) results indicate that tissues of treated animals contained a significantly increased tin concentration as compared to controls . western blot analysis demonstrated the induction of the stress proteins hsp 70 and ho1 . 4 - hydroxynonenol ( 4hne ) adduct formation determined by western blot analysis provides further evidence that observed membrane degradation is a result of lipid peroxidation .\nbats constitute one of the most numerous mammalian species . bats have a wide range of dietary habits and include carnivorous , haematophagous , insectivorous , frugivorous and nectivorous species . the salivary glands of these species have been of particular research interest due to their structural variability among chiropterans with different types of diets . myoepithelial cells ( mecs ) , which support and facilitate the expulsion of saliva from the secretory portions of salivary glands , are very important for their function ; however , this cell type has not been extensively studied in the salivary glands of bats . in this study , we characterized the mecs in the major salivary glands of the fruit bat artibeus\n. herein , we describe the morphology of the parotid , submandibular and sublingual glands of a . \u00e2\nat the light - and electro - microscopic level and the distribution of mecs in these glands , as defined by their expression of smooth - muscle markers such as \u00ee\u00b1 - smooth muscle actin ( sma\u00ee\u00b1 ) and desmin , and of epithelial cell markers , such as krt14 . we found that the anatomical locations of the major salivary glands in this bat species are similar to those of humans , except that the bat sublingual gland appears to be unique , extending to join the contralateral homologous gland . morphologically , the parotid gland has the characteristics of a mixed - secretory gland , whereas the submandibular and sublingual glands were identified as mucous - secretory glands . mecs positive for sma\u00ee\u00b1 , krt14 and desmin were found in all of the structural components of the three glands , except in their excretory ducts . desmin is expressed at a lower level in the parotid gland than in the other glands . our results suggest that the major salivary glands of a . \u00e2\n, although anatomically and structurally similar to those of humans , play different physiological roles that can be attributed to the dietary habits of this species . \u00e2\u00a9 2016 anatomical society .\n) definitive host and ifn - \u00ee\u00b3 gene knockout mice as experimental intermediate host .\nsperm capacitation occurs during the passage of sperm through the female reproductive tract . once the sperm binds to the pellucid zone , the acrosome reaction to enable penetration of the oocyte is completed . in this study , sperm of artibeus\nbat sperm cells are able to be capacitated in a period from 6 to 8\u00e2 h and to carry out the acrosome reaction .\nnetted , because it is abundant ( 2 / 3 of the total catch of bats on bci ) , easily captured by conventional means ( mist nets set at ground level ) , and responds well to handling and marking . an average artibeus\nis a 45 g frugivore that eats roughly its weight in fruit every night . these bats prefer figs and often seek them out even when other types of fruit they might eat are far more abundant . they commute several hundred meters to feeding trees on the average , feeding on fruit from one to four trees each night , and returning to a single fruiting tree an average of four nights in succession . the bats tend to fly farther when fewer fig trees are bearing ripe fruit , and they feed from fewer trees , on the average , when the moon is nearly full . these bats , like their congeners , do not feed in the fruiting tree itself . instead , they select a fruit and\nonce thought to be uniquely human , prosocial behavior has been observed in a number of species , including vampire bats that engage in costly food - sharing . another social chiropteran , jamaican fruit bats ( artibeus\nit is well established that elasmobranchs can detect dipole electric fields . however , it is unclear whether they can discriminate between the anode and cathode . to investigate this subject , we employed a behavioral assay to determine the discriminatory ability of the yellow stingray , urobatis\n. we conditioned stingrays with food rewards to bite either the anode ( n = 5 ) or the cathode ( n = 6 ) of a direct - current dipole located on the floor of an experimental tank . all individuals successfully performed the task after 18 to 22 days . stingrays were then tested in experimental sessions when they were rewarded only after they identified the correct pole . stingrays successfully discriminated between the poles at a rate greater than chance , ranging among individuals from a mean of 66 % to 93 % correct . during experimental sessions , stingrays conditioned to distinguish the anode performed similarly to those conditioned to distinguish the cathode . we hypothesize that the ability to discriminate anode from cathode is physiologically encoded , but its utility in providing spatial information under natural conditions remains to be demonstrated . the ability to discriminate polarity may eliminate ambiguity in induction - based magnetoreception and facilitate navigation with respect to the geomagnetic field ."]}
{"id": 980, "summary": [{"text": "the tufted capuchin ( sapajus apella ) , also known as brown capuchin , black-capped capuchin , or pin monkey is a new world primate from south america .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "as traditionally defined , it is one of the most widespread primates in the neotropics , but it has recently been recommended considering the black-striped , black and golden-bellied capuchins as separate species in a new genus , thereby effectively limiting the tufted capuchin to the amazon basin and nearby regions .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the tufted capuchin is an omnivorous animal , mostly feeding on fruits and invertebrates , although it sometimes feeds on small vertebrates ( e.g. lizards and bird chicks ) and other plant parts .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "it can be found in many different kinds of environment , including moist tropical and subtropical forest , dry forest , and disturbed or secondary forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "like other capuchins , it is a social animal , forming groups of 8 to 15 individuals that are led by an alpha or dominant male . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "tufted capuchin", "paragraphs": ["the oldest tufted capuchin was held in captivity and survived for a whopping 45 years .\nthis entry was posted in primate biography and tagged ant312 , biography , capuchin , cebus apella , pixie , primate , tufted capuchin . bookmark the permalink .\nspinozzi g , castorina m , truppa v . hand preferences in unimanual and coordinated bimanual tasks by tufted capuchin monkeys (\ncebus apella of the cebidae family is better known as the tufted capuchin . the tufted capuchin is a new world primate located in south america . tufted capuchins spend most of their time within the mid - canopy of rain - forests ; however they do sometimes move to the ground to play and forage .\nthe black capuchin monkey ( cebus nigritus ) , is a capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil and argentina . the robust tufted capuchin ( cebus nigritus robustus ) , is a subspecies of the black capuchin endemic to brazil . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\ncooperative problem solving by tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) : spontaneous division of labor , communication , and reciprocal altruism .\nother names : black - capped capuchin , brown capuchin , guianan brown capuchin , tufted capuchin ; gekuifde kapucijnaap ( dutch ) ; sajon apelle ( french ) ; macaco prego ( spanish ) ; tjockhuvudtamarin , brun kapucin , gulbr\u00f6stad kapucin , m\u00f6sskapucin ( swedish ) ; c . a . apella : mono capuchin pardo ( spanish ) .\ntufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) wash their feet and hands in urine to get comfort or sex , research now suggests .\nanalysis of tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) courtship and sexual behavior repertoire : changes throughout the female cycle and female interindividual differences .\nrylands ab , kierulff mcm , mittermeier ra ( 2005 ) . notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys (\nlinomgelli l , sonetti mg , visalberghi e . hand preference of tufted capuchins (\ncooperative problem solving by tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) : spontaneous division of labor , communication , and reciprocal altruism . - pubmed - ncbi\nspinozzi , g . , and cacchiarelli , b . ( 2000 ) . manual laterality in haptic and visual reaching tasks by tufted capuchin monkeys (\nif a baby capuchin monkey is separated from its mother , other capuchin monkeys will respond and care for the infant monkey .\nwestergaard gc , byrne g , suomi sj . early lateral bias in tufted capuchins (\nwestergaard gc , suomi s . hand preference for a bimanual task in tufted capuchins (\nthe large - headed capuchin monkey ( cebus apella macrocephalus ) , is a subspecies of the tufted capuchin from south america . it is found in brazil , colombia , ecuador and peru . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nanalysis of tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) courtship and sexual behavior repertoire : changes throughout the female cycle and female interindividual . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe tufted capuchin has been observed using containers to hold water , using sponges to absorb juice , and using stones as hammers and chisels to penetrate barriers .\nthe tufted capuchin gets its name from the tufts of dark hair that form above its ears , that makes it appear as if it is wearing a cap ( or mickey mouse ears ) . tufted capuchins are sexually dimorphic , with the average weight of the male being 34 % larger than that of the female . wild male tufted capuchins have an average weight of 8 lbs , and the average female weighs 5 . 5 lbs ; though captive capuchins can grow larger . tufted capuchins move quadrupedally , and have strong prehensile tails . however , tufted capuchins are the only species of capuchin that carries its tail in a tight coil . a tufted capuchin rarely uses its tail while traveling , but uses it for balance while it is feeding .\nfragaszy , d . m . , and visalberghi , e . ( 1989 ) . social influences on the acquisition of tool - using behaviors in tufted capuchin monkeys\nthe tufted capuchin monkey ( cebus apella ) , also known as brown capuchin or black - capped capuchin is a new world primate from south america . it is one of the more widespread species of primates in the neotropics . tufted capuchins are omnivorous animals , mostly feeding on fruits and invertebrates , although they sometimes feed on small vertebrates ( lizards and bird chicks ) and other plant parts .\nexplorers named the capuchin monkey after a group of friars known as the order of friars minor capuchin . these monks wear large brown robes and brown hoods that resemble the color scheme of the capuchin monkey . some female capuchins have been observed throwing rocks at males in order to garner their attention for intimacy . tufted capuchin monkeys skillfully use tools to crack open hard nuts .\nthe tufted capuchin can be found in a number of locations including : amazon rainforest , south america . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nthe following habitats are found across the tufted capuchin distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\ncite this page as : gron kj . 2009 april 17 . primate factsheets : tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) conservation . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\ncite this page as : gron kj . 2009 april 17 . primate factsheets : tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) behavior . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\nthe tufted capuchin is arboreal , but it often forages on the ground to search for food or to walk longer distances between trees that are too far apart to jump .\ntufted capuchins look for food in groups ; a trait that is unique compared to most other species .\nhunting for food and as a crop pest of the tufted capuchin is also a significant threat to its numbers . fragmentation of tufted capuchin habitat also serves to bring the species into further contact with people causing crop - raiding conflict as well as facilitating hunting access ( fragaszy et al . 2004 ) . in one instance , a village of indigenous brazilians killed and consumed over two hundred tufted capuchins in under a year ( nascimento & peres cited in chapman & peres 2001 ) .\nthe capuchin ' s range includes central america ( honduras ) and middle south america ( brazil , eastern peru and paraguay ) . the white faced capuchin is native to central america and the other capuchin species are native to south america .\nspinozzi , g . , castorina , m . g . , and truppa , v . ( 1998 ) . hand preferences in unimanual and coordinated - bimanual tasks by tufted capuchin monkeys (\ncooperative problem solving by tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) : spontaneous division of labor , communication , and reciprocal altruism . | center for academic research and training in anthropogeny ( carta )\ntufted capuchin by frans de waal . powell k : economy of the mind . plos biol 1 / 3 / 2003 : e77 . url : urltoken ( accessed on 1 april 2010 )\nphylogenetic relationships : a preliminary reassessment of the diversity of the untufted capuchin monkeys .\nphylogenetic relationships : a preliminary reassessment of the diversity of the untufted capuchin monkeys .\ncapuchin monkey ,\nmindy ' s memory primate sanctuary website , 2007 .\nthe capuchin monkeys are the group of new world monkeys classified as genus cebus .\nfragaszy , d . m . , visalberghi , e . , and galloway , a . ( 1997a ) . infant tufted capuchin monkeys ' behaviour with novel foods : opportunism , not selectivity .\nstructural analysis of tool - use by tufted capuchins ( cebus apella ) and chimpanzees ( pan troglodyt . . .\nthe black - striped capuchin monkey ( cebus libidinosus ) , is a new world capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil , argentina and paraguay .\ncite this page as : gron kj . 2009 april 17 . primate factsheets : tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) taxonomy , morphology , & ecology . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .\nthe tufted capuchin ( sapajus apella ) , also known as the brown capuchin , black - capped capuchin , or pin monkey , is a new world monkey in the cebidae family of monkeys and is found in the northern rainforests of guyana , venezuela , and brazil . the tufted capuchin is stronger and more durably built than other capuchins ; with brownish gray fur and black hands and feet . they are notable for the tuft of hair on their heads that can be raised like a wig , with the movie \u201cthe hangover 2\u201d making the tufted capuchin\u2019s \u201chairstyle\u201d iconic . many people believe that their hair resembles that of elvis presley , but it is actually an adaptation that allows them to remain camouflaged as they hunt for insects that make up a significant portion of their diet .\nprimatologist kimran miller at the university of northern iowa in cedar falls and her colleagues focused on tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) for 10 months at the national institutes of health animal center in maryland .\nsampaio dt , ferrari sf . ( 2005 ) . predation of an infant titi monkey ( callicebus moloch ) by a tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) . folia primatol , 76 , 113 - 115 .\nblond capuchin , cebus queirozi ( new species , mendes pontes et al . 2006 )\nbearded capuchin monkeys , sapajus libidinosus , belong to the tufted group of capuchin monkey species ( rylands et al . 2000 ; silva j\u00fanior 2001 ) . it occurs in the central portion of the tufted species geographic distribution , in areas of the atlantic , caatinga , and cerrado domains ( silva j\u00fanior 2001 ) . the colour varies from light brown to yellow ; the cap is brown , short with two tufts .\nspinozzi , g . , and truppa , v . ( 1999 ) . hand preferences in different tasks by tufted capuchins (\ngalloway , a . t . , fragaszy , d . m . , mccabe , a . m . , and visalberghi , e . ( submitted ) . differences in food neophobia between groups of tufted capuchin monkeys\nis the only species of capuchin monkey known to carry its tail in a tight coil .\ncapuchin monkeys belong to the cebidae family with the marmosets , tamarins , and squirrel monkeys .\nphotograph showing a capuchin monkey using her left hand while engaged in the tool use task .\nthe mtcoii sequence alignments were carried out manually and with the dna alignment program ( fluxus technology ltd . ) , and to reconstruct the possible phylogeography and the phylogeny of the tufted capuchins , several analyses were undertaken . the findmodel program was applied to determine which among 28 different evolutionary nucleotide models was the most probable for the tufted capuchin sequence set .\nthe tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) is a new world primate commonly found in south and latin america . they have the largest brain relatively to their size among all the other species of monkey . this gives them the intelligences , unheard of in the wild . the tufted capuchin is an omnivorous animal feeding mainly on fruits , nuts , insects and small vertebrates . they are well known for astonishing problem solving abilities to help them forage for food .\na capuchin troop catch punar\u00e3\u00a9 rats that have been flushed from the rocks by a rat snake .\nthe age of weaning for the capuchin monkey is estimated for the first 13 - 14 months .\nthe range of the capuchin monkeys includes central america ( honduras ) and middle south america ( middle brazil , eastern peru , paraguay ) . capuchin monkeys generally resemble the friars of their namesake .\nadams - curtis , l . e . ( 1990 ) . conceptual learning in capuchin monkeys .\nphillips ka , sherwood cc . primary motor cortex asymmetry is correlated with handedness in capuchin monkeys (\nthe kaapori capuchin monkey ( cebus kaapori ) is a capuchin monkey endemic to brazil . this species is found in the brazilian states of para and maranhao . formerly considered a subspecies of the weeper capuchin ( cebus olivaceus ) , it was recently elevated to species status . conservation status \u2013 vulnerable .\nlisted as least concern on the iucn\u2019s red list of threatened species and appendix ii of convention of international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , the tufted capuchin currently has no major threats that could result in a drastic population loss .\ntufted capuchin social organization is characterized by discrete hierarchies of rank between both sexes and different age classes ( izawa 1980 ) . both male and female rank hierarchies are correlated with age , with the older individuals typically being higher ranked than younger individuals ( izawa 1980 ) . tufted capuchin groups are often small , numbering in the teens or lower twenties with only one to several adult males and around the same number of adult females ( izawa 1980 ; defler 1982 ) . it is suggested that when troop size approaches around twenty individuals , the chances of group fission increase and such fission limits group size ( izawa 1994 ) . there is some evidence that tufted capuchin society might be matrilineal , as matrilines remain together when group fission occurs ( izawa 1994 ) . tufted capuchin group home ranges can overlap , often with the ranges of more than two groups overlapping the same area ( spironello 2001 ) . this common territory is the result of the lack of territorial defense by a single tufted capuchin group ( defler 1982 ) . when different groups encounter one another , interactions range from peaceful curiosity and tolerance of the other group to active chasing away by adult males ( defler 1982 ; spironello 2001 ) .\nwestergaard , g . c . , and suomi , s . j . ( 1994b ) . the use of probing tools by tufted capuchins\nmitra , d . , fragaszy , d . m . , feuerstein , j . , and toll , l . ( 1993 ) . sometimes you feel like a nut : the social context of resource exploitation by juvenile tufted capuchin monkeys (\ndi bitetti , m . s . ( 2001 ) . home - range use by the tufted capuchin monkey ( cebus apella nigritus ) in a subtropical rainforest of argentina . j . zool . lond . , 253 , 33 - 45 .\ndi bitteti , m . s . 2001 . home - range use by the tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella nigritus ) in a subtropical rainforest of argentina . journal of zoology ( london ) 253 : 33 - 45 . [ links ]\ncapuchin monkeys wash their feet and hands in urine to get comfort or sex , research now suggests .\ncapuchin monkeys are able to be transferred from group to group between ages 2 - 5 years old .\nbaby capuchin monkeys learn many of their behaviors from observing their mother and other members of their community .\nfragaszy dm , mitchell sr . hand preference and performance on unimanual and bimanual tasks in capuchin monkeys (\nbecause of their intelligence , tufted capuchins are popular pets to have across the world . they are also heavily hunted by humans . despite this , tufted capuchins are not endangered , and their status is classified as \u201cof least concern . \u201d tufted capuchins can be found at the san diego zoo where there is a group of 6 males and 9 females . these capuchins were previously used in behavioral studies at the yerkes national primate research center .\noliveira mm , langguth a ( 2006 ) . rediscovery of marcgrave\u2019s capuchin monkey and designation of a neotype for\na major component of the capuchin monkey is their communication . they use vocalization to hold together group dynamics .\nalso the female capuchin monkey may follow a male monkey yelling or hollering to communicate their readiness to mate .\nthe weeper capuchin monkey ( cebus olivaceus ) , is a new world capuchin monkey from south america . it is found in brazil , guyana , french guiana , suriname and venezuela . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nhandedness distribution and central sulcus asymmetry quotient ( aq ) for capuchin monkeys on a dipping tool use task .\ngeographic distribution and habitat also known as the brown capuchin and black - capped capuchin , the tufted capuchin is a new world primate that is only found in south america , in countries such as ecuador , colombia , brazil , bolivia , french guiana , guiana , suriname , peru , and venezuela . they inhabit almost every kind of forest in the neotropics\u2014including tropical lowlands , submontane , montane , savanna forests , and mangroves\u2014and are found predominantly in the lower and middle canopies .\nmolecular relationships and classification of several tufted capuchin lineages ( cebus apella , cebus xanthosternos and cebus nigritus , cebidae ) , by means of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase ii gene sequences - fulltext - folia primatologica 2012 , vol . 83 , no . 2 - karger publishers\nrylands , a . b . , kierulff , m . c . m . , & mittermeier , r . a . ( 2005 ) . some notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus , cebidae ) of south america .\ntufted capuchins exhibit some odd behaviors that make them fascinating to learn about . they often cover their hands and feet in their own urine to attract mates ( and possibly to reduce stress ) . tufted capuchins also exhibit extensive tool use . they will use rocks to dig holes to reach tubers . in captivity , they will eat fruit over sponges so they can later drink from the sponges . they use containers to hold water . some captive tufted capuchins have even been observed manufacturing tools out of stone , producing simple flakes and cores . not all tufted capuchins use tools however . some primatologists suggest tool use manifests only when these capuchin groups lack food sources and thus spend lots of time on the ground .\nthe main activity of tufted capuchins over the course of the daily activity period is feeding ( izawa 1980 ) . on a daily basis , the diurnal tufted capuchin will divide its time into 12 % rest , 21 % travel and 66 % feeding ( terborgh 1983 ) . time spent in different daily activities varies with the seasons and locality and foraging time can range between january and may from 2 % of daily activity to 37 . 1 % . movement can range from 35 . 2 % to 23 . 6 % of time spent daily ( zhang 1995a ) . tufted capuchins rest more and travel less with a greater availability of fruits and other food resources in the wet season . tufted capuchin foraging for insects increases in the dry season , presumably due to the lack of available fruit resources ( terborgh 1983 ) .\nthe margarita island tufted capuchin , in addition to facing the same threats as the mainland populations , has far fewer numbers and is critically endangered . recently , an additional threat to its numbers has been identified in escaped or released pet wedge - capped capuchins ( cebus olivaceus ) which have the potential to establish feral populations which compete for the same resources as the tufted capuchins ( martinez et al . 2000 ) .\nmendes pontes ar , malta a , asfora ph ( 2006 ) . a new species of capuchin monkey , genus\nthe diet of the capuchin monkey is more varied than other monkeys in the family cebidae . capuchin monkeys are omnivores , eating not only fruits , nuts , seeds and buds , but also insects , spiders , bird eggs and small vertebrates . capuchin monkeys living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones .\ncarosi , m . , & visalberghi , e . ( 2002 ) . analysis of tufted capuchin ( cebus apella ) courtship and sexual behavior repertoire : changes throughout the female cycle and female interindividual differences . american journal of physical anthropology , 118 , 11 - 24 .\ncarosi , m . , heistermann , m . & visalberghi , e . ( 1999 ) . the display of proceptive behaviors in relation to urinary and fecal progestin levels over the ovarian cycle in female tufted capuchin monkeys . horm behav , 36 , 252 - 265 .\nbesides tufted capuchin , there are other groups of animals that have displaced sense of fairness . some examples include wolves , coyotes , elephants , rodents , bats and whales . if you are interested in the detailed write up for the examples , you can visit urltoken .\nfor the overall set of tufted capuchins studied , 19 haplotypes were found with s = 78 , \u03c0 = 0 . 0123 and k = 7 . 224 .\nluckily , due to widespread occurrence , the tufted capuchin still maintains an extensive distribution and habitat . as with other primates , the biggest threat to the tufted capuchin is habitat loss and fragmentation . it is estimated that more than a fifth of the entire amazonian forest , the habitat of the tufted capuchin , has been destroyed ( fragaszy et al . 2004 ) . reasons for destruction of the forest are varied , but include logging , agriculture and flooding for hydroelectric power generation ( fragaszy et al . 2004 ) . it is estimated that the minimum contiguous forest area required to sustain a group of tufted capuchins is around 100 ha but ideally the minimum is 1000 ha ( gilbert & setz 2001 ) . this area is likely larger in poorer soil areas of the central amazon and the minimum required habitat size in the central amazonian terra firma forests is likely around 23000 ha ( spironello 2001 ) . recently , infrastructure development and road building plans in the amazon have further expanded the potential for deforestation in some areas of the tufted capuchin range as access will increase and economic development will expand ( da silva et al . 2005 ) . a regional system of protected areas is needed in amazonia if unfettered development is to be checked ( da silva et al . 2005 ) .\n5 . y . hattori , h . kuroshima and k . fujita , cooperative problem solving by tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) : spontaneous division of labor , communication , and reciprocal altruism , j . comp . psychol . 119 ( 2005 ) , pp . 335\u2013342 .\nmoura a , lee pc ( 2004 ) capuchin stone tool use in caatinga dry forest . science 306 : 1909 .\nunlike other primates , wild capuchin monkeys use stones , not just sticks , to dig for edible roots and tubers .\nvisalberghi , e . , and fragaszy , d . m . ( 1995 ) . the behaviour of capuchin monkeys ,\nanderson , j . r . ( 1990 ) . use of objects as hammers to open nuts by capuchin monkeys .\nphillips ka , sherwood cs , lilak al . corpus callosum morphology in capuchin monkeys is influenced by sex and handedness .\nrylands , a . b , kierulff , m . c . m . and mittermeier , r . a . 2005 . some notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus , cebidae ) of south america . lundiana 6 ( supl . ) : 97\u2013110 .\na characteristic display of the tufted capuchin is the male reunion display . when separated for a time , males will approach one another quickly , embrace , and loudly vocalize ( matheson et al . 1996 ; phillips et al . 2005 ) . this behavior is not observed in females nor is it aggressive in nature ( matheson et al . 1996 ) . such reunion displays have been observed between adult males and between adult males and infant males and serve to reinforce affinitive relations and bonds between tufted capuchin males ( matheson et al . 1996 ; phillips et al . 2005 ) . other displays include the oblique head tilt in which a capuchin will move its head side - to - side to gain the attention of another capuchin and the penile display where a male will stand bipedally in front of a female and display his genitals ( weigel 1979 ) . both sexes of brown capuchin will wag their tails when extremely excited ( dobroruka 1972 ) .\ntufted capuchin monkeys are robust , medium - size neotropical primates , with a relatively short and semi - prehensile tail . they are found east of the andes from colombia and venezuela to paraguay and northern argentina . the fur colour and tuft shape vary locally ( torres de assump\u00e7\u00e3o 1983 ) .\nanother interesting fact about tufted capuchins is that that search for food in groups ; something very unique compared to other capuchin species . when one individual has located food , they will signal the other members using a whistling sound that varies depending on the quantity of food that has been discovered .\ndi bitteti , m . s . ; e . m . l . vidal ; m . c . baldovino & v . benesovsky . 2000 . sleeping site preferences in tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella nigritus ) . american journal of primatology 50 : 257 - 274 . [ links ]\nkuroshima , h . , k . fujita , a . fuyuki , and t . masuda . 2002 . understanding of the relationship between seeing and knowing by tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) . animal cognition 5 ( 1 ) : 41 - 48 . retrieved december 11 , 2007 .\ntufted capuchins make up a significant portion of their diet with nuts ; utilizing the use of stones to act as hammers to smash the hard shells . they then leave the nuts to dry for approximately a week before they are ready to eat . besides nuts , the tufted capuchin also eats fruit , insects , eggs , young birds , frogs , lizards , and bats . their healthy balance between fruit , nuts , and small animal prey makes them omnivores .\nottoni eb , izar p ( 2008 ) capuchin monkey tool use : overview and implications . evolutionary anthropology 17 : 171\u2013178 .\nsilva , j . s . , jr . ( 2002 ) . taxonomy of capuchin monkeys , cebus erxleben , 1777 .\nas a single group for analysis . similarly , capuchin monkeys have recently been suggested to be taxonomically divided into two genera ,\nthe mothers are close with baby capuchin monkeys as they care for the infants and nurture them for the first few months .\nlilak al , phillips ka . consistency of hand preference across low - level and high - level tasks in capuchin monkeys (\nlike other capuchins , these are social animals , forming groups of 8 to 15 individuals , and are led by an alpha or dominant male . the tufted capuchin is more powerfully built than the other capuchins , with rougher fur and a short , thick tail . conservation status \u2013 least concern .\nthe tufted capuchin is only found in south america , in the countries of colombia , ecuador , peru , bolivia , brazil , french guiana , suriname , guiana , and venezuela ( fragaszy et al . 2004 ) . the margarita island tufted capuchin ( c . a . margaritae ) is isolated from the rest of the population off of the north coast of venezuela and is separated from the nearest mainland population by around 800 km ( groves 2001 ; reviewed in fragaszy et al . 2004 ) . this population presumably has been on the island since the pre - columbian era but , ultimately , its origin is unknown ( groves 2001 ) . the heart of the range of the tufted capuchin is the northwestern half of brazil and the amazon basin . it is found in western amazonia , and in the middle and lower rio amazonas and the guianas . its northern limit extends up to venezuela as far as the federal territory of amazonas and is limited by savannahs . the west of the tufted capuchin range extends into the columbian amazon and as far as the eastern foothills of the andes mountain chain south into peru . the southern limit in brazil appears to be limited by the bush savannah of central brazil . eastern extremes of the range may extend past the rio xingu but there is some dispute as to the limits of the range ( rylands et al . 2005 ) . the tufted capuchin has the largest range of all of the new world primates ( freese & oppenheimer 1981 ) .\nresende , b . d . greco , v . l . g . , ottoni , e . b . , izar , p . ( 2002 ) . some observations on the predation of small mammals by tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) . neotropical primates , 11 , 103 - 104 .\nrylands , a . b . ; m . c . m . kierulff & r . a . mittermeier . 2005 . notes on the taxonomy and distributions of the tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus , cebidae ) of south america . lundiana 6 ( suppl . ) : 97 - 110 . [ links ]\nbrown capuchin monkeys are important predators on small animals and may disperse the seeds of some forest plants when they eat the fruit .\ngarber pa ( 2012 ) . introduction to special issue on capuchin evolution : comparing behavior , morphology , and genetics across species .\nizawa , k . , and mizuno , a . ( 1977 ) . palm - fruit cracking of wild black - capped capuchin\nanderson jr , degiorgio c , lamarque c , fagot j . a multi - task assessment of hand lateralization in capuchin monkeys (\nwestergaard & fragaszy 1987 , the manufacture and use of tools by capuchin monkeys , jcp , 101 , 159 - 168 . pdf\nthe white - headed capuchin monkey ( cebus capucinus ) , also known as the white - faced capuchin or white - throated capuchin , is a small new world monkey of the family cebidae . native to the forests of south and central america , white - throated capuchins are important to rainforest ecology by their role in dispersing seeds and pollen . like other monkeys in the genus cebus , white - headed capuchins are named after the order of capuchin friars : the cowls worn by these friars closely resemble the monkeys head colouration .\nfragaszy , d . m . , mitra , d . , and feuerstein , j . m . ( 1997b ) . transfers of food from adults to infants in tufted capuchins (\nsp . ) . usually the squirrel monkeys initiate the mixed group interaction , probably in order to find food more efficiently . squirrel monkeys follow brown capuchin monkeys to new food sources , which saves them foraging time . the association does not seem to benefit capuchin monkeys .\ntufted capuchins were studied for over ten years at la macarena , colombia by kosei izawa starting in 1986 ( izawa 1988 ) . other prominent studies include those in peru by charles janson .\nwestergaard , g . c . , and suomi , s . j . ( 1996 ) . hand preference for a bimanual task in tufted capuchins ( cebus apella ) and rhesus macaques (\ntufted capuchins are notably heavier in captivity versus in the wild , with males averaging 13 lbs ( 6 . 1 kg ) and females averaging 7 lbs ( 3 . 19 kg ) .\nduring the mosquito season , capuchin monkeys crush up millipedes and rub the remains on their backs . this acts as a natural insect repellent .\nvisalberghi , e . , and trinca , l . ( 1989 ) . tool use in capuchin monkeys : distinguishing between performing and understanding .\nbrown capuchin monkeys vary in color from light brown to mustard yellow to black . the shoulders and underbelly are lighter than the rest of the body . there is a patch of coarse black fur on the crown of the head , sometimes referred to as a cap . above the ears the black hairs form tufts of fur giving the species one of its common names , tufted capuchin monkey . facial patterns are variable among individuals , but black sideburns extending from the cap are characteristic of\naverage home range size of the tufted capuchin can reach as high as 8 - 9 km\u00b2 ( 3 . 1 - 3 . 5 mi\u00b2 ) ( spironello 2001 ) . like other aspects of capuchin ecology however , this value can vary significantly with habitat , with some groups elsewhere having a home range of significantly smaller at around 2 . 6 km\u00b2 ( 1 mi\u00b2 ) to1 . 25 km\u00b2 ( . 48 mi\u00b2 ) , and can be as low as to . 5 km\u00b2 to . 7 km\u00b2 ( . 19 to . 27 mi\u00b2 ) ( izawa 1980 ; terborgh & janson 1983 ; janson in prep . cited in robinson & janson 1986 ) . average daily path for a tufted capuchin is around 2 . 1 km ( 1 . 3 mi ) ( janson in prep . cited in robinson & janson 1986 ) .\ntaylor , a . b . , & vinyard , c . j . ( 2009 ) . jaw - muscle fiber architecture in tufted capuchins favors generating relatively large muscle forces without compromising jaw gape .\nperry , s . , and rose , l . ( 1994 ) . begging and transfer of coati meat by white - faced capuchin monkeys ,\nwestergaard , g . c . , and fragaszy , d . m . ( 1987 ) . the manufacture and use of tools by capuchin monkeys\nwild tufted capuchins are capable of using tools to open up otherwise inaccessible fruits , the husks of which it cannot open in its teeth or jaws . it opens fruits by smashing them on tree surfaces or by using baton - like branch pieces to open the fruit . immature tufted capuchins have been observed attempting to mimic the behavior of adults but they often fail ( boinski et al . 2000 ) .\nthe tufted capuchin can be primarily found in northern amazon rainforest of the guyana , venezuela and brazil , but can also be found as far north as the orinoco in venezuela . however , it has also been found in eastern colombia , ecuador , and peru , which gives this species a rather large range compared to many other primates in the region . the tufted capuchin can be found in many different kinds of environments including moist tropical and subtropical forest regions , dry forest regions , and even disturbed or secondary forest ; though it typically prefers the most tropical regions of the forest . furthermore , their range and habitat overlaps with several other species of capuchins such as the white - fronted capuchins .\nlocomotion is principally quadrupedal and while traveling , the prehensile tail is not typically used and is curved down behind the body . the tail is mainly used during feeding and foraging and serves as a brake while descending ( youlatos 1999 ) . the tail helps to control risky movements , assist in changes in direction and to stabilize the capuchin while feeding in its characteristic seated posture . the tufted capuchin normally moves on branches and twigs and suspensory postures are rare ( fleagle & mittermeier 1980 ; youlatos 1999 ) .\nbonnie ke , de waal fbm ( 2007 ) copying without rewards : socially influenced foraging decisions among brown capuchin monkeys . animal cognition 10 : 283\u2013292 .\ngarber , p . a . , and paciulli , l . ( 1997 ) . experimental field study of spatial memory and learning in wild capuchin monkeys\nvisalberghi , e . , and limongelli , l . ( 1994 ) . lack of comprehension of cause - effect relationships in tool - using capuchin monkeys\nwestergaard , g . c . , kuhn , h . e . , lundquist , a . l . , and suomi , s . j . ( 1997b ) . posture and reaching in tufted capuchins (\nwestergaard , g . c . ( 1995 ) . the stone tool technology of capuchin monkeys : possible implications for the evolution of symbolic communication in hominids .\nwestergaard , g . c . , and fragaszy , d . m . ( 1985 ) . effects of manipulatable objects on the activity of captive capuchin monkeys\ntufted capuchin monkeys are extremely intelligent and have been recorded using tools , as seen in the video above . they use rocks to crack nuts open , carefully selecting rocks that are appropriate for the task . they consider size , weight , and shape . the rock often weighs nearly as much as the monkey . this indicates basic understanding of the physics of the two objects .\nthe altitude at which tufted capuchins are found also can vary considerably with the species having been seen as high as 2350 m ( 7709 . 97 ft ) in the peruvian highlands ( butchart et al . 1995 ) .\nhowever , given that sapajus has yet to gain widespread acceptance and further evidence is required before we feel confident adopting this taxonomic scheme , in this paper , we continue to assign the tufted capuchins to the genus cebus .\nwestergaard , g . c . , lundquist , a . l . , kuhn , h . e . , and suomi , s . j . ( 1997 ) . ant - gathering with tools by captive tufted capuchins\nthe main predator of the tufted capuchin is the harpy eagle ( harpia harpyja ) , which has been seen attacking capuchins in several locales ( rettig 1978 ; terborgh 1983 ; van schaik & van noordwijk 1989 ) . other potential predators include jaguars , pumas , jaguarundis , coyotes , tayras , snakes and crocodiles , although these are not confirmed ( fragaszy et al . 2004 ) .\nnear the eastern end of the tufted capuchin range in french guiana , the climate has an annual dry season from august to november and a long rainy season punctuated in february and march by a short dry spell . annual precipitation averages 3000 mm ( 118 . 11 in ) and temperatures range from 22 . 0\u00b0c ( 71 . 6\u00b0f ) to 31 . 2\u00b0c ( 88 . 16\u00b0f ) ( zhang 1995a ) . in the middle of the tufted capuchin range , near manaus , brazil in dense terra firma forest , mean average rainfall is 2 , 673 mm ( 105 . 24 in ) . this area exhibits a wet season from december to may and a dry season during the rest of the year . temperatures can range from 21\u00b0c ( 69 . 8\u00b0f ) to 33 . 5\u00b0c ( 92 . 3\u00b0f ) at this locale ( spironello 2001 ) . near the western extreme of the tufted capuchin range in moist tropical forest in southeastern peru , the dry season ranges from june to october and rainfall averages around 2000 mm ( 78 . 74 in ) with an average temperature of 24 . 1\u00b0c ( 75 . 38\u00b0f ) ( janson 1985 ) .\ntufted capuchin females mostly mate with the dominant male . the dominant male rarely strays away from the group during the last few days of the females estrus cycle ; the entire cycle lasts for 21 days . the pregnancy lasts for five months and the birth of twins is extremely rare . females raise the young and the infants cling to the mother\u2019s back . if an infant does become separated from its mother , other tufted capuchins will respond the the infants distress calls . males will leave their group at maturity ( 7 years ) ; whereas females stay within the group and are considered mature at 4 years of age .\nvisalberghi , e . , and addessi , e . ( 2000 ) . seeing group members eating a familiar food enhances the acceptance of novel foods in capuchin monkeys .\ngalleti , m . ( 1990 ) . predation on the squirrel , sciurus aestuanus by capuchin monkeys , and cebus apella . mammalia , 54 , 152 - 154 .\nwhen presented with a reflection , capuchin monkeys react in a way that indicates an intermediate state between seeing the mirror as another individual and recognizing the image as self .\nin this paper we have the following specific aims : ( 1 ) to determine how many tufted capuchin molecular lineages are found in the northern amazon ; ( 2 ) to determine how many molecular lineages are currently present in the peruvian amazon , and to assess the correspondence between the subspecies indicated by morphological studies ( c . a . maranonis , c . a . macrocephalus , c . a . peruanus , c . a . pallidus , and possibly a fifth unnamed subspecies ) and the molecular lineages ; ( 3 ) to determine if the 4 morphological species described by groves [ 2001 ] or the 7 morphological species described by silva jr . [ 2001 ] correspond to the tufted capuchin molecular lineages ; ( 4 ) to determine the temporal splits among these cebus taxa for the mtcoii gene .\ndi bitteti , m . s . & c . h . janson . 2001 . reproductive socioecology of tufted capuchins ( cebus apella nigritus ) in northeastern argentina . international journal of primatology 22 : 127 - 142 . [ links ]\ntufted capuchins hunt for food in groups . if one of the capuchins finds a food source ( and there is enough for more than just one individual ) the capuchin will give a whistling call to alert the others so the food can be shared . the omnivorous capuchins diet can consist of nuts , insects , fruits , flowers , seeds , leaves , and sometimes even frogs . tufted capuchins famously use stones to crack open nuts . capuchins strip the outer fiber of the nut with their teeth , and will place the nut out in the sun to dry . capuchins will then use a stone to repeatedly hammer the nut until it cracks .\nvisalberghi , e . , valente , m . , and fragaszy , d . m . ( 1998 ) . social context and consumption of unfamiliar food by capuchin monkeys (\nadams - curtis , l . e . , and fragaszy , d . m . ( 1994 ) . development of manipulation in capuchin monkeys during the first 6 months .\nthe dominant male protects his troop from predators by sounding alarm calls . this draws attention to himself so that his troop can escape . capuchin monkeys are very wary of predators .\nflannery , s . march 26 , 2000 .\nblack - capped capuchin , primate info net\n( on - line ) . accessed may 2 , 2001 at urltoken .\nlynch , j . w . ( 2001 ) . male behavior and endocrinology in wild capuchin monkeys , cebus apella nigritus . unpublished doctoral thesis . university of wisconsin , madison .\ncapuchins ( cebus ) consist of four species : c . apella ( brown or tufted ) , c . albifrons ( brown pale fronted ) , c . olivaceus ( weeping or wedge capped ) and c . capuchinus ( white faced capuchins ) .\nlynch - alfaro jw , de souza e , silva j jr , rylands ab ( 2012 ) . how different are robust and gracile capuchin monkeys ? an argument for the use of\n\u201cnew world monkeys 1 : squirrel monkeys and capuchin . \u201d grzimek\u2019s animal life encyclopedia . ed . melissa c . mcdade . 2nd ed . 2004 . 101 - 12 . print .\nperes , c . a . 1991 . seed predation of cariniana micrantha ( lecythidaceae ) by brown capuchin monkeys in central amaz\u00f4nia . biotropica 23 : 262 - 270 . [ links ]\nthe blond capuchin monkey ( cebus queirozi ) is a claimed new capuchin monkey species that was discovered in early 2006 by zoology researchers from the federal university in pernambuco , near recife , northeastern brazil . pontes said that \u2018as soon as i saw the monkey with its golden - yellow hair and the white tiara on its head , i knew it was a new species\u2019 .\nthe aim of this study was to evaluate simple behavioral enrichment procedures for a captive group of tufted capuchin monkeys ( cebus apella ) . we examined the effects of providing a manipulatable substrate ( straw ) and a variety of portable objects in the monkeys ' home cage . the animals were observed across three conditions in two replications : 1 ) no portable objects were present ; 2 ) a set of six . . . [ show full abstract ]\nurine washing and chest rubbing are several types of olfactory communication exhibited by the tufted capuchin . both of these behaviors could be scent - marking behaviors . urine - washing consists of an individual urinating upon its extremities and rubbing them against one another . there is no evidence of urine - washing serving any purpose in reproductive communication ( carosi et al . 2005 ) . however , tufted capuchins can discriminate between groups and recognize their species versus another based on the differential odor created by urine - washing ( ueno 1991 ; 1994 ) . this , coupled with evidence of differential responses to scent by sex , indicates that there is some sort of socially communicative role played by urine - washing ( ueno 1994 ) .\nfruits are a large part of brown capuchin monkey ' s diet . this species can eat larger fruits than other species of capuchin monkey because of their robust jaws . vegetation , seeds , pith , eggs , insects , reptiles , birds , and small mammals ( such as mouse opossums ) are also included in their diet . during the dry season , when food is scarce ,\nkierulff mcm , dos santos gr , canale g , guidorizzi ce , cassano c ( 2004 ) . the use of camera - traps in a survey of the buff - headed capuchin monkey ,\nthe capuchins are a group of new world monkeys . they are classified as the genus\ncebus\n. their name\ncapuchin\ncomes form their coloration , which resembles the cowls worn by the capuchin order of roman catholic monks . cebus is the only genus in the subfamily ,\ncebinae\n. cebinae includes squirrel monkeys , spider monkeys , wooley monkeys and wooley spider monkeys .\nthere is a gland on the chest of the male tufted capuchin which plays a role in scent - marking ( epple & lorenz 1967 ) . the dominant captive male is observed to use this gland , rubbing it on a substrate to scent - mark it while other age and sex classes rarely , if ever , show this behavior . urine marking is also seen in captivity in which males and females mark specific surfaces in their cages ( dobroruka 1972 ) .\nthe brown or tufted capuchin is recognized by its characteristic head coloration , a black or dark brown cap with dark sideburns . on either side of the dark cap on the head there are tufts of dark fur above the ears . the shoulders are paler than the back which ranges from shades of yellow to red - brown , darkest in the middle of the back . its legs , hands , and tail are darker than the rest of its pelage . the face can range from brown to pink ( groves 2001 ) . there is significant variation in face color among even members of the same group but adult males tend to be darker in color than females ( emmons & freer 1997 ) . sexual dimorphism is seen in the wild tufted capuchin with males averaging 3 . 650 kg ( 8 . 05 lb ) and females averaging 2 . 520 kg ( 5 . 56 lb ) ( fleagle 1999 ) . sexual dimorphism is also exhibited in canine size with males possessing larger canines than females ( kay et al 1988 ; masterson 2003 ) . in captivity , tufted capuchins are significantly heavier , with males averaging 6 . 089 kg ( 13 . 42 lb ) and females averaging 3 . 19 kg ( 7 . 03 lb ) in an extreme example ( leigh 1994 ) . head and body length is 444 mm ( 17 . 48 in ) for males and 390 mm ( 15 . 35 in ) for females . the tail is about as long as the rest of the body ( napier 1976 ) . in a captive case of extreme longevity , a tufted capuchin male lived until he was at least 45 years old ( hakeem et al . 1996 ) .\nruiz - garc\u00eda m , castillo mi , v\u00e1squez c , rodr\u00edguez k , pinedo m , shostell j , leguizamon n ( 2010a ) . molecular phylogenetics and phylogeography of the white - fronted capuchin (\noliveira m . m . de and langguth , a . 2006 . the rediscovery of marcgrave\u2019s capuchin monkey and a neotype for simia flavia schreber , 1774 ( primates , cebidae ) . in press .\nagile and lean , capuchin monkeys weigh only 3 - 9 pounds ( 1 . 36 - 4 . 9 kilograms ) . the fur of the capuchin monkey varies , but is most commonly seen with cream or light tan coloring around the face , neck and shoulders . the rest of its coat is dark brown . the hair is shorter and darker on the capuchin ' s back than on other parts of its body . the face of this cute monkey will range from white to pink in color . the tail is long , covered in hair and is partially able to wrap around branches .\njanson , c . h . ( 1990 a ) . social correlates of individual spatial choice in foraging groups of brown capuchin monkeys , cebus apella . animal behaviour , 40 , 910 - 921 .\njanson , c . h . ( 1990 b ) . ecological consequences of individual spatial choice in foraging groups of brown capuchin monkeys , cebus apella . animal behaviour , 40 , 922 - 934 .\nlike most new world monkeys , capuchin monkeys are diurnal and arboreal . with the exception of a midday nap , they spend their entire day searching for food . at night they sleep in the trees , wedged between branches . capuchin monkeys are undemanding regarding their habitat and can therefore be found in many differing areas . among the natural enemies of the capuchins are large falcons , cats and snakes .\ngolden - bellied capuchin monkeys are restricted to the atlantic forest of southern bahia , brazil , due to high degrees of interference from man . only 300 individuals survive . conservation status \u2013 critically endangered .\ndaily movements and activities of tufted capuchin groups are dictated by the alpha male . they are diurnal , and their days are spent feeding ( 66 % of the time ) , traveling ( 21 % ) and resting ( 12 % ) . during the wet season , they tend to rest more and travel around less when there is a greater abundance of fruit and other resources . since dry season produces far less fruit , time spent foraging the forest for insects increases drastically .\njanson , c . h . ( 1984 ) . female choice and mating system of the brown capuchin monkey cebus apella ( primates : cebidae ) . z . tierpsycol , 65 , 177 - 200 .\nanderson , j . r . , degiorgio , c . , lamarque , c . , and fagot , j . ( 1996 ) . a multi - task assessment of hand lateralization in capuchin monkeys (\nthe tufted capuchin monkey , scientific name cebus apella [ 1 ] , is a mammal and a primate that can be found in the atlantic forest biome , which is also known as a lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest [ 8 ] . this biome characterizes itself with its moist climate and warm weather . it can only be found in the tropical forests of south america , such as the amazon rainforest and the antlantic rainforest [ 9 ] . the tufted capuchin monkey needs sunlight in order to hunt , so it lives during day ( diurnal ) . it lives in the tops of the trees and in groups that range from two to twenty members . a group usually has a male , and the other group members that are closed to him have privilege when there is only a bit of food . moreover , the male has preference when he wants a female of the group . they do not have a specific area to live , so they usually encounter other groups . [ 1 ]"]}
{"id": 995, "summary": [{"text": "the serrated tortoise , psammobates oculifer , german : kalahari-strahlenschildkr\u00f6te , is a species of tortoise that occurs in the kalahari desert regions of southern africa .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "also known as the kalahari tent tortoise , it is one of three members of the genus , psammobates . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "serrated tortoise", "paragraphs": ["dana campbell set\nfile : psammobates oculifer - serrated tortoise - kalahari tent tortoise . jpg\nas an exemplar on\npsammobates\n.\ncunningham , peter . 2014 . psammobates oculifer ( kuhl , 1820 ) serrated tent tortoise . dormancy . african herp news ( 61 ) : 19\nleopard tortoises are the fourth largest species of tortoise , after the african spurred tortoise , the galapagos tortoise , and aldabra giant tortoise . it is the only member of the genus stigmochelys , but in the past it was commonly placed in\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - serrated hinge - back tortoise ( kinixys erosa )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - serrated hinge - back tortoise ( kinixys erosa )\ntitle =\narkive species - serrated hinge - back tortoise ( kinixys erosa )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe kalahari tent tortoise is much smaller than the leopard tortoise . it has a pronounced nuchal scale and a very serrated edge to the shell . it is more common in the drier areas of botswana and not common in the okavango .\nthe serrated hinged terrapin is found in tropical east africa , along zambezi river to victoria falls , and south to zululand .\nwhilst in some areas the serrated hinge - back tortoise is hunted , in others this tortoise is worshipped by local communities . they believe it brings happiness , is a symbol of peace and a sign of abundant children ( 10 ) . this \u2018holy\u2019 status may afford some populations a degree of protection . the serrated hinge - back tortoise is listed on appendix ii of he convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this tortoise should be carefully monitored to ensure it is compatible with its survival ( 3 ) . however , as there is insufficient information to determine the status of the hinge - back tortoise in the wild ( 1 ) , it can not be determined if the tortoise is being taken from the wild at sustainable levels . therefore , further research and surveys are required to ensure that this trade is not putting the serrated hinge - back tortoise at risk of extinction .\nheaton , jill s . , james o . juvik and kiinge amutenya . 2015 . psammobates oculifer kuhl , 1820 , serrated tent tortoise , winter activity . african herp news ( 62 ) : 28 - 29\nwhilst in some areas the serrated hinge - back tortoise is hunted , in others , this tortoise is worshipped by local communities . they believe it brings happiness , is a symbol of peace and a sign of abundant children ( 9 ) . this ' holy ' status may afford some populations a degree of protection . the serrated hinge - back tortoise is listed on appendix ii of he convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this tortoise should be carefully monitored to ensure it is compatible with its survival ( 3 ) . however , as there is insufficient information to determine the status of the hinge - back tortoise in the wild ( 1 ) , it can not be determined if the tortoise is being taken from the wild at sustainable levels . therefore , further research and surveys are required to ensure that this trade is not putting the serrated hinge - back tortoise at risk from extinction .\nthis is a small tortoise that comes in an amazing range of shapes and colours .\nthe serrated hinge - back tortoise can often be found under logs , in holes or in leaf litter , where it uses its strong legs and upturned shell edges to wedge itself into a protected shelter ( 2 ) . when in the open , the hinge - back tortoise can defend itself by withdrawing its limbs and closing its shell ( 2 ) . by resting and moving in the shade , the serrated hinge - back tortoise avoids overheating in its hot , tropical environment ( 7 ) . it is also a reasonable swimmer and will frequently seek out marshes and river banks in the forest ( 4 ) .\nspeke ' s hinged tortoise can close the hinged rear part of its carapace to protect its hindquarters .\nthe serrated hinge - back tortoise inhabits low to mid - altitude forest ( 2 ) , where it is nearly always observed in shady areas ( 7 ) . it is reportedly fond of swampy areas but in ghana it occurs mostly in dry clearings and open areas ( 2 )\nthe serrated hinge - back tortoise inhabits low to mid - altitude forest ( 2 ) , where it is nearly always observed in shady areas ( 7 ) . it is reportedly fond of swampy areas , but in ghana occurs mostly in dry clearings and open areas ( 2 ) .\nluiselli , l . and diagne , t . 2014 . kinixys erosa ( schweigger 1812 ) \u2013 forest hinge - back tortoise , serrated hinge - back tortoise , serrated hinged tortoise . in : rhodin , a . g . j . , pritchard , p . c . h . , van dijk , p . p . , saumure , r . a . , buhlmann , k . a . , iverson , j . b . , and mittermeier , r . a . ( eds . ) . conservation biology of freshwater turtles and tortoises : a compilation project of the iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group . chelonian research monographs 5 ( 7 ) : 084 . 1\u201313 , doi : 10 . 3854 / crm . 5 . 084 . erosa . v1 . 2014 , urltoken\nconsists of five small , relatively flattened tortoise species ( maximum shell length 10 - 17 cm ) , including the world ' s smallest tortoise . males are smaller than females and have concave plastrons in some species .\nhinge - backed tortoises ( species belonging to the genus kinixys ) have the remarkable ability to shut themselves entirely within their shells ( 4 ) . this is due to the hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) that can close off the tortoise ' s hind legs and tail ( 4 ) . the serrated hinge - back tortoise has a slightly concave shell that is reddish - brown and yellow ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the scales at the rear of the shell have upturned edges giving , as their name suggests , a serrated appearance ( 2 ) . the head is rounded and the tail has a small , claw - like protuberance at the tip . male serrated hinge - back tortoises can be distinguished from females by their longer and thicker tails ( 2 ) .\nhinge - backed tortoises ( species belonging to the genus kinixys ) have the remarkable ability to shut themselves entirely within their shells ( 4 ) . this is due to the hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) that can close off the tortoise\u2019s hind legs and tail ( 4 ) . the serrated hinge - back tortoise has a slightly concave shell that is reddish - brown and yellow in colour ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the scales at the rear of the shell have upturned edges , giving , as the common name suggests , a serrated appearance ( 2 ) . the head is rounded and the tail has a small , claw - like protuberance at the tip . male serrated hinge - back tortoises can be distinguished from females by their longer and thicker tails ( 2 ) .\nthe serrated hinge - back tortoise can often be found under logs , in holes or in leaf litter , where it uses its strong legs and upturned shell edges to wedge itself into a protected shelter ( 2 ) . when in the open , the hinge - back tortoise can defend itself by withdrawing its limbs and closing its shell ( 2 ) . by resting and moving in the shade , the serrated hinge - back tortoise avoids over - heating in its hot , tropical environment ( 7 ) . it is also a surprisingly reasonable swimmer and will frequently seek out marshes and river banks in the forest ( 4 ) . like all kinixys species , the serrated hinge - back tortoise is omnivorous , and feeds on fungi , fruits , plant matter , invertebrates and even carrion ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . during the breeding season it is thought that males fight ( 2 ) , competing for females to mate with . females lay several clutches of four eggs on the ground and cover them up with leaves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe hingeback tortoise are omnivores , feeding on edible leaves , grass , invertebrates , carrion , weeds , and fruits .\n: home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise is a forest tortoise , generally observed in shady places in lowland evergreen forest . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical swamps , plantations , and similar areas of high humidity .\nthe angulate tortoise inhabits a wide range of habitats , including fynbos , succulent karoo , nama karoo , and albany thicket .\na medium sized tortoise ; males are larger than females ; tortoises grow larger in the western regions than in the eastern part .\ntortoise & freshwater turtle specialist group 1996 . kinixys erosa . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . ( downloaded on 29 july 2007 . )\nthe conservation biology of tortoises . edited by ian r . swingland and michael w . klemens . iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group\nthe angulate tortoise feeds on a variety of angiosperms ( flowering plants ) , as well as mosses , mushrooms , insects , snail shells and animal faeces .\nhawksbills are named for their narrow , pointed beak . they also have a distinctive pattern of overlapping scales on their shells that form a serrated - look on the edges . these colored and patterned shells make them highly - valuable and commonly sold as\ntortoiseshell\nin markets .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise ( kinixys homeana )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise ( kinixys homeana )\ntitle =\narkive species - home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise ( kinixys homeana )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhe serrated hinged terrapin is the largest hinged terrapin . the carapace and bridge are uniform black in colour . the plastron is yellow - centered , with a sharply defined , black , angular pattern around the edge . the skin of the neck and limbs is pale olive - grey .\nthe secretive home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise has adapted its behaviour to tolerate the high heat of its tropical environment . overheating is a real risk , and so the tortoise rests and moves in the shade ( 6 ) . when water is not available , home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise may bury itself below ground and emerge again when the rains come ( 5 ) . home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise is omnivorous , consuming both animal and plant food , which is located using the sense of smell as the tortoise makes straight , darting jabs with the head ( 2 ) . interestingly , it is one of the most carnivorous terrestrial chelonians in the world ( 7 ) . home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise lays oval , brittle - shelled eggs , which are incubated for at least five months . the tiny hatchlings , less than five centimetres long , have flattened , brown carapaces , with no hinge ( 2 ) . the sex ratio of adults is 1 : 1 , but the females are considerably larger in size than the males ( 8 ) .\nthe skin and background color is cream to yellow , and the carapace is marked with black blotches , spots or even dashes or stripes . each individual is marked uniquely . old adults are often uniform grey - brown . they may exceed 700 mm in length and 40 kg in weight . the carapace is domed and not hinged , with scutes only faintly raised . the gulars are paired and are as long as they are wide . the nuchal is absent . there are 10 - 12 marginals , with those on the rear edge usually serrated and often upturned . the beak is sometimes hooked , is unicuspid and often serrated .\nthis secretive tortoise has adapted its behaviour to tolerate the high heat of its tropical environment . overheating is possible , and so the tortoise rests and moves in the shade . when water is not available , home\u2019s hinge - back tortoises may bury themselves below ground and emerge again when the rains come . it has a diverse diet , consuming both animal and plant food , which is located using the sense of smell as the tortoise makes straight , darting jabs with the head . interestingly , it is one of the most carnivorous terrestrial chelonians in the world .\n: this tortoise has a medium to reddish brown angular shell which slopes greatly . some have yellow markings . both the limbs and head are brown to yellow . the most unique characteristic of the hingeback tortoise genus ( kinixys ) is the hinge that is across the rear of the carapace . they are the only living tortoises to have this type of hinge . it is a band of flexible connective tissue located between the 4th and 5th costals and the 7th and 8th peripherals in adults . the home\u2019s hingeback tortoise is also known as the forest hingeback tortoise . kinixys homeana can be distinguished from the other hingebacks by its shell which is quite angular and comes to an abrupt end at the back , appearing to be cut off . this vertical drop is quite pronounced .\n, and its range has retreated due to clearance of its rainforest habitat . the hinge - back tortoise is considered to be threatened in the long - term , primarily due to habitat destruction .\nluiselli , l . ( 2003 ) seasonal activity patterns and diet divergence of three sympatric afrotropical tortoise species ( genus kinixys ) . contributions to zoology , 72 ( 4 ) : 211 - 220 .\nlike all kinixys species , the serrated hinge - back tortoise is omnivorous , and feeds on fungi , fruits , plant matter , invertebrates and even carrion ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . during the breeding season it is thought that males fight ( 2 ) , competing for females to mate with . females lay several clutches of four eggs on the ground and cover them up with leaves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the sex ratio is close to 1 : 1 , and females grow to a larger size than males ( 9 ) .\ninjury : most captive injuries are caused by dogs , lawn mowers , vehicles , aggressive companions and children dropping the tortoise . injury can also be caused by sharp glass or garden implements left lying around .\nwhat\u2019s available : most hingeback tortoises for sale in the united states are imported from africa . they usually land in pretty bad shape due to the collecting and shipping process . being shy to begin with , it is often hard to tell the difference between a tortoise on its death bed and one that is just really shy , but weight is a telling sign . the tortoise should feel hefty in your hand . avoid animals with discharge coming from the eyes , mouth or nose . take your tortoise to a qualified reptile veterinarian for a checkup and worming . babies are sometimes found for sale , but they are far and few . captive breeding is increasing , but at a tortoise pace . if you can find a captive - bred one for sale , buy it . you can find hingebacks at reptile shows , select pet and reptile stores , and sometimes online . reptiles\nthe hinge - back tortoise is indigenous to the tropical rainforests of sub - saharan africa . here it is often found in marshes and river banks , where it spends much of its time buried under roots and logs .\nluiselli , l . ( 2003 ) seasonal activity patterns and diet divergence of three sympatric afrotropical tortoise species ( genus kinixys ) . contributions to zoology , 72 ( 4 ) : 211 - 220 . available at : urltoken\nkeswick , toby and margaretha d . hofmeyr . 2015 . sexual dimorphism and geographic variation in the morphology of a small southern african tortoise psammobates oculifer . amphibia - reptilia 36 ( 1 ) : 55 - 64 - get paper here\nweigh your tortoise monthly , any undue weight loss can indicate problems ahead . keep a record book of his weight , any diet or disease problems can be noted down as well , this will help your vet diagnose any future problems .\na tip for vets from chris tabaka dvm : do you use gentamicin sulfate / betamethasone ophthalmic drops much there for tortoise urt disease ? i ' ve been using them two to three times daily in the eyes and also nostrils of a couple of recent cases in combination with the classic baytril 10 mg / kg every other day for two weeks with 100 % success in a couple of chronic cases here . i think it is primarily the betamethasone that is decreasing the inflammation in the airways and thus eliminating the classic wheezing but the antibiotic duo seems to be knocking out the responsible bugs at the same time . nothing like transforming\nwheezy\nthe drippy eyed tortoise into a healthy , bright eyed tortoise . chris tabaka dvm\nactivity patterns depend largely on temperature : on cool or wet days and in winter , the angulate tortoise is most active during the middle of the day , while in spring and summer it is less active during this hottest part of the day .\nin colour , males are frequently uniformly orange to light brown ( compared to the deeper olive brown of the females ) . males also have more lightly coloured bellies , though they do no exhibit the plastral concavity that many other tortoise species do .\ndue to its tiny size , this tortoise is heavily preyed on by crows , ostriches , jackals , baboons , dogs , and a wide range of other predators . consequently , it spends most of its time hiding under rocks , foliage , and other cover .\nshy and light - sensitive , cover is important for this species . a standard tortoise tank measuring about 4 feet long , 2 feet wide and 18 inches tall can house up to three or four adults , or a bunch of babies . use ground or shredded coconut core as a substrate . place a shallow water bowl at one end that\u2019s large enough for a tortoise to sit in . place various hides about the tank , making sure there\u2019s enough to accommodate each tortoise . place a layer of sphagnum moss on top of the coconut bedding and under the hides . moisten the substrate with water to create a humid tank but not sopping wet . spray or pour water into the tank substrate as needed to keep a humidity of about 77 to 85 percent . an automatic mister can work well for this purpose .\nconversely , during very hot summer days tortoises will aestivate ( go into a torpor ) and will not eat . available water during this time is critical as a tortoise can dehydrate quickly , although tortoises are very adept at storing water in anal pouches for use during drought .\nenjoy ! your tortoise is unique , they are amongst the longest living animals on earth . each one has a different character and many become very tame with time . take time to get to know his habits and preferences , his health and general well being will reflect your care \u2013 so give him the best you can ! common sense and good hygiene will prevent any disease transferring to you or your family , and hand washing after handling is a good idea . limit children from handling the tortoise as they are more susceptible to worm infections .\nalthough home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this species should be carefully monitored ( 3 ) , further action is necessary to ensure its survival , such as declaring it a protected species in all countries of occurrence ( 1 ) . habitat conservation efforts , such as the establishment and enforcement of protected areas , are also important , but must be coupled with the control of hunting activities if populations of this remarkable tortoise are to survive ( 9 ) .\nthe shields are typical with 11 marginals but occasionally 10 - 14 may be present . the nuchal is normally present . the rear of the shell has a relatively smooth profile when viewed from underneath . when viewed from the side the shell slopes down rapidly from the edge of the last vertebral shield . the hinge in this species is very well developed and easily noticeable on the carapace . the carapace has a weak , disrupted medial keel , and posterior marginals that are neither strongly serrated nor reverted .\nhome\u2019s hinge - back tortoise belongs to a unique group of tortoises that can close themselves entirely within their shells . as the name suggests , this group possess a hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) , that can close off the tortoise\u2019s vulnerable parts , providing excellent protection from potential predators ( 4 ) . the carapace of home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise varies in colour from dark brown to tan ( 2 ) , and is distinguished by the pronounced vertical drop at the end ( 5 ) . the shape of the carapace also cleverly channels rainwater towards its head for drinking ( 5 ) . each forelimb bears five claws and the small head has a hooked upper jaw . both the limbs and head are brown to yellow ( 2 ) . female home\u2019s hinge - back tortoises are larger than males , but males possess longer and thicker tails ( 2 ) .\nhingebacks legs are not as club shaped as other testudinidae . they are long and slender giving it an unusual gait when it walks . the tail ends in a claw - like tubercle . males have longer , thicker tails than the females and they have concave plastrons . these tortoises have relatively long skulls and a hooked upper jaw . hatchlings are flattened with serrated marginals and the hinge begins to develop when they are one year old . females are larger than males , but males possess longer and thicker tails .\nthe serrated hinged terrapin is a side - necked terrapin , which means that it does not pull it ' s head straight back into its shell , rather it turns its head to one side and tucks it into its shell . often seen sunbathing on rocks or logs , or on the backs of hippos . they can close up their shell which protects their head , legs and tail . they can also bite with their horny jaws or scratch with their sharps close as a defense . they secrete a very foul smelling odour when threatened .\nthe hingeback tortoise can arch its back 90 degrees downwards to protect its tail and hind legs while sleeping and to protect itself from predators . it is an excellent swimmer and can dive and navigate rainforest water - bodies to search for food . females lay up to 4 eggs on the ground , covered in leaves .\na small , rather flat tortoise . its shell usually has varied colouration , ranging between olive - green and brown . green shell with black margins in female , orange in male . the shields of the carapace are flat , with large raised areolae , and a thin black edging . dorsal scutes have depressed centres .\n: in its native west africa , the home\u2019s hingeback tortoise is threatened by habitat loss and intensive harvesting . ninety percent of its natural habitat of moist lowland forests and swamps has disappeared over the last 40 years . it is also harvested intensively for food ( bush meat ) , traditional medicines , and the international pet trade .\n( karoo tent tortoise ) has a plastron with a solid , sharply defined dark brown or black central blotch , which has only very reduced areas of lighter pigmentary intrusion . the domed carapace has a geometric pattern of thin yellow rays on a black background with well - developed\nknoppies .\nit attains a maximum length of 125mm .\nthis is the most widely distributed tortoise in southern africa . it has a wide distribution in sub - saharan africa , but is absent from all of west africa and most of central africa . historically absent from south western cape and from former transkei , adjacent kwa - zulu natal , and lesotho , but now introduced in some areas .\nthe serrated hinged terrapin is the largest hinged terrapin , with females being larger than males . the males can be identified by their longer tail . the carapace ( the upper part of the shell ) of the females can be as long as 400mm and weigh as much as 7kg . the males are smaller with a carapace that does not usually exceed 350mm and 4 . 5kg . the carapace on both the male and female is elongated with the back wider than the front . it has a high dome and marked serrated posterior marginal shields . these make the back edge of the shell look much like a pie crust edge or scalloped trim . the colour of the carapace in adults is usually dark grey or black and light or orangeish brown in the juveniles . there may be small dark patches on the carapace . the plastron ( the lower part of the shell ) is hinged and can be completely closed . this hinge and the serrations of the carapace give this terrapin its name . the skin of the neck and limbs is pale olive - grey . the head is blackish - brown with yellow or brown vermiculations . the snout is rather pointed with a pair of barbels on the throat .\nhofmeyr , margaretha d . ; melita vamberger , william branch , alfred schleicher and savel r . daniels 2016 . tortoise ( reptilia , testudinidae ) radiations in southern africa from the eocene to the present . zoologica scripta 46 : 389\u2013400 , doi : 10 . 1111 / zsc . 12223 [ record online : 18 nov 2016 ] - get paper here\nexternal parasites : if any ticks are found , remove manually by grasping with tweezers / forceps and flipping the tick onto its back , it will loosen its grip and can then be removed without the head remaining behind to cause infection . dab the spot with a little betadine to prevent infection . ticks can also be coated with mineral oil , this also causes them to lose their grip . the tortoise should be dipped in a solution of tritix ( amitraz ) 1 - 2ml per litre water . ensure this solution does not enter eyes , ears or mouth . this dipping will have to be repeated periodically to maintain effect as there will be ticks in the environment if you found any on your tortoise .\n: mating occurs during the wet season of november to february and the main egg laying season also occurs during this period . clutches of one to three eggs are laid . these are incubated for a period of five months or more . the relatively large eggs are oval to almost spherical ( 46 x 35 mm ) and have brittle shells . the tiny hatchlings , less than five centimetres long , have flattened , brown carapaces , with no hinge . size varies between 42 and 47 mm long . they have very spiny rims , marginals are serrated . they have no hinge or cervical scute . the hinge begins to develop when they are one year of age .\n: home\u2019s hinge - back tortoises belong to a unique group of tortoises that can close themselves entirely within their shells . as the name suggests , this group possess a hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) , that can close off the tortoise\u2019s vulnerable parts , providing excellent protection from potential predators to both head and limbs . the shape of the carapace also channels rainwater towards its head for drinking .\npopulations of home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise are currently declining throughout much of its range , primarily as a result of habitat loss and intensive harvesting ( 1 ) . the species is captured , even within protected areas , for human consumption , traditional medicine , and for the international pet trade ( 1 ) ( 9 ) . habitat loss is also occurring , as a result of industrial expansion , agriculture and deforestation ( 1 ) . nigerian populations appear to be particularly threatened , as they inhabit fragmented forest patches in the southern part of the country ( rather than the extensive forest found in the congo ) , and face stronger hunting pressure as a result of greater human populations ( 9 ) . the home\u2019s hinge - back tortoise appears to be especially vulnerable to humans during the dry season when the swamps are dry , and humans can access nearly all areas of the forest ( 9 ) .\nwhat to do if you think there is something wrong and you can\u2019t get to a vet straight away : place your tortoise under heat of some sort ( temperature as advised higher above ) , and soak twice daily in tepid water with electrolytes added \u2013 any electrolyte solution from your pharmacy can be used . it is vital to maintain hydration , and to boost immune system by raising heat . keep eyes from drying out by using a bland eye ointment .\nhinge - back tortoises are actively hunted by humans in sub - saharan africa , mainly for domestic consumption ( 9 ) . their flesh is highly prized as food by some forest peoples , and hunting is often carried out by dogs which locate the tortoise by its distinctive smell ( 2 ) . at present there are no other known threats to this species ; they are so widespread in the central african forests that they are probably not vulnerable to the impacts of habitat destruction ( 2 ) .\nthe angulate tortoise is endemic to south africa and southwestern namibia . it is particularly abundant in parts of the cape floristic region . found throughout the cape coastal regions from east londonin the east , around to the orange river mouth , and extendingperipherally into southern namibia . isolated records from luderitz and southern namibia may represent isolated , relict populations , or escaped captive specimens . a population in the karoo national park and adjacent farms at the base of the nuweveldberg may similarly represent a relict population or one derived from early escapees .\na very long - lived animal , the leopard tortoise reaches sexual maturity between the ages of 12 and 15 years . their life span is from 50 to 100 years . females usually lay 6 - 15 large , hard - shelled eggs . the hole , in which she lays her eggs , is refilled and the female may tamp down the soil by lifting and dropping her shell regularly on the spot . incubation takes 10 - 15 months , depending on the temperature . hatchlings weigh 23 - 50 g and measure 40 - 50 mm .\nthis chelonian is a grazing species of tortoise that favors semi - arid , thorny to grassland habitats , although some leopard tortoises have been found in rainier areas . in both very hot and very cold weather they may dwell in abandoned fox , jackal , or anteater holes . leopard tortoises do not dig other than to make nests in which to lay eggs . they occupy a large home range ( 1 - 3 sq . ams ) and have been known to undertake long return journeys ( 5 - 10 kms ) when translocated from their territories .\noxalic acid binds with calcium to yield insoluble calcium oxalate , which cannot be absorbed by the tortoise . avoid feeding any plants or vegetables high in oxalates especially to hatchlings and adult females ready to breed . the brassica family , which includes cabbage , collards , kale and broccoli can cause goiter if fed in excess because they tie up iodine - they do not contain high oxalic acid amounts like spinach and chard . goiters caused by this are rare and the feeding of a varied diet that is not heavily based on these plants should offset this tendency .\nthese small attractively marked tortoises are found in the kalahari , cape and namibia . the geometric tortoise is an endangered species and is subject to strong legal protection . these are all delicate small tortoises that are extremely difficult to maintain in captivity outside their natural areas . they are very prone to respiratory disease especially if housed with other species - as always , keep different species in isolated enclosures ! attempting to maintain psammobates species in damp or humid areas is invariably fatal ; they do best in an arid , sandy environment with as much natural food as possible .\nfor the duration of treatment keep him warmer than usual as this helps to dry up secretions and boosts immune system . ensure that any heat is fixed and that the tortoise is unable to dislodge it and thus cause a fire hazard . heat is especially important during cold and wet weather . do not stop the drops when you see his nose is dry , continue for at least a week to ensure the problem is well controlled . many tortoises who get rns relapse frequently , and then treatment has to begin again . any discharge from a single nostril often indicates a foreign body as the cause .\n( bushmanland tent tortoise ) often has a uniformly pale yellow or light brown plastron , occasionally with an indistinct dark central blotch . the carapace is often uniform russet or dark brown , but usually faintly patterned with darker brown rays . the colour pattern is varied , but it is primarily a starred or rayed pattern . the number and size of the rays from the central point of each shield vary , and the rays are generally light to darker yellow on a dark - brown to black background .\nknoppies\nare rarely developed , the shell often low , smooth and rounded . the maximum length is 145mm .\nhinge - back tortoises are actively hunted by humans in sub - saharan africa , mainly for domestic consumption ( 9 ) ( 10 ) . the flesh is highly prized as food by some forest peoples , and hunting is often carried out by dogs which locate the tortoise by its distinctive smell ( 2 ) . the species is also vulnerable to habitat fragmentation in parts of its range ( for example , in south - eastern nigeria ) ( 9 ) , but appears to still be relatively widespread in the central african forests . thus , it is possibly not particularly vulnerable to the impacts of habitat destruction at a large scale ( 2 ) ( 11 ) .\ndiet : home\u2019s are omnivores . they do well on dark , leafy greens , such as mustard and collard greens and kale . they also enjoy fruit or melon once per week . offer fresh greens three times a week . in the wild , they have been found eating slugs , small rodents and carrion . in captivity , they will accept pre - killed mice , canned dog and cat food , and ours do well on canned tortoise & lizard diet by zoo med . they are also fond of softened monkey biscuits . we offer the meat - based diets about twice a week . we supplement food items with a calcium / multivitamin supplement at each feeding .\ninternal parasites : tortoises in captivity are infamous for harboring parasites , both worms and protozoa . some of them can harbor many different parasites without coming to any harm as long as the animal stays stress free and well nourished . many tortoises in the wild are infected with protozoa in small numbers . if this tortoise is removed from his habitat and kept in captivity , it is quite likely that this will cause stress , which in turn affects immune response . this creates an ideal environment for parasites to flourish and cause disease . a faulty diet can cause the same thing , for example too much fruit raises lactic acid levels in the gut providing the ideal breeding ground for many parasites .\nonce a month during summer give your tortoise an all over\nscrub\nwith diluted betadine solution ( it should resemble weak black tea ) and a soft nail brush ( or a human baby hairbrush is ideal ! ) , at the same time examine shell for any defects or signs of scutes lifting . any loose scutes should be removed , and the area scrubbed and then allowed to dry . keep an eye on this area to ensure it does not develop into shell rot , and if any of the surrounding scutes loosen remove those too . do not apply any substance to the shell , as this can affect their ability to maintain body temperature . paint in particular can be harmful . if large areas of scutes start loosening it\u2019s a sign of trouble and you should seek vet help immediately .\n( namaqualand tent tortoise ) has a bright yellow or light brown plastron with the central figure sharply defined , but fragmented by lighter rays or broad pigmentary intrusions . the carapace is coloured with a geometric pattern of wide yellow to orange rays on a black background . the striking colour pattern of this species is typically starred or rayed . the number and size of the rays from the central point of each shield vary , and like the other starred tortoises , the colour ranges from light to darker yellow on a dark - brown to black background . in this species , however , there are bright orange - red infusions at the bottom of each ray that makes it very attractive indeed . the straw - coloured underside of the shell or plastron has a central black region . the domed carapace has well developed\nknoppies\nand reaches a maximum length 145mm .\ngeneral : at least once a month , examine your tortoise\u2019s mouth , this allows him to get used to being handled and can help if ever you need to medicate or treat him . be gentle , grasp the head firmly and use thumb and index finger to create pressure at the corners of his mouth , at the same time pulling down on the bottom of his jaw with your right hand . once you have mouth open place a finger in the corner of his mouth at the back ( their\nbite\nis weakest here ) or prop the mouth open with a plastic spoon handle . examine the inside of his mouth , membranes and tongue should be a healthy pink . look for any yellow deposits or signs of debris collecting around the edges of his mouth . check on smell too as any foul odour indicates problems and should be attended to immediately . another less invasive technique is to\nhand feed\na favoured diet item while lying in front of him , and while he eats examine mouth carefully .\nif injury is minor , clean thoroughly with diluted betadine or chlorhexadine solution , remove any foreign bodies , then apply an ointment such as flammazine ( silver sulfadiazine ) . cover with gauze and micropore if possible . repeat daily till healing is well advanced and then keep up cleaning and leave to dry . remove any dead tissue that is visible . at this point necrospray ( available from any vet ) can be applied every two days or so , this will prevent infection and aid drying the wound . if any injury is major , do not attempt treatment yourself , take him to your vet as soon as possible . if your vet is unavailable , stop any bleeding and clean wounds until you can get help . most important is the quick removal of any foreign bodies as these can cause infection later . keep on hand some ky jelly , this can be applied to the wound after removal of foreign bodies and will prevent it drying out until you can get help . if any internal organs are exposed then quick veterinary help is vital . wrap the tortoise in a damp towel and get help immediately .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 frameset / / en\nurltoken\ncontinent : africa distribution : republic of south africa ( from extreme w transvaal and the w orange free state northwestward ) , botswana , namibia type locality :\nvom cap dahin gebracht worden ,\n[ i . e . republic of south africa ] .\nclassification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by c . michael hogan - see more .\nc . michael hogan marked the classification from\nspecies 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013\nas preferred for\npsammobates oculifer kuhl 1820\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ntestudo oculifera kuhl 1820 testudo semiserrata smith 1840 testudo semi - serrata \u2014 dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1854 : 220 testudo oculifera \u2014 werner 1902 testudo oculifera \u2014 werner 1910 : 301 psammobates oculifer \u2014 pritchard 1967 psammobates oculifer \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 68 psammobates oculiferus \u2014 king & burke 1989 psammobates oculifer \u2014 bauer et al . 1993 psammobates oculiferus \u2014 valverde 2005 psammobates oculiferus \u2014 bonin et al 2006 psammobates oculifer \u2014 bates et al . 2015 : 81 psammobates oculifer \u2014 hofmeyr et al . 2016 psammobates oculifer \u2014 ttwg 2017 : 147\ntype locality :\nvom cap dahin gebracht worden ,\n[ i . e . republic of south africa ] .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nauerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .\nbates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .\nbauer , aaron m . ; branch , william r . & haacke , wulf d . 1993 . the herpetofauna of the kamanjab area and adjacent damaraland , namibia . madoqua ( windhoek ) 18 ( 2 ) : 117 - 145 .\nbonin , f . , devaux , b . & dupr\u00e9 , a . 2006 . turtles of the world . english translation by p . c . h . pritchard . johns hopkins university press , 416 pp .\nbroadley , d . g . , . hunt , j . & cantle , g . 2010 . psammobates oculifer ( kuhl , 1820 ) . african herp news ( 51 ) : 24 - 25\nconradie , w . , doucette - riise , s . , vanhooydonck , b . , engelbrecht , < br / > h . , measey , g . j . , & tolley , k . 2011 . herpetological survey of rooipoort nature reserve , northern cape , south africa . african herp news ( 53 ) : 35 - 41\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . , g . bibron & a . dum\u00e9ril 1854 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles . vol . 9 . paris , xx + 440 s . - get paper here\nernst , c . h . and barbour , r . w . 1989 . turtles of the world . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c . - london\ngreig , j . c . , and p . d . burdett . 1976 . patterns in the distributions of southern african terrestrial tortoises ( cryptodira : testudinidae ) . zool . africana 11 ( 2 ) : 250 - 267 .\nherrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94\u2013115 - get paper here\nhughes , b . 1986 . longevity records of african captive amphibians and reptiles : part 1 : introduction and species list 1 - amphibians and chelonians . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 32 ) : 1 - 5 - get paper here\nkeswick , toby & margaretha d . hofmeyr 2013 . population ecology of psammobates oculifer in a semi - arid environment . african journal of herpetology 62 ( 2 ) : 63 - 77 - get paper here\nkeswick , toby and margaretha hofmeyr . 2014 . refuge characteristics and preferences of psammobates oculifer in semi - arid savanna . amphibia - reptilia 35 ( 1 ) : 41 - 51 - get paper here\nkuhl , h . 1820 . beitr\u00e4ge zur zoologie und vergleichenden anatomie . hermannsche buchhandlung , frankfurt , 152 pp . - get paper here\nloveridge , arthur & williams , ernest e . 1957 . revision of the african tortoises and turtles of the suborder cryptodira . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 115 ( 6 ) : 163 - 557 - get paper here\nschleicher , alfred 2015 . reptilien namibias . namibia scientific society , 276 pp .\nsmith , a . 1840 . illustrations of the zoology of south africa , reptilia . smith , elder , and co . , london - get paper here\nwerner , f . 1910 . reptilia et amphibia . in schultze , l . , zoologische und anthropologische ergebnisse einer forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen s\u00fcdafrika . band iv , systematik und tiergeographie vertebrata b . denkschr . med . - nat . wiss . geseli . jena 16 : 279 - 370 [ 1910 ] - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\noccurs in west africa from the gambia , east to the democratic republic of congo and uganda , and south to southern angola ( 6 ) .\nclassified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nturtles of the world ( cd - rom ) , by ernst , c . h . , altenburg , r . g . m . and barbour , r . w . : urltoken\nauthenticated ( 06 / 08 / 09 ) by dr luca luiselli , senior researcher in ecology , institute demetra , rome , italy . urltoken\ncarrion dead flesh . genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below \u2018family\u2019 and above \u2018species\u2019 . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a \u2018binomial\u2019 latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . invertebrates animals with no backbone . omnivorous an organism that feeds on both plants and animals .\nspawls , s . , howell , k . , drewes , r . c . and ashe , j . ( 2004 ) field guide to the reptiles of east africa . christopher helm publishers ltd , london .\nalderton , d . ( 1988 ) turtles and tortoises of the world . blandford press , london .\nernst , c . h . , altenburg , r . g . m . and barbour , r . w . ( 1997 ) turtles of the world . eti information systems ltd , netherlands . available at : urltoken\nluiselli , l . ( 2005 ) aspects of comparative thermal ecology of sympatric hinge - back tortoises ( kinixys homeana and kinixys erosa ) in the niger delta , southern nigeria . african journal of ecology , 43 ( 1 ) : 64 - 69 .\nluiselli , l . , politano , e . and akani , g . c . ( 2003 ) seasonal incidence , sex - ratio , and population cohorts of hinge - back tortoises ( genus kinixys ) in the wild and in bush - meat markets of the niger delta , southern nigeria : are human predation effects random ? . revue de ecologie - la terre et la vie , 58 : 243 - 248 .\nluiselli , l . ( 2003 ) comparative abundance and population structure of sympatric afrotropical tortoises in six rainforest areas : the differential effects of \u201ctraditional veneration\u201d and of \u201csubsistence hunting\u201d by local people . acta oecologica , 24 ( 3 ) : 157 - 163 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbecause of their small size they are best maintained in a secure enclosure situated in a dry sunny area with plenty of rocks both for climbing , basking upon , and hiding under . these species should have unlimited access to dry sandy soil , and the enclosure must be well planted with as much indigenous plant material as possible from their natural area . they have also been observed eating other plants and these can be chosen from the plant list below :\nthe chenopodiacea family which includes beet greens , spinach and chard should be avoided as they contain oxalates .\nfeeding on natural growing plants and ensure exercise and adequate nutrition . if they can be maintained totally on growing food , then this is desirable .\n: grated / thinly sliced cucumber , grated carrot / butternut / pumpkin , diced tomato , lettuce / cabbage ( very small quantities ) , grated courgettes ( zucchini ) , fruit ( sparingly - paw - paw is the favourite ) . this food should be offered in the early morning , and any uneaten food removed by lunchtime . a good vitamin / mineral supplement should be added to the food about once a week . the odd bone and cuttlefish left lying in the enclosure will be chewed on , this helps keep their beak trim and provides additional calcium ."]}
{"id": 996, "summary": [{"text": "the mariana mallard or oustalet 's duck ( anas oustaleti ) is an extinct type of duck of the genus anas that was endemic to the mariana islands .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "its taxonomic status is debated , and it has variously been treated as a full species , a subspecies of the mallard or the pacific black duck , or sometimes as a subspecies of the indian spot-billed duck . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mariana mallard", "paragraphs": ["the mariana mallard is an extinct species of mallard that lived only on the mariana islands . the mariana mallard is classed as part of the anas genus however its taxodermic status is open to debate .\nliving exclusively on the mariana islands the mariana mallard is thought to have migrated between islands such as the saipan , guam , tinian and possibly even the rota island . the reports of mariana mallard on rota are unconfirmed and and allegedly reported two unidentified ducks , not necessarily the mariana mallard .\nover the years debates have ranged about the mariana mallard with some claiming the mariana mallard as a subspecies of the indian spot - billed duck , some favoring the mariana mallard to be a subspecies of the pacific black duck while others believe it to be a stand alone species .\na final determination on the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill is published in today ' s federal register .\nmariana mallard\u2019s weighed in at around 1 kilograms and grew to around 55cm in length making them slightly smaller than common mallards . as is the case with male mallards , the male mariana mallard had a green head that was not as bright as today\u2019s mallard .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service\nmariana mallard / anas platyrhynchos oustaleti . threatened and endangered species . urltoken\nthe mariana mallard was endemic to the mariana archipelago and documented to occur on the islands of guam , tinian , and saipan . there was some speculation that mariana mallards were once found on the islands of rota and pagan ( baker 1948 ; steadman 1992 ; reichel and lemke 1994 ) .\nonly one comment was received during the comment period . the commonwealth of the northern mariana islands division of fish and wildlife stated that they concurred with our conclusion that the mariana mallard is extinct and should be removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .\namend \u00a7 17 . 11 ( h ) by removing the entries for \u201cmallard , mariana\u201d and \u201cbroadbill , guam\u201d under \u201cbirds\u201d from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .\nthe similar appearance of female mallard with both sexes of grey duck makes identification difficult in reducing the mallard population , and interbreeding . the female mallard in flight may actually be a grey duck .\nwe also requested and received peer review from three experts on the waterbirds and forest birds of the mariana islands . all three peer reviewers concurred with our conclusion that the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill are extinct and should be removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .\nthis paper provides 70 species accounts documenting new bird records we obtained in the 14 mariana islands north of guam .\nno population estimate was ever recorded for the mariana mallard prior to its decline . however , it was believed that they were never abundant due to the limited habitat availability of freshwater marshes and lakes in the mariana archipelago ( baker 1951 ) . the largest number of mariana mallards ever recorded was of 2 flocks of 50 to 60 mariana mallards at lake hagoi , tinian , in 1936 ( kuroda 1942 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ) . however , by the 1940s , most observations of mariana mallards on tinian , saipan , and guam were of 12 or fewer birds ( stott 1947 ; marshall 1949 ; kibler 1950 ) . the last mariana mallards observed on guam and tinian were observed in 1967 and 1974 , respectively ( drahos 1977 ; tenorio and associates 1979 ) . on\ngenerally chestnut in color the mariana mallard sported light gray feathers on its underside and had a dark bill that reached a rich olive coloration at the front end . the mix of coloring gave the mariana mallard a distinct look similar to that of a pacific black duck but with a lighter underside . the females of the species looked like today\u2019s female mallards with dark brown feathers and orange feet similar to the males .\nsaipan , the last wild mariana mallards were observed in 1979 by our biologist eugene kridler ( 1979 ) . at that time , mr . kridler also captured a pair of mariana mallards for captive propagation at pohakuloa , hi , which were then sent to sea world , san diego , ca . all attempts at propagation failed and the last known mariana mallard died there in 1981 ( engbring and pratt 1985 ) . since 1979 , surveys of all the known wetlands on guam , rota , saipan , and tinian have produced no observations of mariana mallards ( tenorio and associates 1979 ; stinson et al . 1991 , 1997 ; reichel\nno confirmed sightings or vocalizations of the mariana mallard have been reported since 1979 , despite surveys , and the last captive bird died in 1981 . no confirmed sightings or vocalizations of the guam broadbill have been reported since august 1984 , despite surveys , and the last captive bird died in february 1984 . therefore , we believe enough evidence exists to declare the mariana mallard and guam broadbill extinct and to remove them from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .\nmariana mallards ( anas platyrhynchos oustaleti ) were endemic to the western pacific islands of guam , tinian , and saipan . surveys for this endangered subspecies that were conducted on tinian , saipan , and other islands in the u . s . commonwealth of the northern mariana islands ( cnmi ) from 1983 through 1989 show that the mallard no longer occurs there . following extirpation of mariana mallards on guam in the 1960s , this island subspecies is now extinct . the major causes of extinction appear to be overhunting of small populations and habitat loss .\nmales and females are alike in appearance , and similar to plumage of the female mallard . the grey duck ' s colouring is darker overall , and the head stripes more pronounced than the female mallard .\nthe mariana mallard is believed to have been a subspecies that originated as a hybrid between the common mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) and the grey duck ( anas superciliosa ) ( reichel and lemke 1994 ) . the majority of males and all female mariana mallards resembled the grey duck except their legs were orange , their bill was olive , and they lacked the grey duck ' s prominent brown streak below the eye ( yamashina 1948 ) . the remaining males resembled male common mallards , having green heads and purple - blue speculums ( yamashina 1948 ) .\nthe mariana mallard and the guam broadbill are protected by the government of guam ( pub . l . 15 - 36 ) . removal of these species from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife does not alter or supersede their designation by the government of guam as endangered species .\npossible management actions include predator control , reduction of the mallard population , and protection of wetland habitats . reduction of the male mallard population would directly reduce cross - breeding , and is the surest way of reducing mallards .\nthe green head and yellow bill of the mallard duck is a familiar sight to many people living in the northern hemisphere . in fact , the mallard is thought to be the most abundant and wide - ranging duck on earth .\nit was generally assumed that as the spectacular nuptial plumage of mallard drakes is obviously the result of sexual selection - most species in the mallard group being sexually monomorphic - , hybrid matings would preferentially take place between females of monomorphic relatives and mallard drakes instead of the other way around . but this generalization was found to be incorrect . [ 22 ]\nmost mallard species are common and not considered threatened . however one threat to their populations includes hybridization with other ducks .\ndraining and fragmentation of wetlands greatly reduced the quantity and quality of habitat available for the mariana mallard on guam , tinian , and saipan ( stinson et al . 1991 ; reichel et al . 1992 ; reichel and lemke 1994 ) . during the japanese occupation of saipan and tinian between 1914 and 1945 , most wetlands were channelized and converted to rice paddies . also during this time , sugar mill wastes were discharged into lake susupe on saipan , the last known location of the mariana mallard in the wild . since 1945 , many wetlands have been drained or filled in as a result of urban development on guam , tinian , and saipan ( stinson et al . 1991 ; reichel et al . 1992 ; reichel and lemke 1994 ) . the mariana mallard , never great in number , is believed to have lost most of its limited habitat with the decimation of wetlands , while being hunted with little to no enforcement of hunting restrictions .\nthe mallard / grey limit in taranaki is 10 , and in southland it is 15 from 4 may to 26 july .\nafter a thorough review and consideration of all information available , we have determined that the mariana mallard and guam broadbill are extinct and should be removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife . we determined that none of the five factors addressed in section 4 ( a ) ( 1 ) of the act now affects these species .\nmallard plumage is predominant in most mallard / grey duck hybrids , suggesting that male mallards mate with grey duck females , as opposed to the other way around , however , the level of contribution to the hybrid ' s ancestry cannot be ascertained from plumage .\nthe marianas mallard has probably never been abundant in this small island chain where extensive wetland complexes do not occur . based on historical information the primary reasons for the decline of the marianas mallard are habitat destruction , over - hunting and inadequate regulatory mechanisms in the past .\nthis final rule revises \u00a7 17 . 11 ( h ) to remove the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife due to extinction . the prohibitions and conservation measures provided by the act , particularly sections 7 and 9 , will no longer apply to these species . there is no designated critical habitat for these species .\nmarianas mallard .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nbased on recent surveys in the mariana islands , the marianas mallard is probably extinct . as a result of these findings a discussion of future threats is academic . however , the existing wetlands that support other wildlife species ( including the endangered race of common moorhen , gallinula chloropus guami ) will continue to suffer in the future from development projects similar to those mentioned above .\nthe marianas mallard also occurred on the northern marianas islands of tinian and saipan . this species has not been documented on any island north of saipan .\nin the proposed rule to delist the mariana mallard and guam broadbill published on january 25 , 2002 ( 67 fr 3675 ) , we requested that all interested parties submit comments on the proposal . we also contacted all appropriate state and federal agencies , county governments , landowners , and other interested parties and invited them to comment . the comment period closed on march 26 , 2002 ( 67 fr 3675 ) .\nmallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) is the ancestor of almost all of the varieties of domestic ducks . domestic ducks belong to the subfamily anatinae of the waterfowl family anatidae . the wild mallard and muscovy duck ( cairina moschata ) are believed to be the ancestors of all domestic ducks . [ 3 ] [ 4 ]\nmarianas mallard .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nlocated in mallard cove in the new hampshire region , lake winnipesaukee230 has a patio . guests staying at this holiday home have access to a fully equipped kitchen .\nmariana mallards were recorded in freshwater marshes , lakes , and rivers , and were also observed in mangrove lagoons ( stott 1947 ; marshall 1949 ; kibler 1950 ) . little was known about their foraging habitat but they were observed foraging on green vegetation and seeds ( marshall 1949 ) . mariana mallards apparently bred from march to august ( kuroda 1941 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ; kuroda 1942 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ; marshall 1949 ) , and were believed to have laid 1 clutch of 7 to 12 eggs per year ( kuroda 1942 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ) .\nthe grey duck ' s legs and feet are greenish brown , but the legs of hybrids tend to be orange - brown , taking on the color of the mallard ' s legs .\nthe marianas mallard typically inhabits wet - lands , particularly freshwater / brackish lakes and ponds adjacent to marshes , but mangrove lagoons , streams and flooded fields are also used . in 1984 wetlands in the northern marianas were rated as primary or secondary mallard habitat on the basis of water levels , nesting cover and size . of the 12 surveyed wetlands only four ranked as having primary habitat potential .\ngrey duck have a white underwing and an iridescent turquoise green speculum on their wing ( lower right ) , whereas the mallard speculum is blue or purple . the blue speculum tends to predominate on hybrids .\nin a strict sense this species is nonmigratory . the marianas mallard is known from only three small islands in the mariana archipelago ( guam , tinian , saipan ) . inter - island movement of ducks between saipan and tinian , which are separated by 3 mi ( 4 . 8 km ) of open ocean , does not occur . movements probably occur as a means of obtaining food or in reaction to human disturbances . inter - island movements between guam and rota ( 30 - 40 miles [ 48 - 64 km ] ) have been suspected but never proven .\nthe marianas mallard was found on guam in the talofofo river valley prior to the second world war with few verified sightings after the war . habitat destruction led to its probable extinction by the 1960s or early 1970s .\nthe mallard was first introduced into new zealand from europe in the 1860s but failed to acclimatise . after eggs were imported in 1930 from california , the population multiplied so quickly that mallards are now regarded as an invasive species .\ngrey duck were commonly found in shallow wetlands and fresh water streams , and occasionally in estuaries throughout new zealand until the 1950s . they have suffered severely from loss of habitat , and competition with the introduced mallard duck anas platyrhynchos .\nin accordance with 5 u . s . c . 553 ( d ) , we have determined that this rule relieves an existing restriction and good cause exists to make the effective date of this rule immediate . delay in implementation of this delisting could cost government agencies staff time and monies in conducting formal section 7 consultation on actions that may affect a species no longer in need of protection under the act . relieving the existing restrictions associated with this listed species will enable federal agencies to minimize any delays in any ongoing or future project planning and implementation actions that may have affected the mariana mallard and guam broadbill .\nwhile the rapid decline of grey duck has been caused by the loss of wetlands , and hunting , another principle cause is interbreeding with the very large population of introduced mallard anas platyrhynchos . very few pure - bred grey duck remain .\nin the hawkes bay game region , fish & game new zealand have a mallard / grey daily bag limit of 6 , comprising no more than 2 hen mallards and 3 grey duck for the season 2 may to 14 june 2009 .\ngeographic area : united states alabama alaska american samoa arizona arkansas british columbia california colorado connecticut delaware dist . of columbia florida georgia guam hawaii idaho illinois indiana iowa kansas kentucky louisiana maine maryland massachusetts michigan minnesota mississippi missouri montana nebraska nevada new hampshire new jersey new mexico new york north carolina north dakota northern mariana islands ohio oklahoma oregon pennsylvania puerto rico rhode island south carolina south dakota tennessee texas utah vermont virgin islands virginia washington west virginia wisconsin wyoming\nthe chatham islands are a stronghold for the new zealand subspecies , as there appears to be a lower level of hybridisation with mallard ducks . although now thinly scattered throughout the mainland , more prominent populations are found in the northland , waikato , gisborne and westland regions .\npopulations of marianas fruit bats , pteropus mariannus , were surveyed on each of the 15 mariana islands in 1983\u20131984 . it is estimated that a minimum of 8 , 700\u20139 , 000 fruit bats occur in the archipelago , with about 8245 % of these bats found on the nine northernmost and largely uninhabited islands . the islands of anatahan , pagan , and agrihan had the largest populations , with minimum population . . . [ show full abstract ]\nin addition to hybridisation with new zealand grey duck , mallard interbreeding is polluting the genes of its descendent relatives , the american black duck , hawaiian duck , meller ' s duck , florida duck , mexican duck and yellow - billed duck which are endemic to their local regions .\nmallard groups can often be seen head dipping or completely upending in the water . they rarely dive though , spending their time near the surface and dabbling for invertebrates , fish , amphibians , and a variety of plants . they also graze on land , feeding on grains and plants .\nrecent surveys indicate that the marianas mallard is extinct within the northern marianas islands . similar conclusions have already been reached for the guam population . without a viable population it is impossible to describe the current biology of the species . the recovery potential for the species faded when the captive breeding program failed .\nthe release of feral mallard ducks in areas where they are not native sometimes creates problems through interbreeding with indigenous waterfowl . these non - migratory mallards interbreed with indigenous wild ducks from local populations of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring . complete hybridization of various species of wild ducks gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl . the wild mallard itself is the ancestor of most domestic ducks and its naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted in turn by the domesticated and feral populations . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ]\nlike elsewhere worldwide the alien mallards are also causing severe \u201cgenetic pollution\u201d of south africa\u2019s biodiversity by breeding with endemic ducks . the hybrids of mallard and the yellow - billed duck are fertile and can produce more hybrid offspring . if this continues , only hybrids will occur and in the long term this will result in the extinction of various indigenous waterfowl . the mallard duck can cross breed with 63 other species and is posing a severe threat to the genetic integrity of indigenous waterfowl . mallards and their hybrids compete with indigenous birds for resources such as food , nest sites and roosting sites . [ 10 ]\nthe mallard is a large and heavy looking duck . it has a body and a long and broad bill . the male has a dark green head , a yellow bill , is mainly purple - brown on the breast and grey on the body . the female is mainly brown with an orange bill .\nthe mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) is the best - known and most recognizable of all ducks . it can be found throughout most of north america , europe , asia , new zealand and australia . it is the most common and widespread duck . it can be found in almost any area with a wetland habitat , even in urban areas .\nvery little information about the food habits of the marianas mallard exists . a . oustaleti has been observed feeding on green vegetation and seeds in very shallow water . assuming the diet of a . oustaleti is similar to a . platyrhynchos , they probably consume floating , emergent , and submerged non - woody plants , grasses , seeds , insects , crustaceans and snails .\nsometimes considered to include some or all of a . laysanensis , a . rubripes , a . fulvigula and a . wyvilliana . probable unstable hybrids of a . superciliosa and a . laysanensis , a . wyvilliana or present species , found on some micronesian islands , have been considered a different species , mariana duck ( a . oustaleti ) . hybridization recorded with at least 23 other species of anas , often producing fertile progeny , and also with several species of aix , alopochen , anser , branta , tadorna , cairina , aythya and somateria . proposed race neoborea is synonymized with nominate . two subspecies recognized .\ngenetic data , in particular the existing phylogenetic discord between mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna , suggest that the currently endangered hawaiian duck ( anas wyvilliana ) is descended from a hybridization event between the mallard ( a . platyrhynchos ) and laysan duck ( a . laysanensis ) that occurred around the pleistocene\u2013holocene boundary # r . this is further supported by circumstantial evidence from the hawaiian subfossil record .\nwild ducks were killed illegally by hunters on saipan and tinian as late as the 1970s . both migratory and the native species were subject to mortality from hunters when the marianas mallard population was very small . there was and still is a definite lack of enforcement of game laws at the local level , even though the duck has been protected by territorial and federal laws since the early 1970s .\nthe mallard inhabits most wetlands , including parks , small ponds and rivers , and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing ; there are reports of it eating frogs . [ 2 ] it usually nests on a river bank , but not always near water . it is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large flocks , which are known as a sord . [ 6 ]\ncarboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe anas oustaleti ( marianas mallard ) is 20 - 22 in ( 50 . 8 - 55 . 88 cm ) in length with the silhouette of a mallard . the male ( platyrhynchos type ) has a dark green head with buff feathers intermingled along the sides . there is a dark brown streak running through the eye and a faint white ring on the lower neck . the sides of the body are vermiculated but some brown feathers are found even in the full nuptial plumage , with a lighter area under the wings . the upper breast is a dark reddish chestnut with dusky spots and the bill is black with an olive tip . the upper tail coverts are dark with white tail feathers , and the central upper tail coverts are dark and curled upward . the speculum is a dark blue , and the feet are a reddish orange color , darkening around the webs .\nas expected , haplotypes typical of american mallard relatives and spotbills can be found in mallards around the bering sea . [ 26 ] interestingly , the aleutian islands turned out to hold a population of mallards that appear to be evolving towards a good subspecies as gene flow with other populations is very limited . [ 25 ] this unexpected result suggests that reevaluation of the greenland , iceland , and ne canada populations according to molecular and morphological characters is warranted .\nexcessive hunting and collecting during the prewar and post - war eras contributed to the decline of the marianas mallard . during their pre - war occupation the japanese collected 30 - 40 specimens which reduced an already small gene pool just prior to and during the peak of habitat destruction . during and immediately after island fighting in the second world war , people were forced to live off the land , including wildlife for sustenance . there is a distinct possibility that several mallards were killed during this period .\npredation of vertebrates by mallards ( anas platyrhynchos ) seems to be a rare behaviour , only documented in a few cases in relation to fish and amphibians . mallards are largely vegetarian , although the species is considered omnivorous and it can take variable quantities of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates . the foraging behaviour of mallard was observed at a reserve in southwest romania , where a group of mallards comprising one adult female and ten juveniles killed and consumed a grey wagtail ( motacilla cinerea ) and a black redstart ( phoenicurus ochruros ) . these are the first documented records of bird hunting by wild mallards # r .\nwhen they pair off with mating partners , often one or several drakes will end up\nleft out\n. this group will sometimes target an isolated female duck \u2014 chasing , pestering and pecking at her until she weakens ( a phenomenon referred to by researchers as rape flight ) , at which point each male will take turns copulating with the female . male mallards will also occasionally chase other males in the same way . ( in one documented case , a male mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after said male had been killed when he flew into a glass window . ) [ 7 ]\nmallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the genus anas , such as the american black duck , and also with species more distantly related , for example the northern pintail , leading to various hybrids that may be fully fertile . this is quite unusual among different species , and apparently has its reasons in the fact that the mallard evolved very rapidly and not too long ago , during the late pleistocene only . the distinct lineages of this radiation are usually kept separate due to non - overlapping ranges and behavioral cues , but are still not fully genetically incompatible . mallards and their domesticated conspecifics are , of course , also fully interfertile .\ndense cover associated with inhabited wetlands includes large stands of rushes scirpus juncoides , phragmites karka , and various sedges . also important for cover is the fern , acrostichum aureum , which forms hammocks in several marshes . the largest complex of mallard habitat lies in southern saipan , the lake susupe marsh area , a total of 150 - 200 acres ( 60 - 80 hectares ) with peripheral marsh habitat . other areas known to have been used by mallards are much smaller ( e . g . , breeding occurred on lake hagoi , a small pond of about 10 acres ( 4 hectares ) surrounded by 40 acres ( 16 hectares ) of marsh ) . nests have been located in reed swamps and in streamside wetlands .\nthe public inspection page on urltoken offers a preview of documents scheduled to appear in the next day ' s federal register issue . the public inspection page may also include documents scheduled for later issues , at the request of the issuing agency .\nprinted version : pdf publication date : 02 / 23 / 2004 agencies : fish and wildlife service dates : this rule is effective february 23 , 2004 . effective date : 02 / 23 / 2004 document type : rule document citation : 69 fr 8116 page : 8116 - 8119 ( 4 pages ) cfr : 50 cfr 17 rin : 1018 - ah50 document number : 04 - 3784\nthis tables of contents is a navigational tool , processed from the headings within the legal text of federal register documents . this repetition of headings to form internal navigation links has no substantive legal effect .\nthese tools are designed to help you understand the official document better and aid in comparing the online edition to the print edition .\nthese markup elements allow the user to see how the document follows the document drafting handbook that agencies use to create their documents . these can be useful for better understanding how a document is structured but are not part of the published document itself .\nthis document has been published in the federal register . use the pdf linked in the document sidebar for the official electronic format .\nthe administrative record file for this rule is available for inspection , by appointment , during normal business hours at the u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands fish and wildlife office , 300 ala moana boulevard , room 3 - 122 , honolulu , hi 96850 .\nfred amidon , fish and wildlife biologist , pacific islands fish and wildlife office , at the above address ( telephone : 808 / 792 - 9400 ; facsimile : 808 / 792 - 9580 ) .\nfederal action on the guam broadbill began on february 27 , 1979 , when the acting governor of guam petitioned us to list the guam broadbill and five other forest bird species as endangered . we issued a notice of review for 12 petitioned animals , including the guam broadbill , on may 18 , 1979 ( 44 fr 29128 ) . in our december 30 , 1982 ( 47 fr 58454 ) , review of vertebrate wildlife , the guam broadbill was considered a category 1 candidate for federal listing . category 1 species were those for which we had substantial information on biological vulnerability and threats to support preparation of a listing proposal , but for which a listing proposal had not yet been published because it was precluded by other listing activities . we published a proposed rule to list the guam broadbill as endangered on november 29 , 1983 ( 48 fr 53729 ) . the final rule determining the guam broadbill to be an endangered species was published on august 27 , 1984 ( 49 fr 33881 ) , and a recovery plan for the guam broadbill and four other listed bird species on guam and rota was published in 1990 ( service 1990 ) .\non june 14 , 1991 ( 56 fr 27485 ) . this proposed rule was withdrawn on april 4 , 1994 ( 59 fr 15696 ) because most of the lands proposed as critical habitat had by this time been incorporated into the guam national wildlife refuge overlay lands . we determined that critical habitat designation was not prudent because it would not provide the guam broadbill with any benefit beyond that already provided by the refuge overlay lands . on april 3 , 2000 , the marianas audubon society and the center for biological diversity filed a suit to challenge our withdrawal of critical habitat for these species . on september 7 , 2000 , we filed a motion to voluntarily remand the nonprudency decision based on subsequent court decisions on critical habitat . this motion set a deadline of june 1 , 2003 , for us to redetermine prudency and designate final critical habitat , if prudent , for the guam broadbill and five other listed species . we published a proposed rule in the\n) . on april 16 , 2002 , the guam district court issued a ruling that ordered us to comply with terms of the critical habitat settlement agreement by june 1 , 2003 .\nsection 4 of the act and regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the act ( 50 cfr part 424 ) set forth the procedures for listing , reclassifying , or removing species from listed status . we may determine a species to be an endangered or threatened species because of one or more of the five factors described in section 4 ( a ) ( 1 ) of the act ; we must consider these same five factors in delisting species . we may delist a species according to section 424 . 11 ( d ) if the best available scientific and commercial data indicate that the species is neither endangered nor threatened for the following reasons : ( 1 ) the species is extinct ; ( 2 ) the species has recovered and is no longer endangered or threatened ; and / or ( 3 ) the original scientific data used at the time the species was classified were in error .\nnational environmental policy act of 1969 , need not be prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4 ( a ) of the endangered species act of 1973 , as amended . we published a notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the\na complete list of all references cited herein is available upon request from the pacific islands fish and wildlife office ( see addresses section ) .\nthe primary author of this final rule is fred amidon , ecological services , pacific islands fish and wildlife office , u . s . fish and wildlife service ( see addresses section ) .\n16 u . s . c . 1361 - 1407 ; 16 u . s . c . 1531 - 1544 ; 16 u . s . c . 4201 - 4245 ; pub . l . 99 - 625 , 100 stat . 3500 ; unless otherwise noted .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nmales have dark green heads with buff feathers ; females are all brown with feathers edged with light brown .\nthe male superciliosa - type has a dark brown head with brown and buffy on the sides of the head . the scapulars , sides of body and the upper breast are all dark brown with light brown margins . the tail is dark brown with no white , and the central upper tail coverts are flat . the speculum is usually dark blue or purple as in a . platyrhynchos but two specimens had dark green speculums . the bill is olive with black spot in center of mandible and the feet are dark orange , growing darker in the joints and webs .\nfemale platyrhynchos and superciliosa types are indistinguishable from each other and resemble a . superciliosa except for a blue speculum . they are all brown with feathers edged with light brown . the sides of face are marked with light yellow or buffy feathers , and a dark line runs through the eye with a buffy eye stripe above . the tail is brown and has flat feathers . the bill is either blackish or brownish .\na . oustaleti was first described in 1856 as a sub - species of a . boschas , based on one specimen from\nles isles malouines\nin the paris museum . thirty - eight years later the same specimen was examined and called a . oustaleti . the next six specimens were collected from guam in 1888 and described by oustalet . since then the taxonomy of the species has been debated from time to time . the u . s . fish and wildlife service considers anas oustaleti a true species .\nanas oustaleti tend to use dense cover in the middle of the hot tropical day .\nrecovery actions underway include ongoing surveys and law enforcement by the commonwealth of northern marianas islands division of fish and wildlife and review of development projects affecting wetlands .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species eastside federal building 911 n . e . 11th ave . portland , oregon 97232 - 4181 telephone : ( 503 ) 231 - 6121 urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nyou are viewing the mobile version of this page on your desktop . click here to view the desktop version\nyou do wonder how a subspecies of duck can become extinct , but that is actually something that has happened here . it is a bit of a shame that it happened , but then who would actually have noticed if it had not been mentioned here ?\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchief , bird section , u . s . g . s . - b . r . d . - p . w . r . c .\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner\ncheck - list of birds of the world , vol . 1 , second edition\nconsidered a hybrid by peters , check - list of birds of the world , 2nd ed . , 1979 ( of anas platyrhynchos \u00d7 a . superciliosa )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\nanas platyrhynchos and a . fulvigula ( incorporating diazi ) ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously treated as a . platyrhynchos ( incorporating diazi ) and a . fulvigula following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\nashpole , j , butchart , s . , ekstrom , j . , malpas , l .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , hence the species is not thought to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nantigua and barbuda ; brunei darussalam ; cayman islands ; cook islands ; djibouti ; dominican republic ; fiji ; gambia ; gibraltar ; guadeloupe ; jamaica ; kiribati ; mali ; martinique ; niger ; nigeria ; panama ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; senegal ; seychelles ; sri lanka ; svalbard and jan mayen ; thailand ; vanuatu ; virgin islands , u . s . ; zambia\nwhere they undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c . 4 weeks ( scott and rose 1996 )\n. its diet consists of seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants ( e . g . crops ) ( del hoyo\nand even in abandoned nests of other species ( e . g . herons or crows ) ( flint\nextensive\ngrazing of wetland grasslands ( c . 0 . 5 cows per hectare ) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in hungary ( baldi\nthe species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from pollution ( e . g . petroleum [ grishanov 2006 ]\n) , wetland drainage , peat - extraction , changing wetland management practices ( e . g . decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over - growth )\n. the species also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion ( e . g . in spain [ mateo\n( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22680186a119275821 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 161 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nmallards prefer calm , shallow sanctuaries , but can be found in almost any body of freshwater across asia , europe , and north america . they\u2019re also found in saltwater and brackish water and are commonly found in wetlands .\nthe male , or drake , is the more distinctively colored of the mallards . its iconic green head sits atop a white neckband that sets off a chestnut - colored chest and gray body . females are mottled drab brown in color , but sport iridescent purple - blue wing feathers that are visible as a patch on their sides . they grow to about 26 inches in length and can weigh up to 3 pounds .\nmated pairs migrate to and breed in the northern parts of their range and build nests on the ground or in a protected cavity . they normally lay about a dozen eggs , and the incubation period lasts just under a month . mallards are territorial during much of this period , but once incubation is well underway , males abandon the nest and join a flock of other males .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project anseriformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each waterfowl , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project anatidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each waterfowl , including made - up species .\nthis article is part of project extinct , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each extinct species , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nit breeds in all parts of the europe in summer and winter , wherever there are suitable wetland habitats , although it is scarcer in upland areas .\nowing to their highly ' malleable ' genetic code , mallards can display a large amount of variation , as seen here with this female , who displays faded or ' apricot ' plumage .\nall content from kiddle encyclopedia articles ( including the article images and facts ) can be freely used under attribution - sharealike license , unless stated otherwise . cite this article :\ncontent is available under cc by - sa 3 . 0 unless otherwise noted . kiddle encyclopedia articles are based on selected content and facts from wikipedia , rewritten for children . powered by mediawiki .\nmore than 1 million people last month said they ' d recommend urltoken to their family and friends .\n15a songbird lane is set in laconia . guests staying at this lodge have access to free wifi . the lodge includes 4 bedrooms , a living room , and a bathroom with a shower . the lodge offers a barbecue .\nfeaturing 3 buildings , this waterfront resort is located on the shores of lake winnipesaukee , offering a private beach and canoe rentals . it is 4 . 9 km from the centre of laconia , new hampshire .\nmy nephews weren ' t there so i didn ' t have put up with them yelling and fighting over a toy . plus sleeping on a bed instead of a couch for once was nice\nfeaturing air conditioning , lake winnisquam - waterfront - 377 is located in moultonborough , 38 km from concord . meredith is 12 km away . the accommodation features a tv .\nlocated directly on paugus bay of lake winnipesaukee , this new hampshire resort boasts a private swim area . gunstock mountain is 9 miles away .\nlocated in laconia , this new hampshire inn is by lake opechee and is 3 miles from ahern state park on lake winnisquam . the property has a small soaking pool and spa facilities .\nset among native forests , directly on paugus bay , birch knoll is a family - run property overlooking lake winnipesaukee .\nhosts were great ! room and facilities excellent and comfy . will go back .\nlocated in the laconia city centre , this hotel is less than a mile from the shores of lake winnisquam . it serves a continental breakfast every morning and features a game room .\nthe staff was very polite . very helpful . room was clean .\nthis laconia accommodation is located on lake winnipesaukee and offers complimentary boat slips . guests at naswa resort can enjoy a private beach on the bay .\nlocated 1 mile from weirs beach , this motel features an outdoor pool , a hot tub , and lush landscaped gardens . fun spot arcade is 2 miles from the motel .\nexcellent place to stay . lovely view . short drive to weirs beach . friendly and informative staff . highly recommend to stay here . looks like the photos .\nyou ' re subscribed ! your welcome email will arrive in your inbox soon .\nurltoken b . v . is based in amsterdam in the netherlands , and is supported internationally by 198 offices in 70 countries .\nurltoken is part of booking holdings inc . , the world leader in online travel and related services .\nwe have more than 70 million property reviews , and they ' re all from real , verified guests ."]}
{"id": 1031, "summary": [{"text": "the italian cave salamander ( speleomantes italicus ) is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "endemic to italy , its natural habitats are temperate forests , rocky areas , caves , and subterranean habitats ( other than caves ) .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "italian cave salamander", "paragraphs": ["vignoli l , caldera f , bologna ma . spatial niche of the italian cave salamander ,\ninformation on the italian cave salamander is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthis is an informational website on the species commonly known as the north - west italian cave salamander or in scientific language , speleomantes strinatii ! other common names for this species are the french cave salamander or strinati ' s cave salamander .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - italian cave salamander on cave wall\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - italian cave salamander on cave wall\ntitle =\narkive photo - italian cave salamander on cave wall\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnorth - west italian cave salamander statusclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - italian cave salamander\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - italian cave salamander\ntitle =\narkive photo - italian cave salamander\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfacts summary : the french cave salamander ( speleomantes strinatii ) is a species of concern belonging in the species group\namphibians\nand found in the following area ( s ) : france , italy . this species is also known by the following name ( s ) : north - west italian cave salamander , strinati ' s cave salamander .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - italian cave salamander ( speleomantes italicus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - italian cave salamander ( speleomantes italicus )\ntitle =\narkive species - italian cave salamander ( speleomantes italicus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe iitalian cave salamander is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nviolin plots representing humidity in cave sectors available ( white ) and occupied by cave salamanders ( grey ) , during three months .\npaper relating case of leucism and albinism in italian amphibians . during my research i found leucistic individuals in two species of sardinian cave salamanders : hydromantes supramontis and h . flavus\ncamp cd , wooten ja , jensen jb , bartek df . role of temperature in determining relative abundance in cave twilight zones by two species of lungless salamander ( family plethodontidae )\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - french cave salamander facts\n( online ) - licensed article from wikipedia : the free encyclopedia . accessed\nvignoli l , caldera f , bologna ma . trophic niche of cave populations of\nhans - martin braun added the italian common name\ngeotritone italico\nto\nspeleomantes italicus ( dunn , 1923 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the italian common name\ngeotritone italiano\nto\nspeleomantes italicus ( dunn , 1923 )\n.\nwe hope you enjoy learning about this fastinating organism . if you are interested in visiting other informational websites regarding different species , visit a database called urltoken . the database includes informative pages on other salamanders such as the spotted salamander and the tiger salamander .\njung re , droege s , sauer jr , landy rb . evaluation of terrestrial and streamside salamander monitoring techniques at shenandoh national park .\nannual variation of the coefficients of regressions between presence / absence of cave salamanders , temperature and humidity .\nficetola gf , pennati r , manenti r . do cave salamanders occur randomly in cavities ? an analysis with\nlunghi e , manenti r , ficetola gf . do cave features affect underground habitat exploitation by non - troglobite species ?\nlunghi e , manenti r , manca s , mulargia m , pennati r , ficetola gf . nesting of cave salamanders (\nficetola gf , pennati r , manenti r . spatial segregation among age classes in cave salamanders : habitat selection or social interactions ?\n( aellen , 1958 ) . in : sindaco r , doria g , razzetti e , bernini f ( eds ) atlas of italian amphibians and reptiles . polistampa , firenze , pp 258\u2013261\nmanenti r , lunghi e , ficetola gf . the distribution of cave twilight - zone spiders depends on microclimatic features and trophic supply .\n) . therefore , in the following winter , acquiring energy is a major priority for juveniles . the most superficial cave sectors are the ones with driest microclimate (\nhills n , hose gc , cantlay aj , murray br ( 2008 ) cave invertebrate assemblages differ between native and exotic leaf litter . austral ecol 33 : 271\u2013277\nschneider k , christman mc , fagan wf ( 2011 ) the influence of resource subsidies on cave invertebrates : results from an ecosystem - level manipulation experiment . ecology 92 : 765\u2013776\n) . cave salamanders are able to exploit the whole cave ; therefore , if salamanders just require optimal abiotic conditions they can remain in farthest sectors where suitable microclimate is more stable . conversely , in this study , salamanders during summer were associated to more humid sectors than in winter . this suggests a higher tolerance for dry sectors during winter , and supports the selection change hypothesis . multiple , non - exclusive explanations are possible for such selection change . first , newborns\n) . the deepest sectors showed high stability of humidity through time , while fluctuations due to external variation were evident in sectors nearby the cave entrance . external humidity was particularly high in autumn and spring , determining an increase of humidity in the first sector of caves (\n) , but their features and the distribution of their inhabitants shows strong fluctuations through the year , particularly in the superficial sectors . no doubt , the strong seasonal variation of salamander distribution was mostly dictated by the fluctuations of microhabitats . nevertheless , habitat preferences and requirements may change across seasons , as in the case of juveniles that select microhabitats with slightly different conditions in different times (\n) . furthermore , all cave abiotic features ( temperature , humidity and light ) followed the variation of external conditions , which indeed were the major cause of fluctuations of internal microhabitats . while this influence was strongest in the first meters of the caves , it remained clearly detectable at depths > 20 m (\ncave depth represented the major gradient along with microhabitat features varied : as expected , humidity always increased and light decreased in the deepest sectors . the relationship between temperature and depth was more complex . during winter a positive relationship between temperature and depth was observed , while the relationship became negative during the warm months (\nthe area of violin plots represents the distribution of cave sectors according to microclimate feature . width of plots is proportional to the number of sectors showing such microclimate condition . the black points represent the medians , the grey boxes represent the second and third quartiles . the violin plots for temperature are available in fig . s2 .\nthe dependent variables were three major features of cave microclimate : ( a ) internal temperature , ( b ) internal humidity and ( c ) illuminance . independent variables were : month of survey , depth of sector , temp . ext ( external temperature ) , hum . ext ( external humidity ) , time ( hour of survey ) .\nis a northern and central alpinnine endemic , ranging from the provinces of reggio emilia ( emillia - romagna ) and lucca ( tuscany ) southwards to the province of pescara inclusive ( abruzzi ) . specimens from pian di mugnone , just n of florence , were introduced in 1983 naturalized in the cave\nbuca del nebbia\n. 11\u00ba14 ' 11\ne - 43\u00ba20 ' 09\nn , 310m a . s . l . , on the southern slope of monte maggio , near monteriggioni , province of siena ( tuscany ) . the altitudinal distribution ranges from 80 m a . s . l . in garfagnana ( near anchiano , province of lucca ) up to 1594 m on mount corchia ( apuan alps , province of lucca ) ( gasc 1997 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncox , n . and temple , h . j . ( global amphibian assessment )\njustification : listed as near threatened since although its extent of occurrence is probably less than 20 , 000 km2 and its habitat might be declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable , it probably occurs in more than ten locations , and its range is probably not severely fragmented .\nthis species is a northern and central apennine endemic , ranging from the provinces of reggio emilia ( emilia - romagna ) and lucca ( tuscany ) southwards to the province of pescara ( abruzzi ) inclusive ( lanza et al . 2007 ; sindaco et al . 2006 ) . it occurs from 80 to 1 , 600 m asl .\nit is common over much of its range , although it is considered to be less abundant in the southernmost part of its range . there is no evidence of any population decline taking place .\nthis species is known from humid rocky outcrops , caves , crevices , and forested areas in the vicinity of streams , often in limestone areas . it reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs .\nthere are no major threats identified other than some localized habitat loss and illegal collection .\nthis species is present in some protected areas ( natura 2000 sites and regional and national parks ) . it is listed on appendix ii of the bern convention and on annex iv of the eu habitats directive .\nfranco andreone , paul edgar , claudia corti , roberto sindaco , antonio romano . 2009 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\n[ 0485 ] andrew snider and j . bowler ( 1992 ) , longevity of reptiles and amphibians in north american collections , second edition\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\ntotal length of males up to 112 mm , for females up to 120 mm . adult males have a mental gland on the chin , which becomes more evident in mating season . tail oval in cross section and slightly less than half the total length . trunk on cross section square . limbs well developed and hind legs slightly longer than front legs . front feet with 4 , hind feet with 5 flattened digits . coloration as in other\n. a clutch contains 6 - 14 eggs of 5 - 6 mm in diameter . the females seem to keep in contact with their eggs . the eggs undergo direct development . after 5 months , the egg starts to swell due to increased water uptake . after 8 months , the egg has reached a diameter of 10mm . the egg then contracts until hatching after 10 months ( all at 12\u00ba c ) . the young are 22 - 24 mm in length upon hatching . development to sexual maturity takes 3 to 4 years . direct observation in captivity has shown that this species may live up to six years .\nseems to be an opportunistic hunter with a wide range of invertebrate prey ( boehme et al 1999 ) .\nthe mediterranean region is subject to increasing human habitation causing pollution , deforestation , fires , loss of surface waters and introduction of exotic species . despite these factors ,\nis not endangered . this is mainly due to its relatively large distribution and its water - independent biology ( boehme et al 1999 ) .\nis abundant in its range and should not be considered an endangered species . it is , however , less abundant or even relatively uncommon only in the province of pescara , i . e . in the southernmost portion of its range ( gasc 1997 ) .\nhuman activity has provided suitable habitats for this species in regions that are not so naturally rich in caves as the karst area . exploitation of\npietra serena\nhas yielded mounds of rocks near quarries and these and the rock walls used in traditional agriculture are now inhabited by the species .\nboehme , w . , grossenbacher , k . , and thiesmeier , b . ( 1999 ) .\nhandbuch der reptilien und amphibien europas , band 4 / i : schwanzlurche ( urodela ) .\narie van der meijden ( amphibia at arievandermeijden . nl ) , research associate , museum of vertebrate zoology , uc berkeley\nedited by david b . wake ( jan . , 2000 ) ( 2002 - 05 - 25 )\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\n, it can be found in italy . you can see 13 photos of this amphibian .\nmobile version - juza . ea @ urltoken - terms of use and privacy - p . iva 01501900334 - rea 167997 - pec juzaphoto @ urltoken\n: we use the most recent data from these primary sources : who , world bank , unesco , cia and individual country databases for global health and causes of death .\nwe use the cdc , nih and individual state and county databases for verification and supplementation for usa data .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nif you are searching for this slimy organism , you should start looking at entrances of caves in northwestern italy as well as southeastern france . you can find more information about their exact locations on our habitat and geography page .\nspeleomantes strinatii is one of seven species of the genus , speleomantes , residing in caves in europe . ancestors of these species are located in california . you can find more information about their history on our classification page .\ngo to our next page to learn how our organism is classified ! website was last updated on 24 april 2014 .\ncopyright template design \u00a9 2007 travel portal . all rights reserved . designed by free css templates .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nitalienischer h\u00f6hlensalamander\nto\nspeleomantes italicus ( dunn , 1923 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthis species is restricted to south - eastern france and north - western italy , from 80 to 2 , 400 m asl .\nalthough there is little available information on the population status of this species , it is not considered to be declining in italy . in some parts of its range it is a common species .\nit is found in the vicinity of streams and seepages , and amongst rocky outcrops and caves in mountainous areas . it reproduces through the direct development of a few terrestrial eggs .\nthere are no major threats identified other than localized loss of habitat and illegal collection .\nthe species is present in some protected areas . prior to being considered a separate species speleomantes strinatii was listed on both appendix ii of the bern convention , and on annex iv of the eu habitats directive , under s . italicus . although this species is not considered to be declining in italy , further information is needed on the status of the populations in france .\nfranco andreone , paul edgar , claudia corti , marc cheylan , roberto sindaco , antonio romano . 2009 .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nall applicable institutional and / or national guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed . the study was conducted under authorization of apuan alps regional park ( no 5 , 4 / 04 / 2013 ) , district of prato ( no 448 , 2013 ) , district of pistoia ( no 0022597 / 2013 / p ) and district of lucca ( no 731 , 21 / 02 / 2013 ) .\nwe used visual encounter surveys to assess the presence / absence of h . italicus and m . menardi spiders in each sector . this standardized technique allows to verify the presence of species in an area during a defined time ( crump & scott jr , 1994 ; jung et al . , 2000 ) . if possible , salamanders were measured . salamanders showing total length > 6 . 5cm or with male secondary characters were considered adults ( lanza et al . , 2006 ) , the remaining salamanders were considered juveniles . all individuals were immediately released at the collection point .\ninternal variables are ( a ) temperature , ( b ) humidity and ( c ) illuminance ( lux ) . in each graph , colored plots represent sectors located at different distance from the entrance ( from 3 to 21 m ) . these sectors represent the area in which microclimate variability is higher ; at 21 m illuminance was constantly 0 lux . error bars are standard errors . for temperature and humidity , the trend of the respective external feature is also shown , represented by a continuous red line .\nwe considered as dependent variables inner abiotic features of caves : ( a ) temperature , ( b ) humidity and ( c ) illuminance . we used as independent variables : month of survey , time in which the survey began , depth of sector , external temperature , external humidity and interaction between month and depth ( prof : m ) . for each continuous variable , the regression coefficient is reported if the variable is included into a given model . for both categorical variables and interactions , + indicates their presence into the model . for each independent variable , we report the first five best models .\nparameters related to microclimatic change of caves through the year : best - aicc models .\npresence of h . italicus was strongly related to month , and was generally associated with sectors characterized by high humidity , low light and abundant m . menardi spiders ( tables 3a and 4a ) . furthermore , significant interactions between month and temperature and between month and humidity indicated different microhabitat selection patterns among months ( table 4a ) . specifically , in winter periods salamanders were associated with warmest sectors , while in summer periods they were associated with coldest and most humid sectors ( figs . 2a and 2b ) .\n( a ) \u2013 ( b ) : results of regression models analyzing all individuals encountered ; ( c ) \u2013 ( d ) results of models analyzing adults only ( e ) \u2013 ( f ) results of models analyzing juveniles only . results for december were not reported due to small sample size .\nwe considered as dependent variable the presence of ( a ) the species , ( b ) presence of adults and ( c ) presence of juveniles . we used as independent variables : internal humidity ( humid ) , month of survey , illuminance ( lux ) , meta spiders abundance and internal temperature ( temp ) . furthermore , we also used as independent variables interaction between month and internal humidity ( hum : m ) , month and illuminance ( lux : m ) , month and meta spiders ( meta : m ) and month and internal temperature ( temp : m ) . for each continuous variable , the regression coefficient is reported if the variable is included into a given model . for categorical variables and interactions , + indicates that the variable or the interaction is included into the model .\nthe dependent variables were the presence of ( a ) species , ( b ) adults only and ( c ) juveniles only . see table 1 for explanation of variable names . only the best - aicc models are shown .\nthe microhabitat selection pattern was similar if adults only were considered . adults were more abundant in sectors with low light and abundant m . menardi ( tables 3b and 4b ) . furthermore , differences among months were strong , and the interactions between month and both humidity and temperature were significant . adults were associated with relatively cold sectors during summer , while in winter they were associated with warmer sectors ( fig . 2c ) . in summer , adults were associated with the most humid sectors ; however , they showed a clear preference for the most humid sectors also in february ( fig . 2d ) .\njuveniles were more frequent in sectors with high humidity and abundant m . menardi spiders ; furthermore the effect of month , and the interactions humidity - month and temperature - month were significant ( tables 3c and 4c ) . juveniles were associated with the coldest sectors during winter and with warmer sectors during spring ( fig . 2e ) . from late winter until spring , juveniles were associated with sectors characterized by lower humidity , while during summer this apparent preference shifted in favor of most humid sectors ( fig . 2f ) .\nmost of equivalency tests were not significant , suggesting that habitat selection pattern was consistent through months ( table 5 ) . however , in the analyses of humidity considering all individuals and juveniles only , niche equivalency was significantly lower than expected by chance between february and june , and between february and july . salamanders were more tolerant for low - humidity habitats than during winter ( fig . 3 ) . conversely , if adults only were analyzed , none of similarity tests were rejected ( table 5 ) .\nequivalency of species - habitat relationships ( measured as shoener\u2019s d ) observed in different months .\npairs of months for which the species - habitat relationships were not equivalent ( after bonferroni\u2019s correction : \u03b1 \u2032 = 0 . 0083 ) are in bold .\nmost of variation in species - habitat relationships was likely caused by the seasonal variation of temperature and humidity . nevertheless , particularly in the analysis of humidity with juveniles , tests of niche equivalency between late winter and summer months were consistently rejected (\n) , but show the highest abundance of prey . actually , in our study caves , the potential prey richness ( calculated as the summed n of species of araneae ( excluding\n) . efficient exploitation of seasonal peaks of food resources may be a key of fast development during the first years . furthermore , the negative consequences of low humidity may be stronger in summer . low environmental temperature reduces metabolism in ectotherms , which limits oxygen needs . as lungless salamanders exchange gasses mainly through their skin , and the efficiency of this skin function increases with high level of moisture (\n) , during the cold season the individuals could be more tolerant to low humidity because of their lower respiration needs .\nwe thank two reviewers for constructive comments on a previous version of this manuscript . gff belongs to the laboratoire d\u2019ecologie alpine , which is part of labex osug @ 2020 .\nthe authors declare there are no competing interests . enrico lunghi is representing the association natural oasis as president .\nenrico lunghi conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nraoul manenti conceived and designed the experiments , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , reviewed drafts of the paper .\ngentile francesco ficetola conceived and designed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\nthe following information was supplied relating to ethical approvals ( i . e . , approving body and any reference numbers ) :\nuniversity of florence approved the project by regular department\u2019s application and we followed our institutional guidelines .\nthe following information was supplied relating to field study approvals ( i . e . , approving body and any reference numbers ) :\ngff was funded by labex osug @ 2020 ( investissements d\u2019avenir\u2014anr10 labx56 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nour promise peerj promises to address all issues as quickly and professionally as possible . we thank you in advance for your patience and understanding .\nfollowing\nis like subscribing to any updates related to a publication . these updates will appear in your home dashboard each time you visit peerj .\nyou can also choose to receive updates via daily or weekly email digests . if you are following multiple publications then we will send you no more than one email per day or week based on your preferences .\nnote : you are now also subscribed to the subject areas of this publication and will receive updates in the daily or weekly email digests if turned on . you can add specific subject areas through your profile settings .\npeerj feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj computer science feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json peerj preprint feeds - atom | rss 1 . 0 | rss 2 . 0 | json archives - peerj | peerj computer science | peerj preprints\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\n) . humidity inside caves was strongly related to external humidity , month , depth and to the time of survey . furthermore , the significant interaction between month and depth indicated that the humidity gradient was not constant through the year (\n) . the deepest sectors always showed lower light than the superficial ones . however , incident light increased in summer and during periods characterized by low humidity (\nthe dependent variables were the presence of ( a ) species , ( b ) adults only and ( c ) juveniles only . see\nfor explanation of variable names . only the best - aicc models are shown .\nthe microhabitat selection pattern was similar if adults only were considered . adults were more abundant in sectors with low light and abundant\n) . furthermore , differences among months were strong , and the interactions between month and both humidity and temperature were significant . adults were associated with relatively cold sectors during summer , while in winter they were associated with warmer sectors (\n) . however , in the analyses of humidity considering all individuals and juveniles only , niche equivalency was significantly lower than expected by chance between february and june , and between february and july . salamanders were more tolerant for low - humidity habitats than during winter (\nour data mostly support the environmental change hypothesis . first , the temperature gradient showed a clear inversion through the seasons (\nara\u00fajo cs , candido dm , ara\u00fajo hfp , dias sc , vasconcellos a . seasonal variations in scorpion activities ( arachnida : scorpiones ) in an area of caatinga vegetation in northeastern brazil .\nbanks - leite c , pardini r , boscolo d , righetto cassano c , p\u00fcttker t , santos barros c , barlow j . assessing the utility of statistical adjustments for imperfect detection in tropical conservation science .\nbogaerts s , sparreboom m , pasmans f , almasri a , beukema w , shehab a , amr zs . distribution , ecology and conservation of\nbrambilla m , saporetti f . modelling distribution of habitats required for different uses by the same species : implications for conservation at the regional scale .\nbriggler jt , prather jw . seasonal use and selection of caves by plethodontid salamanders in a karst area of arkansas .\nbroennimann o , fitzpatrick mc , pearman pb , petitpierre b , pellissier l , yoccoz ng , thuiller w , fortin m - j , randin c , zimmermann ne , graham ch , guisan a . measuring ecological niche overlap from occurrence and spatial environmental data .\ncamp cd , jensen jb . use of twilight zones of caves by plethodontid salamanders .\ncox dtc , cresswell w . mass gained during breeding positively correlates with adult survival because both reflect life history adaptation to seasonal food availability .\ncrovetto f , romano a , salvidio s . comparison of two non - lethal methods for dietary studies in terrestrial salamanders .\ncrump ml , scott nj . , jr . visual encounter surveys . in : heyer wr , donnelly ma , mcdiarmid rw , hayek lc , foster ms , editors .\nwashington , d . c . : smithsonian institution press ; 1994 . pp . 84\u201392 .\ndail d , madsen l . models for estimating abundance from repeated counts of an open metapopulation .\ndittmar em , cimprich da , sperry jh , weatherhead pj . habitat selection by juvenile black - capped vireos following independence from parental care .\ndom\u00edguez - vega h , monroy - vilchis o , balderas - valdivia cj , gienger cm , ariano - s\u00e1nchez d . predicting the potential distribution of the beaded lizard and identification of priority areas for conservation .\nelith j , kearney m , phillips s . the art of modelling range - shifting species .\nfiske ij , chandler rb . unmarked : an r package for fitting hierarchical models of wildlife occurrence and abundance .\nfredericksen ts . thermal regulation and habitat use of the eastern box turtle in southwestern virginia .\ngodsoe w . i can\u2019t define the niche but i know it when i see it : a formal link between statistical theory and the ecological niche .\nguisan a , thuiller w . predicting species distribution : offering more than simple habitat models .\nkearney m , porter w . mechanistic niche modelling : combining physiological and spatial data to predict species ranges .\nkearney mr , simpson sj , raubenheimer d , kooijman salm . balancing heat , water and nutrients under environmental change : a thermodynamic niche framework .\nlanza b , pastorelli c , laghi p , cimmaruta r . a review of systematics , taxonomy , genetics , biogeography and natural history of the genus\nmackenzie di , kendall wl . how should detection probability be incorporated into estimates of relative abundance ?\nmackenzie di , nichols jd , royle ja , pollock kh , bailey ll , hines je .\nwaltham : academic press ; 2006 . occupancy estimation and modeling . p 324 .\npeterson at , sober\u00f3n j , pearson rg , anderson rp , mart\u00ednez - meyer e , nakamura m , ara\u00fajo mb .\nrandin cf , dirnbock t , dullinger s , zimmermann ne , zappa m , guisan a . are niche - based species distribution models transferable in space ?\nrichards sa , whittingham mj , stephens pa . model selection and model averaging in behavioural ecology : the utility of the it - aic framework .\nsalvidio s , lattes a , tavano m , melodia f , pastorino mv . ecology of a\nsaupe ee , hendricks jr , portell rw , dowsett hj , haywood a , hunter sj , lieberman bs . macroevolutionary consequences of profound climate change on niche evolution in marine molluscs over the past three million years .\nseebacher f , alford ra . movement and microhabitat use of a terrestrial amphibian (\nsewell d , beebee tj , griffiths ra . optimising biodiversity assessments by volunteers : the application of occupancy modelling to large - scale amphibian surveys .\nsoberon j , nakamura m . niches and distributional areas : concepts , methods , and assumptions .\nproceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america pnas .\nspotila jr . role of temperature and water in the ecology of lungless salamanders .\nstein a , gerstner k , kreft h . environmental heterogeneity as a universal driver of species richness across taxa , biomes and spatial scales .\nstephens pa , buskirk sw , hayward gd , del rio cm . a call for statistical pluralism answered .\nstigall al . using ecological niche modelling to evaluate niche stability in deep time .\n( dunn , 1923 ) ( plethodontidae , amphibia ) , in a subterranean system of central italy .\nvlachos cg , bakaloudis de , kitikidou k , goutner v , bontzorlos v , papakosta ma , chatzinikos e . home range and foraging habitat selection by breeding lesser kestrels ( falco naumanni ) in greece .\nwarren dl , glor re , turelli m . environmental niche equivalency vs . conservatism : quantitative approaches to niche evolution .\nwebb le , engel b , berends h , van reenena cg , gerrits wjj , de boer ijm , bokkers eam . what do calves choose to eat and how do preferences affect behaviour ?\nwong jwy , k\u00f6lliker m . effects of food restriction across stages of juvenile and early adult development on body weight , survival and adult life history .\nzurell d , elith j , schroder b . predicting to new environments : tools for visualizing model behaviour and impacts on mapped distributions .\nbates d , maechler m ( 2010 ) lme4 : linear mixed - effects models using s4 classes . r package version 0 . 999375 - 37 .\nbjorneraas k , herfindal i , solberg ej , sther be , van moorter b , rolandsen cm ( 2012 ) habitat quality influences population distribution , individual space use and functional responses in habitat selection by a large herbivore . oecologia 168 : 231\u2013243\nbonenfant c , gaillard jm , dray s , loison a , royer m , chessel d ( 2007 ) testing sexual segregation and aggregation : old ways are best . ecology 88 : 3202\u20133208\nbowyer rt , stewart km , wolfe sa , blundell gm , lehmkuhl kl , joy pj , mcdonough tj , kie jg ( 2002 ) assessing sexual segregation in deer . j wildl manage 66 : 536\u2013544\nbriggler jt , prather jw ( 2006 ) seasonal use and selection of caves by plethodontid salamanders in a karst area of arkansas . am midl nat 155 : 136\u2013148\nburnham kp , anderson dr ( 1998 ) model selection and inference . springer , new york\ncamp cd , jensen jb ( 2007 ) use of twilight zones of caves by plethodontid salamanders . copeia 2007 : 594\u2013604\ncimmaruta r , forti g , nascetti g , bullini l ( 1999 ) spatial distribution and competition in two parapatric sibling species of european plethodontid salamanders . ethol ecol evol 11 : 383\u2013398\ncrump ml , scott nj ( 1994 ) visual encounter surveys . in : heyer wr , donnelly ma , mcdiarmid rw , hayek lc , foster ms ( eds ) measuring and monitoring biological diversity : standard methods for amphibians . smithsonian institution press , washington , pp 84\u201392\nculver dc , pipan t ( 2009 ) the biology of caves and other subterranean habitats . oxford university press , oxford\ndarmon g , calenge c , loison a , jullien j - m , maillard d , lopez j - f ( 2012 ) spatial distribution and habitat selection in coexisting species of mountain ungulates . ecography 35 : 44\u201353\ndochtermann na , jenkins sh ( 2011 ) developing multiple hypotheses in behavioral ecology . behav ecol sociobiol 65 : 37\u201345\n: comparing the hypotheses using an information - theoretic approach . global ecol biogeogr 19 : 485\u2013495\nfirth lb , crowe tp ( 2010 ) competition and habitat suitability : small - scale segregation underpins large - scale coexistence of key species on temperate rocky shores . oecologia 162 : 163\u2013174\nformica va , gosner ra , ramsay s , tuttle em ( 2004 ) spatial dynamics of alternative reproductive strategies : the role of neighbors . ecology 85 : 1125\u20131136\ngalvan i ( 2004 ) age - related spatial segregation of great cormorants in a roost . waterbirds 27 : 377\u2013381\ngautier p , l\u00e9na jp , miaud c ( 2004 ) responses to conspecific scent marks and the ontogeny of territorial marking in immature terrestrial salamanders . behav ecol sociobiol 55 : 447\u2013453\nhadfield jd ( 2010 ) mcmc methods for multi - response generalized linear mixed models : the mcmcglmm r package . j stat softw 33 : 1\u201322\nharvey v , cote sd , hammill mo ( 2008 ) the ecology of 3 - d space use in a sexually dimorphic mammal . ecography 31 : 371\u2013380\nhillman ss , whiters pc , drewes rc , hillyard sd ( 2009 ) ecological and environmental physiology of amphibians . oxford university press , new york\nistock ca ( 1966 ) the evolution of complex life cycle phenomena : an ecological perspective . evolution 21 : 592\u2013605\nlab\u00e9e - lund jh , langeland a , jonsson b , ugedal o ( 1993 ) spatial segregation by age and size in arctic charr\u2014a trade - off between feeding possibility and risk of predation . j anim ecol 62 : 160\u2013168\ndubois , 1984 ( amphibia caudata plethodontidae ) . atti mus civ st nat trieste 52 ( suppl ) : 5\u2013135\nlukacs pm , thompson wl , kendall wl , gould wr , doherty pf , burnham kp , anderson dr ( 2007 ) concerns regarding a call for pluralism of information theory and hypothesis testing . j appl ecol 44 : 456\u2013460\nmain mb ( 2008 ) reconciling competing ecological explanations for sexual segregation in ungulates . ecology 89 : 693\u2013704\nmain mb , coblentz be ( 1996 ) sexual segregation in rocky mountain mule deer . j wildl manage 60 : 497\u2013507\n: habitat selection , larval development and conservation issues . north west j zool 7 : 304\u2013309\nmcintire ejb , fajardo a ( 2009 ) beyond description : the active and effective way to infer processes from spatial patterns . ecology 90 : 46\u201356\nmoran na ( 1994 ) adaptation and constraint in the complex life cycle of animals . annu rev ecol syst 25 : 573\u2013600\n( arachnida : araneae : metidae ) . in : bologna ma , capula m , carpaneto gm , luiselli l , marangoni c , venchi a ( eds ) atti del 6 congresso nazionale societas herpetologica italica , belvedere , latina , pp 45\u201348\n( dunn , 1923 ) : application of a geographic information system ( g . i . s . ) ( amphibia , plethodontidae ) . in : salvidio s , poggi r , doria g , pastorino mv ( eds ) atti del primo convegno nazionale biologia dei geotritoni europei genere speleomantes , annali del museo civico di storia naturale \u201cg . doria\u201d , genova , 97 , pp 169\u2013177\npinheiro p , bates d ( 2000 ) mixed - effect models in s and s - plus . springer , new york 528 pp\npinheiro p , bates d , debroy s , sarkar d ( 2010 ) linear and nonlinear mixed effects models . r package version 3 . 1 - 97 .\nr development core team ( 2010 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna .\nrochette r , grand tc ( 2004 ) mechanisms of species coexistence : a field test of theoretical models using intertidal snails . oikos 105 : 512\u2013524\nruckstuhl ke ( 2007 ) sexual segregation in vertebrates : proximate and ultimate causes . integr comp biol 47 : 245\u2013257\nruckstuhl ke , festa - bianchet m ( 2001 ) group choice by subadult bighorn rams : trade - offs between foraging effciency and predator avoidance . ethology 107 : 161\u2013172\nsingh nj , bonenfant c , yoccoz ng , cote sd ( 2010 ) sexual segregation in eurasian wild sheep . behav ecol 21 : 410\u2013418\n( latreille 1804 ) ( araneae , tetragnathidae ) . j arachnol 33 : 243\u2013246\nspiegelhalter dj , best ng , carlin br , van der linde a ( 2002 ) bayesian measures of model complexity and fit . j r stat soc ser b stat methodol 64 : 583\u2013616\nspiegelhalter d , thomas a , best n , lunn d ( 2008 ) winbugs 1 . 4 . 3 . imperial college and mrc , uk .\nspotila jr ( 1972 ) role of temperature and water in the ecology of lungless salamanders . ecol monogr 42 : 95\u2013125\nstephens pa , buskirk sw , hayward gd , del rio cm ( 2007 ) a call for statistical pluralism answered . j appl ecol 44 : 461\u2013463\nsymonds mre , moussalli a ( 2011 ) a brief guide to model selection , multimodel inference and model averaging in behavioural ecology using akaike\u2019s information criterion . behav ecol sociobiol 65 : 13\u201321\nvan toor ml , jaberg c , safi k ( 2011 ) integrating sex - specific habitat use for conservation using habitat suitability models . anim conserv 14 : 512\u2013520\n( dunn , 1923 ) ( plethodontidae , amphibia ) , in a subterranean system of central italy . ital j zool 75 : 59\u201365\nwilbur hm ( 1980 ) complex life cycles . annu rev ecol syst 11 : 67\u201393\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nenrico lunghi univeristy of trier v . r . luti 17 prato prato 59100 italy tel : + 393391604627 mob : + 393391604627\nthe text and images for this case study are uploaded by the grant recipient to raise awareness of the conservation work being done . through its website the fund provides the platform , but is not responsible for text or image content of case studies .\n\u00a9 mohamed bin zayed species conservation fund 2013 , all rights reserved . website by intex digital\nto receive our reports ( print and / or electronic ) and quarterly e - newsletter .\ncookies are not enabled . you must enable cookies before you can log in .\nthe distribution map is currently disabled . a new map solution will soon become available . in the meantime , please consult other species distribution map providers listed in the other resources panel below .\nconservation status assesses every six years and for each biogeographical region the condition of habitats and species compared to the favourable status as described in the habitats directive . the map shows the 2007 - 2012 assessments as reported by eu member state . assessments are further detailed in the summary document available behind the link below .\n: the species is viable and maintaining itself on a long - term basis , its natural range is not reduced , and it has a sufficient large habitat .\n: the species is not as critical as being unfavourable - bad , but still requires significant conservation and restoration measure to make it viable in the long - term , or to enlarged its current range , or to improve the quality and availability of its habitat .\n: the species is either not maintaining itself on a long - term basis and is not viable , or its natural range as been or is being drastically reduced , or its habitat is largely insufficient ; the species requires major conservation and restoration measures .\n: the information available for the species is scarce and does not allow a proper assessment of its conservation status .\nannex iv : animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection .\nnumber of individuals licensed unknown . licensed 200 individuals for the period 2012 - 2014 .\ntemplate updated on 09 may 2018 14 : 41 from version 18 . 4 . 26\nthe european environment agency ( eea ) is an agency of the european union . legal notice\nwe use cookies to record some preference settings and to analyse how visitors use our web site . cookies do not contain any personal information about you . if you wish , see how to delete / disable cookies in your web browser . see also our privacy policy .\nthis article is only an excerpt . if it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references , visit the rest of its contents here .\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\nspeleomantes strinatii\n.\ncreatures with albinism and leucism are beautiful and rare animals . they have all the characteristics of others of their species except they are white in color . the lack of melanin generally results in the animal looking bleached all over , appearing white or pink . it happens in many animals ranging from squirrels to whitetail deer . here are ten incredible and rare , white - 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{"id": 1039, "summary": [{"text": "the rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria ) is a bird species in the family thamnophilidae .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is found in roraima .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist shrubland .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is severely threatened by habitat loss .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it was listed as near threatened on the iucn red list in 2008 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "in 2012 , it was assessed as critically endangered by birdlife international , which says the species likely to go extinct in twenty years if deforestation continues at its current pace . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "rio branco antbird", "paragraphs": ["rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria ) is a species of bird in the thamnophilidae family .\nthe rio branco antbird is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\ninformation on the rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria )\ntitle =\narkive species - rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nrio branco antbird the rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria ) is a species of bird in the thamnophilidae family . it is found in brazil and guyana . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist shrubland . it is threatened by habitat loss . see more at wikipedia . org . . . more\nthe rio branco antbird is classified as near threatened ( nt ) , is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .\nphoto 1 : the critically endangered rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria ) \u00a9 mikael bauer . photo 2 : the rarotonga monarch ( pomarea dimidiata ) \u00a9 hugh robertson . both courtesy of iucn\nthe rio branco antbird was for long considered a brazilian endemic , where it is restricted to the middle rio branco and its tributaries , in the northernmost state of roraima , but it has very recently also been found to marginally range into adjacent southwest guyana , along the ireng river . the species was formerly considered to globally threatened ( vulnerable ) , but has relatively recently been re - listed as near threatened , based on a better knowledge of its distribution , which has also proved to be more widespread within brazil in the last decade . like several other cercomacra , the rio branco antbird prefers very dense , vine - laden gallery forests , as well as those on river islands , and is usually observed in pairs . its plumage ( black in males ) suggests that it forms a species group with the jet antbird ( cercomacra nigricans ) , mato grosso antbird ( cercomacra melanaria ) and the bananal antbird ( cercomacra ferdinandi ) .\namong the species at risk in the amazon are the now - critically endangered rio branco antbird ( cercomacra carbonaria ) , which was listed as\nnear threatened\njust four years ago . according to birdlife , the species has a very small range in brazil and guyana . the construction of new roads in the antbird ' s habitat has made it easier to clear land for cattle ranching and soy production . according to current projections , the antbird ' s habitat will disappear completely in 20 years .\nbirdlife also downgraded the hoary - throated spinetail ( synallaxis kollari ) from the same rio branco region of brazil and guyana from\nendangered\nto\ncritically endangered .\nthe organization says the bird has just 206 square kilometers of suitable habitat , which could shrink 83 . 5 percent in the next 11 years .\npossible relationships of the rio branco antbird to other species in the genus . received 15 aug . 1996 , accepted 20 feb . 1996 . = as currently recognized , the genus cercomacra consists of 12 species ( sibley and monroe 1993 , bierregaard et al . 1997 , graves 1997 ) of me - dium - sized antbirds . the genus is poorly known , as evidenced by the discovery of two new species of cercomacra and the elevation of another subspecies to species in the last decade ( fitzpatrick and willard 1990 , bierregaard et al 1997 , graves 1997 ) . more\ndeforestation in the amazon has put nearly 100 bird species at greater risk of extinction , the international union for conservation of nature announced ( iucn ) on thursday . the news comes in conjunction with the release of the 2012 update on the world ' s bird species for the iucn red list of threatened species , data for which is compiled and updated every four years by conservation group birdlife international .\nin a prepared release about the red list update , birdlife blamed brazil ' s recently weakened forest code for increasing the rate of deforestation in that country . the new laws , a portion of which brazil president dilma rousseff vetoed in may , lowered the amount of forested land that farmers and ranchers are required to keep on their properties . leon bennun , birdlife director of science , policy and information , warned :\nwe have previously underestimated the risk of extinction that many of amazonia ' s bird species are facing .\nhe also said ,\nthe situation may be even worse than recent studies have predicted .\nthe 2012 red list update covers more than 10 , 000 bird species , 197 of which are listed as\ncritically endangered .\nan additional 389 species are listed as\nendangered ,\n727 as\nvulnerable ,\nand 880 as\nnear threatened .\nonly two species had their red list categories improved in this update . one of them , the rarotonga monarch ( pomarea dimidiata ) , has been upgraded from\nendangered\nto\nvulnerable .\nendemic to the cook islands in the south pacific , the monarch was down to its last 35 to 50 birds in 1983 . conservation efforts including a captive breeding program and the removal of alien predators such as black rats from the islands have increased the species ' s population to around 380 individuals .\nthe other species with a category improvement was the ua pou monarch ( pomarea mira ) of french polynesia . last officially recorded in 1985 , the bird was listed as extinct in 2006 . after an unconfirmed sighting in 2010 , the monarch is now listed by the iucn as\ncritically endangered ( possibly extinct ) .\nthat ' s not much of an improvement , but at least it is hope .\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\njohn r . platt is the editor of the revelator . an award - winning environmental journalist , his work has appeared in scientific american , audubon , motherboard , and numerous other magazines and publications . his\nextinction countdown\ncolumn has run continuously since 2004 and has covered news and science related to more than 1 , 000 endangered species . john lives on the outskirts of portland , ore . , where he finds himself surrounded by animals and cartoonists .\ndiscover world - changing science . explore our digital archive back to 1845 , including articles by more than 150 nobel prize winners .\nscientific american is part of springer nature , which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications ( many of them can be found at urltoken ) . scientific american maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers .\nlike most websites we use cookies . if you\u2019re happy with that , just carry on as normal ( close this bar ) - otherwise click here to find out more .\nspoon - billed sandpiper eurynorhynchus pygmeus was uplisted to critically endangered in birdlife ' s 2008 update to the iucn red list . photo : choi soon kyoo\none in eight of the world\u2019s bird species is globally threatened , and the fortunes of some 200 critically endangered species are now so perilous that they are at risk of imminent extinction . birdlife aims to improve the conservation status of all the world ' s birds , and hence species are often the starting point for our scientific research .\nthe birdlife secretariat is the red list authority for birds on the iucn red list , coordinating the process of evaluating all of the world\u2019s c . 10 , 000 bird species against the red list categories and criteria in order to assess their extinction risk .\nour detailed information on the threats to species and actions required helps to shape the conservation action implemented by the birdlife partnership through its preventing extinction programme , as well as by other organisations and initiatives including the alliance for zero extinction .\nvideo story : step into a desert island wilderness , where conservation work for turtles and birds is delivering heartening , long lasting , results : \u201cnow the fishermen work with us , they help us count the birds instead of killing them . they even adopt turtle nests . it is a big , big change . \u201d\nnew analysis reveals key factors that could help make or break a conservation project , and practitioners in africa and around the world can all benefit from their hard - won lessons .\nsince the seventies , millions of north american birds have disappeared and a third of species are now of conservation concern , a new report reveals .\nscientists and ngos are calling for a ban on veterinary diclofenac after finding it could kill as many as 6 , 000 vultures per year in spain , home to 95 % of the griffon vulture population .\ndeforestation since the turn of the century has driven at least 500 species of mammals , birds and amphibians closer to extinction , according to a new scientific study published in conservation biology journal .\nthis species , which has a small range and moderately small population , has been uplisted to critically endangered because a model of future deforestation in the amazon basin predicts that its population will decline extremely rapidly over the next three generations as land is cleared for cattle ranching and soy production , facilitated by expansion of the road network .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cercomacra carbonaria . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na male responding to tape , at eyelevel in it ' s favoured riverside thicket .\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of bird photos and video from around the world , or upload your own .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nits natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist shrubland . it is becoming rare due to habitat loss .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback ."]}
{"id": 1060, "summary": [{"text": "tirumala hamata , the blue tiger , dark blue tiger or blue wanderer , is a butterfly of the nymphalidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in south-east asia and australia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in australia , the butterflies perform mass migrations to the south in some years .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 70 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have black wings with blue spots .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they are grey with black bands between segments and orange lateral lines and a black head with white markings .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "adults have been observed scratching the leaves of heliotropium amplexicaule and parsonia straminea , possibly to suck out moisture .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on a wide range of plants including parsonsia ( including parsonsia straminea and parsonsia velutina ) , heterostemma papuana , heterostemma acuminatum , hoya australis , leichardtia , marsdenia ( including marsdenia velutina ) , secanome carnosum , secamone elliptica , tylophora , cryptostegia grandiflora , cynanchum carnosum and cynanchum leptolepis . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "tirumala hamata", "paragraphs": ["tirumala hamata arikata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala hamata goana ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala hamata talautensis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\nblue tiger , dark blue tiger or blue wanderer ( tirumala hamata ) 18 . 12 . 2014 kenmore , queensland , australia\ntirumala hamata ( w . s . macleay , 1826 ) blue tiger ( one synonym : danais australis blanchard , 1853 ) danainae , nymphalidae , papilionoidea\ndanais ( tirumala ) hamata goana martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 23 ; tl : goa ; bangala\ntirumala hamata septentrionis ab . seminocturnalis murayama , 1961 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 11 ( 4 ) : 56 , f . 2 ; tl : poli ? , formosa\nhamata neptunia f . protoneptunia ( poulton , 1924 ) ( danaida ) ; trans . ent . soc . 1923 : ?\ntirumala hamata ( macleay , [ 1826 ] ) = euploea hamata macleay , [ 1826 ] = danais australis blanchard , 1853 = papilio melissa stoll , [ 1781 ] = danais moderata butler , [ 1876 ] = tirumala angustata moore , 1883 = nephthys ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = pelagia ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = sassina ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = tibula ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) = tutuilae ( hopkins , 1927 ) = neomelissa bryk , 1937 = mendica ( talbot , 1943 ) = danaus melissa = danaus hamata .\nhamata arikata ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 203 ; tl : sula is .\ntirumala hamata ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 200 , pl . 14 , f . 86 , pl . 15 , f . 87 , pl . ix , f . 85 , pl . x , f . 123\nhamata pallidula ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 136 ; tl : new guinea\nhamata subnubila ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 136 ; tl : new guinea\nhamata talautensis ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 135 ; tl : talaut i .\nhamata insignis ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 136 ; tl : maleita i .\ntirumala hamata ( blue tiger ) is a rare find in new zealand . only a few have been found in n . z . and it probably arrived from australia where it is a relatively common species . they are native to australia , malaysia , south and southeast asia , with varying subspecies .\ntirumala limniace ino ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala tumanana semper , 1886 ; reisen philipp . ( 1 ) : 15 , pl . 3 , f . 1\ntirumala limniace ssp . ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala septentrionis septentrionis ; [ bor ] , 205 ; [ bmp ] : 105 , pl . 11 , f . 8\ntirumala melissa dravidarum fruhstorfer , 1899 ; berl . ent . zs . 44 ( 1 / 2 ) : 113 , 119\ntirumala tumanana ; hashimoto , schroeder , treadaway & vane - wright , 2012 , j . res . lepid . 45 : 40\n? tirumala limniace ab . donia fruhstorfer , 1897 ; berl . ent . zs . 42 ( 1 / 2 ) : 120\ntirumala euploeomorpha ; [ mwb ] : 197 , pl . 14 , f . 81 - 82 , pl . vii , f . 60\ntirumala choaspes choaspes ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218\ntirumala choaspes kroeseni ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala choaspes oxynthas ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala choaspes kalawara ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218\ntirumala limniace conjuncta ; [ bor ] , 205 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala limniace bentenga ; [ bor ] , 205 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala limniace makassara ; [ bor ] , 205 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ndanais ( tirumala ) melissa nigra martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 24 ; tl : ceram\ntirumala ishmoides ishmoides ; [ bor ] , 206 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 220\ndanais ( tirumala ) gautamoides doherty , 1886 ; j . asiat . soc . bengal 55 pt . ii ( 3 ) : 257 ; tl : nicobars\ndanais ( tirumala ) choaspes kroeseni martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 20 ; tl : buton i .\ndanais ( tirumala ) limniace bentenga martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 22 ; tl : benteng i .\ndanais ( tirumala ) limniace makassara martin , 1910 ; dt . ent . z . iris 24 ( 2 ) : 21 ; tl : s . celebes\ntirumala alba chou & gu , 1994 ; in chou , monographia rhopalocerum sinensium 1 - 2 : 755 , 275 ; tl : mt . diaoluoshan ( 700m )\ndanaida ( tirumala ) melissa coarctata joicey & talbot , 1922 ; bull . hill mus . 1 ( 2 ) : 350 ; tl : biak , schouten is .\ndanais ( tirumala ) choaspes kalawara martin , 1913 ; dt . ent . z . iris 27 ( 2 ) : 109 , ( 3 ) : 123 ; tl : celebes\ntirumala petiverana ; [ mwb ] : 196 , pl . 13 , f . 79 ; [ bk ] : 257 , pl . 27 , f . 386 ; [ afrl ]\n769x514 ( ~ 119kb ) underside thailand , krabi 24 . 12 . 2003 - 7 . 1 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 olli vesikko tirumala septentrionis septentrionis det . dick vane - wright\ntirumala formosa ; [ mwb ] : 196 , pl . 13 , f . 77 - 78 ; [ bk ] : 258 , f . 27 , f . 387 ; [ afrl ]\ndanaus ( tirumala ) euploeomorpha howarth , kawazoe & sibatani , 1976 ; ty\u00f4 to ga 27 ( 4 ) : 131 ; tl : solomon islands , santa ana is . , eastern distr .\ntirumala gautama ; moore , [ 1890 ] , lepidoptera indica 1 : 33 , pl . 7 , f . 1 , 1a ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 197 , pl . 13 , f . 80 ; [ mrs ] , 273\ntirumala ( danaina ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ afrl ] ; brower , wahlberg , ogawa , boppre & vane - wright , 2010 , syst . biodiv . 8 ( 1 ) : 84\ntirumala choaspes ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 198 , pl . 14 , f . 83 , pl . vii , f . 55 , pl . x , f . 126 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 218\ntirumala ishmoides ; [ bor ] , 206 ; [ mwb ] : 200 , pl . 15 , f . 88 , pl . 60 , f . 318a , pl . ix , f . 86 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\ntirumala septentrionis ; moore , [ 1880 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 1 ) : 5 , pl . 1 , f . 2 ; moore , [ 1890 ] , lepidoptera indica 1 : 34 , pl . 7 , f . 2 , 2a ; [ bor ] , 205 ; [ mwb ] : 199 , pl . 14 , f . 85 ; [ mrs ] , 273\ntirumala limniace ; moore , [ 1880 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 1 ) : 4 , pl . 1 , f . 3 ; moore , [ 1890 ] , lepidoptera indica 1 : 39 , pl . 6 , f . 1 , 1a - b ; [ bor ] , 204 ; [ mwb ] : 198 , pl . 14 , f . 84 , pl . ix , f . 88 , pl . x , f . 124 ; [ mrs ] , 272 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 219\nthe caterpillars are grey , with black bands between segments , and orange lateral lines . the head is black with white markings . the caterpillars have a pair long filaments on both the thorax and the last abdominal segment . the caterpillars feed on various jungle vines from the family\nthe wings of the adult butterflies are black with blue spots . they have a wingspan of about 7 cms . the butterflies may sometimes be seen scratching the leaves of special plants , including :\nthey appear to suck chemicals from the plants , even wetting dead leaves and then sucking up the moisture .\nthe eggs are bullet shaped and pale yellow . they are laid singly on young shoots of a foodplant .\nthe adult butterflies have been observed to live longer than five months . in australia , the butterflies perform mass migrations to the south in some years , making a delightful spectacle .\n, csiro publishing , melbourne 2000 , vol . 2 , pp . 591 - 592 .\nin s . b . malcolm and m . p . zalucki ( eds ) ,\nnatural history museum of los angeles county , los angeles 1993 , pp . 345 - 354 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nedwards , e . d . 1996 ,\nnymphalidae\n, ed . nielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) , checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera , vol . 4 , pp . 243 - 248 , 359 - 360 , csiro publishing , collingwood\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0b9a25f8 - 0ed1 - 472f - ae68 - 703434698214\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 1d1ca169 - 70d7 - 48e1 - 8c1a - 552a4f5569f1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 907ceb29 - 1c5a - 4417 - bc07 - 0dbd59af9fc5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c7cba982 - 5863 - 44c5 - 9397 - 3f773ff8905a\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ad62449c - 18bc - 421e - af70 - 3c188505fb50\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 657529\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nelsa honrath , 1892 ; berl . ent . z . 36 ( 2 ) : 436 ; ts : elsa morgeni honrath\nyala ( stoneham , 1958 ) ( danaus ) ; bull . stoneham mus . ( 71 ) : 2 ; tl : kenya\nlarva on secamone micrandra , s . platystigma , s . punctulosa , s . zambesiaca , cryptolepis sp . , periploca linearifolia [ mwb ]\nw . kenya ( w of rift valley ) , uganda , rwanda , burundi , nw . tanzania\nmelinda mercedonia karsch , 1894 ; ent . nachr . 20 ( 14 / 15 ) : 225\nelsa morgeni honrath , 1892 ; berl . ent . z . 36 ( 2 ) : 436 , pl . 15 , f . 5 ; tl : kamerun\ndanaus formosa neumanni rothschild , 1902 ; novit . zool . 9 : 596 ; tl : kaffa\nseptentrionides ( stoneham , 1958 ) ( danaus ) ; bull . stoneham mus . ( 71 ) : 1 ; tl : kenya\nlarva on pergularia extensa [ pbsa ] , daemia sp . , hoya sp . , marsdenia rubicunda , p . daemia [ mwb ]\nburma , thailand , laos , s . vietnam , hainan . see [ maps ]\ndanais gautama moore , 1877 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 4 ) 20 ( 115 ) : 43 ; tl : henzada , rangoon , burma\nchoaspina ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : sula is .\nchoaspes oxynthas ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : sula is .\nafghanistan - india , ceylon , kashmir - china , burma , hong kong . see [ maps ]\ndisjuncta ( dufrane , 1948 ) ( danaus ) ; bull . mens . soc . linn . lyon 17 ( 10 ) : 192 ; tl : tonkin\n600x400 ( ~ 48kb ) upperside india : pune , 2 . 11 . 2008 \u00a9 kedar tokekar\n600x400 ( ~ 60kb ) underside india : pune , 2 . 11 . 2008 \u00a9 kedar tokekar\nlarva on asclepias , calotropis , hoya , heterostemma , marsdenia [ bhr ] , dregea volubilis , heterostemma cuspidatum , hoya viridiflora , marsdenia tenacissima , crotalaria sp . ? , epibaterium sp . [ mwb ]\nlarva on dregea formosana , heterostemma brownii , asclepias spp . , calotropis spp . , dregea volubilis , heerostemma cuspidatum , hoya spp . , hoya viridiflora , marsdenia tenacissima , crotalaria retusa [ mrs ]\ndanais leopardus butler , 1866 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1866 ( 1 ) : 52 ; tl : n . india\ndanais ino butler , 1871 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1871 : 79 ; tl : sula\nlimniace orestilla ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 205\nlimniace vaneeckeni bryk , 1937 \u00b2 ; in strand , lep . cat . 28 ( 78 ) : 113\npapilio exoticus gmelin , [ 1790 ] ; in linnaeus , syst . nat . ( edn 13 ) 1 ( 5 ) : 2289 , no . 886 ; tl : ceylon\nnocturalis murayama , 1958 ; new ent . 7 ( 1 ) : 27 ; tl : formosa\ndanaus melissa ; forbes , 1939 , ent . am . ( n . s . ) 19 : 129 ( in part )\nlarva on asclepiadaceae [ eob ] , vallaris dichotoma , parsonsia spp . , dregea volubilis , heterostemma brownii , cocculus spp . , tylophora spp . [ mrs ]\nn . india - peninsular malaya , langkawi , singapore , thailand , indo - china , s . china , taiwan\n1078x914 ( ~ 133kb ) upperside male thailand , chon buri province , pattaya , a small wood at a grassy swamp at the jomtien beach , between b . o . guesthouse and jomtien metro condotel , 2nd january , 2006 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nseptentrionis musikanos ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 202 ; tl : ceylon\nseptentrionis myrsilos ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 202 ; tl : java\ndanais microsticta butler , 1874 ; ent . mon . mag . 11 : 163 ; tl : borneo\nseptentrionis valentia ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : mindanao\nmendica ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 137 ; tl : fiji\nlarva on parsonsia , p . straminea , p . velutina , heterostemma papuana , hoya australis , leichardtia , marsdenia sp . , secanome carnosum , s . elliptica , tylophora sp . , cryptostegia grandiflora [ mwb ]\nlarva on cynanchum carnosum , c . leptolepis , heterostemma acuminatum , h . papuana , hoya australis , marsdenia velutina , secamone elliptica k . l . & l . e . dunn , 1991 , review austr . butts . ( 1 - 4 ) : ( 120 - 140 )\nsingaria ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 203 ; tl : dammer i .\ndanais leucoptera butler , 1874 ; ent . mon . mag . 11 : 163 ; tl : dorey\ngariata ( fruhstorfer , 1910 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 203\n? danais melittula herrich - sch\u00e4ffer , 1869 ; stettin ent . ztg 30 ( 1 - 3 ) : 70 ; tl : upolu , samoa\n? danaus melittula ; [ bow ] : pl . 153 , f . 16 ( text only )\nishmoides vetus ( talbot , 1943 ) ( danaus ) ; trans . r . ent . soc . lond . 93 ( 1 ) : 137 ; tl : jolo i .\nishmoides strymon ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : mindanao\nishmoides trasinanus ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 276 ; tl : cebu\nishmoides sontinus ( fruhstorfer , 1911 ) ( danaida ) ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 274 ; tl : mindoro\nchecklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nvoyage au pole sud et dans l ' oc\u00e9anie sur les corvettes l ' astrolabe et la zel\u00e9e execut\u00e9 . . . . . . pendant . . . . . . 1837 - 40 sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ' urville etc . zool . , insectes . vol . 4\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\nthe genera of diurnal lepidoptera , comprising their generic characters , a notice of their habitats and transformations , and a catalogue of the species of each genus ; illustrated with 86 plates by w . c . hewitson\nreview of australian butterflies : distribution , life history and taxonomy . pushlished by authors , melbourne\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nin king , narrative of a survey of the intertropical and western coasts of australia . 2 vols . in king ,\na list of the lepidopterous insects collected by mr . ossian limborg in upper tenasserim , with descriptions of new species\na monograph of limnaina and euploeina , two groups of diurnal lepidoptera belonging to the subfamily euploeinae ; with descriptions of new genera and species . part i & ii\non the lepidoptera in the tring museum sent by mr . a . s . meek from the admiralty islands , dampier and vulcan islands\nvane - wright & de jong , 2003 the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island faunda zool . verh . leiden 343 : 3 - 268 , pl . 1 - 16\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nthis common townsville butterfly feeds on vines in the asclepiadaceae ( apocynaceae s . lat . ) . mature larvae greenish - blue to white with a broad orange band plus some black bands enclosing white bands ; head black with two curved bands . adults black with numerous hyaline blue streaks and elongated spots ; lower surface similar to upper but paler .\nwe acknowledge australian aboriginal people and torres strait islander people as the first inhabitants of the nation , and acknowledge traditional owners of the lands where our staff and students live , learn and work .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nflies , caddisflies , craneflies , damselflies dragonflies , gnats , mayflies . midges , mosquitoes\ninsects ( ants , beetles , bugs , cicadas , cockroaches , centipedes , crickets , grasshoppers , lacewings , ladybirds , mantis , millipedes , scale , shield bugs , stick insects , wetas , weevils , etc . ) .\nreptiles ( frogs , geckos , skinks , snakes , lizards , turtles ) .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names a to f with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names g to l with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names m to q with photo .\ntrees & shrubs ( new zealand native ) botanical names r to z with photo .\ntrees ( new zealand ) hebes and their hybrids & cultivars ( photos ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .\nthe blue tiger butterfly has a wingspan of about 70 mm . adults have black wings with blue spots . the larvae which are grey with black bands between segments and orange lateral lines and a black head with white markings feed on a wide range of plants . thanks to wikipedia for text and information urltoken\n\u00a9 copyright 2008 - 2018 - t . e . r : r . a . i . n . all rights reserved . last update : 05 - feb - 18 . site designed & hosted by smokeylemon .\nthis page contains information and pictures about blue tiger butterflies in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .\nblue tiger butterflies have pale blue patterns on black background on their wings . we took the above picture in macgregor park bush in mid - summer .\nthe blue tiger caterpillar body is banded with black , greenish - yellow and white rings , have two pairs of filaments .\ntheir food plants are vines secamone elliptica and ischnostemma carnosum . the caterpillar usually found feeding underside of the leaf . their pupa is fresh green and shiny with some golden spots .\nblue tiger butterflies migrate to brisbane from north queensland . we sometimes see one of them flying slowly among plants in our backyard and near by bushland . their flight is fluttering with gliding in between . but they know where to go , much like this review of garcinia knows where to go buy a quality cambogia supplement .\nusually we can tell the age of a butterfly by its wing edges and colour . for the blue tigers in the above pictures . their wings colour faded and the edges were broken in different degree , we can tell the butterfly was in their middle and old ages . although the butterfly ' s wing edges were broken quite badly , theirs flying skill seems not affected .\nblue tiger butterflies are not always seen in brisbane . from the reference books , they migrate to brisbane from north queensland .\nhowever , we received email from georg horrolt - buddina , he advised that : blue tigers seem to migrate north every end of march and april , clouds of them fly right along the coastline from caloundra to noosa . i have observed this for approximate 6 years now . why do you say they migrate south to brisbane ?\nin brisbane 2004 summer , the number of blue tiger is exceptionally high . from mid summer to late summer we can see plenty of them in the bush , flying along the highway and across our backyard . they were flying from west to the east .\nthe movement of the blue tigers are a bit confusing and need more observations .\nwe had the records breaking hot summer in 2004 queensland . this could be related to the high number of blue tigers found in brisbane .\nwe received email from david james - corindi beach : on 21 - 2 - 2004 , thousands of blue tiger butterflies visited my garden in coffs harbour . they were back again the next day but not as thick , and although a few were there about for 4 or 5 days . their numbers dropped rapidly . incidentally the temperature here on 21st was 44 degrees .\n- by frank jordan and helen schwencke , earthling enterprises , 2005 , p6 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nsubspecies ideopsis vitrea chloris ( c . felder & r . felder , 1860 )\nnote : wildlife statistics are based on information that has been submitted to the des wildnet database and converted to a 10km\u00b2 grid . the grid information has been intersected with the mapping polygons to determine the species lists . click here to view the species grid metadata .\ndisclaimer : while every care is taken to ensure the accuracy of this product , the queensland government and australian government make no representations or warranties about its accuracy , reliability , completeness or suitability for any particular purpose and disclaim all responsibility and all liability ( including without limitation , liability in negligence ) for all expenses , losses , damages ( including indirect or consequential damage ) and costs which might be incurred as a consequence of reliance on the product , or as a result of the product being inaccurate or incomplete in any way and for any reason ."]}
{"id": 1061, "summary": [{"text": "the sable ( martes zibellina ) is a marten species , a small carnivorous mammal inhabiting forest environments , primarily in russia from the ural mountains throughout siberia , northern mongolia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "its habitat also leans the borders of eastern kazakhstan , china , north and south korea and hokkaid\u014d in japan .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "its range in the wild originally extended through european russia to poland and scandinavia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it has historically been hunted for its highly valued dark brown or black fur , which remains a luxury good to this day .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "while hunting of wild animals is still common in russia , most fur in the market is now commercially farmed . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "sable", "paragraphs": ["the term sable also has become a generic description for some dark - furred animal breeds , such as sable cats or rabbits .\nmiddle english : from old french ( as a heraldic term ) , generally taken to be identical with sable , although sable fur is dark brown .\nsierra club and anglers of au sable win nine - year battle to protect the mason tract of the au sable river from oil and gas drilling threat .\na sable cloud floated in the sky , and at its back . . .\nstay in the loop with updates and news about au sable and our community .\na british collectors ' name of certain pyralid moths . botys nigrata is the wavy - barred sable , and b , lingulata is the silver - barred sable .\nas a token that thou wilt forget it , accept this cloak of sable .\nsable as the black clouds , thy face is beautiful as that of sankarshana .\nsable dens are usually found on the ground under rocks , logs and roots .\nnicknames for sable . add your names , share with friends . click to copy\ndense wooded savanna and tall grass , are the ideal sable ' s habitat .\n\u2018the family arms were ; \u2018argent , a fess between six crosslets fitchee sable . \u2019\u2019\n\u2018if you have brown eyes , stick with taupe , sable and mocha hues . \u2019\n\u2018lions are about the only predators strong enough to bring down a healthy sable . \u2019\n( fur of ) a small carnivore . xv \u2014 of . sable sable fur \u2014 medl . sabelum ; ult . of balto - sl . orig . ( cf .\nhe seemed to hear the sable angel ' s wing - beats over the house .\nhunting both during the day and at night , the sable feeds mainly on rodents .\n407407 , gold series red sable no . 24 , # 5 - service reproduction company\n\u2018adele stopped reading and met dana ' s sable eyes with her own lavender ones . \u2019\n\u2018although her intended audience is not black , she still refers to \u2018our sable race . \u2019\u2019\n\u2018the peculiar thing was that sable curtains blocked the inside of the store from view . \u2019\n\u2018i also noticed she had tattooed - on eyebrows in a lovely shade of sable . \u2019\nall this flashed into his sight , etched against the sable night as if in flame .\na fine paint - brush or pencil made of hair from the tail of the sable .\nat the same time i had a present from his daughter of a handsome sable muff .\nsee special : whatlinkshere / etymology : sable for a list of articles using this term .\nsable litters can contain up to five young which are weaned at around seven weeks old .\non this page you can find the nickname generator and random username picker based on the name sable . it can help you create a login for a website account or a nickname for sable with a few mouse clicks . cute couple nicknames and many other nicknames like sable .\n[ the role of ' ' pseudoheat ' ' in sable reproduction ] . [ russian ]\nsanjay sable , an indian contemporary artists from south india , presents his collect bright times .\n\u201c sable \u201d in dicionario de dicionarios da lingua galega , sli - ilga 2006 - 2013 .\n\u2018he pulled rochelle ' s sable ringlets away from her neck and began to kiss it . \u2019\n\u2018he would have liked to have seen her sable colored hair in a less formal style . \u2019\nthe sable accelerator connects entrepreneurial organizations with highly qualified , highly connected south africans in silicon valley .\nthe average lifespan of the sable antelope is 16 years in wild and 19 years in captivity .\nsable is hunted heavily and , nowadays , sustainably across much of its range as a valued furbearer .\n\u2018servants in their traditional livery continued about their tasks , sable bands about their arms in honor . \u2019\n\u2018the pants were plain enough , tight , but of a good silk in a rich sable . \u2019\n\u2018also present are elephant , sable antelope , reedbuck , common duiker , blue and vervet monkeys . \u2019\nalong the north shore and from yarmouth to cape sable , over a hard bottom , cod abound .\nthe sable is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\n[ the role of ' ' pseudoheat ' ' in sable reproduction ] . [ russian ]\nthe sable antelope has a compact and robust build , characterised by a thick neck and tough skin .\nthe isolated and protected population of feral horses on sable island , nova scotia , canada ( fig .\nbecause of its great expense , sable fur is typically integrated into various clothes fashions , such as to decorate collars , sleeves , hems , and hats . the so - called kolinsky sable - hair brushes used for watercolor or oil painting are not manufactured from sable hair , but from that of the siberian weasel .\n\u2018they say he ' s tall and handsome , and that his hair is as black as sable . \u2019\n\u2018i grew up with impala and sable antelope , burnt - amber kudu , zebra and wiry wildebeest . \u2019\n\u00a9 2018 sable industries inc . all rights reserved . web design and content management by rem web solutions .\ninformation on the sable ( martes zibellina ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nsable antelope are found in parks all across eastern and southern africa offering an attraction to the ecotourism industry . sable antelope are prized trophy animals to many big - game hunters and some are willing to spend thousands of dollars to hunt them . however , declining sable antelope numbers calls into question the advisability of hunting them .\n[ the role of ' ' pseudoheat ' ' in sable reproduction ] . [ russian ] [ 1988 ]\nclassified as lower risk / conservation dependent ( lr / cd ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) . four subspecies of sable antelope are currently recognised : hippotragus niger kirkii ( zambian sable ) , h . n . niger ( common or southern sable ) , h . n . roosevelti ( eastern sable ) , and h . n . variani ( giant or angolan sable ) ( 3 ) . of these , the giant sable antelope ( h . n . variani ) is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) , and is listed on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) .\n\u201c sable \u201d in le tr\u00e9sor de la langue fran\u00e7aise informatis\u00e9 ( the digitized treasury of the french language ) .\n\u2018colours are orchestrated in dark tones , such as sable , olive and black accented with flashes of ultramarine . \u2019\nof the color of the sable ' s fur ; dark ; black ; - - used chiefly in poetry .\nthe pines stand in black platoons upon the hillsides , with a tinge of red or orange on their sable .\npublicis ' murray heads to young & rubicam hire is sable ' s biggest since becoming ceo by andrew mcmains .\nsable antelope in the wild can live up to 16 years and over 19 years in captivity ( urltoken ) .\nsable antelope help to cycle grass / plant nutrients into other areas and the young are prey for large predators .\na band of feral horses on sable island , nova scotia , canada . photo \u00a9 philip d . mcloughlin .\nsable is a friendly gal who loves to ride in the car , go on walks and be with her family .\nwith its new sable kitchen & bar , kimpton hotels & restaurants hopes to broaden the concept of gastropubs beyond beer .\nthe pelt of the sable is very valuable , and sables have been hunted for their fur for hundreds of years .\nsable employees have more than 25 years experience in the warehousing and distribution industry giving them a level of expertise not seen within their competitors . sable is also known for its accuracy in inventory handling , order picking and reliable freight delivery .\nlate middle english : from old french , in the sense \u2018sable fur\u2019 , from medieval latin sabelum , of slavic origin .\n\u2018as expected , the door opened to reveal aunt demeter ' s porcelain , rose - accented features and sable hair . \u2019\n\u2018jane is a black / sable / tan medium - sized cross breed , approx . 8 - 10 years old . \u2019\nto make like sable in color ; darken ; blacken ; hence , figuratively , to make sad or dismal ; sadden .\nhis horse was a white one , and his comrade ' s was sable satan , and to the latter he ran .\n\u2018two thirds of it was lined with sable bookcases , all stuffed to the gills with heavyweight texts on every subject conceivable . \u2019\n\u2018the grazers are mainly antelope , wildebeest , hartebeest , oribi , impala , gazelle , reedbuck , roan and sable antelope . \u2019\nshe held out the sable and vernon laid it on the couch when he had held it to his face for a moment .\nwilson , d . , s . hirst . 1977 . ecology and factors limiting roan and sable antelope populations in south africa .\n\u2018the chinese caravans traded silk , porcelain and tea for furs of black fox and sable , and ivory tusks from frozen mammoths . \u2019\n\u2018but it was the tzar\u0092s luxurious fur coat made of sable and decorated with gold and silver thread that impressed them the most . \u2019\n\u2018sauron has accepted victory , and the sable banners of the lidless eye will be hoisted over the walls of the captured city . \u2019\n\u2018as he left , he did not notice the hateful eyes of the sable raven , watching calanthas go , from a windowsill . \u2019\nau sable forks \u2014 shortly after mourners had left to attend a funeral , the zaumetzer - sprague funeral home was engulfed in flames .\nsable warehousing began operations in 1998 providing warehousing and distribution services from the port of halifax throughout north america . conveniently located near the port of halifax , which is the deepest port on the eastern seaboard , sable provides a variety of services to its worldwide group of customers .\n\u2018mink is america ' s favorite fur , according to the fur information council of america , followed by sable , fox and beaver . \u2019\n\u2018her own sable tresses fell into her eyes and she carelessly brushed them away , deeper things on her mind than her chosen body . \u2019\nfrom market entries to licensing , distribution , or technology commercialization strategies , sable experts can assist at any stage , from launch to exit .\nsable martin\n) , in reference to the mammal or its fur , borrowed in old french from germanic ( cf . middle dutch\nthe labrador marten , or\nsable ,\nis a sub - species , generally distributed in the forested parts , like the weasel .\nin this image taken on monday , nov 5 , 2012 , chocolate black pepper sable cookies are shown in concord , n . h .\ndetroit ( ap ) \u2014 federal safety regulators are investigating some older - model ford taurus and mercury sable sedans because the throttles can stick .\nthe sable antelope ' s spoor is very much similar to the roan antelope ' s . it is smaller , though , and narrower .\nthe sable antelope ( hippotragus niger ) is an antelope which inhabits wooded savannah in east africa south of kenya , and in southern africa .\nwere both passive and active . the passive approach involved setting traps while the active approach involved the use of hunting dogs and bows and arrows . occasionally , hunters also followed sable tracks to their burrows , around which they placed nets , and waited for the sable to emerge .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - sable ( martes zibellina )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - sable ( martes zibellina )\ntitle =\narkive species - sable ( martes zibellina )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n\u201c sable \u201d in santamarina , ant\u00f3n ( coord . ) : tesouro informatizado da lingua galega . santiago de compostela : instituto da lingua galega .\n\u2018according to old accounts , at that time , one good pelt of sable could bring enough money to buy a 50 - acre farm . \u2019\n\u2018he had the palest skin she had ever seen , milky white , and he was topped with a neatly cropped head of sable hair . \u2019\n\u2018unlike the dragon so pictured , its sable scales shimmered with an inner light , a fire , a pulse , and seemed almost transparent . \u2019\nwhat made you want to look up sable ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\n) for sable island horses . ( a ) 2009\u20132010 , ( b ) 2010\u20132011 , ( c ) 2011\u20132012 , and ( d ) 2012\u20132013 .\nsable systems international is the world leader for precision metabolic measurement , providing the tools , the expertise and the training that enable scientific discovery ; true scientific discovery that not only creates data , but creates understanding . by scientists , for scientists , sable enables results that impact research and industry breakthroughs .\n\u2018the area ' s vast reserves protect animals both rare ( barguzin sable , baikal seal ) and abundant ( brown bear , forest reindeer ) . \u2019\n\u2018as though in a trance they stood , staring at that white mask with its black eyes and frame of sable hair , paralyzed by hesitation . \u2019\n\u2018antelopes are well represented here , particularly the sable antelope which shows off their extravagant horns as they proudly march between stands of miombo woodland trees . \u2019\n\u2018it is therefore , common to find different species of grazers co - existing with zebra , buffalo , sable , roan , hartebeest and wildebeest . \u2019\nsable industries is a canadian manufacturer and wholesale distributor of dental handpiece parts , high speed and slow speed handpieces , small dental equipment and parts , and bio - pure evacuation system cleaner . sable has always been dealer / distributor focused ; and we are positioned as the premium aftermarket solution with features , benefits , and warranties that match and / or exceed the market leaders . sable is a certified iso facility with full fda and health canada approvals .\nthe third - generation deli man sifted through the fresh delivery of nova salmon , sable and whitefish , flown in weekly from his supplier in brooklyn .\nsable\nis an adjective commonly used to describe the black fur of animals . it is also used in heraldry to denote\nblack .\ntable s1 . model selection for the analysis of variation in annual probability of survival for sable island horses , 2009\u20132013 ( top ten models only ) .\n\u2018on more practical ground , ferr\u00e8 also delivered a few totally tempting scarves with cashmere rib - knit on one side , and sable on the other . \u2019\n\u2018the carriage door swung open , revealing a tall woman with sable hair and dressed in an azure gown , bringing out her gray - blue eyes . \u2019\n\u2018other sources indicate the irish setter was used in early breeding - the collie ' s sable color may be the indirect result of such a cross . \u2019\n\u2018the selous has huge herds of sable antelope and estimated 10 , 000 of them although they are rare in the tourist parts of this huge reserve . \u2019\nnight , sable goddess ! from her ebon throne , in rayless majesty , now stretches forth her leaden scepter o ' er a slumbering world .\non that occasion thou wilt have a sight of him , clad in a sable deerskin , and wearing his hair in the form of a matted mass .\nhipotrachus niger variani the giant sable antelope or royal sable is so named because the horns of both sexes are recognisably longer . found only in a few remaining localities in central angola . it is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list , and is listed on appendix i of cites .\nhorse surveys on sable island allowed us to obtain a time series of near perfect estimates of demographic parameters from 2009 to 2013 ; as we were able to identify each horse on the island , we do not account for sampling error in our analyses . our life cycle graph for sable island horses ( fig .\n\u2018russia ' s first strict nature reserve - barguzinsky zapovednik - was founded in 1916 on the eastern shore of lake baikal to protect the endangered barguzin sable . \u2019\n\u2018the handsome sable antelope of eastern and southern africa belongs to a group called sabre - horned antelopes , because of their long , scimitar - shaped horns . \u2019\ndescription of critical habitat of roseate tern in sable island bird sanctuary\n( 2007 - 01 - 20 ) ( pdf format , 13 . 29 kb )\nnumbers of males and female horses observed on sable island , canada , from 2009 to 2013 . total number of individual life histories in the sample is 701 horses\nis regarded as the \u2018typical ' sable as it was the first to be described and named in 1838 . often referred to as the black sable because it tends to have the darkest coat , this subspecies occurs south of the zambezi river , particularly in northern botswana and large numbers in the matsetsi valley of zimbabwe but is also found in southern africa . in south africa most of the commercial sable farmers crossed their matsetsi sables ( indeginous to south africa ) with western zambian sables in the hope to move nearer to the nearly extinct giant sable ( that was larger with bigger horns . ) currently the believe is that there are only about 15 % pure matsesti sables in south africa . the matsetsi sable population in zimbabwe is only 450 . ( was 24 , 000 in 1994 ) . the sable population in south africa is about 7000 ( commercial and in reserves ) . therefore it can be concluded that the matsesti sable population is less than 1500 and declining daily . fortunately most of the sables in the reserves are pure matsetsi sables . anglo - american recently started a program of breeding pure matsetsi sables commercially and keeping them pure .\nfur or pelt of the european sable\n( martes zibellina ) , early 15c . , from middle french sable ( also martre sable\nsable martin\n) , in reference to the mammal or its fur , borrowed in old french from germanic ( cf . middle dutch sabel , middle low german sabel , middle high german zobel ) , ultimately from a slavic source ( cf . russian , czech sobol , polish sob\u00f3l , the name of the animal ) ,\nwhich itself is borrowed from an east - asiatic language\n[ klein ] , but russian sources ( e . g . vasmer ) find none of the proposed candidates satisfactory .\n\u2018the relocation is the first phase of a resettlement programme of several wildlife species , including giant sable and red buffalo , to kissama over the next five years . \u2019\n\u2018shar - pei come in just about every colour there is - black , red , red - fawn , fawn , black - pointed cream , sable and blue . \u2019\nstanding before the long mirror , laura looked with a frown at the sable coat , which gave her , as gerty had said , the air of a tragic actress .\nwas usually a fixed number of sable pelts that was required of every male tribe member who was at least fifteen years old to be given to russian officials . officials enforced\n\u2018while assembling my belongings , i came across a lovely dress , a creamy chiffon , in the empress josephine style , with a bit of luxurious sable round the shoulder . \u2019\n\u2018even at its zenith in the mid - 20th century , mink had few rivals , with only sable and the pelts of big cats bestowing anywhere near the same prestige . \u2019\n\u2018throughout zimbabwe , 64 percent of kudu , 63 percent of giraffes , 56 percent of cheetahs , and 53 percent of sable antelope and impalas were on private ranch properties . \u2019\nrangy by nature , jake was a tri - color sable with a bushy dark brown tail tipped in white , matching the natural white ring of white fur around his neck .\nthe handsome sable antelope is the national animal of zimbabwe and is one of the most sought after for photographers and trophy hunters alike due to its scimitar horns . they are very\nnickle seamless ferrule \u0095 brown polished handle \u0095 pure red sable , hand cupped with a sharp point , plenty of strength and spring . finest quality artist watercolor brush . short handle\ncontasti al , van beest fm , vander wal e . mcloughlin pd . identifying hidden sinks in growing populations from individual fates and movements : the feral horses of sable island .\n\u201d in which many russians moved to siberia as independent trappers . from 1585 to 1680 , tens of thousands of sable and other valuable pelts were obtained in siberia each year .\n\u2018the law emphasizes that only those of \u2018superior degrees\u2019 are permitted to wear satin , silk , and sable or cloth made of or mixed with gold , silver , or tinsel . \u2019\nelizabeth dubben , who runs the amrose sable gallery at 306 hudson ave in albany , recently sent an e - mail telling patrons the arts space will be closing on may 24 .\ntyler , p . e . 2000 . behind the $ 100 , 000 sable coat , a siberian hunter new york times december 27 , 2000 . retrieved june 7 , 2008 .\ntable s2 . model selection for the analysis of variation in annual fecundity ( probability of presenting with a foal ) for sable island horses , 2009\u20132013 ( top ten models only ) .\nwelsh da . halifax , ns : dalhousie university ; 1975 . population , behavioural and grazing ecology of the horses of sable island , nova scotia . ph . d . thesis .\nrecent studies ( borisov and lomanov 2006 , safonov et al . 2006 , sinitsyn 2012 ) have shown that earlier growth in sable numbers has continued . leading sable ecologists and researchers documented that sable harvest in russia reached 700 , 000 \u2013 750 , 000 animals in the winter 2011 / 2012 game season and the russian population is estimated at 2 . 0\u20132 . 2 million animals ( dejkin et al . 2011 , monakhov 2012a , monakhov and li 2013 ) . in the 2010s sable occupies all suitable habitats and previously not colonised territories , which allows numbers to increase in russia . sable numbers in china were estimated in 6 , 000 in the 1990s ( ma 1998 ) and 18 , 000 in the 2010s ( zhu et al . 2011 , monakhov and li 2013 ) . population of sable in mongolia were assessed at least 10 , 000 for central hentii mountain range in the 1970s ( clark et al . 2006 ) . no estimates are available for japan , korea or kazakhstan ; the occupied parts of each of these countries comprise only a small part of the species ' s global range .\nwe can think of the japanese marten and the sable as counterparts in japan : whereas the marten lives in the three main southerly islands ; the sable , or kuroten , lives only in hokkaido . also , whereas the japanese marten is a golden - brown animal with a black face , black legs and a brown tail , the sable is a pale , creamy - yellow color , almost white on the face and with black feet and lower legs and a black tail . the carnivores are similar in size , with the marten measuring 60 to 65 cm from nose - tip to tail - tip , and weighing 1 . 1 to 1 . 5 kg , while the sable measures 67 cm long and weighs in at 1 . 5 kg . but to my mind , it is the sable that smacks of wilderness , and conjures up images of the immense russian taiga forests that comprise much of its natural range .\n\u2018local tribes sometimes resisted , but in the long run were subdued and subjected to tribute , usually in the form of so many skins per year , the sable being especially sought . \u2019\n\u2018the maiden brushed a strand of sable hair behind her ear and gazed straight into the eyes of her nervous king , the emeralds set into her own face unnervingly refusing to blink . \u2019\n\u2018my wife and girls fell instantly into dreams while i navigated a causeway suspended between an indigo sky and the sable sea , two voluptuous bodies winking at each other like old lovers . \u2019\n\u2018the tonkinese occurs in four colors : natural , which is also called sable or seal ; champagne , also called chocolate ; platinum , also called lilac or frost ; and blue . \u2019\n\u2018the most frequently seen are shades of darkest red to lightest cream , some with sable accents ; but many poms occur in solid black , black and tan , and parti - colors . \u2019\noxford english dictionary . 1989 . sable , n . , etymology of the oxford english dictionary , 2nd ed . 1989 . oed online . oxford university press . retrieved february 11 , 2008 .\nthe grassland habitat of the sable is being reduced by habitat destruction for agricultural development . antelope are important to their habitats as grazers and browsers . they are also important as prey for carnivores .\nboth females and males carry horns , making the sight of a sable herd amazing ! the female\u2019s horns reach a length of 2 - 3 feet , and the bulls\u2019 can grow to between 2 , 5 - 5 , 5 feet . the skin , that can vary significantly in color , is just as impressive . a shoulder - or full mount is a must if you are ever lucky enough to get your hands on a sable trophy with the black shiny color . the medal standards for sable are as follows : bronze : 96 silver : 102\u00bd gold : 106 3 / 8 sci\nlions seldom attack adults , because of their size and the formidable fighting abilities of these antelope . humans are the only real threat to adult sable antelope and their populations ( spinage 1986 ) . young\nover the past 10 years sable has grown from a 12 person operation with 52 , 000 square feet of warehousing space to over 25 dedicated staff and over 200 , 000 square feet of warehousing .\nthere is , beside , the ' link - man ' , a lank , dark - faced , black - haired man , in a sable suit , with a link or torch in his hand .\nsable silty clay loam - nearly level in a cultivated field at an elevation of about 223 meters ( 732 feet ) above mean sea level . ( colors are for moist soil unless otherwise stated . )\ntypically , sable antelope are specialized grazers feeding on foliage and herbs , especially those growing on termite mounds . during the dry season they are less reluctant to browse ( estes 1993 ) . one of the reasons for declining antelope numbers could be their very specific feeding pattern . typically they will feed on grasses ( up to ninety percent of their diet ) at heights of 40 - 140 millimeters from the ground taking only the leaf . in a savannah setting , sable antelope are the last to feed on the new grasses available during the late dry season when food availability is vital ( spinage 1986 ) . in the paddock setting , where grasses are tall ( above 140mm ) , feed is high in protein and low in fiber , and sable antelope quickly lose weight . in a particular enclosure study , sable antelope fed primarily on\nsable service : we promise responsive expert service and support , world - leading accuracy and efficient integration of instrumentation for ease of use . when we were in your position , we would have expected no less .\nthe name sable appears to be of slavic origin and to have entered western european via the early medieval fur trade ( oxford english dictionary 1989 ) . thus the russian and polish sobol became the german zobel , dutch sabel . the french zibelline spanish cibelina , cebellina , finnish soopeli , and mediaeval latin zibellina derive from the italian form . the english and medieval latin word sabellum comes from the old french sable or saible .\nfor the predatory species it just isn\u2019t an option , as they burn so many calories just staying alive that they need to regularly top - up with fuel \u2014 hence the snow - burrowing antics of the sable .\nin russia , after a critical depression in number that lasted until the 1940s , sable is protected in state nature reserves , national parks , and game reserves . outside protected areas , sable harvesting in russia is strictly regimented by hunting quotas for each region and is limited to 15 october - 29 february . the main areas where sable is protected are 41 state nature reserves with a total area of 164 , 960 km\u00b2 . mass reintroductions in the 1940s - 1960s involved about 19 , 000 animals . in china , hunting is forbidden throughout the whole 215 , 678 km\u00b2 area holding the species ( zhu et al . 2011 ) ; the species is in the first category of protection . eight national reserves totalling 8 , 122 km\u00b2 hold it ( ma and xu 1994 ) . in mongolia , it is classed as vulnerable ( clark et al . 2006 ) . in dpr korea , the sable is classified as endangered ( won and smith 1999 ) . in japan ( hokkaido ) sable has been protected since 1920 ( murakami and ohtaishi 2000 ) and is now listed as near threatened ( murakami 2009 ) .\nsable antelope are gregarious animals and congregate in herds of up to 40 individuals . like their cousins , the roan antelope , sable have a very similar social structure . there is only one adult bull in each herd , juvenile males are also evicted at the age of 3 years and form\nbachelor groups\nwhere they remain for about 2 or 3 years before they can acquire their own breeding herd , by fighting the herd bull . fights are more a display of supremacy , very seldom causing any body harm . sable will confront any predator , very often the later being gored and killed by the sable ' s formidable horns . one or two weeks before parturition , female sable will leave the herd and retreat to a secluded place , where she will give birth . for the first 2 or 3 days , the mother will stay no further than a couple of hundred meters from her calf , moving progressively further away to rejoin the herd . the calves will congregate in nursery groups , only joining the mother\nat lunch time\n. adults weigh up to 250 kg . and have a life span of about 15 years .\nsable systems international is eliminating the disconnect between scientists and the people who develop their instruments . we merge authoritative expertise in metabolic physiology and biophysics with an inventive spark to create precision tools for metabolic measurement , neurophysiology and environmental science .\n\u2018they herded reindeer , which provided meat and skins , caught and preserved the great shoals of salmon which surged up the summer rivers , and hunted the bears , foxes and sable , whose furs helped them to survive the cold . \u2019\nthese example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' sable . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .\nthe sable inhabits forest environments , flatlands , and mountain ranges , including spruce and cedar forest in eastern siberia and pine and larch forests in western siberia , avoiding only mountain tops ( bates 2002 ; grzimek 1990 ; ognev 1962 ) .\nsable antelope live in savanna woodlands and grasslands during the dry season , where they eat mid - length grasses and leaves . sable antelope visit salt licks and have been known to chew bones to collect minerals . they are diurnal , but are less active during the heat of the day . they form herds of 10 to 30 females and calves led by a single male , called a bull . males fight among themselves ; they drop to their knees and use their horns .\nthese soils are in illinois , wisconsin , iowa , and indiana . sable soils are extensive , over 608 , 000 acres have been correlated in mlras 95b , 104 , 105 , 108a , 108b , 110 , 111d , and 115c .\nshe turned and waved a hand to him , she cried a word , but he didn ' t hear it , it was a lost word . a sable wraith she was in the parkland , fading away into the dolorous crypt of winter .\n\u2018for instance , the use of the word sable to describe the skin color of her race imparts a suggestion of rarity and richness that also makes affiliation with the group of which she is a part something to be desired and even sought after . \u2019\nblack\nas a heraldic color , early 14c . , commonly identified with sable ( n . 1 ) , but the animal ' s fur is brown and this may be a different word of unknown origin ; or it might reflect a medieval custom ( unattested ) of dyeing sable fur black . as an adjective from late 14c . emblematic of mourning or grief from c . 1600 ; c . 1800 as\nblack\nwith reference to africans and their descendants , often with mock dignity .\nblack\nas a heraldic color , early 14c . , commonly identified with sable ( n . 1 ) , but the animal ' s fur is brown and this may be a different word of unknown origin ; or it might reflect a medieval custom ( unattested ) of dyeing sable fur black . as an adjective from late 14c . emblematic of mourning or grief from c . 1600 ; c . 1800 as\nblack\nwith reference to africans and their descendants , often with mock dignity .\n2002 , christopher paolini , eragon , chapter 3 they wound between the wagons to a tent removed from the rest of the traders ' . it was crimson at the top and sable at the bottom , with thin triangles of colors stabbing into each other .\nonly sablehd\u2122 high definition technology gives you the truest , most data - rich study results . it\u2019s at the heart of our cutting - edge promethion metabolic and behavioral phenotyping systems . and only sable preserves all raw data for retrospective qc or re - analysis .\nlibrary learning online has self - paced training for library staff available any time they need it . formerly known as sable , library learning online is being expanded to include more topics reflecting the wide scope of skills and knowledge required in today ' s libraries .\nthe color black in a general sense , and especially as the color of mourning : so called with reference to the general dark color of the fur of the sable as compared with other furs , or from its being dyed black as sealskin is dyed .\nthe sable is found in russia from the ural mountains throughout siberia , in northern mongolia and china , and on hokkaid\u014d in japan ( harrison 2004 ) . its range in the wild originally extended through european russia to poland and scandinavia ( ognev 1962 ) .\nsable science : the spectrum of applications that can benefit from sable systems solutions is vast \u2013 from animal biology to pharmaceutical safety testing , human exercise energetics to insect metabolism , and atmospheric monitoring and control . the principles are elegantly simple : measure and control o 2 , co 2 , h 2 o , methane , pressure and temperature \u2013 and do it very well . our compact , turnkey solutions for high - resolution gas analysis and control , respirometry , indirect calorimetry and animal behavior measurement produce high - definition results .\nwhen sable antelopes are threatened by predators , including lions , they confront it , using their scimitar - shaped horns . many of these big cats have died during such fights . numbers have been reduced severely as part of regional tse - tse fly control programs .\nsummation of available population estimates gives a total population of about 54 , 000 sable , but this does not allow for undercounting bias in aerial surveys or parts of the species range for which estimates of numbers are unavailable . east ( 1999 ) estimated the total population at 75 , 000 , of which about half occurs in and around protected areas and one - quarter on private land . the population in the selous ecosystem probably represents the largest free - ranging population in africa . overall population trends are more or less stable in protected areas , increasing on private land and decreasing etsewhere ( east 1999 ) . total numbers of the giant sable surviving are estimated ( 2007 ) at 200 - 400 ( p . vaz pinto in litt to asg , 2007 ) . like other ungulates of the miombo woodlands , the sable occurs at low density in comparison with ungulate densities in semi - arid savanna . wilson and hirst ( 1977 ) estimated density at 4 / km in the matetsi area of sw zimbabwe , which they considered the best sable habitat in southern african .\nthe sable antelopes normally stay in groups with a maximum of 10 - 30 individuals , led by an old bull . they thrive in the areas where dense bush and savanna meet , and always stay close to the protective cover of the bush , and the plenty of the savanna . their need to live in these zones are what has challenged them throughout the years , as these biotopes are often being cultivated for farming cattle and chopping wood . where the sable lives to this day , you can find a highly sustainable hunt for them , playing a key factor in conserving the areas they live in . the sable is one of the shyest antelopes of all , and stalking these animals is a challenge , as they won\u2019t present you with many chances before they seek the cover of the bush .\n1742 , edward young , the complaint : or night - thoughts on life , death & immortality , night i night , sable goddess ! from her ebon throne , / in rayless majesty , now stretches forth / her leaden sceptre o ' er a slumbering world .\ngood morning america abc news\u2019 mara schiavocampo shared her experiences after spending 24 hours inside a metabolic chamber at mount sinai st . luke\u2019s hospital in new york city . the room calorimetry system being utilized to measure mara schiavocampo\u2019s metabolism was produced by sable systems international . read more\ncollection of nicknames , cool fonts , letters , symbols and tags related to sable \u2013 salf . fancy names with the copy - paste function , reputation and popularity . create unique names for games , youtube channels , instagram accounts , companies , brands or social media .\nthe sable antelope formerly occurred widely in the savanna woodlands of southern and eastern africa , with an isolated population ( giant sable ) in central angola , between the cuanza and luando rivers and immediately north of the luando . they have been eliminated from large areas of their former range by meat hunting and loss of habitat to the expansion of agricultural settlement and livestock ( east 1999 ) . this range reduction has been most marked in mozambique , where they survive only in good numbers in niassa in the north , and in the western gaza province , southeast dr congo , and north - east tanzania ( east 1999 ; estes in press ) . sable have been reintroduced to many parts of their former range , but have also been introduced to areas where they never naturally occurred , including to swaziland ( east 1999 ) .\njustification : sable is categorized as least concern because there is a large ( over two million ) population spread widely within eurasia . in most its range it is no danger of decreasing numbers , notwithstanding declines in some countries comprising in total only a small proportion of its range .\nevery quarter sable offers value driven promotions through our dealer partners , to provide dental professionals with volume discount offers and single unit savings on a variety of products . be sure to check back on a regular basis , so your team can take advantage of our continued value driven savings .\nsable ( hippotragus niger ) , because of the great variation in their skin color , are most easily recognizable by their backward curving horns , that don\u2019t look like the horns of any other antelope . the old bulls are also easy to identify due to their pitch - black skin .\nthe skin tells its own story and is light brown when the sable is born , and then turning darker and darker with age . females and young bulls are recognizable from this brownish color , especially around the legs , while a mature bull will turn completely pitch - black in time .\nsable is the common name for a carnivorous mammal , martes zibellina , of the marten genus ( martes ) and weasel family ( mustelidae ) , characterized by a slender body , short limbs , bushy tail , and sharp - clawed , five - toed feet . sables have been valued historically for their soft , thick , dark fur , which remains a luxury good to this day . the sable is found in northern asia ( siberia , northern china , japan ) ; its distribution once extended west to scandinavia , but it became extinct in the wild there ( bates 2002 ) .\nwe would like to thank inderjeet mani , wlodek zadrozny , rie kubota ando , joyce chai , and nanda kambhatla for their valuable feedback . we would also like to thank carl sable , min - yen kan , dave evans , adam budzikowski , and veronika horvath for their help with the evaluation .\nmost luxurious natural furs ( ermine , mink , sable , and otter , among others ) come from members of carnivora , as do many of the animals that attract the largest crowds at circuses and zoos . producers of livestock worldwide are concerned about possible depredations upon their herds and flocks by this group\u2026\nlisted as least concern as sable are currently estimated to number ca . 75 , 000 , and population trends are more or less stable in protected areas , increasing on private land and decreasing elsewhere ( 25 % ) . the overall conservation status is unlikely to change , since any further decrease in the free - living population may be compensated by the continued growth of its numbers on private farms and conservancies . the latter should continue in view of this spectacular antelopes aesthetic appeal and its high value as a trophy animal . nonetheless , certain subpopulations remain vulnerable , in particular that of the giant sable in angola .\n\u2026a gold cap trimmed with sable . the turks also adopted caftans , and they then brought the style to hungary and poland when they conquered those lands . subsequently , there were occasional vogues for turkish dress in italy , germany , and england , and the caftan became the model for later western garments featuring\u2026\nsuccess on a sable hunt secures you what is one of the absolute top trophies of the african continent . this legendary antelope with its majestic backward curving horns was recently threatened with extinction throughout eastern africa , but thanks to cooperation between hunters , outfitters , locals , and governments , it has now , yet again , spread across southern africa and is available from almost every outfitter organizing hunts in southern africa . hunting this shy antelope is something most hunters dream about ! the sable antelopes normally stay in groups with a maximum of 10 - 30 individuals , led by an old bull . they thrive in the areas . . .\nsable soils are on level or nearly level summits of loess - covered moraines and stream terraces . typically , they are on broad interstream divides of till plains , and less commonly on unglaciated hills and on terraces . slope gradients range from 0 to 2 percent . sable soils formed entirely in loess . mean annual temperature ranges from 7 . 8 to 12 . 2 degrees c ( 46 to 54 degrees f ) . , mean annual precipitation ranges from 760 to 1020 mm ( 30 to 40 inches ) , frost free days range from 140 to 180 days , and elevation ranges from 104 to 311 meters ( 340 to 1020 feet ) above mean sea level .\npopulation projection without density dependence for sable island horses on 20 years from observed values obtained during 4 years ( 2009\u20132013 ) . red points are observed values ; the black line is the average increasing of the population ; gray lines show variation in the size due to demographic and environmental stochasticity ( included in se of parameter estimates ) .\nfur was in great demand in western europe , especially sable and marten , since european forest resources had been over - hunted and furs were extremely scarce . fur trading allowed russia to purchase from europe goods that it lacked , like lead , tin , precious metals , textiles , firearms , and sulphur . russia also traded furs with\nthe main factor in reducing the number is winter hunting . however in russia , sable is exploited in compliance with scientifically substantiated quotas , so this hunting is not a threat to the species . some habitat is lost through clear - felling of forests , building of communications , and the development of new mines , oil and gas fields .\nclimate and density can lead to important intercohort variations and have long - term effects on life history traits in ungulates ( forchhammer et al . 2001 ) . both of our environmental variables govern the availability of energy to sable island horses . winter weather mediates the date of spring flush , quality of terrestrial forage during the winter , and accessibility of aquatic forage during the winter . high densities reduce the availability of forage through increased competition . our results suggest that for female sable island horses , high density and poor weather during the period of gestation reduced fecundity ; but , although density generally had a negative effect on survival , the same conditions also resulted in increased survival in adults .\nwe develop instrumentation for these fields and applications because they are dear to us . it is what we are born from . sable systems was founded because we ourselves couldn\u2019t find the tools that were good enough to truly fuel our scientific discovery . this is why we place an unrelenting focus on quality \u2013 one that results in data you can trust .\nsable fur has been a highly valued item in the fur trade since the early middle ages . intensified hunting in russia in the nineteenth and early twentieth century caused a severe enough decline in numbers that a five year ban on hunting was instituted in 1935 , followed by a winter - limited licensed hunt . these restrictions together with the development of sable farms have allowed to species to recolonize much of its former range and attain healthy numbers ( grzimek 1990 ) . the collapse of the soviet union led to an increase of hunting and poaching in the 1990s , in part because wild caught russian furs are considered the most luxurious and demand the highest prices on the international market ( tyler 2000 ) .\nthe sable series consists of very deep , poorly drained , moderately permeable soils formed in loess on nearly level broad summits of moraines and stream terraces . slope ranges from 0 to 2 percent . mean annual temperature is about 10 . 6 degrees c ( 51 degrees f ) . , and mean annual precipitation is about 889 mm ( 35 inches ) .\nsable antelope are most active during the early morning and late afternoon . where not persecuted , they are not excessively wary , often running a short distance when startled , then stopping and looking back . however , when closely pursued , they can run as fast as 57 kmph / 35 mph for considerable distances . when wounded or cornered , sable antelope viciously defend themselves with their saber - like horns . the\ncritical distance\n- the point at which an animal defends itself instead of fleeing - for sable antelope seems to be smaller than for comparable species . old bulls are believed to be territorial . when fighting , males males drop to their ' knees ' and engage in horn wrestling . fatalities from these combats are known , but are rare . maternal herds are led by a dominant male , who defends an area of 300 - 500 meters extending outward from the herd . recorded population densities vary between 0 . 4 and 9 . 2 per square kilometer , although the maximum sustainable density is believed to be less than 4 animals per square kilometers .\nfrom other grazers and suggests why they are habitat limited ( spingage 1986 ) . water is visited at least every other day and no sable antelope will travel more then 2 miles from a watering hole or river . salt licks are visited periodically and they will chew on bones to get trace essential elements not present in mineral - deficient soil ( estes 1993 ) ."]}
{"id": 1079, "summary": [{"text": "the chupare stingray or caribbean whiptail stingray , styracura schmardae , is a species of stingray in the family potamotrygonidae , found in the western atlantic ocean from the gulf of campeche to brazil , including the antilles .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the presence of this species in the gulf of mexico has not been confirmed .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it also occurs in the bahamas .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it usually inhabits sandy substrates , sometimes near coral reefs , and is an infrequent visitor to the amazon river estuary .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "leonard compagno doubted the taxonomic validity of this species in his 1999 checklist of living elasmobranchs . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "chupare stingray", "paragraphs": ["the chupare stingray is the only ray in the genus himantura in the caribbean .\nhowever , ( as these images indicate ) the chupare stingray also inhabits mangrove and muddy lagoons .\nthe chupare stingray has also been photographed in belize and is reportedly common off the coast of cuba .\nsimilar species : the chupare stingray is easily distinguished from other dasyatid rays by its rounded disc and tail with no finfolds . the southern stingray and atlantic stingray have distinctly romboid ( kite shaped ) discs .\npacific chupare , himantura pacifica ( beebe & tee - van , 1941 ) .\nfloating right along , the next fish i bumped into was this ray . known as either the chupare stingray or the caribbean whiptail stingray , is this an electric species of ray ?\na chupare stingray or caribbean whiptail stingray ( himantura schmardae ) swims over a shallow sand flat off of belize . this ray is not common and almost nothing is known about its biology .\nsimilar species : there are no other urolophid stingray species in the caribbean . the similarly shaped chupare stingray is easily distinguishable by its larger size , plain colouration and long whiplike tail devoid of finfolds .\na chupare stingray or caribbean whiptail stingray ( himantura schmardae ) swims over a shallow sand flat off of belize . this ray is not common and almost nothing is known about its biology . stock photo\n; the roughtail stingray , d . centroura ( mitchill , 1815 ) ; the wingfin stingray , d . geijskesi boeseman , 1948\nbennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\npale - edged stingray , dasyatis zugei ( m\u00fcller & henle , 1841 ) .\n; the longnose stingray d . guttata ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) ; the brazilian large - eyed stingray , d . marianae gomes , rosa & gadig , 2000\nshort - tail stingray or bull ray , dasyatis brevicaudata ( hutton , 1875 ) .\nround stingray , taeniura grabata ( \u00e9 . geoffroy saint - hilaire , 1817 ) .\nstingray city in grand cayman allows swimmers , snorkelers , and divers to swim with and feed the stingrays .\nmeyer , p . 1997 . stingray injuries . wilderness environ med 8 ( 1 ) : 24 - 8 .\na stingray buried in the sand in saba . stingrays can be hard to see when they cover themselves with substrate .\nwestern tropical atlantic from gulf of campeche to suriname and northern brazil . the caribbean whiptail stingray is reportedly common around cuba .\nthe pacific chupare and the chupare stingray in the atlantic are believed to be sister species , together referred to as the\namphi - american himantura\n. the two species are morphologically similar and share four - ridged shoulder tubercles . based on the details of the mandibular musculature and articulation , the amphi - american himantura are hypothesized to be most closely related to the river stingrays in the family potamotrygonidae , rather than to indo - pacific himantura species . [ 1 ] this has given rise to the theory that both the amphi - american himantura and the river stingrays are descended from euryhaline ancestors living along the northern coast of south america prior to the formation of the isthmus of panama . this interpretation was initially disputed , as parasitological evidence suggests that the river stingrays are most closely related to pacific urobatis stingrays . [ 1 ] in 2016 , a major review of\nhimantura\nbased on morphology and molecular evidence confirmed the position of the pacific chupare , and it we moved to the genus styracura ( together with the chupare stingray ) in the family potamotrygonidae . [ 3 ] [ 7 ]\nhave been reported for the southwestern atlantic ( in brazilian waters ) : the southern stingray , d . americana hildebrand & schroeder , 1928\nphotographed specimens were found foraging for food at the edge of the mangrove during the day . other individuals were startled out of their resting places under the silt and algae . implying that chupare stingrays can be nocturnal or diurnal .\nreaction to divers : the yellow spotted stingray will allow a close approach with slow non threatening movements . this ray will bolt when disturbed .\na stingray in dark waters . stingrays are dangerous for humans because it is hard to see them when they ' re in dark waters .\n, and the bluntnose stingray , d . say ( lesueur , 1817 ) . the other dasyatid stingrays known from brazil are : the pelagic stingray , pteroplatytrygon violacea ( bonaparte , 1832 ) and the chupare stingray , himantura schmardae ( werner , 1904 ) ( dasyatidae ) ( ribeiro , 1907 , 1923 ; figueiredo , 1977 ; charvet - almeida et . al . , 2000 , gomes & gadig , 2003 ) . the atlantic stingray d . sabina ( lesueur , 1824 ) , according to garman ( 1913 ) , has been recorded from north carolina ( usa ) to brazil . bigelow & schroeder ( 1953 : 376 ) , cited the brazilian record of this species , referring to it as\n. . . probably not on good evidence\n. herein we describe a new species of dasyatis\nwhile not independently valuable as a food source , the stingray ' s capacity to damage shell fishing grounds can lead to bounties being placed on their removal .\nmartin , r . a . 2008 . biology of sharks and rays : stingray city limits . reefquest centre for shark research . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\npassarelli , n . , and a . piercy . 2008 . atlantic stingray . florida museum of natural history , ichthyology department . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\n\u2191 t . r . roberts , makararaja chindwinensis , a new genus and species of freshwater dasyatidid stingray from upper myanmar , the natural history bulletin of the siam society 54 ( 2006 ) : 285\u2013293 .\nflint , d . , and w . sugrue . 1999 . stingray injuries : a lesson in debridement . new zealand med j 112 ( 1086 ) : 137 - 8 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nalthough edible , stingrays are not a dietary staple and are not considered a high - quality food . however , they are consumed , including fresh , dried , and salted ( mceachran 2004 ) . stingray recipes abound throughout the world , with dried forms of the wings being most common . for example , in singapore and malaysia , stingray is commonly barbecued over charcoal , then served with spicy sambal sauce . generally , the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings , the\ncheek\n( the area surrounding the eyes ) , and the liver . the rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses .\nin the cayman islands , there are several dive sites called stingray city , grand cayman , where divers and snorkelers can swim with large southern stingrays ( dasyatis americana ) and feed them by hand . there is also a\nstingray city\nin the sea surrounding the caribbean island of antigua . it consists of a large , shallow reserve where the rays live , and snorkeling is possible . in belize , off the island of ambergris caye there is a popular marine sanctuary called hol chan . here divers and snorkelers often gather to watch stingrays and nurse sharks that are drawn to the area by tour operators who feed the animals .\n\u2191 p . r . last , b . m . manjaji , and g . k . yearsley , pastinachus solocirostris sp . nov . , a new species of stingray ( elasmobranchii : myliobatiformes ) from the indo - malay archipelago , zootaxa 1040 ( 2005 ) : 1 - 16 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nstingray is the common name for any of the various cartilaginous fish comprising the family dasyatidae , characterized by enlarged and flat pectoral fins continuous with the side of the head , no caudal fin , eyes on the dorsal surface , and narrow , long , and whip - like tail , typically with one or more venomous spines . marine , brackish water , and freshwater species are known .\nstingrays are popular targets of ecotourism . dasyatids are not normally visible to swimmers , but divers and snorkelers may find them in shallow sandy waters . usually very docile , their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance . nevertheless , certain larger species may be more aggressive and should only be approached with caution by humans , as the stingray ' s defensive reflex may result in serious injury or even death .\ndasyatids generally do not attack aggressively or even actively defend themselves . when threatened , their primary reaction is to swim away . however , when attacked by predators or stepped on , the barbed stinger in their tail is whipped up . this attack is normally ineffective against their main predator , sharks . the breaking of the stinger in defense is non - fatal to the stingray , as it will be regrown .\nsome adult rays may be no larger than a human palm , while other species , like the short - tail stingray , may have a body of six feet in diameter , and an overall length , including their tail , of fourteen feet . stingrays can vary from gray to bright red in color and be plain or patterned . dasyatids are propelled by motion of their large pectoral fin ( commonly mistaken as\nwings\n) .\ndepending on the size of the stingray , humans are usually stung in the foot region . surfers or those who enter waters with large populations of stingrays have learned to slide their feet through the sand rather than stepping , as the rays detect this and swim away . stamping hard on the bottom as one treads through murky water will also cause them to swim away . humans who harass stingrays have been known to be stung elsewhere , sometimes leading to fatalities . contact with the stinger causes local trauma ( from the cut itself ) , pain and , swelling from the venom , and possible later infection from bacteria . immediate injuries to humans include , but are not limited to , poisoning , punctures , severed arteries , and possibly death . fatal stings are very rare . on september 4 , 2006 , australian wildlife expert and television personality steve irwin was pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while snorkeling in australia and died shortly after .\nthis stingray attains a maximum known length of 150 cm ( 59 in ) and a disk width of 60 cm ( 24 in ) . it has a rounded pectoral fin disk and a broadly angled snout with a small protuberance at the tip . the tail lacks fin folds but has a low ventral keel . the dorsal surface of the body and tail are covered with rough dermal denticles . [ 2 ] there are large tubercles with four radial ridges on the shoulder region . [ 1 ] a venomous spine is present on the tail . [ 4 ]\njustification : a large ( to 200 cm disc width ) tropical stingray that is distributed in the western central and southwest atlantic ocean from mexico to brazil including the lesser and greater antilles . almost no data is available on its habitat , biology , ecology and population trends . however , it is caught as bycatch and used as a subsistence food source . base - line studies , including taxonomic aspects , need to be elucidated for this species . given its probable inshore occurrence in fished areas its conservation status will need to be reassessed once data are collected , particularly concerning catch levels . in the first instance though , the species ' taxonomic status needs resolution .\ntreatment for stings includes application of near - scalding water , which helps ease pain by denaturing the complex venom protein , and antibiotics . immediate injection of local anesthetic in and around the wound is very helpful , as is the use of opiates such as intramuscular pethidine . local anesthetic brings almost instant relief for several hours . any warm to hot fluid , including urine , may provide some relief . vinegar and papain are ineffective . ( urine is a folk remedy for box jellyfish stings but is ineffective for such , whereas vinegar is effective for box jellyfish stings . ) pain normally lasts up to 48 hours , but is most severe in the first 30\u201360 minutes and may be accompanied by nausea , fatigue , headaches , fever , and chills . all stingray injuries should be medically assessed ; the wound needs to be thoroughly cleaned , and surgical exploration is often required to remove any barb fragments remaining in the wound . following cleaning , an ultrasound is helpful to confirm removal of all the fragments ( flint and sugrue 1999 ) . not all remnants are radio - opaque ; but x - ray radiography imaging may be helpful where ultrasound is not available .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncompagno ( 1999 ) considered this a doubtful species and more studies are required to elucidate the taxonomic aspects of this species . the phylogenetic status and affinities of tropical western atlantic and eastern pacific himantura are under review .\nthis tropical species is reportedly found on sandy bottoms and occasionally near coral reefs ( michael 1983 ) in the gulf of campeche ( mexico ) to brazil including the lesser and greater antilles ( stehmann et al . 1978 , cervig\u00f3n et al . 1992 , claro 1994 , almeida et al . in press ) . it has rarely been observed in the amazon estuary region ( almeida et al . in press ) .\nthis species is not very common within its range . population size , trends and dynamics remain unknown for this species .\nno information was found on the habitat and ecology of this species . most citations refer only to its presence in species lists . probably occurs inshore including estuarine areas . life history parameters age at maturity ( years ) : unknown . size at maturity ( total length cm ) : unknown . longevity ( years ) : unknown . maximum size ( disc width ) : 200 cm dw ( cervig\u00f3n et al . 1994 ) . size at birth ( cm ) : unknown . average reproductive age ( years ) : unknown . gestation time ( months ) : unknown . reproductive periodicity : unknown . average annual fecundity or litter size : unknown . annual rate of population increase : unknown . natural mortality : unknown .\nthis species is reportedly caught as bycatch in artisanal and industrial fisheries ( hooking and netting ) . this species is also taken as a subsistence food source . intrinsic factors probably also represent a threat for this species as to most other elasmobranchs species ( camhi et al . 1998 ) .\nresearch actions are urgently needed for this species . preliminary base - line studies are required to obtain data on the biology , ecology , uses and fishery data of this species , and in the first instance taxonomic status . captures should also be monitored to observe if they are within a sustainable range . habitat maintenance and conservation should also be considered as conservation actions for this species . the development and implementation of management plans ( national and / or regional e . g . , under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa - sharks ) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region . see anon . ( 2004 ) for an update of progress made by nations in the range of h . schmardae .\ncharvet - almeida , p . & de almeida , m . p . 2006 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngreek , iman , imantos = thong , strap + greek , oura = tail ( ref . 45335 )\nwestern central atlantic : gulf of campeche and the west indies to suriname ( ref . 3168 ) ; including brazil ( ref . 53430 ) . validity of this species questioned in compagno ' s 1999 checklist ( ref . 35766 ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 200 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )\ndisc ovate , broadly rounded . tails with blunt tubercles . upper surface dark brown , sooty olive . edges of disc darker . lower surface of disc and pelvic fins yellowish or cream white . teeth little darker than lower surface ( ref . 6902 ) .\nfound on sandy bottoms , occasionally near coral reefs ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . marketed salted ; also used in the preparation of gelatin and oil .\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .\nstehmann , m . , j . d . mceachran and r . vergara r . , 1978 . dasyatidae . in w . fischer ( ed . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western central atlantic ( fishing area 31 ) . vol . 1 . [ pag . var . ] . fao , rome . ( ref . 3168 )\n) : 26 . 6 - 28 . 1 , mean 27 . 5 ( based on 146 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00776 ( 0 . 00306 - 0 . 01967 ) , b = 3 . 02 ( 2 . 80 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nanindobothrium n . gen . ( eucestoda : tetraphyllidea ) inhabiting marine and freshwater potamotrygonid stingrays . - pubmed - ncbi\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nanindobothrium n . gen . ( eucestoda : tetraphyllidea ) inhabiting marine and freshwater potamotrygonid stingrays .\nanindobothrium n . gen . is proposed to accommodate caulobothrium anacolum inhabiting himantura schmardae from colombia , and 2 new species , one inhabiting potamotrygon orbigny in brazil and the other inhabiting paratrygon aereiba in venezuela . members of the new genus resemble members of pararhinebothroides , rhinebothroides , and anthocephalum by having bothridia with poorly differentiated apical suckers and vasa deferentia expanded into external seminal vesicles . it further resembles pararhinebothroides , rhinebothroides , and anthocephalum cairae by having vas deferens inserted near the poral rather than aporal end of the cirrus sac . the 3 species assigned to the new genus form an apparent monophyletic group , based on the possession of 3 putative synapomorphies : ( 1 ) genital pores in the anterior 1 / 4 of the proglottid , a trait that is unusual , but not unique , among phyllobothriids ; ( 2 ) anteroventral ovarian lobes converging to the center of the proglottid , a character not previously reported for phyllobothriids ; and ( 3 ) ovarian lobes comprising a loose network of digitiform processes .\n: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based\nto help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .\nthere are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :\nflattened anterior margin . dorsum covered in small but noticeable tubercles ( enlarged dermal denticles ) . dorsal coloration grey or dark / olive brown . disc darkens towards margin . ventrum yellowish or creamy white . one or two spines on tail . tail has no fin - folds . when in tact , tail is approximately twice body length .\nreaction to divers : caribbean whiptail stingrays are extremely skittish . they are very difficult to approach while on scuba or while snorkeling .\nphotographs : oyster bed lagoon , utila , honduras . these images were obtained through the cooperation and support of steve fox - owner of deep blue resort , utila .\np . o . box 8719 station central , victoria , bc . , v8w 3s3 , canada\nfound on sandy bottoms , occasionally near coral reefs ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . marketed salted ; also used in the preparation of gelatin and oil .\ngulf of mexico western central atlantic : gulf of campeche and the west indies to suriname ( ref . 3168 ) ; including brazil ( ref . 53430 )\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\novaler stechrochen\nto\nhimantura schmardae ( werner , 1904 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information\nprogrammes - view the faculty booklets containing the programmes available at the st . augustine campus\nresearch & innovation - view the cutting - edge research being done at the st . augustine campus\ncopyright 2015 the university of the west indies st . augustine , trinidad and tobago\nour 7 faculties , professional schools offer more than 200 programs to some 15 , 000 graduate , undergraduate and continuing studies students .\nthe uwi , st . augustine ranks first in trinidad and tobago among accredited tertiary - level programmes .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nne jamaican coast , east of port antonio . 2 individuals feeding just outside the mouth of the\nblue lagoon ,\nabove the tiny island . depth approx 10 - 12 ft . | fishbase link : urltoken | uploaded by : steve shunk\ncomprises 37 species and occurs worldwide ( compagno , 1999a , b and gomes et al . 2000 ) . six species of dasyatis\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30b7\u30ed\u30a8\u30a4\nto\ndasyatis laevigata chu , 1960\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30db\u30b7\u30a8\u30a4\nto\ndasyatis matsubarai miyosi , 1939\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30a2\u30ab\u30a8\u30a4\nto\ndasyatis akajei ( m\u00fcller and henle , 1841 )\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ba\u30b0\u30a8\u30a4\nto\ndasyatis zugei ( m\u00fcller and henle , 1841 )\n.\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30e4\u30b8\u30ea\u30a8\u30a4\nto\ndasyatis acutirostra nishida and nakaya , 1988\n.\nidentification : disc circular or slightly oval , no dorsal fin , tail shorter than disc length . dorsum pale with dark and light spots and blotches . overall appearance may be very pale or boldly patterned depending on the rays habitat .\nthe almost black underlying skin coloration with bright yellow dots in the lower image is very unusual . this ray was found in a dark muddy lagoon where a corresponding color would be appropriate . why this ray has accentuated yellow spots that make it stand out is unclear .\nhabitat : sandy areas often around coral reefs , bays , and lagoons . intertidal to 25m .\nbehavior : lies motionless often covered by sand . when searching for food ( crustaceans ) creates a depression in the sand by flapping its anterior disc margin .\ndiving logistics : this such a commonly seen species that it can be found on almost any shallow dive within its range . shore diving from the florida coast would be a good place to look . on grand cayman i found many in the lagoons inside the reefs on the north and south shores in very shallow water . inside the reef at spotts beach is a good area to snorkel . on the atlantic coast of florida i saw yellow stingrays on every shallow dive that i did during the summer .\non utila it may be possible to find this ray displaying the dark color morph in oyster bed lagoon . during a one week period while snorkeling every day i found one solitary specimen .\nwhile diving in cuba , i encountered many fish , both common and less common . see what you can find out about the fish of the caribbean sea and use the help of the photos i took .\none of the first fish i encountered while diving was this well - known predator . usually known to ambush their prey with their powerful jaws and distinctive underbite , which scaly fish did i see ?\nnear the bottom of the reef we were diving across i encountered our next specimen . called a channel clinging crab or a west indian spider crab , why is this family of crabs actually known as\nspider\ncrabs ?\nstill swimming along the bottom of the reef , i next encountered this species of moray eel . what is the specific or descriptive name for this ' freckled ' slithery fish ?\nlater on in my dive i encountered a different kind of eel , a green moray eel . despite their yellowish appearance , what is their actual skin colour ?\ni was very lucky to see the next specimen , the hawksbill sea turtle . ok , it ' s not a fish , however , why was i lucky ?\none of the stranger fish you might see while diving off of cuba is the flat needlefish . what does the needlefish lack that many other fishes have ?\nin the middle of a reef i noticed the next specimen , the longspine squirrelfish . it is a fiercely territorial fish , and will even defend its area from moray eels . how does it do that ?\nall throughout the dive we saw sharks . yes , sharks ; nurse sharks to be exact . do nurse sharks need to stay in motion in order to be able to breathe ?\nnear the end of the dive , i saw this majestic ray gliding past . known as the spotted eagle ray , why was i happy not to have actually ' bumped ' into the ray ?\nyou are viewing our newest and freshest images for your search . you can also switch to view results based on popularity or best match .\n49 chuparosa stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .\nan orange sulfur butterfly native to arizona feeding on the flower of a chuparosa plant .\nbaja fairyduster . a beautiful spiky red flower of the baja sonoran desert dangles near a pointy cactus grass .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nwe couldn ' t load this image at the moment . please refresh and try again .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\necologically , stingrays are important components of aquatic food chains , consuming mollusks , crustaceans , tube anemones , amphipods , and small fish , while being preyed upon by a multitude of sharks , such as the white , tiger , and bull sharks , and even alligators in the case of freshwater species ( passarelli and piercy 2008 ) . while they provide some culinary value for humans , one of their chief values may be more internal\u2014the wonder and beauty provided by their unique form , swimming behavior , and colors .\nstingrays are members of the chondrichthyes or\ncartilaginous fishes ,\na major class of jawed fish that includes the sharks , rays , and skates . members of chondrichthyes are characterized by skeletons made of rubbery cartilage rather than bone , as in the bony fishes . the chondrichthyans have jaws , paired fins , paired nostrils , scales , and two - chambered hearts . two subclasses of chondrichthyes are recognized , elasmobranchii ( sharks , rays , and skates ) and holocephali ( chimaera , sometimes called ghost sharks ) .\ntaxonomy for levels between elasmobranchii and genera is unsettled , with diverse taxonomies . for example , some classifications consider the sharks a sister group with the rays and skates , placing these two groups into different superorders , while other classifications place the rays and skates as a subsection of the sharks ( mceachran 2004 ) . that is , some view sharks and rays together forming a monophyletic group , and sharks without rays a paraphyletic group , while others see sharks sharing a common ancestor with rays and skates as sister groups ( nelson 2004 ) .\nthe same taxonomic diversity is apparent at the level of the family dasyatidae . dasyatidae is variously placed in the order rajiformes ( agbayani 2004 ) , or in the order myliobatiformes ( passarelli and piercy , 2008 ) . this is because in some classifications the order rajiformes is split into two or three orders , with myliobatiformes being an extra order and including the traditional rajiformes families of dasyatidae ( stingrays ) , gymnuridae ( butterfly rays ) , mobulidae ( manta rays ) , myliobatidae ( eagle rays ) , and others ( itis 2004 ) .\nfurthermore , what genera and families are included in dasyatidae vary with taxonomic scheme . nelson ( 1994 ) recognizes two subfamilies , dasyatinae ( stingrays or whiprays ) and potamotrygoninae ( river sitngrays ) , and he recognizes nine genera , as does agbayani ( 2004 ) . itis ( 2004 ) elevates the second subfamily of river stingrays ( which are the freshwater rays in south america ) to the family level as potamotrygonidae , recognizing six genera .\nunless otherwise stated , this article will follow the narrower view of dasyatidae of itis ( 2004 ) , which will be equivalent to subfamily dasyatinae of nelson ( 1994 ) .\nin stingrays , as with all rays in the traditional order rajiformes , the anterior edge of the pectoral fin , which is greatly enlarged , is attached to the side of the head anterior to the gill openings ( nelson 1994 ) . they also have ventral gill openings , and the eyes and spiracles are on the dorsal surface ( nelson 1994 ) . in addition , they lack an anal fin and lack a nictitating membrane with the cornea attached directly to the skin around the eyes ( nelson 1994 ) .\nin members of dasyatidae\u2014subfamily dasyatinae , in nelson 1994\u2014the disc is less than 1 . 3 times as broad as it is long ( nelson 1994 ) . they lack a caudal fin and the tail is long , with the distance from the cloaca to the tip much longer than the breadth of the disc ( nelson 1994 ) .\ndasyatids are common in tropical coastal waters throughout the world , and there are fresh water species in asia ( himantura sp . ) , africa , and florida ( dasyatis sabina ) . nelson ( 1994 ) reports that several tropical species of dasyatidae ( subfamily dasyatinae ) are known only from freshwater , and some marine species are found in brackish and freshwater on occasion .\ntheir stinger is a razor - sharp , barbed , or serrated cartilaginous spine , which grows from the ray ' s whip - like tail ( like a fingernail ) , and can grow as long as 37 centimeters ( about 14 . 6 inches ) . on the underside of the spine are two grooves containing venom - secreting glandular tissue . the entire spine is covered with a thin layer of skin called the integumentary sheath , in which venom is concentrated ( meyer 1997 ) . the venom contains the enzymes 5 - nucleotidase and phosphodiesterase , which breakdown and kill cells ; and the neurotransmitter serotonin , which provokes smooth - muscle contractions ( layton 2008 ) . this venomous spine gives them their common name of stingrays ( a compound of\nsting\nand\nray\n) , but the name can also be used to refer to any poisonous ray .\nstingrays may also be called the\nwhip - tailed rays ,\nthough this usage is much less common .\na group or collection of stingrays is commonly referred to as a\nfever\nof stingrays .\nthe flattened bodies of stingrays allow them effective concealment in sand . smell and electro - receptors are used to locate prey , similar to those of sharks . some sting rays ' mouths contain two powerful , shell - crushing plates , while some species only have sucking mouth parts . rays settle on the bottom while feeding , sometimes leaving only their eyes and tail visible . coral reefs are favored feeding grounds and are usually shared with sharks during high tide .\nmating season occurs in the winter . when a male is courting a female , he will follow her closely , biting at her pectoral disc . during mating , the male will go on top of the female ( his belly on her back ) and put one of his two claspers into her vent ( martin 2008 ) .\nmost rays are ovoviviparous , bearing live young in\nlitters\nof five to ten . the female holds the embryos in the womb without a placenta . instead , the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac , and after the sac is depleted , the mother provides uterine milk ( passarelli and piercy 2008 ) .\nin addition to their ecological role in aquatic food chains , stingrays offer a number of values to humans , in terms of food , various products , and ecotourism .\nthe skin of the ray is rough and can be used as leather ( mceachran 2004 ) . the skin is used as an underlayer for the cord or leather wrap ( ito ) on japanese swords ( katanas ) due to its hard , rough texture that keeps the braided wrap from sliding on the handle during use . native american indians used the spines of stingrays for arrowheads , while groups in the indo - west pacific used them as war clubs ( mceachran 2004 ) .\nmany tahitian island resorts regularly offer guests the chance to\nfeed the stingrays and sharks .\nthis consists of taking a boat to the outer lagoon reefs then standing in waist - high water while habituated stingrays swarm around , pressing right up against a person seeking food .\nwhile most dasyatids are relatively widespread and unlikely to be threatened , there are several species ( for example , taeniura meyeni , dasyatis colarensis , d . garouaensis , and d . laosensis ) where the conservation status is more problematic , leading to them being listed as vulnerable or endangered by iucn . the status of several other species are poorly known , leading to them being listed as data deficient .\nhimantura hortlei last , manjaji - matsumoto & kailola , 2006 . [ 1 ]\nwhite - edge freshwater whip ray , himantura signifer ( compagno & roberts , 1982 ) .\npastinachus solocirostris ( last , manjaji & yearsley , 2005 ) . [ 4 ]\n\u2191 p . r . last , m . manjaji - matsumoto , and p . j . kailola , himantura hortlei n . sp . , a new species of whipray ( myliobatiformes : dasyatidae ) from irian jaya , indonesia , zootaxa 1239 ( 2006 ) : 19 - 34 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\n\u2191 m . manjaji - matsumoto and p . j . last , himantura lobistoma , a new whipray ( rajiformes : dasyatidae ) from borneo , with comments on the status of dasyatis microphthalmus , ichthyological research 53 ( 3 ) ( 2006 ) : 291ff . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nagbayani , e . 2004 . family dasyatidae : stingrays . in r . froese and d . pauly ( eds . ) , fishbase . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2003a . dasyatidae jordan , 1888 . itis taxonomic serial no . : 160946 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2003b . rajiformes . itis taxonomic serial no . : 160806 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2004 . myliobatiformes . itis taxonomic serial no . : 649685 . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nlayton , j . 2008 . how do stingrays kill ? how stuff works . retrieved june 2 , 2008 .\nmceashran , j . d . 2004 . rajiformes . in b . grzimek , s . f . craig , d . a . thoney , n . schlager , and m . hutchins . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2nd edition . detroit , mi : thomson / gale . isbn 0787657786 .\nnelson , j . s . 1994 . fishes of the world , 3rd edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471547131 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 3 june 2008 , at 13 : 34 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nanonymous ( 1979 ) groot surinaams kookboek met exotische creoolse , hindoestaanse , indonesische , chinese en europese recepten . : stichting eerste surinaamse huishoud - en nijverheidsschool te paramaribo .\nbor , p . h . f . ( 2002 ) nederlandse naamlijst van de recente haaien en roggen ( chondrichthyes : elasmobranchii ) van de wereld . : world wide web electronic publication www . rajidae . tmfweb . nl , version ( 05 / 2002 ) .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , r . cipriani , w . fischer , l . garibaldi , m . hendrickx , a . j . lemus , r . m\u00e1rquez , j . m . poutiers , g . robaina and b . rodriguez ( 1992 ) fichas fao de identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . gu\u00eda de campo de las especies comerciales marinas y de aquas salobres de la costa septentrional de sur am\u00e9rica . : fao , rome . 513 p . preparado con el financiamento de la comisi\u00f3n de comunidades europeas y de norad .\nclaro , r . ( 1994 ) caracter\u00edsticas generales de la ictiofauna . : p . 55 - 70 . in r . claro ( ed . ) ecolog\u00eda de los peces marinos de cuba . instituto de oceanolog\u00eda academia de ciencias de cuba and centro de investigaciones de quintana roo .\nclaro , r . and l . r . parenti ( 2001 ) the marine ichthyofauna of cuba . : p . 21 - 57 . in claro , r . , k . c . lindeman and l . r . parenti ( eds ) ecology of the marine fishes of cuba . smithsonian institution press , wahsington and london . 253p .\nclaro , rodolfo , kenyon c . lindeman , and lynne r . parenti , 2001 : null . ecology of the marine fishes of cuba . 253 .\ncompagno , leonard j . v . / hamlett , william c . , ed . , 1999 : checklist of living elasmobranchs . sharks , skates , and rays : the biology of elasmobranch fishes . 471 - 498 .\ndahl , g . ( 1971 ) los peces del norte de colombia . : instituto de desarrollo de los recursos naturales renovables , bogota ( inderena ) . i - xvii , 1 - 391 p .\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . , 1998 : catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905 .\nfao - fies ( 2017 ) aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list . : retrievef from urltoken ( accessed 08 / 06 / 2017 ) .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nlasso , c . a . , o . m . lasso - alcal\u00e1 , a . pombo and m . smith ( 2004 ) distribution of fish species among localities during the aquarap survey of the gulf of paria and orinoco delta , venezuela . : p . 315 - 319 . in rapid assessment of the biodeiversity and social aspects of the aquatic ecosystems of the orinoco delta and the gulf of paria , venezuela . rap bulletin of biological assessment 37 . conservation international . washington dc , usa . 360p .\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas .\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds . , 2004 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico , sixth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 29 . ix + 386 .\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden and j . s . nelson ( 2013 ) common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada and mexico , 7th edition . : bethesda , maryland : american fisheries society , special publication 34 , 384 p .\nsilva , m . ( 1994 ) especies identificadas en las pesquerias costeras artesanales del suroeste de la republica dominica . : reportes del propescar - sur : contribuciones al conocimiento de las pesquer\u00edas en la rep\u00fablica dominicana . vol . 1 , 47p .\nstehmann , m . , j . d . mceachran and r . vergara r . ( 1978 ) dasyatidae . : in w . fischer ( ed . ) fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western central atlantic ( fishing area 31 ) . vol . 1 . [ pag . var . ] . fao , rome .\ns\u00e1nchez , a . c . ( 1997 ) listado taxonomico de las especies marinas identificadas en los oc\u00e9anos pac\u00edfico y atl\u00e1ntico ( caribe ) de nicaragua . : ministerio de econom\u00eda y desarrollo . mede pesca . managua . 28 p .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .\nknown parasites of this species include the nematode echinocephalus janzeni and the cestodes acanthobothroides pacificus and rhinebothrium geminum . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] reproduction is ovoviviparous . [ 4 ]\nlovejoy , n . r . ( 1996 ) .\nsystematics of myliobatoid elasmobranchs : with emphasis on the phylogeny and historical biogeography of neotropical freshwater stingrays ( potamotrygonidae : rajiformes )\n. zoological journal of the linnean society . 117 ( 3 ) : 207\u2013257 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1096 - 3642 . 1996 . tb02189 . x .\nallen , g . r . ; robertson , d . r . ( 1994 ) . fishes of the tropical eastern pacific . university of hawaii press . isbn 0 - 8248 - 1675 - 7 .\ncarvalho , m . r . d . ; loboda , t . s . ; silva , j . p . c . b . d . ( 2016 ) .\na new subfamily , styracurinae , and new genus , styracura , for himantura schmardae ( werner , 1904 ) and himantura pacifica ( beebe & tee - van , 1941 ) ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes )\n. zootaxa . 4075 ( 3 ) : 201\u2013221 . doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4175 . 3 . 1 .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2009 ) .\nhimantura pacifica\nin fishbase . march 2009 version .\nhoberg , e . p . ; brooks , d . r . ; ure\u00f1a , h . m . & erbe , e . ( june 1998 ) .\nechinocephalus janzeni n . sp . ( nematoda : gnathostomatidae ) in himantura pacifica ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes ) from the pacific coast of costa rica and mexico , with historical biogeographic analysis of the genus\n. the journal of parasitology . 84 ( 3 ) : 571\u2013581 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 3284726 . jstor 3284726 . pmid 9645860 .\nmarques , f . ; brooks , d . r . & ure\u00f1a , h . m . ( april 1996 ) .\ntwo new species of tetraphyllidean cestodes in himantura pacifica ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes : dasyatididae ) from the northwest coast of costa rica\n. the journal of parasitology . 82 ( 2 ) : 302\u2013306 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 3284165 . jstor 3284165 . pmid 8604101 .\nlast , p . r . ; naylor , g . j . ; manjaji - matsumoto , b . m . ( 2016 ) .\na revised classification of the family dasyatidae ( chondrichthyes : myliobatiformes ) based on new morphological and molecular insights\n. zootaxa . 4139 ( 3 ) : 345\u2013368 . doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4139 . 3 . 2 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\n9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 1 . marine neritic - pelagic suitability : marginal 9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 10 . marine neritic - estuaries suitability : marginal 10 . marine oceanic - > 10 . 1 . marine oceanic - epipelagic ( 0 - 200m ) suitability : suitable\n2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management 3 . species management - > 3 . 1 . species management - > 3 . 1 . 1 . harvest management\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 1 . intentional use : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ] \u2666 timing : ongoing 5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 3 . unintentional effects : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ] \u2666 timing : ongoing 5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 4 . unintentional effects : ( large scale ) [ harvest ] \u2666 timing : ongoing\n0 . root - > 100 . 1 . old 1 . 1 . 1 - policy - base actions - > management plans - > development 1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends 0 . root - > 4 . other\nalmeida , m . p . , charvet - almeida , p . , rinc\u00f3n , g . and barthem , r . b . in press . registro de ocorr\u00eancia de himantura schmardae ( chondrichthyes : dasyatidae ) na costa norte do brasil . boletim do museu paraense em\u00edlio goeldi , ser . zoologia .\nanonymous . 1979 . groot surinaams kookboek met exotische creoolse , hindoestaanse , indonesische , chinese en europese recepten . stichting eerste surinaamse huishoud en nijverheidsschool te paramaribo .\nanonymous . 2004 . report on the implementation of the un fao international plan of action for sharks ( ipoa\u2013sharks ) . ac20 inf . 5 . twentieth meeting of the cites animals committee , johannesburg ( south africa ) , 29 march\u20132 april 2004 .\nbor , p . h . f . 2002 . nederlandse naamlijst van de recente haaien en roggen ( chondrichthyes : elasmobranchii ) van de wereld . urltoken\ncamhi , m . , fowler , s . , musick , j . br\u00e4utigam , a . and fordham , s . 1998 . sharks and their relatives : ecology and conservation . occasional paper of the iucn species survival commission 20 .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , cipriani , r . , fischer , w . , garibaldi , l . , hendrickx , m . , lemus , a . j . and claro , r . 1994 . caracter\u00edsticas generales de la ictiofauna . in : r . claro ( ed . ) ecolog\u00eda de los peces marinos de cuba . pp : 55\u201370 . instituto de oceanolog\u00eda de la academia de ciencias de cuba y centro de investigaciones de quintana roo .\ncervig\u00f3n , f . , cipriani , r . , fischer , w . , garibaldi , l . , hendrickx , m . , lemus , a . j . , m\u00e1rquez , r . , poutiers , j . m . , robaina , g . and rodriguez , b . 1992 . fichas fao de identificaci\u00f3n de especies para los fines de la pesca . gu\u00eda de campo de las especies comerciales marinas y de aquas salobres de la costa septentrional de sur am\u00e9rica . preparado con el financiamento de la comisi\u00f3n de comunidades europeas y de norad . food and agricultural organization of the united nations ( fao ) , rome , italy ."]}
{"id": 1093, "summary": [{"text": "macrovipera schweizeri is a venomous viper species found in greece on the islands of the cyclades archipelago in the aegean sea .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "no subspecies are currently recognized . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "macrovipera schweizeri", "paragraphs": ["macrovipera deserti was previously considered a subspecies of vipera mauritanica , macrovipera schweizeri as a subspecies of vipera lebetina .\nrare cb milos viper ( macrovipera schweizeri 0 . 1 ) fast strike on rat video\nrare cb milos viper ( macrovipera schweizeri 0 . 1 ) fast strike on rat video - youtube\n2 ) identifying threats to macrovipera l . lebetina on cyprus and comparing them with the threats to the endangered macrovipera schweizeri on the island of milos , and to other large vipers of semi - arid area ,\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - cyclades blunt - nosed viper ( macrovipera schweizeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - cyclades blunt - nosed viper ( macrovipera schweizeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - cyclades blunt - nosed viper ( macrovipera schweizeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe cyclades viper ( macrovipera swiss ) , also known as milosotter , is an aegean viper from the kind of large - scale vipers ( macrovipera ) .\nthe cyclades viper was first in 1935 by the austrian herpetologists franz werner as a subspecies of the levant viper ( macrovipera lebetina ) described and long recognized as such . the classification of macrovipera swiss in the subspecies macrovipera swiss swiss and swiss macrovipera siphnensis is up for discussion , but is currently still questionable as far genetic studies are lacking .\nmacrovipera schweizeri , commonly named milos viper or cyclades blunt - nosed viper , is a venomous snake . it can be found only on four greece islands : milos , kimolos , polinos and siphnos .\nmertens , r . 1955 . der typus von vipera lebetina schweizeri . senckenbergiana biologica 36 : 297 - 299 .\n( 2000 ) suggest assigning the species vipera ( = macrovipera ) mauritanica , vipera ( = macrovipera ) deserti and vipera palaestinae to the genus daboia , together with russell ' s viper .\nmap 50 macrovipera spp . , as well as asian and north african species of the genus vipera sp .\ncoluber lebetinus linnaeus 1758 : 218 vipera lebetina \u2014 wall 1908 : 804 vipera lebetina \u2014 smith 1943 : 486 vipera xanthina ( gray 1849 ) fide khalikov ( pers . comm . ) vipera mauritanica ( gray 1849 ) fide khalikov ( pers . comm . ) vipera euphratica \u2014 boettger 1880 : 167 vipera euphratica \u2014 boulenger 1887 : 345 daboia lebetina \u2014 engelmann et al 1993 macrovipera lebetina \u2014 mcdiarmid , campbell & tour\u00e9 1999 : 383 vipera lebetina \u2014 sharma 2004 macrovipera lebetina \u2014 kwet & trapp 2015 macrovipera lebetina \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 421 macrovipera lebetina cernovi ( chikin & szczerbak 1992 ) macrovipera lebetina cernovi \u2014 davletbakov et al . 2016 macrovipera lebetina lebetina ( linnaeus 1758 ) coluber lebetinus linnaeus 1758 macrovipera lebetina cypriensis reuss 1933 vipera lebetina euphratica \u2014 schmidt 1939 vipera lebetina lebetina \u2014 harding & welch 1980 vipera lebetina lebetina \u2014 welch 1994 : 73 daboia lebetina lebetina \u2014 obst 1983 : 232 macrovipera lebetina lebetina \u2014 golay et al . 1993 macrovipera lebetina obtusa ( dwigubsky 1832 ) vipera obtusa dwigubsky 1832 : 30 vipera euphratica martin 1838 vipera peilei murray 1892 vipera lebetina boulenger 1920 vipera lebetina peilei \u2014 schwarz 1936 : 244 vipera lebetina euphratica schmidt 1939 vipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 mertens & wermuth 1960 vipera lebetina euphratica \u2014 haas & werner 1969 vipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 harding & welch 1980 daboia lebetina obtusa \u2014 herrman , joger & nilson 1989 daboia lebetina obtusa \u2014 engelmann et al 1993 macrovipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 golay et al . 1993 vipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 welch 1994 : 121 vipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 frynta et al . 1997 macrovipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 schweiger 2009 macrovipera lebetina obtusa \u2014 iskenderov 2013 macrovipera lebetina transmediterranea ( nilson & andr\u00e9n 1988 ) vipera lebetina transmediterranea nilson & andr\u00e9n 1988 macrovipera lebetina transmediterranea \u2014 golay et al . 1993 vipera lebetina transmediterranea \u2014 welch 1994 : 121 daboia lebetina transmediterranea macrovipera lebetina transmediterranea \u2014 kucharzewski 2011 macrovipera lebetina turanica ( chernov 1940 ) vipera lebetina turanica chernov 1940 vipera lebetina turanica \u2014 harding & welch 1980 daboia lebetina turanica \u2014 obst 1983 : 232 macrovipera lebetina turanica \u2014 golay et al . 1993 macrovipera lebetina turanica \u2014 laita 2013 macrovipera lebetina turanica \u2014 davletbakov et al . 2016\n4 ) providing and discussing recommendations for the conservation of cypriot populations of macrovipera l . lebetina and its habitats .\nphoto of a milos viper , macrovipera schweizeri , which is a highly venomous viper endemic to the milos island group . its closest relatives are found in north africa and the eastern mediterranean . it is highly prized by reptile collectors , especially in its red form .\nmy first ever video of my snakes . this is my female milos viper ( macrovipera schweizeri ) striking on a rat . . . sorry for any mistakes , resolution etc ( see video description for more ) . hope you enjoy the video , thanks for watching !\nmy first ever video of my snakes . this is my female milos viper ( macrovipera schweizeri ) striking on a rat . . . sorry for any mistakes , resolution etc ( see video description for more ) . hope you enjoy the video , thanks for watching ! urltoken\nnilson , g . , andren , c . , ioannidis , y . & dimaki , m . ( 1999 ) ecology and conservation of the milos viper , macrovipera schweizeri ( werner , 1935 ) . amphibia - reptilia , 20 ( 4 ) : 355 \u2013 375 . available at : urltoken\nnilson , g . , andren , c . , ioannidis , y . and dimaki , m . ( 1999 ) ecology and conservation of the milos viper , macrovipera schweizeri ( werner , 1935 ) . amphibia - reptilia , 20 ( 4 ) : 355 - 375 . available at : urltoken\nthe blunt - nosed viper ( macrovipera lebetina ) is composed of seven subspecies which inhabit semi - arid environments in north africa and in the near and middle east ( irano - turanian region ) . the nominate subspecies macrovipera lebetina lebetina is restricted to cyprus ( and possibly some localities in southeastern turkey ) . cyprus is home to 11 snake species , of which macrovipera lebetina is the only venomous one .\nthe species vipera lebetina and vipera mauritanica and their subspecies , formerly assigned to the genus vipera , are now included in the genus macrovipera .\nhellebuyck , tom 2016 . picture : milos viper ( macrovipera lebetina ) . litteratura serpentium 36 ( 3 ) : 110 - get paper here\nzwinenberg , a . j . 1979 . biologie en status van de levantijnse adden van de cycladen , vipera lebetina schweizeri . lacerta 9 : 138 - 146 . - get paper here\ng\u00e1l , j . , t\u00f3th , t . , moln\u00e1r , v . , maros\u00e1n , m . and s\u00f3s , e . ( 2005 ) mass incidence of gout in a breeding colony of milos vipers ( macrovipera schweizeri ) . magyar allatorvosok lapja ( hungarian veterinary journal ) , 2005 : 551 - 556 . available at : urltoken\n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ aspidelaps l . lubricus 1 . 1 , agkistrodon b . bilineatus 0 . 1 , macrovipera schweizeri 0 . 1 , morelia spilota variegata 0 . 1 , pantherophis guttatus 1 . 0 check out my youtube channel and watch my snake videos - - - > urltoken\njestrzemski , daniel 2015 . feldstudie zur zypriotischen levanteotter ( macrovipera lebetina lebetina ) . terraria - elaphe 2015 ( 1 ) : 54 - 57 [ 2014 ] - get paper here\ngumprecht , a . & u . lauten 1997 . zur fortpflanzung und haltung der levante - otter macrovipera lebetina lebetina . sauria 19 ( 1 ) : 39 - 43 - get paper here\nm . lebetina and m . schweizeri in shades of grey or brown , with rectangles or a rectangular zig - zag pattern along the body ; sometimes the markings are barely visible . m . mauritanica in shades of brown with a zig - zag or wavy band .\nkamelin , eugeny r . , yuri a . lukin , and konstantin d . milto 1997 . hybridization of vipera schweizeri ( werner , 1935 ) and vipera lebetina obtusa , dvigubsky 1832 . russ . j . herpetol . 4 ( 1 ) : 75 - 78 - get paper here\nkabisch , k . & wiedl , h . j . 2009 . zur levanteotter , macrovipera lebetina lebetina ( linnaeus , 1758 ) auf zypern . sauria 30 ( 4 ) : 29 - 36 [ 2008 ] - get paper here\nsanz , l . ; ayvazyan , n . ; calvete , j . j . 2008 . snake venomics of the armenian mountain vipers macrovipera lebetina obtusa and vipera raddei . journal of proteomics 71 ( 2 ) : 198 - 209 .\ntok , c . v . , d . cihan & d . ayaz 2002 . a new record of macrovipera lebetina obtusa ( viperidae ) from south - eastern anatolia . zoology in the middle east 25 : 23 - get paper here\ndata about microvipera schweizeri viper occurence is based on the information from wikipedia page [ 1 ] . the data are divided into two indicators : [ 1 ] - risk region [ 0 ] - secure region . the data was created based on the maps and descriptions from the corresponding wikipedia\u201a\u00e4\u00f4s websites . ( see data access and policies ) .\nmoradi , naeim ; nasrullah rastegar - pouyani , eskandar rastegar - pouyani 2014 . geographic variation in the morphology of macrovipera lebetina ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( ophidia : viperidae ) in iran . acta herpetologica 9 ( 2 ) : 187 - 202 - get paper here\nal oran , r . m . , rostum , s . , joger , u . & z . amr . 1998 . first record of the levantine viper , macrovipera lebetina , from jordan . zoology in the middle east 16 : 65 - 70 - get paper here\ncos\u0327kun , yu\u0308ksel ; mahmut cos\u0327kun , mario schweiger 2011 . new locality records of blunt - nosed viper , macrovipera lebetina obtusa in central anatolia , turkey ( serpentes : viperidae ) . fen bilimleri dergisi , cilt 32 ( 2 ) : 22 - 28 - get paper here\nthe genus macrovipera contains large snakes that are responsible for a number of bites in western asia and north africa each year ( mallow and nilson 2003 ) . the members of this genus can be ill - tempered and dangerous . bites are painful and a great deal of venom can be injected .\nherrmann , h . w . ; joger , u . & nilson , g . 1992 . phylogeny and systematics of viperine snakes . iii . : resurrection of the genus macrovipera ( reuss , 1927 ) as suggested by biochemical evidence . amphibia - reptilia 13 : 375 - 392 - get paper here\nmermer , ahmet ; bayram go\u0308c\u0327men and kerim c\u0327i\u0307c\u0327ek 2012 . extreme cases of colour pattern and size in levantine viper , macrovipera lebetina ( l . , 1758 ) from the west of euphrates basin ( southern anatolia , turkey ) . biharean biologist 6 ( 1 ) : 70 - 71 - get paper here\ngocmen , bayram ; arikan , huseyin ; mermer , ahmet ; langerwerf , bert ; hahar , hasan 2006 . morphological , hemipenial and venom electrophoresis comparisons of the levantine viper , macrovipera lebetina ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , from cyprus and southern anatolia . turkish journal of zoology 30 : 225 - 234 - get paper here\ng\u00f6\u00e7men , b . ; arikan , h . ; cicek , k . & yildiz , z . 2007 . a serological comparison of the populations of the levantine viper , macrovipera lebetina ( linnaeus , 1758 ) in cyprus and southern turkey . north - western journal of zoology 3 ( 2 ) : 75 - 80 - get paper here\nmebert , konrad ; bayram g\u00f6\u00e7men , na\u015fi\u0307t i\u0307\u011fci\u0307 , mehmet anil o\u011fuz , mert kari\u015f & sylvain ursenbacher 2015 . new records and search for contact zones among parapatric vipers in the genus vipera ( barani , kaznakovi , darevskii , eriwanensis ) , montivipera ( wagneri , raddei ) , and macrovipera ( lebetina ) in northeastern anatolia herpetological bulletin ( 133 ) - get paper here\ngarrigues , thomas ; catherine dauga ; elisabeth ferquel ; val\u00e9rie choumet and anna - bella failloux 2005 . molecular phylogeny of vipera laurenti , 1768 and the related genera macrovipera ( reuss , 1927 ) and daboia ( gray , 1842 ) , with comments about neurotoxic vipera aspis aspis populations . molecular phylogenetics and evolution < br / > volume 35 ( 1 ) : 35 - 47 - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhome \u00bb resources \u00bb categories and criteria \u00bb 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1\nsee below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .\nthe iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .\nextensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .\nbefore 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .\nto give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .\nsince their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .\nthe proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :\nversion 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .\nversion 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .\nversion 2 . 2 : mace and stuart ( 1994 ) following further comments received and additional validation exercises , some minor changes to the criteria were made . in addition , the susceptible category present in versions 2 . 0 and 2 . 1 was subsumed into the vulnerable category . a precautionary application of the system was emphasised .\nversion 2 . 3 : iucn ( 1994 ) iucn council adopted this version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from iucn members , in december 1994 . the initial version of this document was published without the necessary bibliographic details , such as date of publication and isbn number , but these were included in the subsequent reprints in 1998 and 1999 . this version was used for the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals ( baillie and groombridge 1996 ) , the world list of threatened trees ( oldfield et al 1998 ) and the 2000 iucn red list of threatened species ( hilton - taylor 2000 ) .\nversion 3 . 0 : iucn / ssc criteria review working group ( 1999 ) following comments received , a series of workshops were convened to look at the iucn red list criteria following which , changes were proposed affecting the criteria , the definitions of some key terms and the handling of uncertainty .\nversion 3 . 1 : iucn ( 2001 ) the iucn council adopted this latest version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from the iucn and ssc memberships and from a final meeting of the criteria review working group , in february 2000 .\nall new assessments from january 2001 should use the latest adopted version and cite the year of publication and version number .\nin the rest of this document , the proposed system is outlined in several sections . section ii , the preamble , presents basic information about the context and structure of the system , and the procedures that are to be followed in applying the criteria to species . section iii provides definitions of key terms used . section iv presents the categories , while section v details the quantitative criteria used for classification within the threatened categories . annex i provides guidance on how to deal with uncertainty when applying the criteria ; annex ii suggests a standard format for citing the red list categories and criteria ; and annex iii outlines the documentation requirements for taxa to be included on iucn ' s global red lists . it is important for the effective functioning of the system that all sections are read and understood to ensure that the definitions and rules are followed .\nthe information in this section is intended to direct and facilitate the use and interpretation of the categories ( critically endangered , endangered , etc . ) , criteria ( a to e ) , and subcriteria ( 1 , 2 , etc . ; a , b , etc . ; i , ii , etc . ) .\nextinction is a chance process . thus , a listing in a higher extinction risk category implies a higher expectation of extinction , and over the time - frames specified more taxa listed in a higher category are expected to go extinct than those in a lower one ( without effective conservation action ) . however , the persistence of some taxa in high - risk categories does not necessarily mean their initial assessment was inaccurate .\nall taxa listed as critically endangered qualify for vulnerable and endangered , and all listed as endangered qualify for vulnerable . together these categories are described as ' threatened ' . the threatened categories form a part of the overall scheme . it will be possible to place all taxa into one of the categories ( see figure 1 ) .\nfor listing as critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable there is a range of quantitative criteria ; meeting any one of these criteria qualifies a taxon for listing at that level of threat . each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria . even though some criteria will be inappropriate for certain taxa ( some taxa will never qualify under these however close to extinction they come ) , there should be criteria appropriate for assessing threat levels for any taxon . the relevant factor is whether any one criterion is met , not whether all are appropriate or all are met . because it will never be clear in advance which criteria are appropriate for a particular taxon , each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria , and all criteria met at the highest threat category must be listed .\nthe different criteria ( a - e ) are derived from a wide review aimed at detecting risk factors across the broad range of organisms and the diverse life histories they exhibit . the quantitative values presented in the various criteria associated with threatened categories were developed through wide consultation , and they are set at what are generally judged to be appropriate levels , even if no formal justification for these values exists . the levels for different criteria within categories were set independently but against a common standard . broad consistency between them was sought .\nthe criteria for the threatened categories are to be applied to a taxon whatever the level of conservation action affecting it . it is important to emphasise here that a taxon may require conservation action even if it is not listed as threatened . conservation actions which may benefit the taxon are included as part of the documentation requirements ( see annex 3 ) .\nthe criteria are clearly quantitative in nature . however , the absence of high - quality data should not deter attempts at applying the criteria , as methods involving estimation , inference and projection are emphasised as being acceptable throughout . inference and projection may be based on extrapolation of current or potential threats into the future ( including their rate of change ) , or of factors related to population abundance or distribution ( including dependence on other taxa ) , so long as these can reasonably be supported . suspected or inferred patterns in the recent past , present or near future can be based on any of a series of related factors , and these factors should be specified as part of the documentation .\ntaxa at risk from threats posed by future events of low probability but with severe consequences ( catastrophes ) should be identified by the criteria ( e . g . small distributions , few locations ) . some threats need to be identified particularly early , and appropriate actions taken , because their effects are irreversible or nearly so ( e . g . , pathogens , invasive organisms , hybridization ) .\nthe data used to evaluate taxa against the criteria are often estimated with considerable uncertainty . such uncertainty can arise from any one or all of the following three factors : natural variation , vagueness in the terms and definitions used , and measurement error . the way in which this uncertainty is handled can have a strong influence on the results of an evaluation . details of methods recommended for handling uncertainty are included in annex 1 , and assessors are encouraged to read and follow these principles .\nin general , when uncertainty leads to wide variation in the results of assessments , the range of possible outcomes should be specified . a single category must be chosen and the basis for the decision should be documented ; it should be both precautionary and credible .\nwhen data are very uncertain , the category of ' data deficient ' may be assigned . however , in this case the assessor must provide documentation showing that this category has been assigned because data are inadequate to determine a threat category . it is important to recognize that taxa that are poorly known can often be assigned a threat category on the basis of background information concerning the deterioration of their habitat and / or other causal factors ; therefore the liberal use of ' data deficient ' is discouraged .\nlisting in the categories of not evaluated and data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made , though for different reasons . until such time as an assessment is made , taxa listed in these categories should not be treated as if they were non - threatened . it may be appropriate ( especially for data deficient forms ) to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa , at least until their status can be assessed .\nall assessments should be documented . threatened classifications should state the criteria and subcriteria that were met . no assessment can be accepted for the iucn red list as valid unless at least one criterion is given . if more than one criterion or subcriterion is met , then each should be listed . if a re - evaluation indicates that the documented criterion is no longer met , this should not result in automatic reassignment to a lower category of threat ( downlisting ) . instead , the taxon should be re - evaluated against all the criteria to clarify its status . the factors responsible for qualifying the taxon against the criteria , especially where inference and projection are used , should be documented ( see annexes 2 and 3 ) . the documentation requirements for other categories are also specified in annex 3 .\nthe category of threat is not necessarily sufficient to determine priorities for conservation action . the category of threat simply provides an assessment of the extinction risk under current circumstances , whereas a system for assessing priorities for action will include numerous other factors concerning conservation action such as costs , logistics , chances of success , and other biological characteristics of the subject .\nre - evaluation of taxa against the criteria should be carried out at appropriate intervals . this is especially important for taxa listed under near threatened , data deficient and for threatened taxa whose status is known or suspected to be deteriorating .\na taxon may be moved from a category of higher threat to a category of lower threat if none of the criteria of the higher category has been met for five years or more .\nif the original classification is found to have been erroneous , the taxon may be transferred to the appropriate category or removed from the threatened categories altogether , without delay ( but see point 10 above ) .\nthe term ' population ' is used in a specific sense in the red list criteria that is different to its common biological usage . population is here defined as the total number of individuals of the taxon . for functional reasons , primarily owing to differences between life forms , population size is measured as numbers of mature individuals only . in the case of taxa obligately dependent on other taxa for all or part of their life cycles , biologically appropriate values for the host taxon should be used .\nsubpopulations are defined as geographically or otherwise distinct groups in the population between which there is little demographic or genetic exchange ( typically one successful migrant individual or gamete per year or less ) .\nthe number of mature individuals is the number of individuals known , estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction . when estimating this quantity , the following points should be borne in mind :\nmature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted ( e . g . densities are too low for fertilization ) .\nin the case of populations with biased adult or breeding sex ratios , it is appropriate to use lower estimates for the number of mature individuals , which take this into account .\nwhere the population size fluctuates , use a lower estimate . in most cases this will be much less than the mean .\nreproducing units within a clone should be counted as individuals , except where such units are unable to survive alone ( e . g . corals ) .\nin the case of taxa that naturally lose all or a subset of mature individuals at some point in their life cycle , the estimate should be made at the appropriate time , when mature individuals are available for breeding .\nre - introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals .\ngeneration length is the average age of parents of the current cohort ( i . e . newborn individuals in the population ) . generation length therefore reflects the turnover rate of breeding individuals in a population . generation length is greater than the age at first breeding and less than the age of the oldest breeding individual , except in taxa that breed only once . where generation length varies under threat , the more natural , i . e . pre - disturbance , generation length should be used .\na reduction is a decline in the number of mature individuals of at least the amount ( % ) stated under the criterion over the time period ( years ) specified , although the decline need not be continuing . a reduction should not be interpreted as part of a fluctuation unless there is good evidence for this . the downward phase of a fluctuation will not normally count as a reduction .\na continuing decline is a recent , current or projected future decline ( which may be smooth , irregular or sporadic ) which is liable to continue unless remedial measures are taken . fluctuations will not normally count as continuing declines , but an observed decline should not be considered as a fluctuation unless there is evidence for this .\nextreme fluctuations can be said to occur in a number of taxa when population size or distribution area varies widely , rapidly and frequently , typically with a variation greater than one order of magnitude ( i . e . a tenfold increase or decrease ) .\nthe phrase ' severely fragmented ' refers to the situation in which increased extinction risk to the taxon results from the fact that most of its individuals are found in small and relatively isolated subpopulations ( in certain circumstances this may be inferred from habitat information ) . these small subpopulations may go extinct , with a reduced probability of recolonization .\nextent of occurrence is defined as the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary which can be drawn to encompass all the known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon , excluding cases of vagrancy ( see figure 2 ) . this measure may exclude discontinuities or disjunctions within the overall distributions of taxa ( e . g . large areas of obviously unsuitable habitat ) ( but see ' area of occupancy ' , point 10 below ) . extent of occurrence can often be measured by a minimum convex polygon ( the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180 degrees and which contains all the sites of occurrence ) .\nfigure 2 . two examples of the distinction between extent of occurrence and area of occupancy . ( a ) is the spatial distribution of known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence . ( b ) shows one possible boundary to the extent of occurrence , which is the measured area within this boundary . ( c ) shows one measure of area of occupancy which can be achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares .\nthe term ' location ' defines a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present . the size of the location depends on the area covered by the threatening event and may include part of one or many subpopulations . where a taxon is affected by more than one threatening event , location should be defined by considering the most serious plausible threat .\na quantitative analysis is defined here as any form of analysis which estimates the extinction probability of a taxon based on known life history , habitat requirements , threats and any specified management options . population viability analysis ( pva ) is one such technique . quantitative analyses should make full use of all relevant available data . in a situation in which there is limited information , such data as are available can be used to provide an estimate of extinction risk ( for instance , estimating the impact of stochastic events on habitat ) . in presenting the results of quantitative analyses , the assumptions ( which must be appropriate and defensible ) , the data used and the uncertainty in the data or quantitative model must be documented .\nextinct ( ex ) a taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died . a taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .\nextinct in the wild ( ew ) a taxon is extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation , in captivity or as a naturalized population ( or populations ) well outside the past range . a taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .\ncritically endangered ( cr ) a taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for critically endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .\nendangered ( en ) a taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .\nvulnerable ( vu ) a taxon is vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for vulnerable ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nnear threatened ( nt ) a taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable now , but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .\nleast concern ( lc ) a taxon is least concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered , vulnerable or near threatened . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\ndata deficient ( dd ) a taxon is data deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct , or indirect , assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and / or population status . a taxon in this category may be well studied , and its biology well known , but appropriate data on abundance and / or distribution are lacking . data deficient is therefore not a category of threat . listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate . it is important to make positive use of whatever data are available . in many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between dd and a threatened status . if the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed , and a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon , threatened status may well be justified .\nnot evaluated ( ne ) a taxon is not evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria .\nnote : as in previous iucn categories , the abbreviation of each category ( in parenthesis ) follows the english denominations when translated into other languages ( see annex 2 ) .\n( e ) the effects of introduced taxa , hybridization , pathogens , pollutants , competitors or parasites .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 % within 10 years or three generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .\na . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20 % within 20 years or five generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .\na . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations .\n1 . population size estimated to number fewer than 1 , 000 mature individuals .\n2 . population with a very restricted area of occupancy ( typically less than 20 km 2 ) or number of locations ( typically five or fewer ) such that it is prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future , and is thus capable of becoming critically endangered or even extinct in a very short time period .\ne . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10 % within 100 years .\nthe red list criteria should be applied to a taxon based on the available evidence concerning its numbers , trend and distribution . in cases where there are evident threats to a taxon through , for example , deterioration of its only known habitat , a threatened listing may be justified , even though there may be little direct information on the biological status of the taxon itself . in all these instances there are uncertainties associated with the available information and how it was obtained . these uncertainties may be categorized as natural variability , semantic uncertainty and measurement error ( ak\u00e7akaya et al . 2000 ) . this section provides guidance on how to recognize and deal with these uncertainties when using the criteria . more information is available in the guidelines for using the iucn red list criteria .\nnatural variability results from the fact that species ' life histories and the environments in which they live change over time and space . the effect of this variation on the criteria is limited , because each parameter refers to a specific time or spatial scale . semantic uncertainty arises from vagueness in the definition of terms or lack of consistency in different assessors ' usage of them . despite attempts to make the definitions of the terms used in the criteria exact , in some cases this is not possible without the loss of generality . measurement error is often the largest source of uncertainty ; it arises from the lack of precise information about the parameters used in the criteria . this may be due to inaccuracies in estimating the values or a lack of knowledge . measurement error may be reduced or eliminated by acquiring additional data . for further details , see ak\u00e7akaya et al . ( 2000 ) and burgman et al . ( 1999 ) .\none of the simplest ways to represent uncertainty is to specify a best estimate and a range of plausible values . the best estimate itself might be a range , but in any case the best estimate should always be included in the range of plausible values . when data are very uncertain , the range for the best estimate might be the range of plausible values . there are various methods that can be used to establish the plausible range . it may be based on confidence intervals , the opinion of a single expert , or the consensus opinion of a group of experts . whichever method is used should be stated and justified in the documentation .\nwhen interpreting and using uncertain data , attitudes toward risk and uncertainty may play an important role . attitudes have two components . first , assessors need to consider whether they will include the full range of plausible values in assessments , or whether they will exclude extreme values from consideration ( known as dispute tolerance ) . an assessor with a low dispute tolerance would include all values , thereby increasing the uncertainty , whereas an assessor with a high dispute tolerance would exclude extremes , reducing the uncertainty . second , assessors need to consider whether they have a precautionary or evidentiary attitude to risk ( known as risk tolerance ) . a precautionary attitude will classify a taxon as threatened unless it is certain that it is not threatened , whereas an evidentiary attitude will classify a taxon as threatened only when there is strong evidence to support a threatened classification . assessors should resist an evidentiary attitude and adopt a precautionary but realistic attitude to uncertainty when applying the criteria , for example , by using plausible lower bounds , rather than best estimates , in determining population size , especially if it is fluctuating . all attitudes should be explicitly documented .\nan assessment using a point estimate ( i . e . single numerical value ) will lead to a single red list category . however , when a plausible range for each parameter is used to evaluate the criteria , a range of categories may be obtained , reflecting the uncertainties in the data . a single category , based on a specific attitude to uncertainty , should always be listed along with the criteria met , while the range of plausible categories should be indicated in the documentation ( see annex 3 ) .\nwhere data are so uncertain that any category is plausible , the category of ' data deficient ' should be assigned . however , it is important to recognize that this category indicates that the data are inadequate to determine the degree of threat faced by a taxon , not necessarily that the taxon is poorly known or indeed not threatened . although data deficient is not a threatened category , it indicates a need to obtain more information on a taxon to determine the appropriate listing ; moreover , it requires documentation with whatever available information there is .\nunder section v ( the criteria for critically endangered , endangered and vulnerable ) there is a hierarchical alphanumeric numbering system of criteria and subcriteria . these criteria and subcriteria ( all three levels ) form an integral part of the red list assessment and all those that result in the assignment of a threatened category must be specified after the category . under the criteria a to c and d under vulnerable , the first level of the hierarchy is indicated by the use of numbers ( 1 - 4 ) and if more than one is met , they are separated by means of the ' + ' symbol . the second level is indicated by the use of the lower - case alphabet characters ( a - e ) . these are listed without any punctuation . a third level of the hierarchy under criteria b and c involves the use of lower case roman numerals ( i - v ) . these are placed in parentheses ( with no space between the preceding alphabet character and start of the parenthesis ) and separated by the use of commas if more than one is listed . where more than one criterion is met , they should be separated by semicolons . the following are examples of such usage :\nall assessments published on the iucn red list are freely available for public use . to ensure assessments are fully justified and to allow red list assessment data to be analysed , thus making the iucn red list a powerful tool for conservation and policy decisions , a set of supporting information is required to accompany every assessment submitted for publication on the iucn red list of threatened species \u2122 :\nrequired supporting information under specific conditions ( e . g . taxa assessed under specific red list categories or criteria , plant assessments , reassessed taxa , etc . ) .\ntools available for preparing and submitting assessments for the iucn red list , including the iucn species information service ( sis ) and ramas\u00ae red list ( ak\u00e7akaya and ferson 2001 ) .\nnote that the documentation standards and consistency checks for iucn red list assessments and species accounts will be updated on a regular basis .\nclick here for a summary of the five criteria ( a - e ) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in an iucn red list threatened category ( critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable ) .\nak\u00e7akaya , h . r . and ferson , s . 2001 . ramas \u00ae red list : threatened species classifications under uncertainty . version 2 . 0 . applied biomathematics , new york .\nak\u00e7akaya , h . r . , ferson , s . , burgman , m . a . , keith , d . a . , mace , g . m . and todd , c . a . 2000 . making consistent iucn classifications under uncertainty . conservation biology 14 : 1001 - 1013 .\nbaillie , j . and groombridge , b . ( eds ) . 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nburgman , m . a . , keith , d . a . and walshe , t . v . 1999 . uncertainty in comparative risk analysis of threatened australian plant species . risk analysis 19 : 585 - 598 .\nfitter , r . and fitter , m . ( eds ) . 1987 . the road to extinction . iucn , gland , switzerland .\ng\u00e4rdenfors , u . , hilton - taylor , c . , mace , g . , and rodr\u00edguez , j . p . , 2001 . the application of iucn red list criteria at regional levels . conservation biology 15 : 1206 - 1212 .\nhilton - taylor , c . ( compiler ) . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 1993 . draft iucn red list categories . iucn , gland , switzerland .\niucn . 1994 . iucn red list categories . prepared by the iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland .\niucn . 1996 . resolution 1 . 4 . species survival commission . resolutions and recommendations , pp . 7 - 8 . world conservation congress , 13 - 23 october 1996 , montreal , canada . iucn , gland , switzerland .\niucn . 1998 . guidelines for re - introductions . prepared by the iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 2001 . iucn red list categories and criteria : version 3 . 1 . iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 2003 . guidelines for application of iucn red list criteria at regional levels : version 3 . 0 . iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\niucn . 2012 . guidelines for application of iucn red list criteria at regional and national levels : version 4 . 0 . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk : iucn .\niucn / ssc criteria review working group . 1999 . iucn red list criteria review provisional report : draft of the proposed changes and recommendations . species 31 - 32 : 43 - 57 .\nmace , g . m . , collar , n . , cooke , j . , gaston , k . j . , ginsberg , j . r . , leader - williams , n . , maunder , m . and milner - gulland , e . j . 1992 . the development of new criteria for listing species on the iucn red list . species 19 : 16 ? 22 .\nmace , g . m . and lande , r . 1991 . assessing extinction threats : toward a re - evaluation of iucn threatened species categories . conservation biology 5 : 148 ? 157 .\nmace , g . m . and stuart , s . n . 1994 . draft iucn red list categories , version 2 . 2 . species 21 - 22 : 13 - 24 .\noldfield , s . , lusty , c . and mackinven , a . 1998 . the world list of threatened trees . world conservation press , cambridge .\nthe convention aims to ensure conservation of wild flora and fauna species and their habitats . special attention is given to endangered and vulnerable species , including endangered and vulnerable migratory species specified in appendices .\nthe parties undertake to take all appropriate measures to ensure the conservation of the habitats of the wild flora and fauna species . such measures should be included in the parties planning and development policies and pollution control , with particular attention to the conservation of wild flora and fauna . the parties undertake to promote education and disseminate general information concerning the need to conserve species of wild flora and fauna and their habitats .\nthe convention establishes a standing committee on which the parties are represented by their delegates . the committee ' s principal task is to monitor the provisions of this convention in the light of development of the wild flora and the assessment of its needs . for this purpose , the standing committee is especially competent to make recommendations to the parties and amendments to the appendices where these protected species are specified .\nappendix iv - prohibited means and methods of killing , capture and other forms of exploitation .\ncox , n . and temple , h . j . ( global reptile assessment )\njustification : listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is not much greater than 100km2 , it is known from only four small islands , there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat . the population trend may now have more or less stabilized , but this is a recent change and could easily be reversed .\nthis species is endemic to the western cyclade islands ( milos , syphnos , kimolos and polyaigos ) of greece . it is found from sea level up to 400m asl ( the highest point on the islands ) .\nthe population probably totals around 3 , 000 individuals , with about 2 , 500 of these on western milos . subspecies syphnoensis ( from island of syphnos ) is very rare , with only occasional specimens recorded . the population is now more or less stable , but over the last 30 - 40 years there have been significant declines as a result of collecting and road kills .\nit can be found throughout the islands on dry , sunny hillsides and in traditionally cultivated land , in densely vegetated areas close to water with rocky outcrops , and also in pools of water . its most important habitat is small creeks . the female lays a clutch of between four and 11 eggs ."]}
{"id": 1097, "summary": [{"text": "colonel john ( foaled march 4 , 2005 in kentucky ) is an american thoroughbred racehorse best known as the winner of the 2008 santa anita derby and travers stakes . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "colonel john", "paragraphs": ["visit john mccrae timeline , a chronology page with more john mccrae facts and information .\nairoforce , a son of colonel john , won his dirt debut in the grade 2 kentucky jockey club stakes at churchill downs .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged colonel john , well armed , winstar farm by paulick report staff . bookmark the permalink .\ngrade i winner colonel john , seen here winning the 2009 wickerr stakes , has been sold and will stand stud in korea for 2017 .\ncolonel john w . henderson became the commander of the omaha district , u . s . army corps of engineers , july 31 , 2015 .\nso , what can we expect from colonel john ' s progeny ? s colonel john was adept over dirt , turf and cushion track . he placed on polytrack , but that wasn ' t his best surface . so far , colonel john is represented by winners over tapeta and turf . his babies should also handle mud . some may be capable over polytrack , but may not be able to offer a top level performance over the surface .\nwinstar farm sire colonel john has been sold to the korea thoroughbred breeders association ( ktba ) to stand in jeju - do , korea in 2017 .\ncolonel john had defeated maidens at seven furlongs oct . 7 at santa anita after finishing second in his career debut aug . 19 at del mar .\n25 of colonel john ' s two year olds went through the sales ring . 17 sold between $ 19k - $ 300k , eight were rna .\nrunner - up in the 2007 gi cashcall futurity , colonel john added the gi santa anita derby and a thrilling success in that year\u2019s gi travers s . he was a stakes winner and grade i - placed at four . during his tenure at winstar , colonel john sired 10 black - type winners , five at the graded level .\nlieutenant colonel graham parker , obe , founder of the poppy umbrella in ypres on 11 th november 2008 .\ncolonel john\u2019s 2008 debut was a success when garrett gomez , subbing for the injured nakatani , beat el gato malo by a half - length in the sham stakes at santa anita on march 1 . now that nakatani\u2019s broken collarbone is healed and gomez opted to ride court vision in saturday\u2019s wood memorial stakes at aqueduct , nakatani is reunited with colonel john .\nmultiple grade 1 winner and freshman sire colonel john was represented by his first winner on sunday when his son cash conversion captured a maiden special weight event at presque isle downs .\ncolonel john , who has 86 2 - year - olds in his first crop , stands alongside his sire tiznow at winstar for an advertised fee of $ 15 , 000 .\ncolonel john was a good horse right from the get - go as a juvenile , running second at del mar in his first start , followed by an easy maiden win at seven furlongs at the oak tree meeting at santa anita in october for trainer eoin harty . victory in the listed real quiet stakes at hollywood park was just as easy , and colonel john started favorite for the grade 1 cashcall futurity but found one too good for him . into mischief won by 1 1 / 4 lengths as colonel john rallied from well behind but could never catch him .\ncolonel john , bred and raced by winstar farm \u2013 then owned by bill casner and kenny troutt in partnership \u2013 was from the third crop of his sire , 2000 horse of the year tiznow , but is a very different physical type from both his sire and broodmare sire . both tiznow and turkoman , sire of colonel john\u2019s dam , sweet damsel , stand over 17 hands , and tiznow in particular is a rather coarse , plain individual . colonel john is tall but not overly big , and he is a far more elegant horse than tiznow , with a lovely head .\nkieran lalor , winstar ' s broodmare manager , described colonel john as a\ntall , very athletic horse , with a very strong body type . ' ' his foals take after him .\ncanadian physician , soldier , teacher and poet john mccrae was born in guelph ontario on november 30 , 1872 , the second son of scottish immigrants lieutenant colonel david mccrae and janet simpson eckford mccrae .\nairoforce\u2019s obvious talent will not be enough alone to revive the stud career of colonel john , but it proves that , given the right mare , the son of tiznow can sire a good horse .\ncolonel john will do a period of quarantine before shipping to korea at the end of october . he will join former us - based sires any given saturday and chapel royal ) at jeju stud farm .\n\u201cthe big reason we sent him to california was so he could run and train on the artificial surfaces , \u201d casner said saturday after colonel john won the $ 200 , 000 sham stakes on saturday .\ncolonel john is the most accomplished of his dam ' s offspring . proving that breeding is still a genetic roll of the dice , colonel john ' s full brother mr . hot stuff placed in the sham and santa anita derby , but found his calling as a steeplechase horse . their full sister kayce ace is stakes placed . another half sister , caroline ' s gold is grade 3 stakes placed .\nwinstar farms ' colonel john and jockey garrett gomez win the wickerr stakes race at del mar thoroughbred club in del mar , calif . ( july 31 , 2009 ) photo credit : ap / benoit photo\n\u201cthe ktba is very excited to stand colonel john , \u201d said bloodstock agent jun park , a longtime advisor to the ktba who brokered the deal . \u201che will be a wonderful addition to their growing breeding program . \u201d\nmaking his first start around two turns and only the third of his career , colonel john won the $ 100 , 000 real quiet stakes like a colt who could make a lot of noise in the coming months .\none of tiznow\u2019s top runners is the winstar homebred colonel john ( truenicks , sro ) who returns home to stand alongside his sire for the 2010 season . out of a mare by turkoman , colonel john won the santa anita derby ( gr . i ) and the travers s . ( gr . i ) as a three - year - old . he retires as tiznow\u2019s second leading money earner having bankrolled over $ 1 . 7 million .\nthe ktba is very excited to stand colonel john ,\nsaid bloodstock agent jun park , a longtime advisor to the ktba who brokered the deal .\nhe will be a wonderful addition to their growing breeding program .\nborn in guelph , ontario , on november 30 , 1872 , john mccrae was the second son of lieutenant - colonel david mccrae and janet simpson eckford mccrae . he had a sister , geills , and a brother , tom .\nlieutenant colonel john mccrae md was buried with full military honors in the cemetery in wimereux , france ( plot 4 , row h , grave 3 ) . john mccrae\u2019s funeral was one of the best attended funerals of the entire war . in attendance were his many friends , military dignitaries , nursing sisters and colleagues .\njohn mccrae attended sunday morning services regularly at st . paul ' s presbyterian church in\na three - quarter brother to grade 1 multimillionaire well armed was born at winstar farm on april 14th . the bay colt is from the first crop of multiple grade 1 winner colonel john \u2013 tiznow ' s top performer at stud .\ncolonel john stood for $ 7 , 500 this year at winstar farm , near versailles , ky . with more than $ 4 million in 2016 earnings , he ranks 33rd on this year ' s general sire list through sept . 27 .\njohn glenn - military leader , u . s . senator , astronaut , pilot - biography\njohn murtha was appointed to the u . s . house of representatives in a special election to fill a vacancy caused by the death of gop rep . john p . saylor .\ncolonel john ' s damsire turkoman was champion older male in 1986 . he ' s an excellent broodmare sire and claims over 30 stakes winners as a damsire , including king ' s bishop ( g - 1 ) winner and sire hard spun .\noverall , colonel john ' s distaff family is light on blacktype . his dam owns no stakes earnings , but she was a solid race mare , earning a 33 - 5 - 5 - 4 ( $ 66 , 469 ) record at the allowance level . sweet damsel was a miler who won over dirt and turf . colonel john ' s second dam grande dame won a restricted race and his third dam fia placed in the cca oaks ( g - 1 ) and three other graded stakes .\ncolonel john ' s most important wins as a racehorse came in the santa anita derby ( gr . i ) and travers stakes ( gr . i ) . he is out of the winning turkoman mare sweet damsel , who also has produced grade i - placed\nwell dressed is booked back to tiznow , who stands the 2011 season for $ 75 , 000 stands and nurses . colonel john stands his second season in 2011 for a fee of $ 15 , 000 stands and nurses . both stallions have been booked full .\ncolonel john was racing for the first time since dec . 22 , when he ran second in the hollywood futurity . trainer eoin harty next will run the colt in the $ 750 , 000 santa anita derby , also at 11 / 8 miles , on april 5 .\ntrained by eoin harty , colonel john won the grade iii sham stakes and grade i santa anita derby in 2008 prior to finishing sixth in that year\u2019s kentucky derby . he would return that summer to capture the grade i travers stakes , his final career graded stakes win .\njohn mccrae was deeply affected by the fighting and losses in france . he became bitter and disillusioned .\nwinstar farm homebred colonel john ( tiznow\u2013sweet damsel , by turkoman ) , sire of the current graded - stakes horses airoforce and dalmore , has been sold to the korea thoroughbred breeders association ( ktba ) and will stand his first year at stud in jeju - do in 2017 .\nwinstar homebred colonel john , a multiple grade i - winner on the track and sire of graded stakes winners airoforce , cocked and loaded , and dalmore , has been purchased by the korea thoroughbred breeders association ( ktba ) and will stand stud in jeju - do , korea in 2017 .\nnothing travels faster in bluegrass country than news about a hot young sire .\nthat ' s exactly right , ' ' walden said .\ncolonel john was the leader at the july sale , and that ' s what has people excited . it ' s a repeatable thing . ' '\nfasig - tipton ' s saratoga yearling sale began monday night at the humphrey s . finney pavilion , two blocks from where colonel john enjoyed his career highlight in the 2008 travers . his first crop of yearlings led keeneland ' s fasig - tipton july sale with a $ 141 , 250 average , and there ' s a serious buzz about his five offspring in the spa ' s two - evening bidding frenzy . colonel john made $ 1 . 77 million racing for his owner - breeder , winstar farm of versailles , ky . , but he could be worth exponentially more as a stallion .\n2008 marked the 40 anniversary of opening of mccrae house in guelph ontario , the stone cottage birthplace of john mccrae . built in 1857 mccrae house remained a private residence for over a century until it was threatened with demolition in the mid - 1960\u2019s . local residents ( including cyril allinson , the young soldier who witnessed john mccrae writing the poem in 1915 ) formed the john mccrae birthplace society , purchased the home and opened john mccrae house as a museum in 1968 . mccrae house also includes john mccrae\u2019s war medals plus a garden of remembrance with a memorial cenotaph .\ncolonel john , covering 11 / 8 miles in 1 : 50 . 15 under garrett gomez , took the lead in the stretch and held on to defeat 7 - 10 favorite el gato malo by one - half length in the field of five . el gato malo suffered his first defeat in four career starts .\nfor walden , a third - generation kentucky horseman , owning an up - and - coming stallion his farm bred is glorious .\nit ' s very exciting , ' ' he said .\ntiznow has been a great sire for us , and we hope colonel john will be one , too . ' '\nboth john and thomas mccrae were major contributor ' s to osler ' s modern medicine , a 10 - volume textbook published in 1909 . in addition , john mccrae co - authored a textbook on pathology which was published in 1912 .\nlibrary of congress , american memory :\ndr . john s . pemberton ( inventor of coca - cola )\ncolonel john ( usa ) b . h , 2005 { 5 - i } dp = 4 - 1 - 9 - 0 - 0 ( 14 ) di = 2 . 11 cd = 0 . 64 - 15 starts , 6 wins , 3 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 779 , 012\ncolonel john\u2019s comeback race after a two - month break resulted in a fair third in the grade 2 swaps , but he was fitter for the grade 1 travers stakes at saratoga and held on grimly in a stretch battle with mambo in seattle to win by a nose . with big brown retired , colonel john was the best american - trained 3 - year - old available for the breeders\u2019 cup classic , and probably ran right up to his best form , finishing fifth , beaten about five lengths , to the british - trained sophomore raven\u2019s pass . he ran once more at 3 , finishing fourth over the inadequate distance of seven furlongs in the malibu .\nenter colonel john , a 3 - year - old son of two - time breeders\u2019 cup classic winner tiznow . nakatani will be aboard the eoin harty - trained colt in saturday\u2019s 71st running of the santa anita derby , and he hopes the 2 - 1 morning - line favorite will help him end those string of goose eggs .\nas a stallion , colonel john is led by airoforce , winner of the grade 2 kentucky jockey club stakes and grade 3 bourbon stakes and runner - up in the breeders ' cup juvenile turf last year . he is represented by 12 other stakes winners , including graded winners cocked and loaded , dalmore , southern honey , and concave .\nthus it is always instructive to see a horse like colonel john come up with a genuinely good horse from one of the better - credentialed mares in his book . that horse is airoforce , out of the stakes - placed cuvee mare chocolate pop . airoforce won the grade 2 kentucky jockey club stakes on nov . 28 at churchill downs .\nwe ' re very pleased with colonel john ' s yearlings overall , ' ' said elliott walden , winstar ' s president , ceo and racing manager .\nhe was a good racehorse , and he gets you a nice , big , scopey , very athletic horse , and that ' s what people are looking for . ' '\ncolonel john retired after the 2009 season with six wins from 15 starts and $ 1 , 779 , 012 in earnings . as a sire , he ranks no . 1 on the latest north american fourth - crop sires list for 2016 , and is no . 2 on the cumulative fourth - crop sires list in north america behind pioneerof the nile .\nlate in september 1826 by arrived at the mouth of the rideau river to begin initial preparations . in april 1827 , accompanied by john\n( 1 ) photograph of lieutenant alexis helmer . featured in a crown of life : the world of john mccrae , by dianne graves\ncolonel john , by winstar stallion tiznow , was bred and raced by the farm . he was a multiple grade 1 - winning 3 - year - old in 2008 , taking the santa anita derby and travers stakes . he won or placed in six other stakes over his three seasons of racing , and retired with $ 1 , 779 , 012 in earnings .\non february 20 , 1962 , astronaut john glenn entered the spacecraft friendship 7 to begin the first american - manned mission to orbit earth .\ni really liked col . john , so it ' s nice to see that his babies are already entering the winner ' s circle .\ncolonel john will enter quarantine before shipping to south korea at the end of october to take up residence at his new home jeju stud farm , which also currently stands former american stallions any given saturday and chapel royal . because its racing takes place on dirt , korea has invested heavily in american stock as it has built its thoroughbred industry ; the country also stands champion juvenile hansen .\njust like on the racetrack , there are no sure things at an auction . the colonel john colt went for $ 250 , 000 to phase ii thoroughbreds , but the filly was not sold . the final bid of $ 190 , 000 did not meet her reserve , the minimum price agreed upon by her owner , spruce lane farm , and sales agent , hidden brook farm .\njohn mccrae had a remarkable affinity for people and animals . his many friends and colleagues described him as warm and compassionate with very high principles .\nlooks like col . john is off to a great early start with his runners and that should make him popular with today ' s breeders .\nbred to improve with more distance - - his dam ( sweet damsel ) is a daughter of multiple stakes - winning router turkoman - - colonel john didn ' t disappoint sunday . he will be favored , if he runs , in the $ 750 , 000 hollywood futurity , now sponsored by cashcall , on dec . 22 . the promising juvenile will have to be supplemented to the race .\nas the brigade doctor , john mccrae was asked to conduct the burial service for alexis because the chaplain had been called away somewhere else on duty that evening . it is believed that later that evening , after the burial , john began the draft for his now famous poem \u201cin flanders fields\u201d .\nwhen america\u2019s most famous race is run for the 134th time on may 3 , churchill downs will have its usual dirt track in place . but if colonel john , a 3 - year - old tiznow colt bred and owned by casner and his wife susan , is in the starting gate for the run for the roses , he believes a major reason will be the synthetic surface at santa anita .\nthe poem was written by a canadian\u2014john mccrae , a doctor and teacher , who served in both the south african war and the first world war .\ncolonel john is a large bodied horse reminiscent of his sire tiznow . he was a late - season two year old , yet showed obvious talent demolishing a group of maidens by over four lengths . the winstar homebred won the real quiet stakes before checking in a late - running second to into mischief in the cash call futurity ( g - 1 ) , to finish out his two year old season .\nno well - authenticated portrait of john by is known to exist . two silhouettes have been used in recent publications , but they have not been positively identified\nin the summer of 1910 john mccrae accompanied governor general earl grey as expedition doctor on a month - long canoe trip from lake winnipeg to hudson\u2019s bay .\njohn hancock was an 18th century u . s . merchant who was president of the continental congress and the first person to sign the declaration of independence .\ncolonel john has a stamina oriented pedigree . his sire , two - time horse of the year champ tiznow , is a young stallion whose only son at stud with babies on the track is tiz wonderful ( by hennessy ) . tiz wonderful ' s first crop are now three year olds . he wound up at # 8 on the freshman sire list last year and is currently # 7 on the second crop sire list .\nthe symbolic poppy and john mccrae ' s poems are still linked and the voices of those who have died in war continue to be heard each remembrance day .\nking , monroe m .\njohn stith pemberton ( 1831 - 1888 ) .\nnew georgia encyclopedia . 13 june 2017 . web . 09 july 2018 .\njohn mccrae resigned from the 1st brigade of artillery in 1904 after being promoted to captain and then major . he was not involved with the military again until 1914 .\nsaratoga springs - - he has everything you want in a sire - - grade i victories , tactical speed , stamina , versatility and durability . besides his santa anita derby and travers trophies , colonel john won on turf and synthetic and competed until late in his 4 - year - old season . his pedigree is impeccable , by two - time breeders ' cup classic hero tiznow out of a mare by turkoman , the 1986 champion older male .\nbecause winstar owns none of the five mares , it won ' t profit from the foals ' prices .\nwe won ' t make anything directly , ' ' walden said ,\nbut colonel john ' s reputation and value as a stallion would be enhanced . ' ' his stud fee is $ 15 , 000 , but if enough of his yearlings excel as runners , his price could approach tiznow ' s ( $ 75 , 000 ) .\njohn glenn was the first u . s . astronaut to orbit earth , completing three orbits in 1962 . he also served as a u . s senator from ohio .\non april 17th , 1915 john mccrae earned the rank of lieutenant colonel . on june 1st , 1915 mccrae left the battlefront and transferred to number 3 general hospital at boulogne where he treated wounded soldiers from the battles of somme , vimy ridge , arras , and passchendaele . on january 5 , 1918 mccrae became the first canadian ever to be appointed as consultant physician to the british armies in the field . unfortunately , mccrae died before he could he could take up his new position .\nas well as expressing himself in words , john mccrae also did small , detailed pencil sketches of scenes on his trips , mostly in south africa , the united states and scotland .\non 11 th november 1995 lieutenant colonel graham parker , obe was in ypres ( ieper ) to take part in the annual armistice day ceremonies . as he led the poppy parade to the menin gate memorial to the missing , there was a heavy rainstorm and the crowds lining the route began putting up umbrellas .\na full - length biography of by is available in r . [ f . ] legget , john by , lieutenant colonel , royal engineers , 1779\u20131836 : builder of the rideau canal , founder of ottawa ( [ ottawa ] , 1982 ) . a summary biography and a description of his work in building the canal is given in the same author\u2019s rideau waterway ( toronto , 1955 ; rev . ed . , toronto and buffalo , n . y . , 1972 ; 2nd ed . , toronto , 1986 ) . much of the information about by\u2019s life comes from h . p . hill , \u201clieutenant - colonel john by \u2013 a biography , \u201d royal engineers journal ( chatham , eng . ) , [ new ser . ] , 46 ( 1932 ) : 522\u201325 , and this was supplemented by minor pieces of information such as his baptismal record in the register of st - mary - at - lambeth ( london ) , 10 aug . 1779 , at the greater london record office .\njohn bell was elected tennessee senator in 1847 , serving in the senate until 1859 . he was also a u . s . presidential nominee on the eve of the american civil war .\ncolonel john retired to his birthplace in 2010 at a fee of $ 15 , 000 with a consistent record of six wins , three seconds , and a third in 15 starts for earnings of $ 1 , 779 , 012 . as the winner of the santa anita derby and travers , he was arguably the second - best american - trained 3 - year - old of his crop behind big brown , but in retrospect , the american 3 - year - olds of 2008 were not an outstanding group .\nthe wacker estate sold chocolate pop for only $ 25 , 000 to greathouse bloodstock at the 2010 keeneland november sale , and the mare was re - offered , in foal to colonel john , but failed to meet her reserve at $ 35 , 000 in 2012 . airoforce , who was bred by stewart m . madison , is her first foal . she has since produced a yearling full sister to airoforce , and a weanling filly by first samurai . chocolate pop was bred to sidney\u2019s candy this year .\nprecocious doesn ' t come to mind when one thinks of colonel john ' s offspring . yet they ' ve started to make their appearance on the track . within the last couple of weeks , two of his sons have entered the winner ' s circle . the winstar farm home - bred cash conversion galloped to a 2 \u00be length victory over the presque isle downs oval to kick off the month of june . a week later , here ' s johnny subdued his rivals by 2 \u00bd lengths at churchill .\nburrows , john ( vol . 7 ) drummond , robert ( vol . 6 ) duberger , jean - baptiste ( vol . 6 ) duvernet , henry abraham ( vol . 7 ) jebb , sir joshua ( vol . 9 ) kempt , sir james ( vol . 8 ) macdonell , george richard john ( vol . 9 ) mann , gother ( vol . 6 ) more\njohn lindsay was a u . s . congressman and was the mayor of new york city during the 1960s . he is known for his\nghetto walks\nand clashes with labor groups .\nthe family were scottish presbyterians and john mccrae was a man of high principles and strong spiritual values . he has been described as warm and sensitive with a remarkable compassion for both people and animals .\nhe took with him a horse named bonfire , a gift from a friend . later , john mccrae sent his young nieces and nephews letters supposedly written by bonfire and signed with a hoof print .\nfor respite , he took long rides on bonfire through the french countryside . another animal companion was a casualty of the war , the dog bonneau , who adopted john mccrae as his special friend .\nin 1898 , john mccrae received a bachelor of medicine degree and the gold medal from the university of toronto medical school . he worked as resident house officer at toronto general hospital from 1898 to 1899 .\nan avid outdoorsman , john mccrae was invited in 1910 to serve as expedition physician when the governor general , lord grey , journeyed by canoe from norway house on lake winnipeg to hudson ' s bay .\nin the trenches , john mccrae tended hundreds of wounded soldiers every day . he was surrounded by the dead and the dying . in a letter to his mother , he wrote of the battle of ypres .\nwhen mccrae went to europe he took with him his horse bonfire , a gift given to him by his friend john l . todd . mccrae was very fond of animals and often wrote home to his niece and nephew as if the letters were from bonfire and signed with bonfire\u2019s hoof print . while at ypres , john mccrae also befriended a dog he named bonneau which accompanied mccrae on his rounds through the medical wards .\nthe right horse might be colonel john , who began his career with a runner - up effort in a maiden special weight on aug . 19 at del mar . he broke his maiden by 4 < md + , % 30 , % 55 , % 70 > 1 / < md - , % 0 , % 55 , % 70 > 2 lengths with nakatani aboard next time out on oct . 7 at oak tree and , following his victory in the real quiet , finished second to into mischief in the cashcall futurity at hollywood park on dec . 22 .\ngeoffrey serle , ' monash , sir john ( 1865\u20131931 ) ' , australian dictionary of biography , national centre of biography , australian national university , urltoken published first in hardcopy 1986 , accessed online 10 july 2018 .\njohn mccain is a vietnam war veteran and a six - term u . s . senator from the state of arizona . he was the republican nominee for the 2008 presidential election , before his loss to barack obama .\nafter this ground - breaking mission , glenn became an american hero . he was feted with parades and received numerous accolades . president john f . kennedy presented him with the nasa distinguished service medal , and the two eventually became friends . it was president kennedy & apos ; s brother robert who encouraged glenn to consider a life in public service . glenn , who had risen in the ranks to colonel , continued to serve as an advisor to nasa until 1964 , and the following year he retired from the marines corps . with a longtime interest in politics he decided to run for office .\nas an author , john mccrae wrote numerous articles for medical journals , co - authored \u201ca text - book of pathology for students of medicine\u201d with j . g . adami and published a number of poems , letters , articles and short stories in national magazines including saturday night and godey\u2019s plus the university of toronto student newspaper , the varsity . john mccrae was also a contributing writer to osler\u2019s book of modern medicine , a 10 - volume textbook by william osler .\nafter graduating with honors from medical school in toronto in 1898 , john mccrae served in the artillery during the second boer war in south africa ( 1899 \u2013 1901 ) . mccrae was shocked by the poor treatment of the sick and injured soldiers .\nin april 1915 , john mccrae was in the trenches near ypres , belgium , in the area traditionally called flanders . some of the heaviest fighting of the first world war took place there during what was known as the second battle of ypres .\nmckay , thomas ( vol . 8 ) ramsay , george , 9th earl of dalhousie ( vol . 7 ) smyth , sir james carmichael ( vol . 7 ) white , andrew ( vol . 6 ) lennox , charles , 4th duke of richmond and lennox ( vol . 5 ) redpath , john ( vol . 9 ) ansley , amos ( vol . 7 ) baird , nicol hugh ( vol . 7 ) barrie , sir robert ( vol . 7 ) bonnycastle , sir richard henry ( vol . 7 ) bradford , richard ( vol . 5 ) chaffey , samuel ( vol . 6 ) christie , alexander james ( vol . 7 ) degaugreben , friedrich ( vol . 6 ) durnford , elias walker ( vol . 7 ) le breton , john ( vol . 7 ) mactaggart , john ( vol . 6 ) mcmartin , alexander ( vol . 8 ) rose , sir john ( vol . 11 ) sparks , nicholas ( vol . 9 ) stewart , william ( vol . 8 )\ntiznow ' s offspring look remarkably like their sire and colonel john is no exception . he is a large , muscular horse who covers a distance of ground . typically , he was a mid / late season two year old . like many with his physical build and pedigree , he improved with age and racing . the majority of his progeny will make their debuts from mid - season ( late july , early august ) onward and improve greatly as three year olds . some may be quick enough to win at six furlongs , however , seven furlongs through 1 1 / 4 miles will be more suitable . they should be proficient over every surface , although bet his offspring on polytrack with caution .\njohn mccrae began writing poetry while a student at the guelph collegiate institute . as a young boy , he was also interested in the military . he joined the highfield cadet corps at 14 and at 17 enlisted in the militia field battery commanded by his father .\nwriting letters and poetry also allowed john mccrae to escape temporarily from the pressures of his administrative duties at the hospital . his last poem ,\nthe anxious dead\n, echoed the theme of\nin flanders fields\nbut was never as popular as the earlier poem .\nin 1899 , he went to baltimore and interned at the johns hopkins hospital where his brother thomas had worked as assistant resident since 1895 . there , both john and thomas mccrae became close associates of dr . william osler , the pre - eminent medical educator of his time .\nduring the summer of 1917 , john mccrae was troubled by severe asthma attacks and occasional bouts of bronchitis . he became very ill in january 1918 and diagnosed his condition as pneumonia . he was moved to number 14 british general hospital for officers where he continued to grow weak .\njohn mccrae graduated from guelph collegiate at 16 and was the first guelph student to win a scholarship to the university of toronto . after attending university for three years , however , he was forced to take a year off due to severe asthma . this illness recurred throughout his life .\nalthough he had been a doctor for years and had served in the south african war , it was impossible to get used to the suffering , the screams , and the blood here , and major john mccrae had seen and heard enough in his dressing station to last him a lifetime .\nthe story of john mccrae ' s world war i poem interweaves the poet ' s words with information about the war , details of daily life in the trenches , accounts of mccrae ' s experience in his field hospital , and the circumstances that contributed to the poem ' s creation .\nthe words of john mccrae , a soldier , doctor and poet , are called to mind every year on 11 november . it was his poem , in flanders fields , that was the inspiration for the poppy as a symbol of remembrance . this book charts the story of his life .\nafter his retirement , glenn and his wife founded the john glenn college for public service at the ohio state university with the mission to improve the quality of public service and to encourage young people to pursue careers in government . the glenns also serve as trustees of their alma mater , muskingum college .\njohn mccrae sailed to africa in december and spent a year there with his unit . when he left south africa , it was with mixed feelings about war . he was still convinced of the need to fight for one ' s country but shocked by the poor treatment of the sick and injured soldiers .\nsir john monash ( 1865 - 1931 ) , soldier , engineer and administrator , was born on 27 june 1865 in west melbourne , eldest of three children and only son of louis monash ( 1831 - 1894 ) and his wife bertha , n\u00e9e manasse . several generations of john ' s paternal ancestors had lived at krotoschin ( krotoszyn ) , posen province ( poznan , poland ) , prussia , near breslau ( wroclaw ) . almost one - third of the town ' s population was jewish . john ' s grandfather baer - loebel monasch was a learned publisher and printer . his uncle by marriage heinrich graetz was the eminent historian of the jewish people . his father louis migrated to melbourne in 1854 , prospered as a merchant , was naturalized in 1856 and was secretary of the deutscher verein . he returned to europe in 1863 , married bertha ( of dramburg , near stettin ( szczecin ) ) , and next year took her back to melbourne .\njohn mccrae was buried with full military honours in wimereux cemetery , just north of boulogne , not far from the fields of flanders . bonfire led the procession , mccrae ' s riding boots reversed in the stirrups . his death was met with great grief among his friends and contemporaries . a friend wrote of the funeral :\nglenn met his wife annie when they were children growing up in new concord , ohio . glenn wrote in his autobiography john glenn , a memoir : \u201cshe was part of my life from the time of my first memory . \u201d they were married on april 6 , 1943 at the college drive presbyterian church in new concord .\njohn mccrae\u2019s flanders fields poem was first published anonymously in the december 8th 1915 issue of the british punch magazine and is credited with the inspiration for adopting the \u201cpoppy\u201d as canada\u2019s official flower of remembrance , which is also recognized in canada , the u . s . , france , britain and other commonwealth countries including australia and new zealand .\nin 1901 , john mccrae picked up the thread of his life , resuming his studies in pathology . the years after the war were busy ones for the young doctor . as governor ' s fellow in pathology and resident assistant pathologist , he had the dual function of research work in the medical faculty laboratories at mcgill and autopsy duties at\nit is a terrible state of affairs , and i am going because i think every bachelor , especially if he has experience of war , ought to go . i am really rather afraid , but more afraid to stay at home with my conscience . ( prescott . in flanders fields : the story of john mccrae , p . 77 )\nfamed american astronaut and politician john glenn jr . , who made history in 1962 as the first american to orbit earth , was born in cambridge , ohio on july 18 , 1921 to john and clara glenn . when he was two years old , his family moved to the small town of new concord , ohio , where his father ran a plumbing business . glenn developed an early interest in science , particularly aeronautics , and a sense of patriotism that would lead him to serve his country later in life . according to glenn & apos ; s official website , he had a very happy childhood . \u201ca boy could not have had a more idyllic early childhood than i did , \u201d he wrote .\nwhile still at the battlefront during the second battle of ypres , john mccrae performed a burial service for his good friend and former student alexis helmer . the next day on may 3 , 1915 mccrae reportedly sat on the step of an ambulance wagon and composed what is now considered to be the world\u2019s most famous and recognized war memorial poem , in flanders fields .\nmccrae suffered from asthma since childhood and by december of 1917 his health had dramatically declined . john mccrae succumbed to pneumonia and meningitis on january 28th , 1918 at number 14 british general hospital for officers in boulogne , france . his funeral procession was led by his horse bonfire and in the tradition of mounted officers ; mccrae\u2019s boots were placed backwards in the stirrups .\nduring the early days of the second battle of ypres a young canadian artillery officer , lieutenant alexis helmer , was killed on 2 nd may , 1915 in the gun positions near ypres . an exploding german artillery shell landed near him . he was serving in the same canadian artillery unit as a friend of his , the canadian military doctor and artillery commander major john mccrae .\nwhen the south african war started in october 1899 , john mccrae felt it was his duty to fight . in order to serve in south africa , he requested postponement of a fellowship in pathology that he had been awarded at mcgill university in montr\u00e9al . he was subsequently commissioned to lead an artillery battery from his home town . this guelph contingent became part of d battery , canadian field artillery .\npemberton served with distinction as a lieutenant colonel in the third georgia cavalry battalion during the civil war and was almost killed in the fighting at columbus in april 1865 . in 1869 he became a principal partner in the firm of pemberton , wilson , taylor and company , which was based in atlanta , where he moved in 1870 . two years later he became a trustee of the atlanta medical college ( later emory university school of medicine ) and established a business in philadelphia , pennsylvania , where his own brands of pharmaceuticals were manufactured on a large scale . he also served for six years ( 1881 - 87 ) on the first state examining board that licensed pharmacists in georgia .\nthe war of 1812 had clearly demonstrated the vulnerability of the military supply line along the st lawrence between montreal and kingston , upper canada . british commanders in lower and upper canada had seen the need for an alternative route even before the end of the war , and late in 1814 lieutenant - colonel george richard john macdonell * had roughly surveyed the rideau - cataraqui line . to render the route between montreal and kingston by the ottawa , rideau , and cataraqui rivers navigable for small naval vessels , it was necessary to build a lock at the mouth of the ottawa river , three small canals to circumvent rapids on the ottawa , and a canal system along the stretch from the mouth of the rideau river to kingston . although representations were made to london about the necessity of these works , it was only late in 1815 that orders were given for a study of the route to be made . lieutenant joshua jebb * surveyed the rideau - cataraqui route in the spring of 1816 but nothing further transpired . however , the entrance lock to the ottawa was built by private interests that year .\nthe day of the funeral was a beautiful spring day ; none of us wore overcoats . you know the haze that comes over the hills at wimereux . i felt so thankful that the poet of ' in flanders fields ' was lying out there in the bright sunshine in the open space he loved so well . . . . ( prescott . in flanders fields : the story of john mccrae , p . 129 )\nbefore he died , john mccrae had the satisfaction of knowing that his poem had been a success . soon after its publication , it became the most popular poem on the first world war . it was translated into many languages and used on billboards advertising the sale of the first victory loan bonds in canada in 1917 . designed to raise $ 150 , 000 , 000 , the campaign raised $ 400 , 000 , 000 .\nduring this year off , he was assistant resident master at the ontario agricultural college in guelph , teaching english and mathematics . it is reported that he also fell in love with a friend ' s eighteen year - old sister , but he was dealt a bitter blow when the young woman died shortly after they met . john mccrae expressed the pain of this loss through his poetry which even then dwelt on the theme of death .\nthe day before he wrote his famous poem , one of mccrae ' s closest friends was killed in the fighting and buried in a makeshift grave with a simple wooden cross . wild poppies were already beginning to bloom between the crosses marking the many graves . unable to help his friend or any of the others who had died , john mccrae gave them a voice through his poem . it was the second last poem he was to write .\nthe farm at tully was purchased from the fay family in 1900 by colonel william hall walker . hall walker became the most successful breeder of the age , enjoying his finest hour when king edward vii led minoru , born and raised at tully , into epsom\u2019s winners\u2019 enclosure following a famous victory in the 1909 derby . in 1915 the farm and all its stock was gifted to the crown and became the national stud under the leadership of sir henry greer . the success continued with the farm producing the winners of all five classics . in 1942 sun chariot , born and bred at tully , earned herself an indelible place in racing history when landing the fillies\u2019 triple crown \u2013 the 1 , 000 guineas , oaks and st . leger \u2013 for king george vi .\non august 4 , 1914 , britain declared war on germany . canada , as a member of the british empire , was automatically at war , and its citizens from all across the land responded quickly . within three weeks , 45 , 000 canadians had rushed to join up . john mccrae was among them . he was appointed a medical officer with the first brigade of the canadian field artillery with the rank of major and second - in - command .\na kitten has taken up with a poor ( child ) dying of muscular atrophy who cannot move . it stays with him all the time , and sleeps most of the day in his straw hat . tonight i saw the kitten curled up under the bedclothes . it seems as it were a gift of providence that the little creature should attach itself to the child who needs is most . ( prescott , in flanders fields : the story of john mccrae , p . 18 )\njohn glenn , the last of nasa & apos ; s first class of astronauts , died on december 8 , 2016 at the age of 95 , at ohio state university wexner medical center in columbus , ohio . he is survived by his wife of 73 years , annie , their two children and grandchildren . the legendary astronaut and senator was laid to rest at arlington national cemetery on april 6 , 2017 , which would have been his 74th wedding anniversary with his wife annie .\nalthough mccrae worked hard at his university teaching and at his increasingly busy practice , the advantage of working in a university was that he could take time off . he holidayed at various times in england , france and europe . . . at times he worked his passage to europe as ship ' s surgeon ; he enjoyed ships and the sea . these were the compensations of a bachelor ' s life . ( prescott , in flanders fields : the story of john mccrae , p . 70 )\nin 1914 at the start of the first world war , mccrae followed his sense of duty to god , his country and his fellow man and enlisted . in a letter to his mother john mccrae wrote , \u201c i am really rather afraid , but more afraid to stay at home with my conscience . \u201d at 42 years of age , mccrae was older than most wwi volunteers when he enlisted . in 1915 he was given the rank of major and appointed brigade - surgeon to the first brigade of the canadian forces artillery stationed at ypres , belgium .\nairoforce sold for only $ 20 , 000 at the 2014 fasig - tipton kentucky october yearling sale to michael neatherlin , but worked so well at the 2015 obs april sale that east west stable paid $ 350 , 000 for him . the kentucky jockey club was airoforce\u2019s third win in four starts , all for owner john c . oxley and trainer mark casse , and his first on dirt . his only loss came in the grade 1 breeders\u2019 cup juvenile turf when he failed by only a neck to hold off the closing surge of hit it a bomb .\nhe felt he should have made greater sacrifices , and insisted on living in a tent through the year , like his comrades at the front , rather than in the officers ' huts . when this affected his health in mid - winter he had to be ordered into warmer surroundings . to many he gave the impression that he felt he should still be with his old artillery brigade . after the battle of ypres he was never again the optimistic man with the infectious smile . ( prescott . in flanders fields : the story of john mccrae , p . 110 )\nthe general impression in my mind is of a nightmare . we have been in the most bitter of fights . for seventeen days and seventeen nights none of us have had our clothes off , nor our boots even , except occasionally . in all that time while i was awake , gunfire and rifle fire never ceased for sixty seconds . . . . . and behind it all was the constant background of the sights of the dead , the wounded , the maimed , and a terrible anxiety lest the line should give way . ( prescott . in flanders fields : the story of john mccrae , p . 98 )\njohn glenn jr . was born on july 18 , 1921 in cambridge , ohio . a marine pilot , he was selected in 1959 for project mercury astronaut training . he became a backup pilot for alan b . shepard jr . and virgil\ngus\ngrissom , who made the first two u . s . suborbital flights into space . glenn was selected for the first orbital flight , and in 1962 , aboard friendship 7 , he made three orbits around earth . after his decorated service in the u . s . marine corps and nasa , glenn went on to serve as u . s . senator from his home state . he died on december 8 , 2016 at the age of 95 ."]}
{"id": 1102, "summary": [{"text": "the barred cuckoo-dove ( macropygia unchall ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is found in bangladesh , bhutan , cambodia , china , india , indonesia , laos , malaysia , myanmar , nepal , thailand , and vietnam .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are boreal forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "barred cuckoo - dove", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 2 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 3 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 4 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 5 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 6 . barred cuckoo dove > > pair 7 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 8 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 9 . barred cuckoo dove > > juvenile 10 . barred cuckoo dove > > juvenile 11 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 12 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 13 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 14 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 15 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 16 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 17 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 18 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 19 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 20 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 21 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 22 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 23 . barred cuckoo dove 24 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 25 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult female 26 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 27 . barred cuckoo dove 28 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 29 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 30 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 31 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 32 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 33 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 34 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 35 . barred cuckoo dove 36 . barred cuckoo dove 37 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult female 38 . barred cuckoo dove > > male 39 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult female 40 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 41 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 42 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 43 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 44 . barred cuckoo dove 45 . barred cuckoo dove > > pair 46 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult 47 . barred cuckoo dove 48 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult 49 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 50 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 51 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult males 52 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult females 53 . barred cuckoo dove > > subadult 54 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult 55 . barred cuckoo dove > > female 56 . barred cuckoo dove 57 . barred cuckoo dove 58 . barred cuckoo dove > > adult male 59 . barred cuckoo dove > > fledgling 60 . barred cuckoo dove > > juvenile on nest 61 . barred cuckoo dove > > female on nest\nbarred cuckoo - dove ( macropygia unchall ) is a species of bird in the columbidae family .\na hatchling of barred cuckoo - dove ( macropygia unchall ) in the nest , under the rain .\nthese barred cuckoo - dove species have moderate forest dependence . these species normally occur in altitudes from 450 to 3000 meters .\nthe barred cuckoo - dove species are non - migratory resident birds . the populations in higher elevations may move to lower levels and plains during winter .\nthe breeding season of these barred cuckoo - dove is from march to july in india and nepal . the nesting season is from december to march in malaysia .\nthe natural ecosystems of these barred cuckoo - dove species include montane forests , boreal forests , moist lowland forests , tropical and subtropical dense evergreen forests and secondary forests .\nthe barred cuckoo - dove species are distributed in india , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh , china , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , malaysia and indonesia . these cuckoo - dove species are long tailed and have brownish plumage . these doves are polytypic species .\nthe barred cuckoo - dove species are distributed in india , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh , china , myanmar , thailand , cambodia , laos , vietnam , malaysia and indonesia .\nthe upperparts , wings and tail of the barred cuckoo - dove are dark pinkish brown . the forehead and throat are pale buff . the hinderneck has green or purplish pink iridescence .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the dove species and has listed it as of\nleast concern\n. the cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is \u2018not evaluated\u2019 for barred cuckoo - dove (\nthe bill is grayish black and the eyes are dark brown . the feet are pinkish gray . the barred cuckoo - doves make a repeated hooting sound .\nthe diet of the barred cuckoo - dove consists mainly of seeds . a variety of seeds , cereals , grains , buds , shoots , berries and small fruits are their primary food . these doves are mostly arboreal and occasionally they feed on the ground .\n) has not been quantified . the overall population trend of these dove species is reported to be stable .\nthese barred cuckoo - doves are monogamous . the nests are usually located on the fork of trees . the nest is a flimsy platform made of twigs , sticks and plant matter . the clutch is usually 3 - 4 eggs .\n) is a medium - sized dove , measuring 35 to 40 cm in length and weighing 150 to 180 grams .\nthe crown , ear coverts and nape are pinkish gray . the underparts are pale buff with fine dark barring . the tail is long and barred .\nhabitat degradation and fragmentation , human disturbances at the nesting sites and capture for pet trade are the main threats that may endanger the survival of these dove species .\nthis article is part of project columbiformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each pigeon and dove , including made - up species .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . barred cuckoo - dove ( macropygia unchall ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as generally common to frequent , although scarce in the himalayas ( gibbs et al . 2001 ) , while the population in china has been estimated at c . 100 - 100 , 000 breeding pairs ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n( blyth , 1843 ) \u2013 himalayas from kashmir and garhwal e to assam , sichuan and sw yunnan , and s in hills of myanmar to shan states .\nswinhoe , 1870 \u2013 mountains of se china ( fujian , guangdong , hainan ) s to c vietnam ( annam ) , laos and thailand .\n( wagler , 1827 ) \u2013 montane areas of malay peninsula , through sumatra and java to bali , lombok and flores .\n37\u201341 cm ; 153\u2013182 g . forehead and throat buff merging into pinkish grey crown , ear - coverts and nape ; green or purplish pink iridescence on hindneck ; sides of . . .\nmost common vocalization is a repeated overslurred hoot , preceeded by a soft introductory syllable . . .\ninhabits dense evergreen forest and secondary jungle at 450\u20132750 m in himalayas . in sumatra , . . .\nseeds , grain , buds , shoots , acorns , berries and small drupes constitute its diet . occasionally feeds on the ground in open glades in forest . . .\nin india and nepal , breeds at least mar\u2013jul ; nests found dec\u2013mar in malaysia ; no data on seasonality from greater or lesser . . .\nsedentary and resident throughout most of range , but himalayan birds may move down to adjacent . . .\nnot globally threatened . considered common in s vietnam and thailand . occurs throughout sumatra , java and bali where said to be common , although less so than\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\njosh engel , keith and lynn youngs , wahyu w . basjir , dani\u00eal jimenez .\nbiplab kr . mukhopadhyay , soumyadeep chatterjee 97 , birdpacker , bluefoot , paul van giersbergen , james eaton , jens thalund , josep del hoyo , khaleb yordan , chairunas adha putra , nikhil adhikary , arthur grosset , klaus lachenmaier , lars petersson , tomasz doro\u0144 , fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric pelsy , ken havard .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nmacropygia unchall unchall : mts . of malay peninsula , sumatra , java , lombok and flores\nmacropygia unchall minor : mts . of se china to vietnam , laos , n thailand and hainan\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 299 , 860 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : macropygia unchall . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nreceive our free weekly newsletter which includes our popular photo of the week and review of the week features , plus competitions , special offers and much more . hide message .\nview thousands of bird photos and video from around the world , or upload your own .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nwelcome to bia birdimagency . we use cookies . by continuing to use our website , you consent to the use . for further information on cookies , please read our\nin india , these doves are distributed in the states of sikkim , west bengal , assam , meghalaya , arunachal pradesh , nagaland , manipur , tripura and mizoram .\nin china , these species are distributed in the provinces of yunnan , sichuan , guizhou , hubei , hunan , guangxi , hainan , guangdong , jiangxi , fujian and zhejiang .\nis distributed in montane areas of malaysia and indonesia ( sumatra and java ) .\nis distributed in southeast china ( fujian , guangdong , hainan ) , vietnam , laos , cambodia and thailand .\nis distributed in northeast india , nepal , bhutan , bangladesh , myanmar and china ( sichuan and yunnan ) .\nthe artificial ecosystems of these species include trees around agricultural fields , plantations and rural gardens .\nboth the parents incubate the eggs and take care of the nestlings . the nestlings are initially fed with regurgitated crop - milk , a secretion from the lining of the crop of parent birds .\nlater the nestlings are fed with regurgitated seeds and plant matter . the young fledge in about 15 days and become independent after 35 days .\npost breeding , the juveniles may disperse and establish in new locations within the range . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding within their range .\nthroughout its range this species is reported to be common to rare . the generation length is 5 . 2 years . its distribution size is about 12 , 900 , 000 sq . km .\n) does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable , either under the range size criterion , or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nwelcome to the box elder tennis association ! we hope that you enjoy browsing our website , and that you find a lot of useful information . we expect the information on this website to be of particular interest to tennis players both young and not as young , looking to help support tennis as the lifetime sport that it is . and promote health , wellness and community via the sport of tennis .\nplanning will soon take place for our exciting upcoming activities and tournaments . get out and work on your skills now ! stay in touch with the website for info !\nthe second teen fun tennis night , was held sponsored by brigham city sights & sounds and beta . follow the link below for complete article .\n\u00a9 2016 . box elder tennis association ( beta ) . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 1135, "summary": [{"text": "issoria baumanni , baumann 's mountain fritillary , is a butterfly in the nymphalidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in nigeria , cameroon , the democratic republic of the congo , uganda , rwanda , burundi and tanzania .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of grassland , marshy areas and forest margins at high altitudes .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the larvae feed on viola abyssinica . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "issoria baumanni", "paragraphs": ["baumann\u2019s mountain fritillary ( issoria baumanni ) ssp . katangae butterfly at mgahinga gorilla national park\nbaumann\u2019s mountain fritillary butterfly ( issoria baumanni ) ssp . katangae seen at mgahinga gorilla national park , 17 . 07 . 2016\nbaumann\u2019s mountain fritillary ( issoria baumanni ) ssp . katangae butterfly at mgahinga gorilla national park - by dr _ m _ z - jungledragon\nissoria baumanni , baumann\u2019s mountain fritillary , is a butterfly in the nymphalidae family . it is found in nigeria , cameroon , the democratic republic of congo , uganda , rwanda , burundi and tanzania .\nissoria hanningtoni elwes , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 : 558\nissoria smaragdifera ; [ bow ] : pl . 104 , f . 15 ; [ afrl ]\nissoria lathonia attenuata de sagarra , 1926 ; butll . inst . catal . hist . nat . ( 2 ) 6 ( 6 - 7 ) : 134\nissoria lathonia issaea [ sic , recte isaaea ] ; huang , 2001 ; huang , 2003 , neue ent . nachr . 55 : 80 ( note )\nissoria are represented in europe and have a closely related genus , yramea , in south america . baumann\u2019s mountain fritillary flies in high altitude grassland in rwanda and burundi ; it is fond of flowers . it is a member of the heliconiinae sub - family .\nissoria lathonia ; [ bow ] : pl . 2 , f . 19 - 20 ; [ ebw ] ; [ mrs ] , 479 ; [ bmat ] : 51 , pl . 16 , f . 17 - 21 ; [ bru2 ] : 40 , pl . 28 , f . 7 - 9 ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neu , naf , canary islands , tr , c . asia , himalaya , baluchistan , safed koh , chitral - sikkim , chin hills , w . china . see [ maps ]\n672x556 ( ~ 115kb ) upperside a road on a field surrounded by birch forests at the village klyuchi , iskitim district , novosibirsk province , west siberia , russia . 1st october 1988 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n1128x684 ( ~ 103kb ) underside male female a meadow in the koyon river valley at the village morozovo , iskitim district , novosibirsk province , west siberia , russia . 25th july 1998 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n600x450 ( ~ 50kb ) sweden , ekebo , julita , 17 . 9 . 2003 , photo \u00a9 leif wahlberg\n559x745 ( ~ 67kb ) upperside sweden , ekebo , julita , 17 . 9 . 2003 , photo \u00a9 leif wahlberg\n689x919 ( ~ 94kb ) underside sweden , ekebo , julita , 8 . 8 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 leif wahlberg\n800x905 ( ~ 106kb ) underside russia , tatarstan , varkljed - bodja ( 56\u00b013 ' n 52\u00b049 ' e ) , about 20km s of agriz , 8 . 8 . 2004 , photo \u00a9 markku savela\n998x905 ( ~ 236kb ) upperside russia , north caucasus , adygea republic , maikop , khanskaya stanitsa , khanskie ponds . 14th july 2008 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\n1049x864 ( ~ 174kb ) russia , north caucasus , adygea republic , maikop , khanskaya stanitsa , khanskie ponds . 14th july 2008 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nlarva on viola , v . canina [ sprk ] , v . odorata [ bmat ] , v . tricolor , v . arvensis , anchusa , rubus , onobrychis [ bru2 ] , 40\nargynnis isaeea gray , 1846 ; descr . lep . ins . nepal : 11 ( nom . nud . )\nrathora isaeae [ sic ] f . geogr . isaeoides reuss , 1925 ; iris 39 ( 4 ) : 218\nargynnis smaragdifera butler , 1895 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1895 : 629\nargynnis excelsior butler , [ 1896 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1895 : 729 , pl . 42 , f . 4 ; tl : ruwenzori\npapilio cytheris drury , [ 1773 ] ; illust . nat . hist . exot . insects 2 : index , 7 , pl . 4 , f . 3 - 4 ; tl : falkland is .\nyramea cytheris siga ; [ nl4a ] , # 2290b ; benyamini , ugarte , shapiro , mielke , pyrcz & b\u00e1lint , 2014 , bol . mus . nac . hist . nat . chile 63 : 18 ( list )\nargynnis inca staudinger , 1894 ; dt . ent . z . iris 7 ( 1 ) : 68 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 2 ; tl : bolivia\nyramea lathonioides ; [ nl4a ] , # 2292 ; benyamini , ugarte , shapiro , mielke , pyrcz & b\u00e1lint , 2014 , bol . mus . nac . hist . nat . chile 63 : 18 ( list )\nyramea modesta modesta ; benyamini , ugarte , shapiro , mielke , pyrcz & b\u00e1lint , 2014 , bol . mus . nac . hist . nat . chile 63 : 19 ( list )\nyramea modesta araucania benyamini , 2014 ; bol . mus . nac . hist . nat . chile 63 : 19 ; tl : vn . laima , 1200 - 1400m , chile\nyramea sobrina ; [ nl4a ] , # 2294 ; benyamini , ugarte , shapiro , mielke , pyrcz & b\u00e1lint , 2014 , bol . mus . nac . hist . nat . chile 63 : 18 ( list )\nchecklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;\nthe dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nan updated list of the butterflies of chile ( lepidoptera , papilionoidea and hesperioidea ) including distribution , flight period and conservation status . part i , comprising the families : papilionidae , pieridae , nympalidae ( in part ) and hesperiidae . describing a new species of hypsochila ( pieridae ) and a new subspecies of yramea modesta ( nymphalidae )\non a small collection of butterflies sent by mr . richard crawshay from the country west of lake nyasa\non lepidoptera recently collected in british east africa by mr . g . f . scott elliot\nthe genera of diurnal lepidoptera , comprising their generic characters , a notice of their habitats and transformations , and a catalogue of the species of each genus ; illustrated with 86 plates by w . c . hewitson\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil i . die tagschmetterlinge . supplement theil 1 . abschnitt 1\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\na catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,\ndie androconien von yramea cytheris drury und n\u00e4chtststehenden analogen schuppenbildungen bei dione hbn . und brenthis hbn . ( lep . )\nweymer in weymer & maassen , 1890 lepidoptera gesammelt auf einer reise durch colombia , ecuador , peru , brasilien , argentinien und bolivien in den jahren 1868 - 1877 von alphons st\u00fcbel reisen s\u00fcd - america : 1 - 182 , pl . 1 - 9\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\naureus butterflies & insects jens jakusch ringstra\u00dfe 12 54329 konz germany phone . de : 06501 / 8098362 internatonal : + 49 6501 8098362 business hours : mo - fr 11 . 00 - 18 . 00 e - mail : aureus - butterflies @ urltoken\n\u00a9 2016 , butterfly conservation society , ghana - african butterfly research institute - icom ltd .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njungledragon is a nature and wildlife community for photographers , travellers and anyone who loves nature . we ' re genuine , free , ad - free and beautiful .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\na widespread inhabitant of the rainforest zone of africa . single individuals usually seen perching on leaves or flowers . male a brilliant greenish - blue above , female dark brown , but large silver spots of underside make it unmistakable .\nthe table mountain beauty ( aeropetes tulbaghia ) has been nominated by lepsoc to become south africa\u2019s national butterfly . it is a large and attractive butterfly , widespread throughout south africa ' s mountains and endemic to sa and zimbabwe . it is the only pollinator of many of our wild flowers including the red disa ( disa uniflora ) .\none of the most strikingly red butterflies of the south african east coast . fresh males stand out like beacons . the gregarious larvae feed on the attractive indigenous shrub / small tree , african dog - rose , xylotheca kraussiana . gardeners whose plant gets defoliated by these larvae \u2013 causing no permanent damage \u2013 will be able later on to enjoy the presence of this ' flying flower . '\nthis astonishing sphingid was found in the kibale forest of western uganda . whilst taking a break and lying on some undergrowth we spotted this moth deep in the undergrowth on some dry leaves . its resting posture is vastly different from that of set specimens .\nthe mulanje tiger moth ( callioratis grandis ) , is an extremely localised species known only from mount mulanje in malawi . it feeds solely on the mulanje cycad , encephalartos gratus , and was here raised to full species status and assessed as critically endangered using the iucn criteria .\none of several atlas moths found in africa , and of two found in south africa . they are related to the giant atlas moths of south - east asia , which are among the world ' s largest insects . atlas moths typically have large transparent ' windows ' in their wings , and a ' snake ' s - head ' pattern on the forewing tip . this species ' larvae feed on croton and zizyphus .\nafrotropical swordtails ( graphium ) species were examined and their life histories described in a metamorphosis article and some relationships were suggested . graphium leonidas zanzibaricus was reinstated as a valid taxon in the same article .\npilodeudorix baginei is a jewel of mabira forest that makes a sudden and dramatic hilltop appearance at about 5pm when many a lepidopterist has already called it a day and headed off home . they suddenly appear in fair numbers and dart around before settling with open wings right before your eyes ! but once again it\u2019s a male only party , with females being ever elusive .\nthe strange hovering behaviour of male scarce fig - tree blues ( myrina dermaptera dermaptera ) was observed and photographed for the first time by steve woodhall around a fig tree at shongweni in kzn .\nthis butterfly is found throughout most of the afrotropical region ( including arabia ) . there is a separate race ( ssp . ramonza ) in madagascar , some of the south - west seychelles islands and the comoros . in south africa , is found from about east london , north - eastwards . an energetic , territorial butterfly which is very common in northern namibia .\nthis magnificent butterfly is found across central and eastern africa . its habitat consists of forests , including riparian forests and heavy woodland . it is a mimic of day - flying moths , and glides effortlessly across the forest floor .\nthis butterfly is a well - known and widespread species , found from west africa to kenya and south to northern zambia . it prefers secondary forest and is a frequent visitor to damp , muddy places . cyrestis camillus is the only species within the cyrestinae subfamily .\niolaus aemulus is one of the epamera subgenus , many of which have gorgeously marked undersides with orange or red stripes on a pearly white ground . short - barred sapphires are seldom seen on the wing ; the best way to see one is to find a pupa and wait for it to eclose , as i did with this male .\nthe silver silk cocoons are easy to spot in the tops of the leafless marula trees during winter . the cocoons even have small holes in their sides that resemble parasite infestation , probably as a defence against parasitism . when in flying in the moonlight , the pale spatulate ends of the long tails appear as a strange flickering pulsation which makes it\u2019s flight path disorientating for the observer .\nthis critically endangered butterfly flies high in the wolkberg mountains of limpopo , and is restricted to three small localities . its larvae feed on rock lichen and are cryptic and exceptionally difficult to find . the adults are bright and colourful but have to wait until the clouds lift to fly .\nthis spectacular butterfly that is very common but seldom seen . they breed on a variety of figs and the larvae are easily found on the terminal fresh leaves . the females are often observed ovipositing by walking up and down the branches of their selected fig - tree . otherwise it is an extremely rapid flyer .\nvestal birdling is a small white moth in the family geometridae ( subfamily sterrhinae ) . like many small lepidoptera it relies on bird - dropping resemblance to a void predation . the wings are marked with tiny metallic scales , which glitter in the light .\nthese calypsos were very common last june in the mabira forest of uganda . mudpuddling in the power - line clearing was their main occupation , congregating in their hundreds in groups made up exclusively of calypsos .\nthis is a large central african rainforest butterfly that likes to perch with open wings in the sunlight , and is not averse to a slow and steady approach \u2013 which makes it every photographers dream subject ! the brilliant deep blue of the male almost matches that of the celebrated morphos of latin america .\nthis butterfly is closely related to chrysoritis dicksoni but its habitat is totally different , flying high in the drakensberg foothills in small colonies .\nhawkmoths are mostly nocturnal , whose larvae have a characteristic horn on the tail end . oleander hawk is one of the most attractive species , found almost all over africa , but also in asia and southern europe . its larva uses many other plants besides oleander ( nerium ) e . g . carissa ( num - num ) , adenia and mango .\nthis butterfly is found in central african rainforests , along paths in dense primary forest , and it appears to favour small hills and ridges within this habitat . the afriodinia genus contains most of the representatives of the riodinidae family in africa .\nwhile driving across central gabon we stopped at an informal rubbish - dump with a strong colony of mosquitoes , but also a fair colony of these amazing butterflies . their uppersides are drab - brownish and they settle on the ground with wings open , which masks their identity . closer inspection revealed their astonishing underside colours . 5 days later at the same spot they were gone .\nthose who are familiar with south africa\u2019s blue banded papilio nireus lyaeus will be astonished at the broad blue bands of this central african swallowtail . it is a common and very powerful flyer , but luckily has a weakness for mud - puddling and lantana flowers .\nrocksitters are endemic to south africa ; there are four species , of which amakosa is the most widespread with several subspecies . the adults rely on their camouflaged undersides when they sit on lichen covered rocks . they lack mouthparts , cannot feed , and are short - lived . the larvae feed on lichens and take almost a year to fully feed .\nthis beautiful moth with it\u2019s psychedelic iridescence is not uncommon in the north - western forests of madagascar . it prefers flying in the late afternoon , and luckily for the observer it frequently settles with open wings on low vegetation but always with it\u2019s hindwings pointing up . this moth will literally stop you it your tracks\u2026\nmorant\u2019s orange is the only representative of this genus found in south africa . it is widely distributed throughout much of eastern africa , but seldom common . its habitat is savanna , including brachystegia woodland ; males are regular hill - toppers . larval host plants include various combretum species .\nthis lycaenid butterfly is found in south eastern africa the habitat consists of woodland , coastal forests , grassland and grassy areas in savanna . both sexes feed from the flowers of herbaceous plants and small flowers . the larvae feed on lantana camara .\na relatively common and very striking species , whose underside resembles a dead leaf , this butterfly is widespread throughout tropical africa . subspecies rattrayi is found in western uganda , rwanda , burundi and north east tanzania .\nwelcome to the lepidopterists\u2019 society of africa ( lepsoc africa ) , a group of enthusiasts dedicated to the study and conservation of butterflies and moths in the afrotropical region . our society is a forum for individuals or societies who are interested in this field \u2013 we endeavour to publish material , circulate information among our members , participate in relevant conservation and research projects , and to coordinate public awareness of butterflies and moths within africa . by joining lepsoc africa you will be gaining access to the fascinating world of afrotropical butterflies and moths and to the equally fascinating people associated with them ! jeremy dobson\nthis software programme allows lepsoc africa members to upload their collection and observation data into a database , and to use collection curation tools such as specimen labels . lepibase combines all these records submitted by members and allows lepidoptera distribution data to be stored and analysed to produce distribution maps .\nthe corel ( custodians of rare and endangered lepidoptera ) programme was initiated by lepsoc africa in 2011 and aims to secure the survival of our threatened butterfly and moth species . it is funded by the brenton blue trust .\nthe caterpillar rearing group ( crg ) was launched in 2012 and combines the efforts of both expert lepidopterists and citizen scientists to discover the life histories of all lepidoptera ( moths and butterflies ) occurring in africa . if you\u2019ve found a strange caterpillar eating your plants and you want to know what it will become , this is the project for you . you don ' t have to be a lepsoc africa member to take part , but if the\nrearing bug\nbites you will want to meet your fellow rearers and becoming a member is the best way to do this .\nlepimap is an african lepidoptera mapping project . it is run jointly by the animal demography unit of the university of cape town ( adu ) and the lepsoc africa . the aim of the project is to determine the distribution and conservation status of butterflies and moths in africa . it combines the enthusiasm of citizen scientist ( photographers ) with the expertise of lepidopterists who can identify their pictures . you don ' t have to be a lepsoc africa member to participate .\nsalca ( southern african lepidoptera conservation assessment ) was initiated in 2015 by lepsoc africa as a response to sanbi ' s call for experts to contribute to the five year national biodiversity assessment ( nba ) programme . the project aims to assess the conservation status of southern african butterflies and moths , and is due for completion during 2017 . this is a members only project , as it requires a high degree of expertise , and is funded by sanbi .\nthis project aims to fill biodiversity information gaps , to promote better informed development decision making in the karoo , in order to conserve important biodiversity assets . the project was launched in 2016 , and is funded by sanbi . experts from thirteen\ntaxon groups\nare contributing , and lepsoc africa has been contracted to conduct butterfly surveys on 50 sites thoughout the so - called shale gas exploration area of the karoo . participants need to be members ( permits are required ) , who are expert at butterfly identification , and the project will run until december 2018 .\nthe butterfly evolutionary diversity project ( bed ) is a three - year research enterprise led by sanbi . bed project seeks to map patterns of evolutionary diversity for butterflies across south african landscapes . it aims , through collecting dna samples of all south african butterfly species , to identify areas not only of high butterfly species richness and conservation concern , but also areas of high evolutionary importance . lepsoc africa will be the main collecting agency for this project , which will also provide the phlyogenetic analyses to enable us to resolve a number of taxonomic issues .\nplease note that our secure online payment facility with payfast has been successfully launched and you can now pay your membership subscriptions via payfast or eft . thank you for your continued support .\nregister , link your card , and swipe your card at every myplanet registered store . existing card holders can support lepsoc in addition to their current beneficiary ."]}
{"id": 1143, "summary": [{"text": "bibasis vasutana , the green awlet , is a species of hesperid butterfly found in asia .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the butterfly was reassigned to genus burara by vane-wright and de jong ( 2003 ) and is considered by them to be burara vasutana . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "bibasis vasutana", "paragraphs": ["bibasis vasutana ( moore , [ 1866 ] ) = ismene vasutana moore , [ 1866 ] = ismene vasutana rahita fruhstorfer , 1911 = burara burma evans , 1934 = burara vasutana = burara burma evans , 1934 = ismene rahita fruhstorfer , 1911 .\nbibasis vasutana , or the green awlet , is a species of hesperid butterfly found in asia . | insects & other creatures | pinterest | butterfly , moth and insects\n( in b . vasutana , the veins are not finely black . could be b . striata . futher investigation required )\nbibasis jaina velva ; [ bmp ] : 333 , pl . 62 , f . 4\nbibasis kanara ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 15 ( text )\n[ thailand ] bibasis vasutana ; pinratana , 1985 : 15 , 116 , pl . 2 , fig . 6 , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang mai / phetchaboon ) burara vasutana ; ek - amnuay , [ 2007 ] : 724 , pl . 331 , fig . h8 , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang mai / phetchabun : nam nao ) burara vasutana ; chiba , 2009 : 13 , pl . 4 , fig . 9\u2642 , 10\u2640 . ( chiang dao ) burara vasutana ; kimura et al . , 2011 : 22 , fig . \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( phetchabun : nam nao ) burara vasutana ; ek - amnuay , 2012 : 772 , pl . 355 , fig . h7 , \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( chiang mai / nam nao ) burara vasutana ; s . sophonviwatkul , c . sunthornwiphat & t . laola , 2015 - : butterflies of thailand , fig . \u2642 ( un ) . ( phisanulok / chaiyaphum ) [ laos ] burara vasutana ; masui & uehara , 1996 : 5 , pl . 2 , fig . 5 . ( phong sali ) burara vasutana ; osada , u\u00e9mura & uehara , 1999 ; 221 , pl . 130 , figs . \u2642 , \u2640 . ( phong saly ) burara vasutana ; chiba , 2009 : 13 , pl . 4 , fig . 9\u2642 , 10\u2640 . ( laos ) burara vasutana ; nakamura & wakahara , 2012 ; 56 . [ vietnam ] bibasis vasutana ; devyatkin & monastyrskii , 1999 ; 154 . ( north : tam dao ; cuc phuong / central : vu quang ) bibasis vasutana ; ikeda et al . , 2001b : 58 , figs . 1 : 8\u2642 , 9\u2642 ( un ) , 5 : 3 ( \u2642genitalia ) . ( cuc phuong ) bibasis vasutana ; hao et al . , 2004 : 12 , 83 , figs . \u2642 , \u2642 ( un ) . ( cuc phuong ) burara vasutana ; miyazaki , saito & saito , 2007b ; 2 , fig . h - 2 , \u2642 , \u2640 . ( lam dong : dambri ; dai duc me ) burara vasutana ; chiba , 2009 : 13 , pl . 4 , fig . 9\u2642 , 10\u2640 . ( north / central ) bibasis vasuana ; monastyrskii & devyatkin , 2015 ; 70 . ( n / c )\nbibasis harisa consobrina ; [ bmp ] : 332 , pl . 52 , f . 4 - 6\nbibasis iluska ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis iluska iluska ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis sena senata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis arradi [ sic ? ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 13 ( text )\nismene vasutana rahita fruhstorfer , 1911 : deut . ent . zeit . [ iris ] 25 : 62 . tl . assam . ( nhml ) burara vasutana burma evans , 1934 : entomologist 67 : 33 . tl . karen hills , burma . ( nhml ) bibasis unipuncta lee , 1962 : acta ent . sinica 11 : 141 , 146 , pl . 3 , fig . 23\u2642 , 26\u2642 ( un ) . tl . yunnan .\nbibasis ( coeliadinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nbibasis sena uniformis ; inoue & kawazoe , 1964 , ty\u00f4 to ga 15 ( 2 ) : 35 ; [ bmp ] : 333 , pl . 52 , f . 9\nbibasis uniformis elwes & edwards , 1897 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 14 ( 4 ) : 305 , pl . 27 , f . 95 ; tl : java\nbibasis tuckeri elwes & edwards , 1897 ; trans . zool . soc . lond . 14 ( 4 ) : 293 , pl . 20 ; tl : tavoy , s . burma\non : ismene vasutana moore , [ 1866 ] od : proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 782 . tl : darjeeling . ( nhml ) distribution : nepal , sikkim , assam , myanmar , thailand , laos , vietnam , china .\nbibasis owstoni eliot , 1980 ; malayan nat . j . 33 ( 3 / 4 ) : 150 , f . 10 , 11 , 15 , 16 ; tl : malaysia , pahang , fraser ' s hill\nvasutana ; \u2642 , type ( red ) , h2392 , darjiling . ( nhml . examined . ) rahita ; \u2642 , type ( red ) , h2393 , khasia hills , assam . ( nhml . examined . ) burma ; \u2642 , type ( red ) , h2394 , karens , burma . 4 . 26 . ( nhml . examined . )\nathyma nefte + cupha erymanthis + + rohana sp . + + + cethosia cyane + cethosia biblis + + cirrochroa tyche + vagrans egista + + hestinalis nama + symbrethia lilaea + + + symbrethia hypselis + juniona almana + + juniona atlites + + hypolimnias bolina + + cyrestis thyodamas + + + cyrestis cocles + + + cyrestis themire + + + chersonesia risa + + vindula erota + + + neptis clinia + + + polyura athamas + + + charaxes bernardus + + cynitia lepidea + tanaecia julii + riodinidae zemeros flegyas + + abisara echerius + lycaenidae curetis sp . + + jamides celeno + + + heliophorus delacouri + + megisba malaya + udara cf . dilecta + + acytolepis puspa + + + tongeia potanini + catochrysops strabo + ionolyce helicon + + + anthene emolus + + + prosotas dubiosa + + + prosotas nora + + + hypolycaena amasa + + yasoda tripunctata + hesperidae bibasis vasutana + abraximorpha davidii + + tagiades sp . + odontoptilum angulata + + arnetta atkinsoni + + + pelopidas conjuncta + polytremis lubricans + astictopterus jama + + ancistroides nigrita + koruthaialos sindu + potanthus sp . + + parnara sp . + +\nbibasis sena ; moore , [ 1881 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 4 ) : 161 , pl . 65 , f . 3 , 3a ; piepers & snellen , 1910 , rhop . java [ 2 ] : 16 , pl . 6 , f . 21a - b ; [ bir ] , 469 ; [ bow ] : pl . 185 , f . 17 ; [ mrs ] , 693 ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 56\nismene swainson , 1820 ; zool . illustr . ( 1 ) 1 : pl . 16 ( preocc . ismene savigny , 1816 ) ; ts : ismene oedipodea swainson\nismene gomata moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 783 ; tl : darjeeling\nburara gomata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\ngomata radiosa ( pl\u00f6tz , 1885 ) ( ismene ) ; berl . ent . z . 29 ( 2 ) : 232 ; tl : celebes\nburara gomata radiosa ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nismene gomata vajra fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : java\nismene mahintha moore , [ 1875 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1874 ( 4 ) : 575 , pl . 67 , f . 4 ; tl : burma\nismene nestor zonaras fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 63 ; tl : wetter i .\nhasora nestor ; piepers & snellen , 1910 , rhop . java [ 2 ] : 14 , pl . 6 , f . 17a - b\nceylon , india - assam , burma , s . vietnam , malaya , philippines . see [ maps ]\ngoniloba sena moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 778 ; tl : bengal\n1019x734 ( ~ 77kb ) underside thailand , chantaburi province , khao - khitchakut national park , the krating rivulet valley among the tropical forest above the waterfalls . 6th january 2006 , photo \u00a9 oleg kosterin\nsri lanka , s . india - burma , thailand , laos , hainan , andamans\nsikkim - burma , thailand , laos , haina , andamans , s . yunnan . see [ maps ]\nismene amara pindapatra fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 62 ; tl : assam\nburara amara ; huang & xue , 2004 , neue ent . nachr . 57 : 145 ( name )\nismene aphrodite fruhstorfer , 1905 ; soc . ent . 20 ( 18 ) : 141 ; tl : celebes\nburara aphrodite ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburma , thailand , laos , vietnam , malay peninsula , singapore , borneo , sumatra , java , palawan , mindanao . see [ maps ]\nismene etelka hewitson , 1867 ; ill . exot . butts [ 5 ] ( ismene i - ii ) : [ 88 ] , pl . [ 44 ] ; tl : sarawak\nismene harisa moore , [ 1866 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 3 ) : 782 ; tl : bengal\nismene harisa asambha fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : n . vietnam , chieem - hoa\nismene harisa distanti evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 319 ; tl : singapore\nismene imperialis pl\u00f6tz , 1886 ; stettin ent . ztg 47 ( 1 - 3 ) : 115 ; tl : celebes\nburara imperialis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis imperialis ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nburara imperialis veteratrix ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 55\nw . ghats , mussoorie - sikkim , assam , burma , n . thailand , vietnam . see [ maps ]\nismene jaina vasundhara fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 59 ; tl : assam\nismene velva evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 318 , no . i . 2 . 9\nismene jaina margana fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 60 ; tl : siam , hinlap\nismene jaina formosana fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 59 ; tl : formosa\nchaba , assam , burma , indo - china , malay peninsula , sumatra , java , borneo , palawan , philippines , sulawesi . see [ maps ]\nismene oedipodea swainson , 1820 ; zool . illustr . ( 1 ) 1 : pl . 16 ; tl : java\nburara oedipodea ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nlarva on hiptage benghalensis [ mrs ] , combretum , hiptage vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene excellens hopffer , 1874 ; stettin ent . ztg 35 ( 1 - 3 ) : 39 ; tl : celebes\nburara oedipodea excellens ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene oedipodea [ ? ] athena fruhstorfer , 1911 ; dt . ent . z . iris 25 ( 5 ) : 61 ; tl : thailand\nburara phul ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nismene septentrionis c . & r . felder , [ 1867 ] ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 3 ) : 525 , pl . 73 , f . 3 ; tl : china\nsri lanka , n . india , malay peninsula , java , borneo , palawan , mindanao , sulawesi , banggai , sula . see [ maps ]\nburara tuckeri ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nlarva on hiptage vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 54\nunipuncta lee , 1962 ; acta ent . sin . 11 ( 2 ) : 141 , 146\nnepal , sikkim , assam , burma , thailand , laos . see [ maps ]\nismene [ ? ] kanara evans , 1926 ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 31 ( 1 ) : 63\nismene fergusonii de nic\u00e9ville , [ 1893 ] ; j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 7 ( 3 ) : 345 , pl . j , f . 6 ; tl : s . india\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\nthe butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\nillustrations of new species of exotic butterflies selected chiefly from the collections of w . wilson saunders and william c . hewitson\na catalogue of the lepidopterous insects in the museum of the hon . east - india company in horsfield & moore ,\nneue hesperiden des indischen archipels und ost - africa ' s aus der collection des herrn h . ribbe in blasewitz - dresden , gesammelt von den herren : c . ribbe auf celebes , java un den aru - inseln , k\u00fcnstler auf malacca ( perak ) ; k\u00fchn auf west - guinea ( jekar ) ; menger auf ceylon\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe agaricales , or euagarics clade , is a monophyletic group of approximately 8500 mushroom species . . . read more\nthe tree of life web project ( tol ) is a collaborative effort of biologists and nature enthusiasts from around the world . on more than 10 , 000 world wide web pages , the project provides information about biodiversity , the characteristics of different groups of organisms , and their evolutionary history ( phylogeny ) .\neach page contains information about a particular group , e . g . , salamanders , segmented worms , phlox flowers , tyrannosaurs , euglenids , heliconius butterflies , club fungi , or the vampire squid . tol pages are linked one to another hierarchically , in the form of the evolutionary tree of life . starting with the root of all life on earth and moving out along diverging branches to individual species , the structure of the tol project thus illustrates the genetic connections between all living things .\nthe affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree . . . as buds give rise by growth to fresh buds , and these if vigorous , branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch , so by generation i believe it has been with the great tree of life , which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth , and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications .\ntree of life design , images , and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2005 tree of life web project . all rights reserved . image of rose \u00a9 1999 nick kurzenko . image of annelid worm \u00a9 2001 greg w . rouse .\nmoore , 1865 \u2013 green awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\nif mentioning specific images please give media code ( s ) . for misidentifications please list reasons to assist in diagnosis .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 , all rights reserved . national centre for biological sciences ( ncbs ) holds copyright for all the original material and compilations on this website , although contributing writers and photographers may hold copyright for their material as cited . material from this website can be used freely for educational , basic research and conservation purposes , provided that this website is acknowledged and properly cited as the source . contact us to obtain prior permission for any other use , including for large data downloads and collaborative research .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nmoore , f . , [ 1866 ] : on the lepidopterous insects of bengal .\nfruhstorfer , h . , 1911 : neue hesperiden des indo - malayischen faunengebietes und besprechung verwandter formen .\nevans , w . h . , 1934 : indo - australian hesperiidae : description of new genera , species and subspecies .\nlee , c . l . , 1962 : some new species of rhopalocera in china , ii .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nflatid planthopper nymphs ( phromnia sp . , flatidae ) | butterflies & moths | pinterest | nymphs and moth\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nankita gupta , p . v . churi , a . sengupta & s . mhatre 2014 . lycaenidae parasitoids from peninsular india with description of four new species of microgastrine wasps ( hymenoptera : braconidae ) along with new insights on host relationships . zootaxa 3827 ( 4 ) : 439\u2013470 .\nfreyer , 1844 \u2013 little tiger pierrot . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\n( noun ) : either of the anterior pair of wings on an insect that has 4 wings .\nhasora anura - description . . . forewing with a minute subapical transparent shining yellow dot . . . forewing with the inner margin broadly pale , a broad discal dark band free from purple gloss . . . forewing with a quadrate spot at the end of the cell , an elongate one below across the first median interspace , its inner edge straight , its outer . . .\naeromachus jhora - description . . . forewing with a discal curved series of about six pale dots . . . underside dark brown , the costa and the apex of the forewing and the entire hindwing greenish - ochreous , forewing with the discal series of spots as above , and an indistinct marginal . . .\neupanacra mydon . . . the wing margins are somewhat scalloped and the forewing is slightly excavate below the apex . . . the forewing upperside shaded with brown in both sexes , the male is not much paler than the female . . . the forewing underside has a submarginal line which runs parallel to the distal margin . . .\nlamasina - description . . . in some , the males have blue forewing undersides also . . . lamasina has a fairly short forewing cell , measuring less than one - half of the costal length and in males only about one - third . . . androconia (\nperfume\nscales ) form a characteristic orange or darkened patch on the dorsal forewing . . .\nmorpho richardus - description . . . forewing with 3 rows of submarginal yellow dots . . . discal area of the forewing yellowish . . . under surface forewing with four small , elongate ocelli of about uniform size , with narrow black irides . . .\nno subspecies are listed under this species . it has sometimes been treated as a subspecies of\nmoore , 1875 \u2013 slate awlet . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .\nthe awls and related genera have long , narrow forewings , rounded hindwings with a characteristic deep fold at the inner margin and produced at the tornus . the adult sexes are alike excepting that males have specialised scales and scent brands on the forewings . they have large labial palpi which have a thin third segment protruding ahead of the eye . the eyes are large , an adaptation to the crespuscular habits of this species .\nthis list forms part of the full list of butterflies of india ( hesperiidae ) which itself is part of the complete list of butterflies of india .\nthe common name similar awlking is that of taxon similis ( vide evans ( 1932 ) ) which is not recognised as a valid species by savela and by tolweb ( ref its page on genus choaspes ) . taxon similis is now considered to be a synonym of taxon xanthopogon .\nthe species is considered to be furcata by [ lepindex ] , and as furcatus by tolweb . savela gives it as furcatus without appropriate reference for the change . accordingly it is being retained as furcata , with furcatus as redirect , pending the availability of a proper reference .\nhasora alexis ( fabricius , 1775 ) is a synonym of h . chromus vide lepindex\nevans in the identification of indian butterflies , ( 1932 ) ( ser no i 1 . 9 , pp 224 ) records it as occurring in the nicobars .\nevans in the identification of indian butterflies , ( 1932 ) ( ser no i 1 . 10 , pp 224 ) records it as occurring in the nicobars .\ngay , thomas ; kehimkar , isaac david ; punetha , jagdish chandra ( 1992 ) .\n. nature guides . bombay , india : world wide fund for nature - india by oxford university press .\nwatson , e . y . ( 1891 ) hesperiidae indicae . vest and co . madras .\nbeccaloni , george ; scoble , malcolm ; kitching , ian ; simonsen , thomas ; robinson , gaden ; pitkin , brian ; hine , adrian ; lyal , chris .\nbrower , andrew v . z . and warren , andrew , ( 2007 ) . coeliadinae evans 1937 . version 21 february 2007 ( temporary ) . urltoken in the tree of life web project , urltoken .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 19 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\ncheck out this home i found on urltoken . follow urltoken on pinterest : urltoken | awlet | pinterest\nin 1963 , at the height of the war , president ho chi minh inaugurated what is now the national park , with the words : \u201cforest is gold . we must conserve it well . destruction of the forest will lead to serious effects on both life and productivity . \u201d so cuc phuong national park is now the star of conservation in vietnam . just 130km from hanoi , with daily scheduled buses , accommodation at the edge of the park as well as in the centre ranges from the modestly luxurious to basic \u2013 catering for any budget . good restaurants are available . very few similar forests allow such comforts .\nthe cuc phuong butterfly fauna is one of the best studied in vietnam . the present list of verified species has passed 400 thanks to the research by ikeda et al . ( 1998 - 2002 ) , hill & monastyrskii ( 1999 ) , and hao et al . ( 2005 ) . but it ' s likely that dozen of species remain to be discovered . a total of 450 species is a safe estimate . this is 40 % of the known butterfly fauna of vietnam . so the number of species of butterflies in this not very large forest ( 220 square km ) is the equivalent ot the entire butterfly fauna of europe . this is biodiversity writ large !\nthree weeks ago i was back to cuc phuong , a place i have visited many times for birds , but only a few times for butterflies - yes , butterflying and birding are very hard to practice at the same time , and even more so if you are photographer ( you will have to change lens all the time ! ) . i stayed there 1 , 5 day . by the end of the first day i saw around 80 species , and i added 25 more species the following morning . but it ' s possible to spot more than 100 species in the park on a single , good day - but you will have to let your camera in the bag and use more the net !\n( abundance : + 1 - 2 specimens , + + 3 - 5 spec . , + + + more than 5 spec . )\nagain this species eluded me - couldn ' t get a close - up shot arghh . . . !\nstichophtalma fruhstorferi note on unh the small streak ( red arrow ) inside the discal cell . in vietnam , only s . fruhstorferi and s . uemurai show this feature\nsome butterflies have slightly less salubrious habits than we like to think . . .\ni thought it was a new species for my personal list but i couldn ' t find anything in the vietnam ' s polyommatinae list that matched up . a . monastyrskii solve the mystery : it ' s ' just ' an aberrant female specimen of ( very likely ) pseudozizeeria maha !\ntwo species of tongeia are known from vietnam ( monastyrskii & devyatkin , 2016 ) : t . potanini ( subsp . potanini in the north , subsp . umbriel in central vn ) and t . ion ( north only )\ncomprises of 4 species , all of which being limited to the oriental region . in vietnam 3 are recorded -\nkeen birdwatcher with a love of the natural world , all that is beautiful and ugly and everything in between . my peace comes from being outdoors in amongst nature .\n, i am always actively aware of butterflies , and tried to photograph ( and sometimes collect ) specimens as much as possible .\ni hope that the more people who see the beauty of these fascinating creatures , the more it will lead to an appreciation that we need to be more pro - active in protecting them against the actions of humans that seem to only be concerned with\ndevelopment\nand monetary profit .\ns mostly around hanoi ( ba vi , tam dao and cuc phuong national parks ) .\nbeautiful and graceful , varied and enchanting , small but approachable , butterflies lead you to the sunny side of life .\nnumber : 146 family : papilioniidae sub - family : papilioniinae species : papilio memnon agenor linnaeus , 1758 common name ( s ) : th . . .\nnumber : 124 family : hesperiidae sub - family : hesperiinae species : parnara cf . ganga ( evans , 1937 ) common name ( s ) : the continental . . .\nwell , another trip to cuc phuong has yielded yet another species for my personal records . it had been raining all week and i was desperate . . .\nestablished in 1986 for the purpose of conserving limestone forests and musk deer , moschus berezovskii , the huu lien nature reserve is ju . . .\nlast year , i conduct regular surveys at ba vi national park ( located 70 km west of hanoi ) . regular sampling was carried out from march to . . .\nfamily : saturniidae sub - family : saturniinae species : attacus atlas linnaeus , 1758 common name ( s ) : the atlas moth photography locat . . .\nnumber : 82 family : nymphaliidae sub - family : satyriinae species : penthema lisarda michallati ( janet , 1894 ) common name ( s ) : the ye . . .\nnumber : 252 family : nymphaliidae sub - family : danaiinae species : euploea mulciber mulciber ( cramer , [ 1777 ] ) common name ( s ) : the s . . .\nnumber : 148 family : papilioniidae sub - family : papilioniinae species : papilio polytes polytes linnaeus 1758 common name ( s ) : the . . .\nnumber : 109 family : hesperiidae sub - family : hesperiinae species : potanthus sp . common name ( s ) : dart sp . photography location : ta . . ."]}
{"id": 1153, "summary": [{"text": "phidippus clarus is a species of jumping spider ( family salticidae ) found in old fields throughout eastern north america .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it often waits upside down near the top of a plant , which may be useful for detecting prey , and then quickly jumps down before the prey can escape .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the spider is one of 60 species in the genus phidippus , and one of about 5,000 in the salticidae , a family that accounts for about 10 % of all spider species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "p. clarus is a predator , mostly taking insects , other spiders , and other terrestrial arthropods .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "like other jumping spiders , it has vision more acute than a cat and ten times more acute than a dragonfly .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the eyes are used to locate prey and rivals , and find and court mates .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "all spiders have sensors for smell , taste , touch and vibration protruding through their cuticle ( \" skin \" ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "jumping spiders can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs , with the longer forelimbs extended to grasp the prey .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "p. clarus , a relatively large salticid , takes prey up to the size of an adult earwig .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "in an experiment , p. clarus was offered as many fruit flies as it could eat , and in four-hour sessions individuals took 17 flies on average \u2013 while one took 41 .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "when p. clarus males compete for females , the winners are those that produce the most vibrations on the surface and those that are largest .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "contests between females involve less displaying , and physical fights between females are more likely to end in injury or death .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the most successful males choose the largest females , as these produce the most eggs and most quickly .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "if a female that has mated already then finds a larger male , she will often mate again with the larger male .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the average clutch is 135 eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "unlike most of the genus phidippus , p. clarus females die after one brood has left the nest .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "p. clarus is parasitized by the californian wasp aporinellus completus and by mermithid nematodes .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in an experiment in 2006 , p. clarus showed promise for controlling the fourlined plant bug , poecilocapsus lineatus , which severely damages the commercially grown sweet basil . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "phidippus clarus", "paragraphs": ["katja schulz selected\nphidippus clarus\nto show in overview on\nphidippus clarus keyserling , 1884 [ 1885 ]\n.\nthe potential of a jumping spider , phidippus clarus , as a biocontrol agent .\nmaggie whitson changed the thumbnail image of\njumping spider ( phidippus clarus )\n.\njumping spider ( phidippus clarus ) pouncing on a hoverfly ( digitally enhanced ) . north america .\nthe potential of a jumping spider , phidippus clarus , as a biocontrol agent . - pubmed - ncbi\nmaggie whitson marked\nimage of an unknown taxon\nas hidden on the\nphidippus clarus\npage .\nkatja schulz marked\nphidippus clarus , u , face redo , pg county _ 2013 - 07 - 30 - 16 . 53 . 20 zs pmax\nas hidden on the\nphidippus clarus\npage . reasons to hide : duplicate\nmaggie whitson marked\nimage of an unknown taxon\nas untrusted on the\nphidippus clarus\npage . reasons to untrust : misidentified\njumping spider - phidippus clarus live adult jumping spiders photographed at northern illinois . family salticidae - jumping spiders spider index | spider main | orb web | cobweb\nimmatures of other phidippus species could be mistaken for a female of this species , or the male might be mistaken for the female of phidippus johnsoni .\noscillogram of a male phidippus clarus ( a ) courtship vibration and ( b ) aggressive courtship vibration signal . male courtship vibrations are relatively longer in duration compared with male aggressive courtship vibrations .\nfor instance , in the jumping spider phidippus clarus , which the researchers examined in a separate study , the adult ' s digestive system is in the spider ' s cephalothorax\u2014its head and body cavity .\nmating strategy of phidippus johnsoni ( araneae : salticidae ) . 1 . pursuit time and presistence\nkasumovic , m , 2010 , ' vibratory communication in the jumping spider phidippus clarus : substrate - borne courtship signals are important for male mating success ' , ethology , vol . 116 , pp . 990 - 998\nkasumovic , m , 2010 , ' vibratory communication in the jumping spider phidippus clarus : polyandry , male courtship signals , and mating success . ' , behavioral ecology , vol . 21 , pp . 1308 - 1314\np . clarus is parasitized by the californian wasp aporinellus completus and by mermithid nematodes . in an experiment in 2006 , p . clarus showed promise for controlling the fourlined plant bug , poecilocapsus lineatus , which severely damages the commercially - grown sweet basil .\ni had almost forgotten that i had taken video of this handsome little male phidippus clarus . note the beautiful metallic scales between the red regions of the abdomen . for more spider photography and videos , head on over to urltoken\nthe behavioral ecology of jumping spiders ( phidippus sp . ) : laboratory\nby chad d hoefler\nsnetsinger r . 1955 . observations on two species of phidippus . entomological news 66 : 9 - 15 .\nthe mating strategy of phidippus johnsoni ( araneae : salticidae ) . 2 . sperm competition and the function of copulation\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . sound production by courting males of phidippus mystaceus ( araneae : salticidae ) . psyche 88 ( 3 - 4 ) : 199 - 214 ( male and female phidippus mystaceus , anterior views )\nmales have red lateral stripes on abdomen and white stripes on the dorsal portion of the palp ( femur , patella , tibia ) . female not vividly colored as in other phidippus species and might be confused with immatures of several phidippus .\nthe behavioral ecology of jumping spiders ( phidippus sp . ) : laboratory and field studies of mating behavior and space use\ni finally found a phidippus clarus jumping spider . there are several color and pattern variations of this species , i was so glad to find out that we have the red and orange variations around the area i live . i hope to find a male in the near future .\ncommon name : regal jumping spider scientific name : phidippus regius c . l . koch ( arachnida : araneae : salticidae )\nedwards , g . b . and d . e . hill . 1978 . representatives of the north american salticid fauna . peckhamia 1 ( 5 ) : 110 - 117 ( female agassa cyanea , female ballus n . sp . , male corythalia canosa , male eris flava , female euophrys diminuta , male evarcha falcata , male habrocestum bufoides , male habrocestum pulex , male and female hentzia grenada , male hentzia mitrata , male lyssomanes viridis , male maevia michelsoni , female and black form male maevia inclemens , male and female marpissa bina , male marpissa pikei , male marpissa lineata , male metacyrba floridana , female metaphidippus castaneus , male and female metaphidippus galathea , male neon nellii , male neonella vinnula , female peckhamia americana , male and female habronattus georgiensis , male and female habronattus brunneus , male and female habronattus calcaratus , male and female habronattus carolinensis , male pellenes wrighti , female phidippus apacheanus , female phidippus cardinalis , male and female phidippus clarus , female phidippus otiosus , male and female phidippus pulcherrimus , female phidippus purpuratus , male phidippus putnami , female phidippus richmani , female phidippus regius , female salticus scenicus , male sarinda hentzi , female sassacus papenhoei , male sitticus cursor , female synemosyna petrunkevitchi , male and female thiodina sylvana , male tutelina n . sp . , female tutelina similis , male and female zygoballus rufipes )\nadults exhibit sexual dimorphism . immatures have different coloration from adults , and may look very similar to immatures of other phidippus species .\nthis video shows a large jumping spider , an adult female phidippus clarus , as it feeds upon an araneid or orb - weaving spider , acasesia hamata . a . hamata normally rests on top of rolled leaves on herbaceous plants during the day , where it is vunerable to attack by these large jumping spiders ( salticidae ) .\nsenthurran sivalinghem , michael m . kasumovic , andrew c . mason , maydianne c . b . andrade , damian o . elias ; vibratory communication in the jumping spider phidippus clarus : polyandry , male courtship signals , and mating success , behavioral ecology , volume 21 , issue 6 , 1 november 2010 , pages 1308\u20131314 , urltoken\nanonymous . 1981 . currents , science 81 , 2 ( 1 ) : 7 ( male phidippus mystaceus , rare morph , anterior view ) .\njackson rr . 1977 . courtship versatility in the jumping spider phidippus johnsoni ( araneae : salticidae ) . animal behavior 25 : 953 - 957 .\nnice sharp images . be mindful of your white balance though . looks like you were using a tungsten light source , which most cameras have difficulty handling automatically , so you might try to setting the white balance manually before shooting . i can probably fix this series if you like . this is a phidippus clarus . appears to be an immature male .\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . the regal jumping spider , phidippus regius ( araneae : salticidae ) . florida dept . agric . cons . serv . , div . plant ind . , entomol . circ . 223 : 1 - 3 ( male and 2 female phidippus regius , dorsal views )\nbeal , k . g . 1986 . backyard predators - jumping spiders . timeline , ohio hist . soc . 3 ( 3 ) : 42 - 47 ( photo credits of female phiale guttata , male and female phidippus audax , male phidippus pulcherrimus , female salticus scenicus , and female tutelina similis ) .\nedwards , g . b . 1978 . two new southern phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . florida entomol . 61 ( 2 ) : 77 - 82 .\nedwards , g . b . 1994 . neotype designations for the type species of phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . insecta mundi 8 : 143 - 144 .\nfigure 1 . adult male regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nrevision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occ . pap . of the florida state coll . of arth . 11 : 156\nroach , s . h . 1988 . reproductive periods of phidippus species ( araneae , salticidae ) in south carolina . j . arachnol . 16 : 95 - 101 .\nwhen p . clarus males compete for females , the winners are those that produce the most vibrations on the surface and those that are largest . contests between females involve less displaying , and physical fights between females are more likely to end in injury or death . the most successful males choose the largest females , as these produce the most eggs and most quickly . if a female that has mated already then finds a larger male , she will often mate again with the larger male . the average clutch is 135 eggs . unlike most of the genus phidippus , p . clarus females die after one brood has left the nest .\njumping spiders can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs , with the longer forelimbs extended to grasp the prey . p . clarus , a relatively large salticid , takes prey up to the size of an adult earwig . in an experiment , p . clarus was offered as many fruit flies as it could eat , and in four - hour sessions individuals took 17 flies on average \u2013 while one took 41 .\nedwards gb . 1975 . biological studies on the jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . m . s . thesis , university of florida . 64 p .\nrevision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) g . b . edwards , ph . d . 2003 . florida department of agriculture and consumer services .\ncarico , j . e . , editor . 1991 . journal of arachnology , volume 19 ( 3 numbers ) , ( cover photograph , female phidippus mystaceus , anterior view ) .\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . sound production by courting males of phidippus mystaceus ( araneae : salticidae ) . psyche 88 ( 3 - 4 ) : 199 - 214 .\nfigure 2 . adult female , gray form , regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nfigure 3 . adult female , orange form , regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nin this study , we examine courtship signaling of the jumping spider , phidippus clarus , and our primary goal was to test the hypothesis that vibratory courtship signals carry information about male size and that females choose males based on properties of vibratory courtship behavior . phidippus clarus are found throughout eastern north america ( edwards 2004 ; hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ) where males and females build and live in silken nests ( hibernacula ) in rolled up leaves ( hoefler and jakob 2006 ; hoefler 2007 ; hoefler 2008 ) . phidippus clarus have a temporally restricted breeding season , mating in early to mid - july , and laying eggs in mid - to late august ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ) . during the early part of the breeding season , adult males wander in search of hibernacula - dwelling immature females . males cohabit with these females , defending them against intruding males , and then attempt to mate with the females after they mature ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . in the latter part of the season , when most females have mated at least once , males wander and may encounter further mating opportunities outside of hibernacula . like other jumping spiders , p . clarus produce substrate - borne vibrations ( gwynne and dadour 1985 ; maddison and stratton 1988a , 1988b ; elias et al . 2003 , 2008 ; elias , hebets , and hoy 2006 ; elias , hebets , hoy , maddison , et al . 2006 ) , many of which are produced along with visual signals ( multimodal signaling ) .\nfigure 4 . saw palmetto , a typical substrate for the regal jumping spider , phidippus regius c . l . koch . photograph by g . b . edwards , division of plant industry .\nedwards gb . 1980 . taxonomy , ethology , and ecology of phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) in eastern north america . ph . d . dissertation , university of florida . 354 p .\nthe behavioral research presented here revolves around jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) belonging to the genus phidippus . i studied the foraging behavior of p . audax . my findings suggest that foraging p . audax do not use chemical cues left by prey , while the wolf spider pardosa milvina in the same experimental setup does respond to chemical cues . i studied movement patterns and the use of navigational beacons in the jumping spider p . clarus . i measured the degree of nest site fidelity with individually marked spiders and a grid of artificial nest tubes . i tested whether females used beacons to find their nests . i demonstrated that p . clarus are likely to need navigational skills , and are able to use beacons as a method of navigation . i examined the use of p . clarus as a biocontrol agent , and my results suggest that jumping spider predation is effective at reducing pest numbers and has a positive effect on plant performance . lastly , i explored the role of male mate choice and size - assortative mating in p . clarus . i discovered that males and females pair assortatively for size , and adult males exhibit preferences for large females , which mature before smaller females . female size is strongly correlated with the number of spiderlings that emerge . ^\nedwards , g . b . 2004 . revision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occasional papers florida st . coll . arthropods 11 : 1 - 156 .\nmale jumping spiders ( phidippus clarus ) size one another up before engaging in a fight\u2014whether the aggression is based on rights to mating or territory\u2014and in many cases , the pre - fight displays are sufficient to deter physical contact . the males do not nest but instead wander between female nests looking for opportunities to mate . the females , on the other hand , are not nomads\u2014they build nests from silk and leaves in which they wait while they draw closer to sexual maturity .\nwright , s . 7 august 1990 . arachnophilia . san jose mercury news , science & medicine section , pg . 1 ( photo credit of female phidippus otiosus feeding on a cabbage looper larva ) .\nedwards , g . b . 1990 . anecdotal field notes of florida phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) , with notes on territoriality in p . regius . peckhamia 2 ( 6 ) : 96 - 100 .\nedwards , g . b ( 2004 ) .\nrevision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae )\n. occasional papers of the florida state collection of arthropods 11 : vii , 1\u2013156 .\nhoefler , chad d ,\nthe behavioral ecology of jumping spiders ( phidippus sp . ) : laboratory and field studies of mating behavior and space use\n( 2005 ) . doctoral dissertations available from proquest . aai3193909 . urltoken\ncokendolpher , j . c . and g . b . edwards . 1992 . four florida widows . florida wildlife 46 ( 6 ) : 9 - 12 ( photo of female phidippus audax with orange spots , dorsal view ) .\nedwards , g . b . 2001 . revision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occ . pap . florida st . coll . arthr . 11 , 152 pp . ( submitted ) .\nphidippus regius is one of the few spiders that can be sexed in the early instars . juvenile females of more southern populations attain a scale cover as early as the 3rd instar ; males are stark black and white throughout their life cycle .\nedwards , g . b . ( 2004 ) . revision of the jumping spiders of the genus phidippus ( araneae : salticidae ) . occasional papers of the florida state collection of arthropods 11 : 1 - 156 . - - show included taxa\nspiders , particularly assemblages of species , have been shown to be effective in reducing pest insects and crop damage in field crops and orchards . we investigated the potential for a single jumping spider species to reduce pests in a greenhouse setting . we placed three treatments in large enclosures : 1 ) control treatment of only sweet basil , ocimum basilicum l . ; 2 ) sweet basil and a phytophagous pest , fourlined plant bug , poecilocapsus lineatus ( f . ) ( heteroptera : miridae ) ; and 3 ) sweet basil , fourlined plant bug , and jumping spider phidippus clarus ( keyserling 1884 ) . after 1 wk , jumping spiders reduced the number of plant bugs . plants exposed to plant bugs alone were significantly shorter than either control plants or plants exposed to plant bugs and spiders . chlorophyll concentration did not significantly differ across treatments . we discuss the feasibility of using p . clarus and similar salticids in biocontrol .\npeckham , g . w . & peckham , e . g . ( 1901a ) . spiders of the phidippus group of the family attidae . transactions of the wisconsin academy of sciences , arts and letters 13 : 282 - 358 . - - show included taxa\nedwards , g . b . 1981 . the regal jumping spider , phidippus regius ( araneae : salticidae ) . florida dept . agric . cons . serv . , div . plant ind . , entomol . circ . 223 : 1 - 3 , 4 f .\nedwards , g . b . and r . r . jackson . 1993 . use of prey - specific predatory behaviour by north american jumping spiders ( araneae , salticidae ) of the genus phidippus . j . zool . ( lond . ) 229 : 709 - 716 .\nedwards , g . b . and r . r . jackson . 1994 . the role of experience in the development of predatory behavior in phidippus regius , a jumping spider ( araneae : salticidae ) from florida . new zealand j . zool . 21 : 269 - 277 .\na secondary goal of our study is to examine polyandry in p . clarus as it is currently unknown whether females remate during the late stages of the breeding season . it has been suggested that multiple mating in p . clarus is unlikely ( hoefler 2007 ) due to the brief mating season and possible first male sperm precedence predicted by the morphology of the sperm storage organs ( eberhard et al . 1993 ; hoefler 2007 ) and the fact that males of a congener leave sperm plugs in females ( jackson 1980 ) . first male sperm precedence is also consistent with the intense contests that occur between males over access to virgin females ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . however , at the end of the breeding season , wandering males may encounter mated females , and because sperm precedence is rarely absolute ( elgar 1998 ; simmons and siva - jothy 1998 ; eberhard 2004 ) , males may increase their fitness through additional copulations if females will accept them . thus , our second goal is to examine whether p . clarus females remate and whether this is mediated by vibratory signals .\nedwards , g . b . 1979 . rebuttal of objections to designation of attus audax hentz , 1845 , as type species of phidippus koch , 1846 ( aranea ) . z . n . ( s . ) 1904 . bull . zool . nomencl . 36 ( 1 ) : 4 - 5 .\nwe examined the importance of male courtship and female mating status in mating success in the jumping spider p . clarus . we demonstrate that mating success in p . clarus ( both virgin and mated females ) is dependent on high courtship vibration rates and that vibration rate is correlated with male size . thus , both virgin and mated females may be indirectly assessing male size through courtship vibration rates . size is likely an important predictor of fitness in this species as larger heavier males are more successful in male\u2013male competitive contexts ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . we also show that female p . clarus mate multiply throughout the breeding season . remating occurred , but with longer latencies , as courtship duration almost doubled in cases where females mated a second time , suggesting that mated females were not as willing to mate as virgin females , which may be an indication of mated females becoming \u201cchoosier . \u201d although several studies demonstrate that substrate - borne vibrations are necessary for successful copulation in spiders ( scheffer et al . 1996 ; parri et al . 1997 ; hebets and uetz 1999 ; parri et al . 2002 ; elias et al . 2005 ; elias , hebets , and hoy 2006 ; hebets 2008 ; uetz et al . 2009 ) , this is one of only a few that shows that information about male phenotype is encoded by the vibratory signals and that variation in signal rate is linked to mating success ( shamble et al . 2009 ; rundus et al . 2010 ) .\nthis video contains six different sequences of predation upon spiders and flies by an adult female phidippus princeps from greenville county , south carolina , usa . these spiders are common inhabitants of old fields near forest margins , and move between nest sites on herbaceous plants and sites on nearby trees . they feed on a wide variety of spider and insect prey , including conspecifics , at all phases of their life cycle .\nexcept for two pantropical species ( edwards 1979 ) , the jumping spider most frequently encountered in florida is phidippus regius c . l . koch . this species is aptly named in terms of its size , as it is the largest jumping spider in eastern north america . the species is found in the southeastern u . s . , the greater antilles , and the bahamas , but is most common in peninsular florida .\nphidippus regius individuals are known to feed on a wide variety of other arthropods . smaller immatures feed heavily on diptera , while older juveniles and adults feed on large orthoptera and hemiptera , and larval and adult lepidoptera ( edwards 1980 ) . a male of p . regius was collected while feeding on an adult of diaprepes abbreviatus ( linnaeus ) , a pest of citrus and sugarcane ( d . gowan , collector ) .\nphidippus regius is found in most field and open woodland habitats , but not within mature hardwood forest . smaller immatures usually are found in the herbaceous zone , but subadults and particularly adults favor palms and palmettoes in semiarid habitats . where palms are absent , shrubs and trees are inhabited by the older stages . adults seem to prefer substrates with relatively monoplanar surfaces and are frequently found on walls of buildings ( edwards 1980 ) .\nthe mating system of p . clarus is highly complex and provides an opportunity to study the importance of signals during different phases of the mating period . elias et al . ( 2010 ) have suggested that in p . clarus , there is a shift in the mating system from \u201cmale\u2013male competition\u201d and \u201cmale mate choice\u201d to \u201cfemale mate choice\u201d due to changes in the sex ratio throughout the breeding season . during the early part of the mating season , when the sex ratio is male biased , male mating success is determined by male\u2013male competition , where larger and heavier males that signaled more were more likely to win contests and mate with larger , early maturing , and highly fecund females ( elias et al . 2008 ; hoefler 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . during mid - season , when the sex ratio becomes even or female biased , male mating success is determined by female choice , where males that have higher signaling rates ( indicating male phenotypic quality ) successfully copulate with both virgin and mated females ( shown in this study ) . furthermore , changes in female mating status is correlated with those in female threshold ( indicated by increased latency to copulate ) , and we suggest that males might be responding to this behavioral shift by changing their signaling behavior as male courtship signaling rates and aggressive courtship vibration proportions varied between virgin and mated females ( shown here ) . in addition , elias et al . ( 2010 ) have demonstrated that male p . clarus prevented from producing substrate vibrations can also achieve matings and suggest the importance of visual signals during courtship . the importance of vibratory signals has only recently been appreciated ( virant - doberlet and cokl 2004 ; cocroft and rodriguez 2005 ; hill 2008 ) , and the ubiquity of vibratory communication makes it essential to understand the form , function , and processing of vibratory information .\nas with all jumping spiders , p . regius uses its excellent vision to locate prey and potential mates . prey is caught by jumping on it , hence the common name of the family . males court females with a species - specific dance in which the leg fringes are displayed ( edwards 1975 ) . the chelicerae are also believed to be of use in recognition between the sexes , as no other jumping spiders within the geographic range of the genus phidippus have iridescent chelicerae .\nour results that a significant proportion of p . clarus females ( 53 % ) will mate multiply are surprising as it was previously thought that the mating system was primarily driven by male\u2013male competition and that males only gained fitness through guarding females ( hoefler 2007 , but see jackson 1981 ) . studies have shown that despite the high cost of polyandry ( pomiankowski 1987 ) , females of many species engage in multiple mating ( arnqvist and nilsson 2000 ; jennions and petrie 2000 ) . in mating systems like in p . clarus where the female can only assess mates sequentially , females can increase the genetic quality of their offspring by remating if a subsequent male proves to be superior to her first ( the \u201ctrade - up hypothesis\u201d ; halliday 1983 ; gabor and halliday 1997 ; pitcher et al . 2003 ) . the trade - up hypothesis suggests that virgin females should be relatively indiscriminant in order to ensure fertilization , but once sperm is obtained and stored , they can choose to mate with higher quality males ( halliday 1983 ; jennions and petrie 2000 ; pitcher et al . 2003 ) . for example , in guppies , poecilia reticulate , pitcher et al . ( 2003 ) showed that mated females were more responsive to second males with greater ornamentation than the first male and that these males were more likely to sire a greater proportion of offspring . multiple mating can also ensure that her eggs are fertilized by high - quality sperm through postcopulation sperm competition .\nalthough jumping spiders do not make webs to capture prey , they do use silk . hunting spiders trail a dragline behind them to break their fall in case they miss a jump . silken nests , ellipsoid structures with an opening at each end , are used for resting at night , molting , and egg - laying . juveniles may make their nests in the tops of herbs or in rolled leaves , while subadults and adults frequently make their nests along the inner mid - veins of palm fronds . adult males often cohabit with subadult and occasionally adult females in order to mate . a cohabiting male will mate with a subadult female soon after she matures . jackson ( 1977 ) showed that males of p . johnsoni ( peckham & peckham ) were able to employ a tactile type of courtship to females inside nests , which was much different than the visually - oriented courtship males employed for females outside nests . a similar tactile courtship has been noted for p . regius , p . cardinalis ( hentz ) , and p . whitmani peckham & peckham ( edwards 1980 ) . other species of phidippus , including p . audax ( hentz ) , p . clarus keyserling ( snetsinger 1955 ) , and p . otiosus ( hentz ) ( hill 1978 ) are known to cohabit .\nprevious research has suggested that most of a male\u2019s reproductive effort in p . clarus focuses on guarding subadult females early in the breeding season ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; hoefler 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) . here , we demonstrate that males also invest resources in courting females found outside of this context ( jackson 1978 , 1980 ) . males readily court both virgin and mated females , and although successful males that courted virgin females had higher courtship vibration rates , males courting mated females persisted for relatively long periods and often included aggressive - like vibratory signals . despite the high costs associated with courtship vibrations , males may gain benefits from high courtship vibration rates when courting virgin females due to possible first - male sperm precedence given that females mate multiply ( shown in this study ) .\nlike many other spider species ( gaskett 2007 ) , male p . clarus can distinguish between virgin and mated females ( hoefler 2007 ) , and given that females are more discerning after mating , it is not surprising that males courting mated females became more aggressive toward mated than virgin females during courtship . aggressive courtship vibrations might function to suppress female aggression and indicate vigor . alternatively , these signals might also be used to ward off potential eavesdropping competitors ( morris et al . 2007 ) . a shift of male signaling effort to aggressive courtship vibrations with mated females could also account for the lower courtship vibration rates than those of males successfully courting virgin females . however , the function of male aggressive courtship vibrations remains unknown , and further studies looking at changes in male courtship behavior when courting virgin versus mated females are needed .\nthe jumping spider phidippus clarus uses signals that combine visual and substrate - borne vibrations , which predict the outcome of male\u2013male competition and are important to copulation success . we investigated the function of males\u2019 substrate - borne vibrations by examining phenotypic correlates of vibratory signal traits and assessing whether these affect female mating and remating decisions . virgin females were first paired with males , and females that copulated in first trials were then paired with a second male to determine whether females remate . we measured vibratory signals produced by males during these interactions to determine 1 ) correlations between substrate - borne signal traits and male phenotypes , 2 ) whether properties of substrate - borne signals predicted mating success in first and second copulations , and 3 ) whether females of different mating status have different acceptance thresholds for male characters . courtship vibration rate was positively correlated with male leg size , and signaling rate significantly predicted mating success in all copulations . some females were polyandrous ; however , copulation with mated females occurred after longer courtship durations , and courtship duration was positively correlated with male size , demonstrating that mated females are less receptive to mates and suggesting that females may be trading up in subsequent matings . our study shows that males invest significant effort in courtship and that sexual selection via female choice may play a nontrivial role in the mating system . these results are the first to show that honest information about male size is encoded by substrate vibrations , and these signals are important for male mating success in both virgin and mated females .\njumping spiders can be recognized easily by their eye arrangement . the eyes are arranged in three rows : the 1st row contains four eyes , the two large median eyes and two smaller lateral eyes ; the 2nd row contains two tiny eyes ; and the 3rd row contains two small eyes . the species of phidippus can be recognized because they are the largest , hairiest salticids in the region , and their iridescent chelicerae just below the front eyes are very conspicuous . two close relatives of p . regius , p . audax ( hentz ) and p . otiosus ( hentz ) , occur throughout most of the range of p . regius and are similar in appearance . the three species can be separated by the following key :\nadult male and penultimate instar female p . clarus were collected from the koffler scientific reserve at jokers hill , king city , ontario , canada , during mid - june to mid - july 2008 . all spiders were housed individually in cages and were kept in visual isolation . all spiders were kept on a 12 : 12 h light : dark cycle and fed small crickets ( acheta domesticus ) and / or several flies ( drosophila hydeii ) twice a week . all individuals were weighed and photographed at the end of trials . photographs were taken using a nikon digital camera ( dxm1200 ) attached to a dissecting microscope ( zeiss stemi 2000 - c ) and captured using nikon act - i ( v2 . 63 ) software . we measured male and female cephalothorax width and male femur , tibia\u2013patella , and tarsus length ( averaged between the 2 front legs ) . all measurements were taken using image tool ( image tool for windows , v3 . 0 , university of texas health science center in san antonio ) .\nphidippus regius is a common spider in peninsular florida . the first impression made upon the casual observer is of a moderately large , black , hairy spider ; to the uninformed , this impression leads naturally to the conviction that the spider is a black widow . the black widow , however , is a globose , shiny black spider with long , spindly legs that is not noticeably hairy at all . jumping spiders are harmless , beneficial creatures . the larger species , such as p . regius , are capable of delivering a painful bite , but will do so only if held tightly . the bite itself causes a sharp stinging sensation which subsides in a few minutes and requires no treatment . these spiders are easily tamed and can be induced to jump back and forth from hand to hand .\nin p . clarus , virgin females might be less discriminating because of the brief mating season ( hoefler 2007 ; elias et al . 2008 ; kasumovic et al . 2009 ) and the highly female - biased sex ratio ( hoefler 2007 ; hoefler 2008 ) because being too choosy might entail the risk of failure to reproduce . once a female has obtained her first mate and has secured sperm , however , the disadvantages of discriminatory behavior may be lost , and mated females are expected to be more reluctant to mate . our study shows that mated females had a longer latency to copulate than virgins , which indicates a reluctance to remate . longer latency to copulation may also indicate increased choosiness . this shift in behavior suggests that mated females require subsequent males to meet a higher courtship threshold to successfully copulate . furthermore , mating success in mated trials was also correlated with female weight , suggesting that larger females were more likely to remate . larger females were shown to be more fecund ( hoefler 2008 ) , and it is possible that larger females possess more eggs and need to remate to ensure that all their eggs are fertilized .\nour data suggest that males convey honest information about size to females through vibration rates . signal honesty is typically maintained through costs of signal production , with higher quality males able to maintain higher signaling levels ( andersson 1994 ; kotiaho et al . 1996 ; kotiaho 2000 ; but see kotiaho 2001 ) . furthermore , ryan ( 1988 ) suggested that a preference for a higher calling rate can be interpreted as a preference for higher energetic output . as a result , females that prefer high courtship vibration rates may be assessing the energetic output of the male and indirectly assessing male qualities , such as size , weight , and / or energetic reserves ( vigor ) ( see byers et al . 2010 ) . preference for higher courtship vibration rate has also been shown in wolf spiders . for example , in schizocosa ocreata , females prefer males with higher courtship signaling rates and longer durations ( delaney et al . 2007 ; gibson and uetz 2008 ) . in p . clarus , males producing courtship vibrations are at more risk of predation and have reduced longevity ( hoefler 2008 ) , further indicating the costs of vibratory signals in this system . although honest signaling of male quality has been shown in a wolf spider ( kotiaho et al . 1998 ) and the importance of vibrations has been demonstrated in some jumping spider species ( jackson 1977 ; elias et al . 2005 , 2008 ) , this is the first study to show that vibratory signals carry information about male phenotypic quality in jumping spiders .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njournal of economic entomology . ( journal , magazine , 1908 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : journal of economic entomology . publisher : [ lanham , md . , etc . ] entomological society of america isbn / issn : 0022 - 0493 oclc : 1782240\naddress for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\naddress for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\njournal of economic entomology . / entomological society of america . ; american association of economic entomologists . ; ; [ lanham , md . , etc . ] entomological society of america\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nthis is the cec archive of psyche through 2000 . psyche is now published by hindawi publishing .\nthe following unprocessed text is extracted automatically from the pdf file , and is likely to be both incomplete and full of errors . please consult the pdf file for the complete article .\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbody lengths when mature : male : 3 . 2 to 10 . 1 mm , female : 4 . 2 to 14 . 2 mm\nnumber of eggs per sac : 83 . 3 ( range = 7 to 207 )\nthroughout the united states , it is found mostly in old fields at the top of vegetation , where it lays its eggs in the canopy .\nrevision of the attidae of north america . trans . wisconsin acad . sci . arts . lett . , madison , wisconsin 16 : 355 - 646\nthe salticidae ( jumping spiders ) of michigan . pap . michigan acad . sci . , arts and letters 29 ( 1943 ) : 139 - 222\nthe spider fauna of the upper cayuga lake basin . proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 1892 11 - 81\ndescriptions and figures of the araneides of the united states . j . nat . hist . , boston 5 : 352 - 370\non the spiders collected in florida by dr einer l\u00f6nnberg 1892 - 93 . bih . svenska vet . - akad . handl . 27 ( 4 , 1 ) : 1 - 29\non tullgren\u00b4s florida spiders . florida entomol . 33 ( 2 ) : 71 - 83\nnew england spiders of the family attidae . trans . connect . acad . arts sci . , connecticut 8 : 220 - 252\ndescriptions of new or little known spiders of the family attidae from various parts of the united states of north america . , connecticut 1 - 35\nof inseminating a female : they use their palpi , the little ' feelers ' beside the face . in the females , these palpi are simple and leg - like . but adult males have the palpi swollen and more complex .\nhe spins a small web and deposits a drop of sperm on it from the underside of his abdomen . he then places the tip of the palp into the sperm , and draws the sperm through the palp ' s opening into the sperm duct of the palp , where it is stored . the male then goes out in search of females . if he finds one , he performs a courtship dance . if she accepts him , he places his palp against an opening on the underside of her abdomen ( her epigynum ) . he locks it in place by putting a thumb - like projection into a groove in the back of her epigynum . the palpus then expands and injects the sperm into the female .\n, among the highest acuity in invertebrates . the eight eyes are grouped four on the face ( the two big anterior median eyes in the middle , and two smaller anterior lateral eyes to the side ) , and four on top of the carapace . the two large , forward - facing eyes ( ame ) are tubular behind the lens , with a well - developed musculature , unique to salticids , that supports and moves the retina - the opposite arrangement of our own eyes . [ 1 ]\nspider musculature is also different from ours : in the spider , muscles operate from the inside to move external skeletal elements ; our own skeletal muscles surround the elements they operate . but even these glaring differences are nothing compared to the jumping spider ' s brain and digestive system - their esophagus passes right through the brain , and one branch of the gut ( analogous to our intestines ) actually overlies the eyes and brain ! [ 1 ]\njumping spider vision , david edwin hill , via creative commons attribution 3 . 0 unported\nwondering how to get that bug identified ? please see the kind folks at urltoken . ( north america ) north american insects & spiders is dedicated to macro photography of live , wild organisms in situ .\nclass arachnida / order araneae : spiders are the largest group of arachnids . they are easily recognized by their eight legs , and there are few creatures great or small that elicit such irrational fear in mankind . the vast majority of spiders are completely harmless and offer beneficial services , chief of which is keeping the burgeoning insect population in check . spider index | spider main | funnel web\na quick review of the venus v - dx 60mm f / 2 . 8 2 : 1 ultra - macro lens\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nworld spider catalog , version 11 . 0 , website ( version 11 . 0 )\nplatnick , norman i . 2011 . the world spider catalog , v . 11 . 0 . american museum of natural history . database built by robert j . raven from the files underlying the website at urltoken doi : 10 . 5531 / db . iz . 0001\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ngraduate program in organismic and evolutionary biology , department of plant , soil , and insect sciences , division of entomology , university of massachusetts , amherst 01003 , usa .\nresearch support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .\nhistorically , jumping spiders have been classified in a linnaean hierarchical structure on the basis of morphological characters . in the early 1900s , eug\u00e8ne simon adopted this methodology using cheliceral dentition and body shape ; subsequently in the 1970s , pr\u00f3szy\u0144ski\u2019s applied genitalic characteristics to a linnaean structure . while simon\u2019s schema was hampered by the fact that many groups of unrelated jumping spiders have similar body shapes , convergent evolution has limited pr\u00f3szy\u0144ski\u2019s approach as different species may also have similar genitalic characters .\nby the turn of the century , molecular phylogenetics was being applied to salticid classification . molecular analysis is used to test various kinship hypotheses ; the resulting data suggest / confirm groups that best fit the assumptions of cladistics . * this methodology in combination with descriptive and interpretive taxonomy , as well as accessible and comprehensive online libraries and catalogs , has resulted in the most recent advances in salticid classification . it is worth repeating that this new schema is a synthesis based on field records , traditional laboratory taxonomy , and molecular analysis . as maddison makes clear , \u201cthe groups discovered by molecular data have coherence in general body form , in genitalia , and in geographical distribution . \u201d\nmaddison\u2019s 2015 publication draws on these efforts to construct the outlines , if not all the details , of a ground breaking structure for a phylogenetic classification of salticids . with a focus on groupings above genera , his classification defines salticid subfamilies , tribes , and subtribes within larger clades .\n* briefly , cladistics uses shared derived characteristics ( synapomorphies ) to define a clade = an ancestor and all its descendants . thus , a classification system employing cladistic analysis tells us something about the evolutionary history of the organisms involved .\n. . . it was long said that the orb - weaving spiders , with their intricate and orderly webs , had evolved from spiders with cobweb - like webs . the cladistic analysis of these spiders showed that , in fact , orb - weaving was the primitive state , and that cobweb - weaving had evolved from spiders with more orderly webs . urltoken\nanother example of the fruits of this methodology add insights into the worldwide distribution of jumping spiders . biogeographers have long noted that closely related species are generally found in discrete areas - e . g . each continental land mass has a characteristic jumping spider fauna . salticid clades defined by molecular analysis reflect this same general pattern of distribution . * * this , in turn , supports the hypothesis that salticid evolution and radiation occurred after the breakup of pangaea . see hill and edwards , 2013 for interesting details of the origins and distribution of north american jumping spiders .\n* * exceptions to the rule do occur and lead to additional hypotheses regarding distribution ( e . g . habronattus spiders are part of an old world group ) .\nmaddison , wayne . 2015 . a phylogenetic classification of jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . journal of arachnology 43 : 231 - 292 .\nhill , david e . and g . b . edwards . 2013 . origins of the north american jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) . peckhamia 107 . 1 : 1 - 67\nanterior median eyes ( the pair of eyes in the center front ) are comparatively very large and give these spiders excellent color vision and high degree of resolution . the shape of the retinae appears to give the spider telephoto vision\nspiders of north america : an identification manual d . ubick , p . paquin , p . e . cushing and v . roth ( eds ) . 2005 . american arachnological society .\nflorida ' s fabulous spiders sam marshall , g . b . edwards . 2002 . world publications .\njumping spiders of canada buddle c . m . , shorthouse d . p . 2000 . newsletter of the biological survey of canada ( terrestrial arthropods ) 19 : 16 - 18 .\ncontributed by troy bartlett on 16 february , 2004 - 1 : 20pm additional contributions by cotinis , hannah nendick - mason , john and jane balaban , lynette elliott , dr . salticid , jeff hollenbeck , cheins , dick walton , ben coulter , kaldari , johnmaxwell22 , kschnei , v belov , mhedin last updated 3 july , 2018 - 8 : 22pm"]}
{"id": 1173, "summary": [{"text": "kitten 's joy ( foaled may 8 , 2001 in kentucky ) is a thoroughbred racehorse who was a multiple graded stakes winner and the american champion turf horse of 2004 .", "topic": 7}, {"text": "since retiring to stud , he has become one of the leading sires in north america . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "kitten ' s joy", "paragraphs": ["running third was kitten ' s joy daughter fancy kitten owned by juan centeno .\n\u201cthat\u2019s all pretty much from one stallion \u2013 kitten\u2019s joy , \u201d he said .\nkitten ' s joy ' s big year was highlighted by an historic feat aug . 17 when\nfootage of kitten ' s joy , who led the general sire list for 2013 .\noscar nominated by kitten ' s joy takes the l . mcknight handicap ( g3t )\nktdf turf male : big blue kitten ( kitten ' s joy ) breeder : kenneth l . & sarah k . ramsey\n2 yo gendarme by kitten ' s joy 2 for 2 winning the g2 daily hai nisai s . at kyoto\nin 2016 , yearlings by kitten ' s joy sold for up to $ 500 , 000 .\nkitten ' s joy has his own personal spa at ramsey farm , which includes an underwater treadmill .\nyou got my attention with catonabalancebeam . first because he is out of zeny ' s half balance by kitten ' s joy and secondly because i suggested the name balancebeam kitten for the ramsey ' s two - year - old by kitten ' s joy out of agility . my name wasn ' t picked . maybe because they knew there was going to be a kitten ' s joy with the name catonabalancebeam ?\nthe trick , it appears , to producing a successful kitten\u2019s joy runner is to cross him with a mare who looks very much like him on the page . of kitten\u2019s joy\u2019s five north american grade 1 winners in 2013 , four of them \u2013 admiral kitten , big blue kitten , real solution , and stephanie\u2019s kitten \u2013 are inbred to northern dancer and roberto in the fourth or fifth generations . kitten\u2019s dumplings is inbred to northern dancer .\nreachfortheheavens was bred back to kitten\u2019s joy for 2014 , marking her fifth trip to the sire in six seasons .\nthat colt was kitten ' s joy , who has become the franchise stallion for nicholasville - based ramsey farm .\nan old saying goes , \u201cbehind every great man , there\u2019s a great woman . \u201d for kitten\u2019s joy , there have been several .\nit was a \u201cjoy\u201d - ful weekend for ken and sarah ramsey and their star stallion kitten\u2019s joy , who stands at their farm on harrodsburg road south of lexington , ky . already established as a leading american sire , kitten\u2019s joy had a career - making day on saturday .\nin addition there were 3 more winners for kitten ' s joy today : silver magnolia at arlington , wandering kitten at thistledown and royal blessing at churchill .\nwith his victory in saturday\u2019s grade 3 lexington stakes at keeneland , derby kitten emphasized the point that his sire , the el prado stallion kitten\u2019s joy , is one of the more underrated sires in the bluegrass . on the same keeneland card , kitten\u2019s joy had the winner of the listed giant\u2019s causeway stakes ( holiday for kitten ) and the second - place finisher in the g3 ben ali stakes ( dean\u2019s kitten ) .\niteration was bred to kitten\u2019s joy again for 2014 , making it her sixth pairing with the stallion in eight seasons .\nit was a \u201cjoy\u201d - ful weekend for ken and sarah ramsey and their star stallion kitten ' s joy , who stands at their farm on harrodsburg road south of lexington , ky . already established as a leading american sire , kitten ' s joy had a career - making day on saturday .\nclaimed primarily for the ramsey farm broodmare band , granny franny has been married to farm stallion kitten\u2019s joy , and kitten\u2019s dumplings is the mare\u2019s second foal by that stallion . all of granny franny\u2019s three foals to race by kitten\u2019s joy are winners , and in addition to the queen elizabeth winner , the mare\u2019s 2 - year - old , a full sister named granny mc\u2019s kitten , is the winner of the p . g . johnson stakes .\nthat c - section resulted in the birth of kitten ' s joy in 2001 . ( kitten ' s first had two more that followed before she foundered and was euthanized in 2006 . )\nmany of kitten ' s joy ' s offspring resemble their old man physically , and the best of his runners share his hickory - tough attitude .\nramsey farm announced today that champion sire kitten ' s joy ' s fee will remain unchanged at $ 100 , 000 for the 2017 breeding season .\nstill owned by the ramseys , granny franny was bred to kitten\u2019s joy again for 2014 , her fifth time in six matings .\nkitten ' s joy also ranks fourth on the general sire list with more than $ 10 . 5 million in progeny earnings .\nramsey said kitten\u2019s joy is too valuable to him to sell or shuttle , and he eschewed the idea of partners in ownership .\none of the central factors in the stallion success of kitten\u2019s joy is that he has towered over most of his mates in class . while generally well - pedigreed , the mares sent to kitten\u2019s joy have tended to be only fair performers on the racecourse .\nonce on the track , the progeny of kitten\u2019s joy created their own luck , to the tune of 24 stakes winners in 2013 .\nhe is a son of kitten ' s joy , one of america ' s most sought - after stallions and whose son bobby ' s kitten is to be the foundation sire at olly and amber tait ' s twin hills stud at cootamundra this year .\nbecause his dam , kitten ' s first , suffered a pelvic injury as a juvenile that restricted the size of her birth canal , kitten ' s joy and his subsequent siblings were born by caesarian section .\nkitten ' s joy and other leading sires of 2013 will be profiled in the jan . 11 issue of the blood - horse magazine .\n\u201ci had plenty of competition for bobby\u2019s kitten , particularly from ireland , \u201d admits rausing . \u201che is the first son of kitten\u2019s joy to stand in europe and it\u2019s exciting to have him here . he is certainly creating some interest . \u201d\nthe ramseys own 100 percent of kitten\u2019s joy , who stands this year for $ 50 , 000 at ramsey farm near nicholasville , ky . ramsey homebreds have accounted for most of kitten\u2019s joy\u2019s laurels this year . his leading earner , stephanie\u2019s kitten , won the alcibiades and breeders\u2019 cup juvenile fillies turf for the ramseys . holiday for kitten and derby kitten were graded winners last season , and dean\u2019s kitten took the dallas turf cup before placing in a pair of grade 1\u2019s on the grass , the joe hirsch turf classic and the arlington million . a few other ramsey - breds campaigned by other owners also were among kitten\u2019s joy\u2019s best runners last season , most notably banned , a multiple graded winner in 2011 who was euthanized after an injury last fall .\nrausing , a staunch supporter of her stallions , will no doubt have admired from afar the approach of the ramseys in their support of kitten\u2019s joy . their rewards have been reaped on the track via such top - class gallopers as big blue kitten , admiral kitten and gi breeders\u2019 cup filly & mare turf winner stephanie\u2019s kitten . kitten\u2019s joy\u2019s record at the breeders\u2019 cup thoroughbred world championships was further enhanced this year by amerman racing stables\u2019 gi breeders\u2019 cup juvenile turf winner oscar performance and , while bobby\u2019s kitten\u2019s brother , the dual grade ii winner camelot kitten , missed his intended appearance at santa anita , he remains in training for next season .\nit was an extremely close race , but it appears ramsey farm ' s kitten ' s joy has secured the title of leading north american sire by earnings for 2013 .\nkitten\u2019s joy is undoubtedly the driving force behind the rise of owners ken and sarah ramsey\u2019s breeding program , based in nicholasville , ky . in 2013 , an army of racehorses by kitten\u2019s joy carried the ramseys to a pair of eclipse awards , as the couple won both outstanding owner and outstanding breeder by landslide margins .\nkitten\u2019s joy goes to the spa - here is a talk of the track exclusive video of one of the premier stallions in the world and known around the world , kitten\u2019s joy . in 2013 he produced 24 stake winners and in 2014 he has had 25 through november . his pedigree goes very deep . the resounding success of kitten\u2019s joy as a sire follows an eclipse award - winning racing career in which kitten\u2019s joy himself won nine of 14 starts and earned $ 2 , 075 , 791 which helped elevate ken and sarah ramsey\u2019s racing and breeding operation to the highest levels of the sport . visit urltoken\nbut ramsey isn\u2019t the typical owner who simply bought his way into prominence ; he deserves much of the credit for his success . he is responsible for a phenomenon that defies most of the precepts of the horse breeding business : the success of kitten\u2019s joy . the stallion\u2019s progeny are as ubiquitous as ramsey himself , and even fans oblivious to pedigrees can hardly fail to notice what breeders\u2019 cup entrants such as bobby\u2019s kitten , big blue kitten , granny mc\u2019s kitten , kitten\u2019s dumplings and kitten kaboodle have in common .\nramsey estimated that he and his wife , sarah \u2212 whose nickname , kitten , gives kitten\u2019s joy his name \u2212 owned about 80 percent of the mares in the stallion\u2019s first few books . but this year , he said , that\u2019s likely to change .\ncamelot kitten takes the g2 national museum of racing and hall of fame s .\n\u201ckitten\u2019s joy has exceeded all expectations , \u201d ramsey said . \u201che\u2019s got five grade 1 winners this year and he\u2019s on top of the general sire list . it\u2019s something i never expected , so we\u2019re over the moon with it . \u201d\n2013 breeders ' cup entrants : big blue kitten ( turf ) , real solution ( turf ) , kitten ' s dumplings ( filly & mare turf ) , kitten kaboodle ( juvenile fillies turf ) , granny mc ' s kitten ( juvenile fillies turf ) , bobby ' s kitten ( juvenile turf ) , we miss artie ( juvenile ) .\nrated fourth by bailey around the first turn and down the backstretch , kitten ' s joy was in a bit tight around the final turn when pacesetter gold shield began tiring . but bailey guided kitten ' s joy outside that one and inside west virginia before cruising to a clear lead down the stretch .\nchampion turf horse in 2004 , kitten\u2019s joy won the secretariat during his 3 - year - old campaign , and it was one of two g1s among his nine victories . a winner of more than $ 2 million , kitten\u2019s joy also ran second in the g1 breeders\u2019 cup turf and the arlington million .\nthis entry was posted in bloodlines archive , bloodstock and tagged admiral kitten , arlington million , arlington park , big blue kitten , el prado , horse racing , ken ramsey , kitten ' s joy , lane ' s end weekender pedigree , real solution , secretariat stakes , stephanie ' s kitten , sword dancer invitational , thoroughbred by frank mitchell . bookmark the permalink .\nkitten\u2019s joy , with just five crops racing , captured the north american title , as mentioned by a margin of just $ 15 , 000 . kitten\u2019s joy had 24 bt winners last year , speightstown 23 . each had 10 gsw , while kitten\u2019s joy had five gisw , speightstown four . unlike other versions of the general sire list , we do not count jumps earnings in north america , which is why kitten\u2019s joy\u2019s margin of victory over speightstown is smaller on our list than on the other guys\u2019 . moreover , there is a case that speightstown - who was also second on our list in 2012 - really should be called the winner .\nramsey and partridge discussed six of the mares who helped establish kitten\u2019s joy as an upper - echelon sire in 2013 . they are presented in alphabetical order .\nkitten ' s joy ' s first 2 - year - old winner is in seoul , korea . munhak joy ( c , 2 , kittens joy - crimson ore , by exchange rate ) . won his first start and in doing so , he defeated older rivals . he was bred by the ramsey ' s and is trained by jung ho ik .\nthe leading turf sire in america for four years running , kitten ' s joy is the sire of 3 g1 winners in 2016 including recent grade 1 breeders ' cup juvenile turf winner oscar performance , who marked the fourth time that a son or daughter of kitten ' s joy entered the winner ' s circle after a breeders ' cup race .\nthe dams of the best runners by leading sire kitten\u2019s joy largely include horses claimed by owners ken and sarah ramsey , or purchased privately for a modest fee .\nit proved to be the right strategy , with kitten ' s joy developing into a dominant force . running exclusively on grass , the colt captured six of his eight 2004 races . in the secretariat stakes ( gr . it ) , kitten ' s joy rallied four wide entering the stretch while cruising to a 3 1z\nluck of the kitten was second in the prairie bayou s at turfway , kitten ' s roar was second in the blushing k d s at the fair grounds and granny ' s kitten was third in the buddy diliberto memorial s also at the fair grounds . all have significant earnings with granny ' s kitten in the lead with earnings of $ 385 , 851 , luck of the kitten , who was second in the breeders ' cup juvenile in 2014 , has earned $ 366 , 960 and kitten ' s roar has earned $ 271 , 958 .\ncommercial acceptance after kitten ' s joy ' s retirement in 2005 was a different matter . precocity and dirt form have long been the desired traits sought by north american breeders , so trying to lure the market toward an unproven turf sire resulted in kitten ' s joy getting only about 14 non - ramsey mares from the 127 he bred his initial season .\nsarah named their now - prized stallion kitten\u2019s joy , despite her husband\u2019s objections , because she sensed that the horse would bring them great happiness . her faith in kitten\u2019s joy remained after his racing career , even though potential buyers dismissed him as a long - distance turf specialist whose offspring would be ill equipped for american racing , which emphasizes shorter dirt races .\nkitten ' s joy has two entries in small - purse races at turfway this evening , and both runners are favorites . the combined winner ' s share of those races equals $ 9 , 000 , meaning the battle between kitten ' s joy and speightstown could have come down to literally hundreds of dollars in the final hours . alas , it ' s all hypothetical at this point .\n\u201cgranny franny is a little bit lighter in bone than what i\u2019d like to breed to [ kitten\u2019s joy ] , and if you look at kitten\u2019s dumplings , she\u2019s the same way . she\u2019s a little light - boned , not a real big filly , but when they\u2019re grade 1 winners , it doesn\u2019t matter . \u201d\nchampion turf horse in 2004 , kitten ' s joy won the secretariat during his 3 - year - old campaign , and it was one of two g1s among his nine victories . a winner of more than $ 2 million , kitten ' s joy also ran second in the g1 breeders ' cup turf and the arlington million .\nkitten ' s joy , a homebred son of el prado out of kitten ' s first , the first mare ramsey ' s wife sarah purchased , covered a firm 11 / 8 - mile turf course in 1 : 48 . 76 to remain undefeated in four starts across the weeds .\nkitten\u2019s cat ran second in the g3 palm beach at gulfstream . earlier this year , he provided a fitting tribute to his sire when scoring his second stakes victory in the kitten\u2019s joy at gulfstream . graduating at second asking at kentucky downs sept . 15 , kitten\u2019s cat checked in third behind subsequent gi breeders\u2019 cup juvenile turf winner oscar performance ( kitten\u2019s joy ) in belmont\u2019s giii pilgrim s . over a yielding course oct . 1 . he was victorious in the juvenile turf sprint s . on gi breeders\u2019 cup classic day at santa anita . he is closing on a quarter of a million dollars in earnings .\nwilliam\u2019s kitten , dk b / c , by kitten\u2019s joy . raced 3 yrs in na , 11 sts , 2 wins , $ 170 , 280 ( ssi = 4 . 2 ) . won sunday silence breeders\u2019 cup s . ; 2nd kentucky jockey club s . ( gr . 2 ) ; 3rd holy bull s . ( gr . 3 ) .\nkitten ' s joy ended his 2004 campaign in the john deere breeders ' cup turf ( gr . it ) . the heaviest favorite on the world thoroughbred championships card , the colt got caught in traffic during the roughly run race and finished second . john velazquez , his rider , also reported that kitten ' s joy had trouble handling lone star park ' s yielding course .\nthis entry was posted in bloodstock and tagged horse racing , ken & sarah ramsey , kitten ' s joy , ramsey farm , thoroughbred by press release . bookmark the permalink .\nchampion sire kitten\u2019s joy will stand the 2015 breeding season for a fee of $ 100 , 000 stands and nurses independent of the outcome of his runners in the breeders\u2019 cup . the # 1 sire of stakes winners in 2013 with 24 , kitten\u2019s joy is once again the leading sire of stakes winners in 2014 , already with 23 . [ \u2026 ]\none of the central factors in the stallion success of kitten ' s joy is that he has towered over most of his mates in class . while generally well - pedigreed , the mares sent to kitten ' s joy have tended to be only fair performers on the racecourse . real solution and admiral kitten , for example , are the first foals of their dams , who are winners by pulpit and grand slam .\nkitten ' s joy will stand at ramsey farm in 2014 for $ 100 , 000 , twice what he stood for this year . winstar farm has set speightstown ' s 2014 fee at $ 80 , 000 .\non friday , kitten kaboodle and granny mc\u2019s kitten will race in the $ 1 million juvenile fillies turf , and bobby\u2019s kitten is set for the $ 1 million juvenile turf . on saturday , we miss artie will race in the $ 2 million juvenile , kitten\u2019s dumplings is set for the $ 2 million filly and mare turf , and real solution and big blue kitten are entered in the $ 3 million turf .\nthe eclipse award winner as champion turf horse in 2004 , kitten\u2019s joy won nine of 14 starts , including seven stakes . his most important victories came in the g1 turf classic at belmont and the secretariat at arlington . the winner of slightly more than $ 2 million , kitten\u2019s joy went to stud at the ramsey farm of owners and breeders ken and sarah ramsey .\n\u201ci can\u2019t use a turf horse\u201d is probably the most perplexing and commonplace remark from stallion managers , who took another tumble over that directive , as turf champion kitten\u2019s joy rang up yet another grade 1 winner with kitten\u2019s dumplings in the queen elizabeth ii challenge cup at keeneland on saturday .\nthose are qualities frequently associated with the sire of kitten\u2019s joy , the outstanding sadler\u2019s wells stallion el prado , who began his stud career at airdrie stud , then spent the remainder as a leading sire for adena springs .\nin complete contrast to his own racing and breeding career , double form\u2019s full sister belle \u00e9poque became the third dam of kitten\u2019s dumplings .\nthe kitten ' s joy stakes is a listed turf race for 3 - year - olds . inaugurated in 2013 , it is carded over one mile at gulfstream park as of 2016 .\nfrom daughters of the sadler\u2019s wells horse , el prado , tapit has sired grade one winner laragh and graded winner white rose . this would suggest trying mares by el prado sons medaglia d\u2019oro , kitten\u2019s joy and artie schiller .\nbut other stats for the two stallions are neck - and - neck as well . going into today , each sire had 257 runners . speightstown produced 153 winners to 133 for kitten ' s joy , but kitten ' s joy held a slight edge ( 24 - 23 ) in the number of stakes winners and graded stakes winners ( 11 - 10 ) . the top bread - winner for kitten ' s joy was big blue kitten , who won a pair of grade 1 races and racked up $ 902 , 800 in earnings . for speightstown , it was reynaldothewizard , winner of the $ 2 million g1 dubai golden shaheen .\nsaturday\u2019s g1 coral - eclipse at sandown threw up a barnstormer as qatar racing\u2019s roaring lion ( kitten\u2019s joy ) edged out old rival saxon warrior ( jpn ) ( deep impact { jpn } ) to prevail by a neck and survive a subsequent lengthy stewards\u2019 inquiry .\ncourtesy of the tdn celestial woods ( forestry ) has already produced a pair of talented turf colts for ken and sarah ramsey and the breeders hope they have a third on their handsin first timer starstruck kitten ( kitten ' s joy ) . he is conditioned by chad brown , who also trained the juvenile ' s full - brothers , gi breeders ' cup turf sprint winner bobby ' s kitten and mgsw camelot kitten , who is entered in the giii saranac s . later on the card .\nangst : stephanie ' s kitten claims filly & mare turf a son of el prado bred by owners ken and sarah ramsey , kitten ' s joy had a 9 - 4 - 0 record from 13 starts with grade i wins in the joe hirsch and secretariat stakes , both in 2004 .\nat laurel generous kitten ran second in the laurel turf cup s for the ramseys and gaining black - type and raising his earnings over $ 160 , 000 . at louisiana downs , g3 sw coalport , another kitten ' s joy ran second in unbridled s also for the ramseys . his earnings stand at $ 578 , 283 .\nthe progeny of kitten\u2019s joy will seemingly be everywhere as the ramseys send a loaded seven - horse lineup into the breeders\u2019 cup on friday and saturday at santa anita park in arcadia , calif .\nstephanie\u2019s kitten was unfold the rose\u2019s second foal , after the mare produced winner lady kitten in 2008 . stephanie\u2019s kitten became one of the 2 - year - old filly division\u2019s most imposing figures in 2011 , winning the grade 1 alcibiades stakes and the grade 2 breeders\u2019 cup juvenile fillies turf . stephanie\u2019s kitten has continued to excel , scoring multiple stakes wins at 3 and 4 , including the grade 1 just a game stakes at belmont park last year .\nramsey and his wife , sarah , bred kitten ' s joy and knew he had a pedigree that strongly suggested success on grass . the colt ' s dam , kitten ' s first , had been a winner on the turf , and she is by european group i winner lear fan . el prado was a champion in ireland .\nhe employs several top trainers \u2014 the current roster includes chad brown , michael maker and dale romans ( who trained kitten\u2019s joy ) \u2014 but he takes an active involvement in decisions about his horses .\nkitten\u2019s joy was an outstanding racehorse , to be sure ; in 12 starts on grass he scored nine wins and finished second in the other three . he was at his best in races at 1\nthe progeny of kitten\u2019s joy rewarded her faith , and the ramseys reveled in their success on the racetrack . then , during what began as a carefree morning in florida , their storybook lives changed .\nrausing confirms that ken and sarah ramsey have already placed 10 mares , all in foal to kitten\u2019s joy , in quarantine in america in order to travel to england to visit their homebred next year .\nin analyzing only north american earnings , kitten ' s joy still ranks number one with $ 10 , 930 , 824 , about $ 900 , 000 clear of spendthrift farm ' s malibu moon , sire of kentucky derby winner orb .\na case of strangles , an upper - respiratory disease , afflicted nearly every ramsey farm - born foal in kitten ' s joy ' s first crop . but from that initial crop came grade ii winner dean ' s kitten , who came within a nose of defeating eventual champion cape blanco in the 2011 grade i joe hirsch turf classic .\nhowever , the mare\u2019s biggest success has come with her fourth foal , the grade 1 - placed stakes winner charming kitten . the colt is the most recent offspring of kitten\u2019s joy to run in the kentucky derby , and the most successful , finishing ninth in 2013 . charming kitten has won three races and placed in five graded stakes for earnings of $ 521 , 850 .\nwith 13 members of sea the moon\u2019s first crop selling this week at tattersalls for an average of 44 , 231gns and top price of 160 , 000gns , and with the imposing bobby\u2019s kitten becoming an appealing addition to the team , there\u2019s plenty of cause for joy at lanwades .\nafter a decade , the ramseys reached the zenith of the business . they were honored with the eclipse award as the nation\u2019s leading owners in 2004 , largely because kitten\u2019s joy had been the country\u2019s champion turf runner and roses in may the second - best dirt runner . ramsey sold roses in may to japan and kept kitten\u2019s joy , planning to manage his career as a stallion . people who understand the breeding industry had reason to think he was making a na\u00efve and expensive mistake .\ngroom flavio bueno led a blanketed kitten ' s joy across the grounds last week at ramsey farm in nicholasville .\nhe is treated like the king that he is ,\nowner ken ramsey said of the farm ' s signature stallion .\nthose are qualities frequently associated with the sire of kitten ' s joy , the outstanding sadler ' s wells stallion el prado , who began his stud career at airdrie stud , then spent the remainder as a leading sire for adena springs .\nin a single afternoon , the stallion had three grade 1 winners : big blue kitten ( sword dancer invitational ) at saratoga , then real solution ( arlington million ) and admiral kitten ( secretariat stakes ) at arlington . so far this year , kitten\u2019s joy has 15 stakes winners and racers with total earnings of nearly $ 7 . 5 million .\nit looked like he was going to be strictly a grass horse , and i ' m looking for dirt horses , so i decided to sell him ,\nsaid ramsey of kitten ' s joy .\nbobby ' s kitten will have a covering fee at twin hills of $ 16 , 500 , including gst .\nwhile big blue kitten was still an unraced 2 - year - old , ramsey farm parted with spent gold at the 2010 keeneland november breeding stock sale for $ 1 , 000 . however , the mare remains a frequent visitor to kitten\u2019s joy and was bred to him for 2014 .\nbobby ' s kitten is possibly one of kitten ' s joy ' s most notable performers , winning the group 1 breeders ' cup turf sprint as well as having a european success in ireland by 8 . 5 lengths . the family is proven on turf tracks , a great plus for the sire especially with 99 per cent of australian races conducted on grass .\nramsey credits pedigree adviser john frato for planning the mating that produced kitten\u2019s joy . kitten\u2019s joy\u2019s dam is the lear fan mare kitten\u2019s first , who won her first start by a nose before a broken hip ended her career . the ramseys\u2019s decision to breed her has paid off for several breeders . her first foal , the stakes - winning broad brush mare justenuffheart , went on to produce champion dreaming of anna and graded winner lewis michael for frank calabrese and graded winner justenuffhumor for mt . brilliant . in 2000 , frato recommended a short list of stallions from which ramsey and farm manager mark partridge chose el prado .\nin a single afternoon , the stallion had three grade 1 winners : big blue kitten ( sword dancer invitational ) at saratoga , then real solution ( arlington million ) and admiral kitten ( secretariat stakes ) at arlington . so far this year , kitten ' s joy has 15 stakes winners and racers with total earnings of nearly $ 7 . 5 million .\nwhatever the explanation , once - skeptical people in the breeding industry can no longer be dismissive of kitten\u2019s joy . even with his stud fee likely to rise to $ 100 , 000 next year , breeders will be mating high - class mares to him , which will almost insure the stallion of even greater success . the demand will be further proof that ramsey was right about kitten\u2019s joy and the conventional wisdom was wrong .\nmultiple graded stakes - placed and msw kitten ' s cat , scored his second stakes victory in the kitten\u2019s joy at gulfstream this spring , at two he was victorious in the juvenile turf sprint s . on gi breeders\u2019 cup classic day at santa anita . today the ramsey homebred trained by mike maker finished third in the woodchopper s , at the fair grounds . he has earned $ 328 , 576 .\ninstead of looking back , the man with the widest smile and some of the biggest ambitions in thoroughbred racing spends all of his time making sure kitten ' s joy and his homegrown operation reign above all others .\nfor the second consecutive winter , bailey has ridden a ramsey - owned colt into the winner ' s circle in both the tropical park derby at calder and the palm beach stakes at gulfstream . last year it was with nothing to lose . this year it ' s with kitten ' s joy .\nat 3 : won coolmore lexington s . ( gr . 3 ) ; 2nd overnight s . , alligator alley s .\nwe broke dubai sheikh off five or six lengths in front of kitten ' s joy , and kitten ' s joy ran him down and beat him about a length and a half or maybe two lengths going away ,\nramsey said .\nbut jerry said , ' ken , he changed gears like he always changes gears , but he struggled over the dirt and he ' s exhausted . i think he ' s better on grass , and i wouldn ' t try him on the dirt again . ' i took jerry ' s advice .\nall due credit aside , kitten\u2019s joy represents only one - third of the equation that produces a prominent runner , much less a stable full of them \u2013 the other pieces being the broodmare and a lot of luck .\n\u201cthe secret to kitten\u2019s joy isn\u2019t like trying to decipher the secret to coca - cola or the recipe for kentucky fried chicken , \u201d ramsey said . \u201cyou take the pedigrees and see what the common thread is . \u201d\nwith 16 current graded stakes winners from five crops of racing age , the commercial bandwagon has filled up as well . of the 184 mares kitten ' s joy covered in 2013 , 93 were non - ramsey mares .\nwere the additional grade i winners for their sire last year . in addition to his stakes winners in the upper echelon of racing , kitten ' s joy had five 2 - year - old stakes winners of 2013 .\nken ramsey wants to win the kentucky derby ( gr . i ) more than any other race , and he tried to make kitten ' s joy a derby horse . he didn ' t achieve his goal with the son of\nhome run kitten takes the off the turf the american h . at santa anita\nfoaled in kentucky , kitten ' s joy raced as a homebred for ken and sarah ramsey . he was trained by dale romans . he entered stud in kentucky in 2006 at ramsey farm and has stood there throughout his stud career .\nfrom kitten joy ' s\nkitten spa ,\nfeaturing an underwater treadmill on which he walks for 15 minutes a day five days a week , to the two paddocks at the horse ' s disposal , to the scrutiny of mares in his book , it ' s hard to find a segment of the ramsey operation not devoted to protecting the interest of a stallion with a history of trumping odds .\nas has been well - documented , kitten ' s joy ' s success has been directly linked to the confidence his owners had in him when he retired to their farm in 2006 after he earned more than $ 2 million on the track . to support their new stallion , the ramseys bred from 90 to 122 mares to kitten ' s joy , and as the number of other breeders have sought a piece of his success , his book has continued to expand , with 190 mares bred to him this year .\nreachinforthestars was claimed by the ramseys in her debut start for a $ 25 , 000 tag in september 2007 at calder . after winning two of 11 starts over two seasons of racing , she was sent to kitten\u2019s joy for a mating that produced admiral kitten , the winner of the grade 1 secretariat stakes in 2013 .\nthere were a pair of starters in the keeneland race by freshman sires , and the best effort came from cater to kitten ( by champion turf horse kitten\u2019s joy ) . he was seventh at the start , seventh at the quarter , then rolled past the remaining competition to finish second by 5 1 / 2 lengths .\none of the appeals of el prado was that , as a son of sadler\u2019s wells and a grandson of northern dancer , he brought a five - deep line of male champions to the mating , ramsey said . kitten\u2019s joy added another generation of champions with his 2004 eclipse award .\nkitten ' s joy enjoys the best of both nature and technological advances . along with his daily jaunts on the underwater treadmill , he spends time beneath a heat lamp while on an equine vibration plate designed to increase bone density and circulation .\nwinx ' s staying power as one of the world ' s top rac . . .\ntdnhighlighted by an almighty duel which saw ramsey farm\u2019s kitten\u2019s joy ( el prado ) nip winstar\u2019s speightstown ( gone west ) by no more than $ 15 , 000 for the title of leading north american sire for 2013 , according to calculations for tdn sire lists , these two were still outdistanced by two european sires , coolmore\u2019s galileo ( sadler\u2019s wells ) and juddmonte\u2019s dansili ( danehill ) , on the final tdn 2013 general sire list , combining european and north american sires .\nranked among the top 5 sires on the general sire list in 2016 , world class sire kitten ' s joy is also represented by multiple graded / group winners in the us , france and england in 2016 including sheikh mohammed ' s group 1 coral - eclipse stakes winner hawkbill and sheikh hamdan ' s multiple french group winner taareef .\noperations such as claiborne , phipps stables and juddmonte have long enjoyed top - level racing success with homebreds . however , in recent times , no single stallion has so thoroughly powered a farm the way kitten ' s joy has the ramseys ' .\nwhile there\u2019s no shortage of sadler\u2019s wells\u2019 sons and grandsons at stud in this part of the world , an intriguing recent addition to the stallion ranks in newmarket represents a diversification of the line which is thriving in america . the gi breeders\u2019 cup turf sprint winner bobby\u2019s kitten , a son of the champion turf horse and five - time us champion turf sire kitten\u2019s joy , arrived at lanwades stud earlier this autumn and has received a stream of visitors ahead of his covering debut next february . while his retirement was not announced until september , lanwades principal kirsten rausing had been in negotiation with bobby\u2019s kitten\u2019s owner - breeders ken and sarah ramsey since the spring .\nthis entry was posted in ray ' s paddock and tagged claiborne farm , gainesway , giant ' s causeway , horse racing , kitten ' s joy , leading sires , malibu moon , ramsey farm , sires , speightstown , stallions , tapit , thoroughbred breeding , thoroughbred racing , war front , winstar by scott jagow . bookmark the permalink .\ncalumet farm\u2019s real solution , a multiple ( g1 ) winner and millionaire by kitten\u2019s joy out of reachfortheheavens by pulpit , will stand at dex comardelle\u2019s blue star racing stallion facility in scott , louisiana . on lease from calumet , comardelle and calumet hope to offer louisiana a premium product and provide real solution a competitive book of mares that [ \u2026 ]\nfor all the honors ken and sarah ramsey ' s racing and breeding operation has earned during the past two decades , the two have never held their current position \u2014 the nation ' s leading owners in earnings , stakes wins and graded stakes victories \u2014 while also standing the leader on the general sire list \u2014 their homebred stallion kitten ' s joy .\nkitten\u2019s joy stood for $ 50 , 000 this year , but \u201ci\u2019m sure we\u2019ll raise his stud fee to $ 75 , 000 , maybe more , \u201d he said , adding that no decision will be made until after the breeders\u2019 cup in early november .\nwith medaglia d\u2019oro siring a champion in his first crop , there was no doubt the dark brown son of el prado was a major new force in the stallion corps , and kitten\u2019s joy confirmed el prado as a sire of sires to be reckoned with .\ngrade 1 winners real solution and big blue kitten will join their sire , kitten\u2019s joy , on the stallion roster at ramsey farm in 2015 , the daily racing form reports . both horses , which race as homebreds for ken and sarah ramsey , are scheduled to remain in training for the remainder of the year . chad brown trains [ \u2026 ]\nthe proposition was not an easy one , but ramsey rose to the challenge and put money into making kitten\u2019s joy a success as a sire . he did not get much outside help early on . ramsey said , \u201cin his first book , we got 16 outside mares , i believe , and we bought some mares , claimed some more , and used a lot of the money we got from roses in may to buy up a broodmare band that we could breed to kitten\u2019s joy . we currently have 128 . \u201d\nkitten ' s joy was busy . mr luck won the kranji stakes in singapore . closer to home 3 - year - old filly really proud ran thid in the cedar key s . at gulfstream sprinting 5 furlongs on the turf . she is a homebred for brereton jones and trained by christophe clement . additionally , both fro the ramseys , sniper kitten won an allowance race at keeneland - his 2nd win in 3 starts and sippin kitten broke her maiden in a msw also at keeneland .\nso he decided to build a large breeding operation on the cheap . he studied the form of fillies in claiming races and tried to identify ones who \u2014 though they may have been mediocre runners \u2014 had ancestors who would mesh with the pedigree of kitten\u2019s joy .\na horse who showed brilliant ability as a turf runner , kitten ' s joy was nonetheless considered a longshot to make a top sire in kentucky due to a long - standing bias against staying turf horses . owners ken and sarah ramsey supported him strongly with their own mares , however , and were well rewarded as kitten ' s joy rose to the top of the american general sire list in 2013 . to the surprise of many , the horse also became an american champion juvenile sire , leading that list in 2011 .\ngranny franny has a yearling colt by kitten\u2019s joy and has shown her value as a producer already . by doing that , granny franny took the measure of the breeding prescription \u201cnot to breed to mares with a blank dam . \u201d another one bites the dust .\nunfold the rose was sold at the 2011 keeneland january sale of horses of all ages for $ 7 , 000 , just months before stephanie\u2019s kitten began her breakout 2 - year - old campaign . the mare was consigned by ramsey farm , as agent , at the 2013 keeneland november sale in foal to kitten\u2019s joy but did not meet her reserve , with a final bid of $ 325 , 000 .\nreachfortheheavens\u2019s first foal , a kitten\u2019s joy colt , was in the field when ramsey farm sold the mare for $ 11 , 000 at the 2010 ocala breeders\u2019 sales co . fall mixed sale . one breeding season later , reachfortheheavens was back under the ramsey colors and that foal had become italian stakes winner real solution .\n\u201ci owe it to kitten\u2019s joy , \u201d ken ramsey said when explaining his success . \u201cwithout kitten\u2019s joy , i\u2019m certainly not going to be standing on that stage at the eclipse awards two times . i was actually overwhelmed when i found out what the actual vote was [ 235 - 4 for owner , 221 - 21 for breeder , among the finalists ] . i was astonished at how lopsided the voting was . we did have a truly good year , the best year we\u2019ve ever had since we\u2019ve been in horse racing . \u201d\niteration was purchased privately in 2006 for $ 10 , 000 and was part of the first book for kitten\u2019s joy . her first big hit came with her second foal , queen\u2019splatekitten , who was a multiple grade 3 - placed stakes winner of $ 387 , 313 .\nowner ken ramsey will be a prominent presence at the breeders\u2019 cup on friday and saturday , with seven starters in turf races , six of them offspring of his stallion kitten\u2019s joy . this will be no surprise to racing fans because ramsey has seemed ubiquitous all year .\nmaking his 29th start , 7 year old msw coalport ( kitten ' s joy ) ran a good third in the g3 - tropical turf h at gulfstream park west . he has earned over $ 621 , 000 for his owner / breeders ken and sarah ramsey .\ncalumet farm announced today that three - time grade 1 winner big blue kitten , the morning line favorite for saturday\u2019s arlington million ( g1 ) , will take up stud duty at the famed lexington , ky . , farm at the end of his racing career . he will join another son of kitten\u2019s joy , 2013 arlington million ( g1 ) winner real solution , who was recently acquired from his [ \u2026 ]\nmore than 56 % of his stakes performers are graded stakes horses : oscar performance , 2016 winner breeders\u2019 cup juvenile turf - g1 , etc . stephanie\u2019s kitten , 2015 winner breeders\u2019 cup f & m turf - g1 , 2011 breeders\u2019 cup juvenile fillies turf , etc . big blue kitten , 2015 ncr winner joe hirsch turf classic - g1 , etc . bobby\u2019s kitten , 2014 winner breeders\u2019 cup turf sprint - g1 , etc . divisidero , 2016 , woodford reserve turf classic - g1 , etc . h awkbill , 2016 coral - eclipse s . - g1 , etc . real solution ( g1 ) , kitten\u2019s dumplings ( g1 ) , admiral kitten ( g1 ) , etc\na fearless gambler at the windows , ken ramsey went deep into the pool of risk with his stallion . he continued to buy mares that fit the profile of being good crosses with kitten ' s joy , keeping the stallion heavily booked in those crucial first few years .\ntait , a former lieutenant of godolphin ' s founder , sheikh mohammed bin rashid al maktoum , gained the southern hemisphere breeding rights to bobby ' s kitten in setting up his own breeding farm .\nin electing to stand a stallion , ken ramsey said that \u201ci had a big decision to make . i wanted to keep only one stallion . the japanese wanted to buy kitten\u2019s joy to take to japan , and they also wanted to buy roses in may . i did the pedigree research and decided that , of the two , kitten\u2019s joy had the best chance to become a leading sire . the first five stallions in his male line were all champions , and we decided that he had all the genetics required to be a leading sire . \u201d\nthat the ramseys ended up being the primary supporter of kitten ' s joy meant they had control over how a majority of those foals were raised . and being at the helm of the decision - making process is a spot in which ken ramsey thrives as few others do .\nkitten\u2019s joy had a remarkable year in 2011 with his third crop of runners . he edged out smart strike by $ 906 to become leading juvenile sire , finished the season in second to smart strike on the turf sire rankings , and was 10th on the general sire list .\nwith medaglia d ' oro siring a champion in his first crop , there was no doubt the dark brown son of el prado was a major new force in the stallion corps , and kitten ' s joy confirmed el prado as a sire of sires to be reckoned with .\n\u201cbased on this horse\u2019s race record and his pedigree , his performance was all predictable , \u201d ramsey said of kitten\u2019s joy , who is a son of el prado . \u201cthere\u2019s nothing fluky about it . the secret to our success is very simple . what\u2019s really helped kitten\u2019s joy is that myself and my team have been able to define and shape the destiny of this world - class sire . we have carefully selected every single mare that\u2019s been bred to him , and we own most of them . we\u2019ve raised most of his offspring , and we\u2019ve placed them where they can perform their best . we have orchestrated the thing ourselves by keeping the best ones , racing them , giving them to top - notch trainers . we flat put these horses where they can win . \u201d\nheading into today ' s cards , according to the widely - recognized general sire list at bloodhorse . com , kitten ' s joy runners had collected $ 11 , 320 , 523 in earnings , giving him a slim $ 89 , 342 advantage over speightstown , who sat in second with earnings of $ 11 , 231 , 181 .\ngraded stakes placed , granny ` s kitten held down the racing fort , adding more black type running third in the robellino s at penn national for the ramseys . he has earned $ 282 , 371 .\nas if the two graded stakes wins by sons of kitten ' s joy were not enough , his 3 year old filly noble beauty ran second in the honey ryder s in her second start lifetime ! she was bred by the ramseys and is now owned by great point stables llc and trained by chad brown . watch for this one .\nin addition to his top ranking on the general sire list , kitten ' s joy was the overwhelming leading sire of turf runners last year , with progeny earnings of $ 8 . 2 million on grass , far outpacing the $ 3 . 7 million in turf earnings by runner - up\ndepending on how their runners perform this weekend , ken ramsey said he could raise kitten ' s joy ' s stud fee from the $ 50 , 000 he commanded this year to at least $ 100 , 000 in 2014 . in lieu of birthday presents , ramsey wants more evidence that his horses and his stallion can rule the world championships .\n\u201ci try to cater to a range of mare - owners and indeed mares , \u201d explains rausing of her decision to secure bobby\u2019s kitten . \u201cbeing a relatively small operation standing four or five stallions i have to offer breeders something they can\u2019t find elsewhere . i was very fortunate to have hernando and selkirk , and leroidesanoimaux is sadly missed . nowadays when i look through the stallion register in europe it is so permeated with galileo and danehill , and as great a combination as it seems to be , you can\u2019t keep going forever . although bobby\u2019s kitten of course comes from the sadler\u2019s wells sireline it is , one would hope , sufficiently distant and it\u2019s another branch through el prado and kitten\u2019s joy . i think it\u2019s rather complementary rather than just being the same thing again . \u201d\nhis plan seemed fanciful \u2014 until the progeny of kitten\u2019s joys started winning everywhere . this year the stallion\u2019s offspring have won 22 stakes and earned in the vicinity of $ 10 million . on aug . 17 , ramsey won the arlington million with real solution ( a son of kitten\u2019s joy and a mare who had been claimed for $ 25 , 000 ) ; the $ 500 , 000 secretariat stakes at arlington ; and , within the same hour , the $ 600 , 000 sword dancer handicap at saratoga ."]}
{"id": 1185, "summary": [{"text": "the indochinese spitting cobra ( naja siamensis ) also called the thai spitting cobra , siamese spitting cobra or black-and-white spitting cobra , is a species of spitting cobra found in southeast asia . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "indochinese spitting cobra", "paragraphs": ["also known as : black spitting cobra , malayan spitting cobra , golden spitting cobra , sumatran spitting cobra ; naja ( naja ) sputatrix ( malaysia ) , naja naja miolepis ( borneo ) .\nthe indochinese spitting cobra is a species of spitting cobra snakes belonging to southeastern asia . with a decline in population , this snake has been grouped under \u2018vulnerable\u2019 species .\nashe\u2019s spitting cobra is closely related to the mozambique spitting cobra in terms of certain morphological and behavioral characteristics .\nindochinese spitting cobra \u2014 the indochinese spitting cobra has white spots or stripes . it is nocturnal and aggressive at night , but during the day , it is timid and quickly runs away . talk about a snake with dual personality !\nseven species of african spitting cobras exist today . they are ashe\u2019s spitting cobra ( n . ashei ) , the mali cobra ( n . katiensis ) , mozambique spitting cobra ( n . mossambica ) , zebra spitting cobra ( n . nigricincta ) , black - necked spitting cobra ( n . nigricollis ) , nubian spitting cobra ( n . nubiae ) , and the red spitting cobra ( n . pallida ) .\nthe smallest species of spitting cobras is the mozambique while the largest being the ashe\u2019s spitting cobra .\nthe indochinese spitting cobra ( naja siamensis ) eat mouse ( feeding ) in feeding terarium . this empty terarium is great for feeding : )\nalso known as : black and white spitting cobra , isan spitting cobra ; naja ( naja ) isanensis , naja ( naja ) sputatrix .\nwhenever a indochinese spitting cobra gets the chance , it will try to flee and spare its venom . the \u2018hood\u2019 is only visible in defensive posture .\nindochinese rat snakes are silver , black , grey , brown , or orange in color .\nequatorial spitting cobra ( naja sumatrana ) with spread hood . by angusticeps cc4 . 0\njavan spitting cobra ( naja sputatrix ) . by department of sustainability & environment cc2 . 0\nashe\u2019s spitting cobra \u2014 this is the largest spitting cobra , normally growing about 6 . 5 feet ( 2 meters ) long , and so it is also known as the giant spitting cobra . the largest specimen to date was almost 9 feet ( 2 . 7 meters ) long !\nzebra spitting cobra \u2014 once thought to be a subspecies of the black - necked spitting cobra but now considered a species of its own , the zebra spitting cobra is light brown , pink or yellow , with ( of course ) black stripes . that\u2019s how it got its name .\ncaptive care and reproduction of the red spitting cobra\n, erik attmarson , reptilia 33 .\nindonesian spitting cobra \u2014 also known as the javan spitting cobra , this snake is nocturnal and spends most of its time on the ground . it is a common prey for the komodo dragon , the largest monitor lizard .\nsnake getting a quick snack \u2013 think this is a mozambique spitting cobra . by i love trees cc2 . 0\nthe head can be elliptical or depressed like in the case of the equatorial and the mandalay spitting cobra . while few show distinct hood marks like the javan spitting cobra there are others that don\u2019t show any mark like the equatorial spitting cobra . however , many african spitting cobras portray dark cross bands located around the neck like the nubian spitting cobra . they do possess an inflatable neck hood which is the flap of the skin located behind the head of the cobra . when spitting cobras feel threatened they can expand their movable ribs by drawing in air from its lungs , a defense mechanism often used to frighten or warn predators .\nalso known as : black pakistan cobra , sri lankan cobra ; naja naja karachiensis , naja naja polyocellata .\nnow , you might wonder , how does spitting protect the cobra ? sure , it\u2019s disgusting . but is it dangerous ?\nmozambique spitting cobra ( naja mossambica ) dysmorodrepanis 01 : 09 , 29 may 2008 ( utc ) . by chris eason cc2 . 0\nindochinese spitting cobra ( naja siamensis ) spits at the camera , covering it with venom . note : spitting cobras don ' t actually ' spit ' their venom . they use muscles to squeeze their venom glands , squirting the venom from the hole in the fang . the hole isn ' t at the very tip of the fang , it ' s faces forward slightly . the hissing noise they make plays no part in ' spitting ' .\nequatorial spitting cobra \u2014 the equatorial spitting cobra comes in two colors , black ( in singapore , malaysia , indonesia and the philippines ) and yellow ( in thailand ) . it is particularly common in singapore , where it often wanders near humans \u2014 not good news for those living there .\nthe red spitting cobra is a medium - sized cobra that may reach a length of up to 4 feet . originally , it was thought to be a subspecies of the mozambique spitting cobra , but is now considered its own species . it is favored by venomous snake keepers due to its coloration , which is typically a salmon to red color with black banding .\nspitting cobras do have teeth so , yes , they can bite . besides , they still need to eat , and spitting isn\u2019t a very good hunting technique .\nof the elapidae family that also showcase the same spitting behavior . however , the\nspitting cobras showcase defense mechanisms like their upright postures followed by a threatening hood .\nred spitting cobra ( naja pallida ) from africa . original uploader was pogrebnoj - alexandroff at ru . wikipedia cc - by - 2 . 5 .\nthe most potent venom is that of the philippine spitting cobra , one of the world\u2019s most dangerous true cobras whose venom is completely composed of neurotoxins .\nis classified under a different genus hemachatus and due to the major differences between genus hemachatus and naja , we will only focus on the 14 naja spitting cobra species in this article . spitting cobras are dominant in the naja genus , further characterized by two distinct types according to their location \u2013 the asian and african spitting cobras .\nother than the monocled cobra morphs , the indochinese spitting cobras are probably the most commonly kept and bred cobras in the usa . we purchased the cb ' 99 female , now deceased , from a friend on 10 / 26 / 02 . we bred the cb ' 99 female to a cb ' 02 male in 2006 and 2007 .\nspitting cobras are capable of spraying venom consecutively 40 times in a very short time span .\nwhat makes spitting cobra venom so scary ? well , it often contains a combination of neurotoxins and cytotoxins \u2014 substances that can damage nerve tissue and shut down individual cells . on human skin , spitting cobra venom isn\u2019t harmful , but if it gets in the eyes , inside the nostrils or into a cut in the skin , it can cause serious damage .\na 28 - year - old thai male who was clearing debris at a construction site when he encountered a spitting cobra . the reptile spat venom into his right eye before trying to escape . a colleague who was also at the site managed to kill the cobra [\nlethal injection : thailand . king cobra grabbed , hugged and kissed goodbye in the wild\nred spitting cobra \u2014 the red spitting cobra starts out as salmon red or reddish - orange , with a black or dark blue band around its throat , making it an attractive snake . as it grows , however , it becomes a darker shade of red and the throat band disappears . young red spitting cobras are diurnal , meaning they are active during the day , while adults are nocturnal , or active at night . this prevents the adults from eating the young ones .\nspitting cobra fang anatomy is different compared to other cobra species , as they possess a more forward and circular opening to their fangs compared to other cobras . this specialized structure allows the venom stream expelled by spitting cobras to travel forward , rather than downward . amazingly , when spraying , spitting cobras are able to match venom distribution to the size of the target , regardless of distance . these snakes are very unlikely to bite as a defensive behavior ; however , envenomations from bites have been reported .\nthe king cobra is not considered to be a true cobra species , such as the other cobras in the naja genus ; instead , it belongs to its own genus , ophiophagus .\nphilippine cobra \u2014 the philippine cobra is considered one of the world\u2019s deadliest snakes . why ? because its venom is purely neurotoxic and the second - most toxic among all cobra venom . one bite can kill within 30 minutes , without the victim even displaying any symptoms at all !\nblack - necked spitting cobra \u2014 the black - necked spitting cobra doesn\u2019t always have a black neck . sometimes it can be pure copper or olive brown , and sometimes it can have black and white stripes . it is a very adaptable snake that can thrive in different environments . also , it can be nocturnal or diurnal , depending on the time of year , whichever is more favorable for the snake .\nspitting cobras are any species of venomous snakes that can project venom from their fangs , hence the name \u2018spitting cobras\u2019 . this unique ability to project venom with a precise aim is a defensive mechanism found in most cobra species , specifically of the genus naja and few others . such species of cobras that are recognized for possessing a set of spitting fangs use specialized muscles that contract the venom gland forcing the venom out through the fangs .\na killed juvenile javan spitting cobra , naja sputatrix ( tl ca 50 cm ) ; head close up , note the fang position . from banyumas , central java , indonesia . by wibowo djatmiko cc3 . 0\nonce the venom of a spitting cobra gets in your eyes , you will feel pain and be forced to retreat . if left untreated , victims can even go blind . that\u2019s how potent the venom of a spitting cobra is . in this case , an antivenom won\u2019t work . the best thing to do is quickly wash the venom out of your eyes , and then get to a doctor for antibiotic eye drops .\nphilippine cobra . by mario lutz [ cc by - sa 3 . 0 urltoken via wikimedia commons\nking cobra skull showing large teeth and thick , rather short fangs for injecting venom during envenomation .\nthe fangs of the mozambique are modified with channel openings at the tip and directed forward at right angles for spitting venom .\ndespite preferring open grasslands , thick woodlands and agricultural fields , spitting cobras are often encountered near human settlements in southeast asia .\nthe holes present within the fangs of spitting cobras are tear dropped shaped to ensure spraying of a narrow stream of venom .\na 23 - year - old chinese male who was gathering fallen tree branches when he uncovered a spitting cobra under the branches that spat into his left eye . the snake , which managed to escape , fitted the description of the\ncham g , pan jc , lim f , earnest a , gopala krishna kone p . effects of topical heparin , anti - venom , tetracycline and dexamethasone treatment in corneal injury resulting from the venom of the black spitting cobra (\nking cobra eating a red - tailed racer ( oxycephalum gonyosoma ) snake \u2013 thailand . copyright 2009 vern lovic .\nthe diet of a spitting cobra doesn\u2019t differ much from the diet of other snakes . frogs and toads are on the menu , as well as lizards , birds , bird eggs , chickens , rats , mice , other snakes and even insects .\nfirst , don\u2019t forget that their spit is actually venom . second , spitting cobras aim for the eyes , an extremely vulnerable part of the body . third , studies show that spitting cobras hit their target at least eight out of ten times \u2014 that\u2019s deadly accuracy !\njust as rattlesnakes only rattle when they sense danger , spitting cobras only spit in order to defend themselves \u2014 this self - defense mechanism is a deep - rooted instinct . spitting cobras are able to spit immediately after hatching , and some say they can even do it after they\u2019re dead !\nptyas korros can be silver , grey , or brown \u2013 orange looking in color . scales on the posterior part of the body and on the tail often yellow and edged with black . underbelly is light yellow . juvenile indochinese rat snakes have a transverse series of round whitish spots or narrow yellow transverse bars .\nmorphologically , the king cobra has a larger head and more narrow hood compared to other cobra species . a key to identifying them is the presence of a pair of large scales , known as occipitals , located at the back of the top of the head . these are behind the usual \u201cnine - plate\u201d arrangement typical of colubrids and elapids , and are unique to the king cobra .\nanother interesting bit of information is that the king cobra is said to be able to see as far as 100 meters during daylight .\ntwelve cobra species live in asia . in contrast to african cobras , who exhibit great adaptive diversity , most asian cobra species are similar in behavior , lifestyle and habitat preference . the prevalence of cobras in asia is reflected by their frequent appearance in the region ' s religions and mythology .\nnaja siamensis possesses a deadly venom . in addition , the spitting of venomous can lead to damage to the corneas . strong venomous , deadly , corrosive for the eyes !\nwuster , w . ; warrell , d . a . ; jintakune , p . 1997 . redescription of naja siamensis ( serpentes : elapidae ) , a widely overlooked spitting cobra from s . e . asia : geographic variation , medical importance and designation of a neotype . journal of zoology 243 ( 4 ) : 771 -\nin thai language , it sounds like ngoo how chang ( literally \u201csnake cobra elephant\u201d , or ngoo chong ahng . there are many names for this snake .\nrecently tom charlton and i found a 3 - meter king cobra in krabi and got some great shots and video of it . facebook photo of it here .\nwolfgang wuster ' s asiatic cobra systematics page is extremely detailed and helpful , covering not only species descriptions but also some of the problems in identifying asian naja species .\nto describe three presentations of spitting cobra venom induced ophthalmia in urban singapore . case notes and photographs of three patients with venom ophthalmia who presented to our clinic between 2007 and 2012 were reviewed . two patients encountered the spitting cobra while working at a job site while the third patient had caught the snake and caged it . the venom entered the eyes in all 3 cases . immediate irrigation with tap water was carried out before presenting to the accident and emergency department . all patients were treated medically with topical antibiotic prophylaxis and copious lubricants . the use of anti - venom was not required in any case . all eyes recovered with no long - term sequelae . if irrigation is initiated early , eyes can recover with no significant complications or sequelae .\nmay be quite common in places . all are oviparous . diet is other vertebrates , with regards to which the african species at least are overall fairly catholic . some species have the ability to spit venom , a fact worth remembering as the venom can cause pain and blindness . o ' shea notes that often a spitting and non - spitting species may occur in the same location in africa and continental se asia .\nchu er , weinstein sa , white j , warrell da . venom ophthalmia caused by venoms of spitting elapid and other snakes : report of ten cases with review of epidemiology , clinical features , pathophysiology and management .\nthe king cobra ( ophiophagus hannah ) is the longest venomous snake species , with adults ranging from about 8 to 18 feet in length . they may live up to 25 years .\nthe egyptian cobra gained notoriety in the u . s . in 2011 , when mia , a resident of the bronx zoo , escaped . she was eventually discovered in the reptile house .\nthese are the true cobras , and the most widespread of cobra genera , covering all of africa , arabia , the indian subcontinent and se asia including china , the philippines and indonesia .\ndespite rapid urbanization , spitting cobra venom ophthalmia - a condition which is more commonly encountered in the wild and rural environment - can be seen in urbanized areas . as far as possible , these snakes should not be handled , caught or held captive as presented in our last case . captive snakes can be aggressive and still cause spitting injuries . we strongly discouraged captivity of these and a public education campaign or warning should be issued . ophthalmologists such are cognizant of such occurrences . regardless of the venom or toxin that the eye is exposed to , it is well - documented that prompt and copious irrigation is the key to preventing any chronic visual morbidity .\nthe forest cobra ( n . melanoleuca ) is considered the largest true cobra species , and specimens have been documented at up to 10 feet in length . it occurs mainly in western and central africa , where it can be found from senegal in the west to angola , western kenya , uganda and rwanda in the east . it can also be found in some parts of south africa .\ndescription : first aid for bites by elapid snakes which are likely to cause significant local damage at the bite site as their major clinical effect ( see listing in comments section ) . this includes venom spat into eyes by spitting cobras .\nspitting cobras are predominantly found in southern africa and southeast asia . in southern africa , they are found in dry savanna and semidesert areas . in southeast asia , they are found in forests , fields , grasslands and even near human settlements .\nthe mangshan pit viper , from china , is also known to spit venom , though not as far as spitting cobras can . this snake mostly uses its white - tipped tail to lure prey close , and then delivers a deadly bite .\nslowinski , j . b . & w . w\u00fcster ( 2000 ) a new cobra ( elapidae : naja ) from myanmar ( burma ) . herpetologica , 56 ( 2 ) : 257 - 270 . pdf\nderaniyagala , p . e . p . ( 1939 ) a new colour variety of cobra from ceylon & south india . ceylon journal of science ( b ) , 21 ( 3 ) : 233 - 235 .\nderaniyagala , p . e . p . ( 1945 ) some new races of the python , chrysopelea , binocellate cobra and tith - polonga inhabiting ceylon and india . spolia zeylanica , 24 : 103 - 113 .\nvenom extraction from indo - chinese spitting cobras , naja siamensis . we use the term ' malayan ' spitters in the video - that ' s what these snakes have been called for a long time in the animal trade , and old habits die hard !\nthe monocled cobra is found relatively frequently throughout thailand . naja kauthia , which is also found in india , nepal , south china and indochina , is called \u201ekeautiah\u201d in calcutta . this led to the name \u201ekauthia \u201c .\nas its common name indicates , the forest cobra lives primarily in forest or woodlands , and it is the only cobra species found in such areas in africa . due to its ecological niche , humans do not often encounter forest cobras , and the species is one of the least frequent causes of snakebites in africa ( it possesses a primarily neurotoxic venom ) . it is primarily a diurnal species , and it exhibits some arboreal tendencies due to its natural habitat .\ndoes not quickly run out of venom , can spit surprisingly often . and as noted in the introduction , they do not first have to get in a good pose before spitting . they can spit instantly as it turns its head towards you when you grab the tail . beware .\nthais are a bit crazy about cobras \u2013 it is the most easily recognized snake , and though i have met few people that can identify other snakes , most know what a cobra looks like . there are even amulet necklaces of cobras !\nthis cobra is primarily found in east africa , including somalia , southern egypt , ethopia , tanzania , kenya and sudan . there is much variation to the coloration throughout its range , and animals from kenya and northern tanzania exhibit an orange to red coloration with a very broad black throat band . when interacting with any spitting species of cobras , it is , naturally , imperative to wear protective eye gear , or even an entire face shield , to prevent any venom from entering your eyes if the animal decides to spit venom .\nw\u00fcster , w . & r . s . thorpe ( 1989 ) population affinities of the asiatic cobra ( naja naja ) species complex in south - east asia : reliability and random resampling . biological journal of the linnean society , 36 : 391 - 409 . pdf\nnearly everyone , whether or not they are knowledgeable about reptiles , recognizes a cobra . this is due primarily to the fact that cobras display one of the most\u2014if not the most\u2014iconic snake poses : the rearing , hooded display . for proof of this , look no further than ancient egypt . in ancient egyptian culture , the uraeus was a hooded cobra symbol used to represent sovereignty , royalty , deity , or divine authority . cobras belong to the family elapidae , the members of which are characterized by proteroglyph dentition , meaning they have two short , fixed fangs in the front of the mouth , which channel venom into their prey like hypodermic needles .\ntaxonomic comment . the\nsuphan cobra\n(\nn . k . suphanensis\n) is a colour variety of n . kaouthia known from central thailand . all intermediates between\ntypical\nsuphan cobras and\ntypical\nn . kaouthia are known , and a molecular genetic study showed no differences bewteen these colour forms .\nreproduction cobra breeding season is between the months of april and july . females can lay 12 to 30 eggs in an underground nest which hatch 50 to 70 days later . newly hatched cobras measure between 20 to 30 cm ( 8 \u00ad12 inches ) and already have fully functional venom glands . however , they cannot control how much venom they release when they are still young .\nvery toxic , but monocled cobras ( naja kaouthia ) and kraits ( genus bungarus ) are more potent on the ld50 scale . the power of the king is in the volume of venom it can inject in one bite \u2013 maximum around 7ml ! kings can ( and have ) killed elephants with a good bite . more information on venom constituents and treatment for king cobra snakebite here .\nthis article will provide a brief introduction to several cobra species , including some that are commonly available in the reptile trade ( at least where venomous reptiles can be kept legally ) , as well as some discussion on some of the defining characteristics of cobras . naturally , only extremely experienced keepers who have training with elapids , including cobras , should even think about maintaining these amazing snakes in captivity .\nso this page will be a collection of all the best information i can source about my favorite species of snake , king cobra \u2013 ophiophagus hannah . if you have some article , book , documentary , photo , video , or other bit of information you\u2019d like to see listed here , just write via the contact form at this link . it is found under the home menu at the top of all pages .\ni\u2019ve seen a few king cobras ( hamadryad ) in the wild . one i saw in a park in krabi \u2013 just the tail as it crossed the road behind me . i\u2019m guessing it was an eight meter long snake . i know it is probably impossible , but i\u2019m not joking . the tail was absolutely massive , longer and thicker by nearly double that of other 5 - meter kings i\u2019ve seen many of . this was quite possibly the biggest king cobra in the world .\nin thailand i\u2019ve watched just one snake show take over fifty king cobras each year out of the wild . they \u2018rescue\u2019 them from homes , yards , businesses , gardens , and farms . the kings spend a couple weeks or months rubbing their faces raw and bleeding against the fence trying desperately to escape . some of them are put in the king cobra show \u2013 where they are teased mercilessly three to ten times each day for tourists that are interested in seeing snakes , but don\u2019t really understand the state of the kings that are held there .\ni mentioned earlier having seen many dozens of king cobras run through the snake show here in our local area . that is just one king cobra show out of perhaps a dozen in the country . if every show caught and disposed of 50 king cobras annually , that\u2019s 600 adult king cobras yearly that are being depleted from the forests just here in thailand . kings mate once per year and their eggs are highly vulnerable to predators like monitors , other snakes , rats , and weather phenomena like high humidity and monsoon rains . kings lay eggs just before the rains start .\nophiophagus hannah is the only snake known in the world that creates a nest ( usually of bamboo and other leaves ) . this snake lays eggs which they stay with in the nest until ready to hatch . when the eggs begin hatching , the female king leaves because it eats other snakes primarily \u2013 and would likely eat the young . the young are fast , and deadly from the time they hatch . juvenile king cobras from thailand have yellow bands across their black bodies and heads . they look radically different from adult king cobra snakes . there is a danger of mistaking them for mangrove cat snakes ( boiga dendrophila ) .\nupdate 7 / 20 / 2016 \u2013 i\u2019ve seen a number of king cobras in the wild now over the years . four of them have been hundreds of meters high on mountains . many snake enthusiasts want to come to thailand to see king cobras , and i have to tell them\u2026 the chance of seeing one is slight . i\u2019ve lived in thailand for ten years and i\u2019ve seen only a handful , and i\u2019m in the rainforest often . your best bet is to come to the country and stay for a couple of months . stay at urltoken in a bungalow , and hike during the days around there . that\u2019s my best advice . your chance at seeing a king cobra is not high \u2013 you would probably need weeks of walking around during the day to see one . it\u2019s all luck !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nstuart , b . , thy , n . , chan - ard , t . , nguyen , t . q . & bain , r .\nde silva , r . , milligan , ht , wearn , o . r . , wren , s . , zamin , t . , sears , j . , wilson , p . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . & powney , g .\njustification : this species is listed as vulnerable on the basis that this species has experienced high rates of decline throughout its range , estimated at over 50 % in parts of its range and likely to be between 30 - 50 % globally over the past 15 - 18 years , which equals three generations assuming a generation length of 5 - 6 years , and the cause of decline ( overharvesting ) has not ceased .\nthis species has a very wide distribution throughout mainland southeast asia , with an extent of occurrence of over 800 , 000 km 2 that encompasses cambodia , southern laos , central and all of southern vietnam , northern thailand and eastern myanmar .\nthis species inhabits lowland and upland forest and cultivated areas , including rice paddies . it is found in deciduous , disturbed and open forest , and is absent from closed - canopy evergreen forest ( b . stuart and q . t . nguyen pers . comm . 2011 ) . generation length in this species is uncertain , but captive specimens have been reported to exhibit generation lengths of 4 - 5 years . generation length in the wild is probably longer , and is here estimated at 5 - 6 years .\nlike other cobras , this species is heavily harvested in vietnam , cambodia , and lao pdr where it is used for traditional chinese medicine ( b . stuart pers . comm . 2011 ) . this is the primary cause of observed population declines in this species , which is highly tolerant of habitat modification . this species is sometimes harvested for the skin trade , but this is only a minor threat as the skin quality is not high .\nthis species is listed on appendix ii of cites . in places the distribution of this species coincides with protected areas , probably providing small safeguards from high levels of harvesting . further research into the harvest levels of this species is needed , as is population monitoring . it is a protected species in vietnam , where it is listed as endangered in the national red data book ( dang\nstuart , b . , thy , n . , chan - ard , t . , nguyen , t . q . & bain , r . 2012 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndoctype public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndistribution . india ( except assam ) , pakistan ( except most of baluchistan ) , sri lanka , bangladesh , nepal .\nidentification . pattern : dorsal colour brown , grey or black ; often light , chevron - shaped bands across dorsum , which are frequently split into double or quadruple bands ; hood mark shape variable : spectacle , mask , horseshoe or o - shape , often linked to light throat area on at least one side ; clearly defined light throat area , usually a pair of clearly defined lateral spots . scalation : 23 - 29 scale rows around hood ( usually 25 - 27 ) , 19 - 21 just ahead of mid - body ; 161 - 180 ventrals , 37 - 51 subcaudals ; often only two posterior temporals .\ndistribution . northern laos , northern vietnam , china ( north - east to the mouth of the yangtze river ) , taiwan , hainan . .\ntaxonomic comment . easily confused with naja kaouthia . most easily distinguished by virtue of having lower ventral and subcaudal scale counts , particular when sex is taken into account .\nidentification . pattern : variable ; hood mark o - or mask - shaped , may be faint , but absent only in few populations ; dorsal colour yellow , brown , grey or blackish ; plain or with ragged or clearly - defined cross - bands ; throat pattern usually clear ; one pair of lateral throat spots , encroach only on lowest dorsal scale row . ventral colour usually similar to dorsal colour , may be light . underside of tail light , subcaudals usually dark - edged . scalation : 27 - 33 scale rows around hood , 21 just ahead of mid - body ; 170 - 197 ventrals , 46 - 61 subcaudals , normally all divided ; often more than one cuneate on each side ; frontal scale short , often almost square .\ndistribution . northern india ( east of delhi ) , assam , nepal , bangladesh , burma , thailand , northern malaya , cambodia , southern half of vietnam , probably southern laos , china ( yunnan , sichuan ) .\nidentification . pattern : medium to dark brown , with lighter interstitial skin , sometimes with more or less obvious lighter cross bands , mostly on interstitial skin ; a spectacle - shaped hood mark may be present , especially in some juveniles ; ventral side creamish , with two or three dark brown cross bands ; throat heavily mottled with dark brown pigment in adults . scalation : 27 - 31 scale rows around hood , 19 - 21 at midbody , usually 21 just ahead of midbody ; 173 - 185 ventrals , 50 - 58 paired subcaudals .\ndistribution . myanmar ( burma ) - confined to the dry zone surrounding the city of mandalay .\ndistribution . turkmenistan , uzbekistan , tadzhikistan , ne iran , northern and eastern afghanistan , northern half of pakistan , kashmir , e to himachal pradesh ( india ) .\ntaxonomic comment . naja naja specimens without a hood mark are often confused with n . oxiana , especially in pakistan and northern india . naja oxiana is never fully black , although some specimens may be quite dark . also , n . oxiana normally has several dark bands under the throat , whereas in black n . naja from pakistan , almost the entire throat is black .\nidentification . fairly stockily built . pattern : adults uniformly light or medium brown , occasionally some lighter variegations ; juveniles dark brown , with lighter variegations , sometimes a dark band behind the throat . scalation : 23 - 27 ( usually 25 ) scale rows around neck , 21 ( rarely 23 ) just ahead of mid - body ; 182 - 193 ventrals , 36 - 49 subcaudals , basal pairs sometimes undivided .\ndistribution . philippine islands : known with certainty from luzon , mindoro , catanduanes and masbate , likely to occur on other neighbouring islands . records from the calamianes group and palawan require confirmation .\nidentification . pattern : dorsal ground colour dark ; juveniles have a series of light lines ascending along the side , giving a series of a - shaped marks when seen from the side ; monocle hood mark present ; adults tend to be uniform . scalation : 175 - 183 ventrals , 60 - 64 divided subcaudals , 27 - 29 dorsal scale rows around hood , 21 - 23 scale rows at midbody .\ndistribution . philippine islands : recorded from mindanao , samar , leyte , bohol and camiguin . likely to occur on other nearby islands .\ndistribution . thailand ( except on malayan peninsula ) , western laos , cambodia , southern vietnam .\ntaxonomic comment . often mislabelled as naja sputatrix . the latter is never black and white , and normally lacks any clearly defined pattern .\nidentification . pattern : javan adults usually uniform yellowish , brown or blackish ; juveniles often have throat band and lateral throat spots , sometimes a hood mark , which is most often chevron - shaped , rarely mask - , spectacle - , horseshoe - or o - shaped ; specimens from the lesser sunda islands usually medium or light brown , with lighter scale bases ; throat band and heart - shaped hood mark persist into adulthood . scalation : 19 - 28 scale rows around hood , 18 - 21 just ahead of midbody ; javan specimens have more scale rows than lesser sunda specimens ; 162 - 183 ventrals , 42 - 54 subcaudals , normally all divided .\ndistribution . southern indonesia : java , bali , lombok , sumbawa , komodo , flores , lomblen , alor , possibly other islands in the group . the occurrence of this species on timor and sulawesi requires confirmation .\ndistribution . equatorial south - east asia : malaysia , extreme southern thailand , indonesia ( sumatra , borneo , bangka , belitung , the riau archipelago ) and the philippines ( palawan , culion ) ; may occur on other islands in the region ; possible remnant population in western java .\ntaxonomic comment . populations from the malayan peninsula were long mislabelled as naja ( naja ) sputatrix . populations from borneo were formerly known as naja naja miolepis . the systematics of this species need further analysis . naja sputatrix lacks any clearly defined pattern on the throat , and usually has fewer ventral scales .\nmatters are further complicated by the fact that the old subspecies of naja naja , as previously recognized , did not always correspond to the species currently believed to exist . in other words , some of the old subspecies were either trivial local variants , and their names are no longer used , or they were found to be heterogeneous , and encompass populations of several currently recognized species . relating the older nomenclature to that currently used is therefore not straightforward .\nthe appended table provides a kind of\ntaxonomic conversion table\nfor the older and newer literature . note that if the locality of origin of a snake is unknown , it may not be possible to determine which currently recognized species an animal mentioned in the literature belongs to .\nn . n . atra ( common ) , n . sputatrix atra ( china , northern vietnam - lingenh\u00f6le and trutnau , 1989 )\nn . n . kaouthia ( common ) , n . n . siamensis ( common in the toxinological literature ) , n . n . sputatrix ( vietnam , rare ) , n . n . leucodira ( reid , 1964 ) , n . kaouthia suphanensis ( yellow form from central thailand , rare )\nn . n . naja ( common ) , n . n . oxiana ( patternless specimens from northern india ) , n . n . indusi ( nw india , northern pakistan , rare ) , n . n . karachiensis ( black form from southern pakistan ) , n . n . polyocellata ( sri lanka , rare ) , n . n . caeca ( patternless specimens from northern india - rare )\nn . n . kaouthia ( thailand , cambodia , vietnam , through confusion ) , n . n . sputatrix ( thailand ) , n . n . isanensis , n . n . atra ( thailand ) , n . atra ( thailand ) , n . sputatrix atra ( rare , thailand ) , n . sputatrix isanensis , n . isanensis .\nn . n . sumatrana ( sumatra ) , n . n . sputatrix ( common , malayan peninsula , bangka , belitung ) , n . n . miolepis ( borneo ) , n . n . leucodira ( malayan peninsula , sumatra ) , n . n . kaouthia ( yellow form from northern malaysia - reid , 1964 ; tweedie , 1954 ) , n . sputatrix sputatrix ( malayan peninsula , java - lingenh\u00f6le and trutnau , 1989 )\nderaniyagala , p . e . p . ( 1960 ) the taxonomy of the cobras of south - eastern asia . spolia zeylanica , 29 : 41 - 63 .\nderaniyagala , p . e . p . ( 1961 ) the taxonomy of the cobras of south - eastern asia , part 2 . spolia zeylanica , 29 : 205 - 232 .\nlingenh\u00f6le , s . and trutnau , l . ( 1989 ) \u00fcber die kobras der gattung naja laurenti , 1758 in thailand . herpetofauna 11 : 6 - 13 .\nw\u00fcster , w . ( 1992 ) a century of confusion : asiatic cobras revisited . the vivarium , 4 : 14 - 18 . pdf\nw\u00fcster , w . ( 1996 ) taxonomic changes and toxinology : systematic revisions of the asiatic cobras ( naja naja species complex ) . toxicon , 34 ( 4 ) : 399 - 406 . pdf\nw\u00fcster , w . ( 1998 ) the cobras of the genus naja in india . hamadryad , 23 ( 1 ) : 15 - 32 . pdf\nw\u00fcster , w . & r . s . thorpe ( 1991 ) asiatic cobras : systematics and snakebite . experientia , 47 : 205 - 209 . pdf\nw\u00fcster , w . & r . s . thorpe ( 1992 ) asiatic cobras : population systematics of the naja naja species complex ( serpentes : elapidae ) in india and central asia . herpetologica , 48 ( 1 ) : 69 - 85 . pdf\nw\u00fcster , w . & r . s . thorpe ( 1994 ) naja siamensis , a cryptic species of venomous snake revealed by mtdna sequencing . experientia , 50 : 75 - 79 . pdf\nw\u00fcster , w . , r . s . thorpe , m . j . cox , p . jintakune & j . nabhitabhata ( 1995 ) population systematics of the snake genus naja ( reptilia : serpentes : elapidae ) in indochina : multivariate morphometrics and comparative mitochondrial dna sequencing ( cytochrome oxidase i ) . journal of evolutionary biology , 8 : 493 - 510 . pdf\nthis page ' s webcounter believes that you are visitor no . since 9 october 2001 support this site : visit out sponsors :\ngeneral shape medium in length , heavy bodied snake with long cervical ribs capable of expansion to form a hood when threatened . body is compressed dorsoventrally and sub - cylindrical posteriorly . can grow to a maximum of about 1 . 60 metres . head is elliptical , depressed and slightly distinct from neck with a short , rounded snout and large nostrils . eyes are medium in size with round pupils . dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique .\ngeneral : other these snakes can spit their venom , causing venom spit ophthalmia .\ntreatment summary bites can cause both local tissue injury and systemic effects , principally flaccid paralysis . treatment is therefore twofold ; good wound care and control of secondary infection , plus watch for flaccid paralysis . if severe paralysis present , with respiratory failure , requires intubation & ventilation . specific antivenoms available , which should be given at first sign of developing paralysis .\ngeneral approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .\nantivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\nnaja siamensis laurenti 1768 : 91 naja naja kaouthia smith 1943 naja naja kaouthia , variety c taylor 1965 naja tripudians \u2014 nootpand 1971 naja oxiana \u2014 nootpand 1971 naja naja isanensis nutaphand 1982 naja naja sputatrix \u2014 nutaphand 1982 naja naja atra \u2014 nutaphand 1982 naja isanensis \u2014 nutaphand 1986 naja sputatrix atra \u2014 lingenhole & trutnau 1989 naja sputatrix isanensis \u2014 lingenhole & trutnau 1989 naja atra \u2014 w\u00fcster & thorpe 1991 naja cf . atra \u2014 w\u00fcster & thorpe 1992 naja siamensis \u2014 w\u00fcster & thorpe 1994 naja siamensis \u2014 cox et al . 1998 : 28 naja ( naja ) siamensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2009 naja siamensis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 462\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nvenomous ! in the toxinological literature , the name\nnaja naja siamensis\nis more likely to refer to naja kaouthia than to this species . not listed by golay 1985 .\nchan - ard , t . , parr , j . w . k . & nabhitabhata , j . 2015 . a field guide to the reptiles of thailand . oxford university press , ny , 352 pp . [ see book reviews by pauwels & grismer 2015 and hikida 2015 for corrections ] - get paper here\nchan - ard , t . ; grossmann , w . ; gumprecht , a . & schulz , k . d . 1999 . amphibians and reptiles of peninsular malaysia and thailand - an illustrated checklist [ bilingual english and german ] . bushmaster publications , w\u00fcrselen , gemany , 240 pp . [ book review in russ . j herp . 7 : 87 ] - get paper here\ncox , merel j . ; van dijk , peter paul ; jarujin nabhitabhata & thirakhupt , kumthorn 1998 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of peninsular malaysia , singapore and thailand . ralph curtis publishing , 144 pp .\ndas , i . 2012 . a naturalist ' s guide to the snakes of south - east asia : malaysia , singapore , thailand , myanmar , borneo , sumatra , java and bali . oxford j , ohn beaufoy publishing - get paper here\ngeissler , peter , truong quang nguyen , nikolay a . poyarkov & wolfgang b\u00f6hme 2011 . new records of snakes from cat tien national park , dong nai and lam dong provinces , southern vietnam . bonn zoological bulletin 60 ( 1 ) : 9 - 16 - get paper here\ngolay , p . 1985 . checklist and keys to the terrestrial proteroglyphs of the world ( serpentes : elapidae - hydrophiidae ) . elapsoidea , geneva . - get paper here\ngrismer , l . l . , neang , t . , chav , t . & grismer , j . l . 2008 . checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of the cardamom region of southwestern cambodia . cambodian journal of natural history 2008 ( 1 ) : 12\u201328 - get paper here\nlaurenti , j . n . 1768 . specimen medicum , exhibens synopsin reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota reptilium austracorum , quod authoritate et consensu . vienna , joan . thomae , 217 pp . - get paper here\nlillywhite , harvey b . 2014 . how snakes work : structure , function and behavior of the world ' s snakes . oxford university press , new york , 256 pp\nlingenh\u00f6le , s . & trutnau , l . 1989 . \u00fcber die kobras der gattung naja laurenti 1758 in thailand . herpetofauna 11 ( 58 ) : 6 - 13 - get paper here\npauwels , o . s . g . ; david , p . ; chimsunchart , c . & thirakhupt , k . 2003 . reptiles of phetchaburi province , western thailand : a list of species , with natural history notes , and a discussion on the biogeography at the isthmus of kra . natural history journal of chulalongkorn university 3 ( 1 ) : 23 - 53 - get paper here\nsang , nguyen van ; ho thu cuc , nguyen , quang truong 2009 . herpetofauna of vietnam . chimaira , frankfurt , 768 pp .\nteyni\u00e9 , alexandre and patrick david . 2007 . additions to the snake fauna of southern laos , with the second laotian specimen of naja siamensis ( laurenti , 1768 ) and the forst country record of oligodon taeniatus ( g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) ( squamata , serpentes ) . russ . j . herpetol . 14 ( 1 ) : 39 - 44 - get paper here\nvonk , f . j . et al . 2008 . evolutionary origin and development of snake fangs . nature 454 : 630 - 633\nwallach , v . ; w\u00fcster , w . & broadley , d . g . 2009 . in praise of subgenera : taxonomic status of cobras of the genus naja laurenti ( serpentes : elapidae ) . zootaxa 2236 : 26\u201336 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwuster , w . ; thorpe , r . s . 1994 . naja siamensis , a cryptic species of venomous snake revealed by mtdna sequencing . experientia 50 ( 1 ) : 75 - 79\nw\u00fcster , w . 1996 . taxonomic changes and toxinology : systematic revisions of the asiatic cobras ( naja naja complex ) . toxicon 34 ( 4 ) : 399 - 406\nw\u00fcster , w . ; thorpe , r . s . ; cox , m . j . ; jintakune , p . ; nabhitabhata , j . 1995 . populuation systematics of the snake genus naja ( reptilia : serpentes : elapidae ) in indochina : multivariate morphometrics and comparative mitochondrial dna sequencing ( cytochrome oxidase i ) . j . evol . biol . 8 : 493 - 510\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nvery dangerous , bites potentially fatal , and able to spit venom possibly causing blindness ; fixed front - fanged , potent venom , and a fast agile snake .\nwe have encountered this species in different seasons , both in the winter and in the wet season .\nour personal experience with this species has been primarily during the day , mostly in the mornings . many books however state they are nocturnal . this could perhaps vary per season / or even habitat .\nimage credit : urltoken staff . \u201cblausen gallery 2014\u201d . wikiversity journal of medicine . doi : 10 . 15347 / wjm / 2014 . 010 . issn 20018762\nprotobothrops mangshanensis , also known as mangshan pitviper at the los angeles zoo . image credit : junkyardsparkle cc0\naccording to urltoken they live up to about 20 years . http : / / urltoken / cobras - all - you - need - to - know /\nhabitat elevations up to about 1500 metres in mainly tropical primary and secondary forest ( including dense jungle terrain ) but has been found in gardens and parks in urban areas .\nprey feeds mainly on rodents and amphibians but will also eat snakes , lizards and small mammals .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nplease do not steal my photos for the purpose of advertising your own animals .\nall animals pictured on this page are in our collection , and owned by us . the photos were taken by us , unless otherwise labeled . we are still looking specimens of naja philippinensis , and extra specimens of species we already have . if you have something for sale , please contact us , at the link above .\nthe 7 photos below were taken by me , unless otherwise labeled , of some animals that used to be in our collection . the animals pictured below those 7 , are in our collection now .\nthe female at left died on 01 / 04 / 13 . she was a great girl and when bred to high - white males , produced some very nice offspring , including sia - 003 - 07 - f above .\nthey are easy to keep and work with , and most don ' t spit very often at all .\nour male id # sia - 019 - 06 - m , below , was produced by us from a clutch of 11 . 6 hatchlings back in 2006 from completely black parents . we got him back in may 2013 . he is almost completely black having only a few white dots in the center of some of his ventral scales . he is also very big at 68\n/ 172 . 7 cm long . maximum length is considered to be about 160 cm . his mother and father are shown below . ."]}
{"id": 1203, "summary": [{"text": "saunders ' bee hawkmoth ( hemaris saundersii ) is a moth of the sphingidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from southern kashmir , northern pakistan , northern india ( himachal pradesh ) and north-eastern afghanistan , eastwards along the himalayan foothills of india ( punjab , uttar pradesh and sikkim ) to bangladesh and northern myanmar .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of scrub-jungle at 1,800 to 3,000 metres altitude .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 50 \u2013 60 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "it is a diurnal species .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "adults are on wing in june in kashmir and from april to may and again in july in himachal pradesh .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on lonicera quinquelocularis in india . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "hemaris saundersii", "paragraphs": ["hemaris saundersii - urdu meaning and translation of hemaris saundersii , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of hemaris saundersii and more .\nhemaris fuciformis pseudodentata dubatolov , 2003 ; euroasian ent . j . 2 ( 1 ) : 75\nsaunders ' bee hawkmoth ( hemaris saundersii ) is a moth of the sphingidae family . it is found from southern kashmir , northern pakistan , northern india ( himachal pradesh ) and north - eastern afghanistan , eastwards along the himalayan foothills of india ( punjab , uttar pradesh and sikkim ) to bangladesh and northern myanmar .\nhemaris croatica fahira de freina , 2004 ; linneana belgica 19 ( 7 ) : ( 305 - 307 ) ; tl : se . iran\nhemaris rubra hampson , [ 1893 ] ; fauna br . india ( moths ) 1 : 120 ; tl : sind and gurais valleys , kashmir\npupa : 30mm . slender , dark brown , shiny , very similar to that of hemaris croatica ( esper , 1800 ) . the overwintering stage .\nlarva : full - fed 45mm . early instars undescribed . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , the fully - grown larva resembles that of hemaris fuciformis .\nwingspan : 50 - - 60mm . very like a large version of hemaris fuciformis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , but without the scaled line across the forewing cell . according to bell & scott ( 1937 ) , upperside head , thorax and abdomen olive - green ; fourth and fifth abdominal segments brownish - red , with a mesal patch of the same colour on the sixth segment . underside of abdomen brownish - red , grey mesially . forewing upperside hyaline , with a broad reddish - brown marginal band as in hemaris fuciformis . hind wing hyaline , with a narrow reddish - brown marginal border as in hemaris tityus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) .\nholarctic ; western palaearctic region . pleistocene refuge : monocentric - - northern section of sindian refuge .\nuni - or bivoltine , depending on locality . in kashmir , on the wing in june ; in himachal pradesh during april / may and again in july .\nfound in may / june and again in august in scub - jungle at mussooree ( uttarakhand ) ; uncommen ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\nhostplants . lonicera quinquelocularis in uttarakhand , india ( bell & scott , 1937 ) .\ncurrently known only from northeastern afghanistan ( danner , eitschberger & surholt , 1998 ) and northern pakistan ( khyber pakhtunkhwa ) ( rafi et al . , 2014 ) .\nextra - limital range . northern india ( kashmir and himachal pradesh to uttaranchal ) . reports of this species from farther east are erroneous , e . g . from bangladesh and northern myanmar .\ni think , if my identification is correct , that the eastern ran . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\njapan , ussuri , amurland , korea , n . china . see [ maps ]\nhaemorrhagia tityus aksana le cerf , 1923 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1923 ( 15 ) : 199 ; tl : morocco , azrou\nsweu , asia minor , transcaucasus , iraq , iran . see [ maps ]\nmacroglossa ducalis var . dentata staudinger , 1887 ; stettin ent . ztg 48 ( 1 - 3 ) : 66 ; tl : aintab\n: napa co . , big trees , calaveras co . , california ; vancouver island , britis columbia\nuzbekistan , kazakhstan , tajikistan , tian shan , pamirs , afghanistan . see [ maps ]\n450x510 ( ~ 32kb ) finland , kangasala , roikku , 6814 : 350 , 23 . 6 . 1996 , photo \u00a9 tero piirainen\nlarva on lonicera , l . xylosteum , l . tatarica , l . caerulea , l . caprifolium , symphoricarpos rivularis , knautia arvensis [ sprk ]\nnova scotia - florida , new england , michigan , new york . see [ maps ]\nhaemorrhagia gracilis grote & robinson , 1865 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 174 , pl . 3 , figs . 1 - 2 ; tl : atlantic district\nmacroglossa fuciformis var . brunneobasalis staudinger , 1892 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 6 : 241 ; tl : amur\nmacroglossa pyramus boisduval , [ 1875 ] ; hist . nat . ins . , spec . g\u00e9n . l\u00e9pid . h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e8res , 1 : 372 ; tl : northern unites states\nnaf , eu , russia , asia minor , c . asia . see [ maps ]\nthe dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nl\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res du district de kouldj\u00e0 et des montagnes environnantes . ( 1 - 3 )\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res h\u00e9t\u00e9roc\u00e9res . tome premier . sphingides , s\u00e9siides , castnides\npacific coast lepidoptera , no . 11 . - list of the sphingidae of california and adjacent districts , with descriptions of new species\n( rothschild & jordan , 1903 ) stat . rev . 4 . erg\u00e4nzung zu\ndie sch\u00e4rmer der westlichen palaearktis\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil ii . die abendschmetterlinge\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil ii . supplement . zweiter abscnitt . die abendschmetterlinge\nreise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera\n- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .\n( esper , 1800 ) du s . - o de l ' iran :\nbericht \u00fcber meine reise in das \u00f6stliche buchara ( correspondez ; mit 1 karte ) . nebst anghang : dianosen einger neuen species in romanoff ,\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\ndescriptions of new genera and species of lepidoptera heterocera collected by rev . j . h . hocking , chiefly in the kangra district , n . w . himalaya\ndie macrolepidopteren des amurgebiets . i . theil . rhopalocera , sphinges , bombyces , noctuae in romanoff ,\nannual report of lieutenant e . h . ruffner , corps of engineers , for the fiscal year ending june 30 , 1878 . explorations and surveys in the department of the missouri . report of the secretary of war for the year 1878 2 in ruffner ,\na natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors\nzeller , 1869 skandinaviens heterocer - fj\u00e4rilar , beskrifne af h . d . j . wallengren skymmings . fjarilarne stettin ent . ztg 30 ( 10 - 12 ) : 379 - 392\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\ncopyright \u00a9 2013 www . sphingidae - museum . com . all rights reserved .\nthe wingspan is 50\u201360 mm . it is a diurnal species . adults are on wing in june in kashmir and from april to may and again in july in himachal pradesh .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 1207, "summary": [{"text": "the southern tamandua ( tamandua tetradactyla ) , also called the collared anteater or lesser anteater , is a species of anteater from south america .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is a solitary animal , found in many habitats from mature to highly disturbed secondary forests and arid savannas .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it feeds on ants , termites , and bees .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "its very strong fore claws can be used to break insect nests or to defend itself . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "southern tamandua", "paragraphs": ["habitat southern tamanduas can be found in south america . subspecies there are four subspecies of the southern tamandua : tamandua tetradactyla nigra tamandua tetradactyla quichua tamandua tetradactyla straminea tamandua tetradactyla tetradactyla interesting facts the southern tamandua is also known as : collard anteater lesser anteater similar animals silky anteater giant anteater northern tamandua\nthe southern tamandua hardly makes sounds unless it is threatened or indulges in a fight .\nthe southern tamandua has a 40 cm long tongue but doesn ' t possess any teeth .\nthe southern tamandua has a 40 cm long tongue but doesnt possess any teeth .\nbesides the above - mentioned subspecies , the southern tamandua has a northern relative called northern tamandua that occupies the areas of southern mexico , central america and the northern andes . its scientific name is tamandua mexicana and thus belongs to the same genus as the southern tamandua . regarding their appearance , the southern and northern tamandua are quite similar except for the distinction of the edges of the vests that appears to be sharply distinct in the northern tamaduas but somewhat blurry in its southern counterpart .\nplease work with the tamandua ssp studbook keeper first for captive bred tamandua acquisition .\nleast concern : the southern tamandua is common or abundant and is likely to survive in the wild .\nthe southern tamandua feeds mainly on ants and termites and spends almost 60 % of their time in trees .\nsometimes sustainability requires a shift in perspective among zookeepers , as it did with efforts related to the southern tamandua .\nthe southern tamandua has a long prehensile tail that is used almost like a fifth limb during standing and climbing trees .\nalso known as lesser anteater , the southern tamandua has a 40 cm long tongue but doesn ' t possess any teeth .\nthe species of southern tamandua locates its prey with the help of smell as it has very poor eyesight but extremely sensitive nose .\nthe tamandua ( lesser anteater ) is native to south america east of the andes and south to southern brazil , northern argentina and uruguay .\ntamandua mexicana ranges from southern mexico in the north of its range , through central america as far south as northwestern peru and northwestern venezuela .\ndespite the poor vision and hearing , the southern tamandua has a highly - developed sense of smell , allowing the animal to find food .\ntamandua tetradactyla straminea this anteater was first identified in 1889 and its location mainly includes the southern part of brazil , argentina , bolivia and paraguay .\ncarely , alan . tamandua anteater . ( tamandua anteater ( tamandua mexicana ) . n . d . photograph . pr science , belize . web . 27 may 2013 . < urltoken > .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\na tamandua tale - the tamandua forages both on the ground and in the trees , using its prehensile tail to aid in gripping branches .\nthe northern and southern tamandua anteaters are relatively the same , but located in different regions of the world . the northern tamandua can be found throughout tropical regions of central america , whereas the southern tamandua can be found in south america . these anteaters are often called the \u201clesser anteater , \u201d or \u201ccollared anteater , \u201d due to its strong black markings from the shoulder to its rump . the portions of the tamandua\u2019s body that aren\u2019t covered by this trademark vest can be colorations including black , brown or blonde .\nnative to south america , the southern tamandua is a species of anteater that is mostly seen in forests and grasslands . the word \u2018tamandua\u2019 roughly translates into \u2018insect eater\u2019 which hints at the primary diet of this animal . it is medium sized and smaller than its closest relative , the giant anteater , due to which it is nicknamed as lesser anteater . the southern tamandua is also known as collared anteater in some places and is found in large numbers in venezuela , trinidad , northern argentina , uruguay and southern brazil at elevations up to 2000 meters .\nstandard chain - link has been used with adult tamandua , but should not be used for any newborn / juvenile tamandua as the holes are too large . newborn tamandua can fit through the links and juveniles may get limbs stuck .\nsouthern tamanduas move their extremely sticky tongue as fast as 150 times per minute , ingesting larvae and cocoons .\nwhich is found in the temperate rainforests and grasslands of central and south america and are considerably larger than the southern tamandua . additionally , the silky anteater of the genus cyclopes is another species of anteaters that has a close relation with the southern tamandua . it is arboreal in nature and is the smallest of all anteaters with a body that is almost equal to the size of an adult squirrel .\na tamandua baby uses its claws to hold onto its mother ' s back .\nthe northern tamandua inhabits many different habitats , from deciduous and evergreen forest to mangroves and swamps . they are found in the forests from southern mexico , through central america to northern venezuela and northern peru .\naccording to iucn , the southern tamandua is relatively common and widespread throughout its range but no overall population estimate is available . currently , this species is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list .\nthis anteater is endemic to south america , occurring from venezuela and trinidad to northern argentina , southern brazil , and uruguay . the preferred habitats of the southern tamandua are both wet and dry forests such as tropical rainforest , savanna , and thorn scrub . this animal is most often found in areas near streams and rivers , dominated by vines and epiphytes .\ntamandua mexicana are solitary mammals and have a strong odor . the odor signals the tamandua\u2019s presence which sends animals retreating in the opposite direction . when they are attacked the tamandua hisses at the predator and releases an odor from a gland at the base of its tail .\nthe two anteaters of the genus tamandua , the southern tamandua ( t . tetradactyla ) and the northern tamandua ( t . mexicana ) , are much smaller than the giant anteater , only about 3 feet ( 90 cm ) long . the usual color is yellowish white , with a broad black lateral band , covering nearly the whole of the side of the body . each anteater has short hair .\nthe tamandua can be held by the tail if needed , a harness is not really necessary .\nharrold , andria .\nanimal diversity web .\ntamandua mexicana , northern tamandua . university of michigan museum of zoology , 22 may , 2013 . web . 27 may 2013 . < urltoken > .\nunknown , .\ninaturalist . org .\nnorthern tamandua ( tamandua mexicana ) . catalogue of life - 2012 annual checklist , n . d . web . 27 may 2013 . < urltoken > .\nthe exact number of southern tamanduas that resides in the wild habitats of south america is not known but this species is listed in the category of least concern on the iucn\u2019s red list of threatened species . although they are widespread , southern tamanduas are pretty uncommon and are not found anywhere else except the wild forests of south america .\n, beginning with a pair of northern tamanduas in 1932 . we have had one tamandua birth , in 1998 .\none tamandua ' s stomach was found to contain more than 1 pound ( 0 . 45 kilograms ) of ants .\nthe tamandua inhabits a wide variety of habitats , from dry forest and tropical rainforest , to savannah and thorn scrub .\nfor an indoor tamandua a cat tree would be good . mine does enjoy the cat condo from time to time .\nthe southern tamandua is an insectivore , the diet of this species mainly consists of ant and termites , supplemented with honey and bees . individuals in captivity may consume fruit and meat . meanwhile , these animals generally avoid feeding on army ants and leaf - eating ants , which are equipped with strong chemical defenses .\nthe tamandua ' s powerful forearms and claws can also be used for defense . if it feels threatened while in a tree , the tamandua holds onto a branch with its hind feet and tail so its arms and long claws are free to fight .\nthe oldest fossil records of southern tamandua date back to the pleistocene epoch of south america . their genetic evidence hints that the present form of the tamanduas may have evolved from their larger relative , the giant anteater , from which they might have diverged almost 12 . 9 million years ago at the end of the miocene period .\nnorthern tamandua populations are not currently considered at risk . however , populations throughout most of their range may be impacted by habitat destruction .\nthe names longicaudata , nigra , opisthomelas , and tamandua , cannot be assigned to subspecies with certainty because their type localities are too general .\nboxes and cardboard tubes can be stuffed with paper ( newspaper , tissue , shredded ) for tamandua to tear apart to forage for worms .\nthis anteater lacks teeth . however , it possesses a very long , cylindrical tongue of 40 cm , which helps the tamandua when feeding .\nbrown , danielle .\nfruit - eating an obligate insectivore : palm fruit consumption in wild northern tamandua ( tamandua mexicana ) in panama .\nanteater , sloth , and armadillo specialist group . 12 . ( 2011 ) : 63 - 65 . web . 29 may . 2013 .\nreferences 1 . formulating diets for tamandua , a . ward , s . crissy , k . cassaro , e . frank 2 . nutrition of the tamandua , s oyarzun , g . crawshaw , and e . valdes 3 . health survey , s . morford and m . meyers .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - collared anteater ( tamandua tetradactyla )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - collared anteater ( tamandua tetradactyla )\ntitle =\narkive species - collared anteater ( tamandua tetradactyla )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nseveral potential predators\u2014jaguars and smaller cats like the margay\u2014would love to make a meal out of a tamandua if it weren ' t so stinky ! the bad smell lets other animals know where the tamandua is and usually sends them in the opposite direction . if a predator does get too close , the tamandua may hiss and then release a very unpleasant odor , similar to a skunk ' s , from a gland at the base of its tail .\nrecently there are two subspecies available and evidence suggests they are actually two different species . the dark black vested from paraguay and the light to non vested ones from guyana . tamandua tetradactyla longicaudata ( tamandua longicaudata ) is the kind i have and they are of the blond variety with no vest . the ones from paraguay are shunned by all longicaudata . the long tailed actually do have longer tails and longer noses as reported by one facility that has a large number of each and checked . this very much indicates the long tails ( blonds ) as very much tamandua longicaudata and not tamandua tetradactyla .\nalso called the lesser anteater , the tamandua uses its long snout to sniff out ant , termite and bee colonies . long claws enable it to dig into nests , and a long sticky tongue licks up the insects . a single tamandua can eat up to 9 , 000 ants in a single day !\nreid park zoo has been very successful using tamanduas as animal ambassadors and for breeding . a tamandua and her pup can be trained to do presentations together .\nthe southern tamandua has no teeth but has a disproportionately long snout along with a rounded tongue . they can stick out their narrow tongue up to a length of 40 cm . the entire length of the tongue is coated with a pasty , sticky saliva and is covered with tiny posteriorly directed spines . this anteater has five fingers out of which three have large claws that can be as long as 16 inches .\ntamandua females carry , protect , and nurse their young until they are weaned . young tamanduas also remain with their mother until they have reached about one year old .\nwhen they eat , they noisily rip and tear insect nests and rotten wood apart . at night , sounds of tearing wood will often lead to a northern tamandua .\nsouthern tamanduas are pale yellow and look like they are wearing a black vest around the shoulders , chest , sides , and lower back . they weigh 6 . 5 to 15 pounds and their bodies are 18 . 5 to 30 inches long , with a tail nearly as long as the body . the tamandua\u2019s tail is prehensile , like the prehensile - tailed porcupine and the black howler monkey . a prehensile tail serves as another arm , allowing the animal to grasp branches with it . the tamandua has a long snout , though not as long as that of the giant anteater .\n\u201cthey are such stellar ambassadors , they are often taken out to classrooms , \u201d said harrison edell the senior director of living collections at the dallas zoo in dallas , texas and the ciconiiformes and phoenicopteriformes tag chair and southern tamandua ssp coordinator . when two thirds of the population were comprised of solo animals for educational outreach , with only one third having the opportunity to breed , edell encouraged colleagues to change their approach .\ntamandua tetradactyla nigra identified in 1803 by the french naturalist geoffroy , this subspecies is widely distributed in colombia , venezuela , trinidad and the regions of guiana and northern brazil .\ntamandua tetradactyla quiche the t . t . quiche was first identified in 1927 by a british zoologist and is found in extreme western parts of brazil , peru and ecuador .\ntamandua mexicana lack teeth , as a result , their stomach is divided into portions . similar to birds , their stomach has a muscular gizzard to break down the food .\nunknown , .\nsan diego zoo : zoonooz .\nmammals : tamandua or lesser anteater . san diego zoo . web . 27 may 2013 . < urltoken > .\nto cite this page : harrold , a . 2007 .\ntamandua mexicana\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nif a predator gets too close , a tamandua may hiss and then release a very unpleasant odor from a gland at the base of its tail , similar to a skunk\u2019s .\nat the san diego zoo and san diego zoo safari park , the tamandua is fed a high - protein powder mixed with water , as well as honey and fruit as treats .\nsouthern tamanduas can be found in south america . they like to live in thorn scrub , dry forest and rain forest areas . near a river or stream is where they would most likely be found . they are great climbers , so they live in places with trees .\nsouthern tamanduas are between 21 and 31 . 5 inches ( 53 . 5 to 80 centimeters ) in length , with an additional 15 to 23 inch ( 40 to 59 millimeters ) long prehensile tail . this species typically weighs around 10 pounds ( 4 . 5 kilograms ) .\nthe tamandua mexicana\u2019s specialized mouth and tongue allow them to eat ants and termites . since they live an arboreal lifestyle they detect their prey by scent . the nests of ants and termites are ripped open with their powerful claws . tamandua\u2019s have developed away to detect ants that produce chemical toxins , like the leaf cutter ants . they also have the ability to distinguish a termite\u2019s rank in their colony . \u201cthey will not eat soldiers of certain noxious termites , but will search out defenseless workers and eat them\u201d ( harrold ) . the tamandua can eat up to 9 , 000 ants a day !\na menace to ants and termites of south america , the southern tamandua is a creature of both land and trees that survives by eating over 9000 insects every day . with its long snout that hides even a longer cylindrical tongue covered in gooey and sticky saliva , this anteater gobbles up insects by breaking open their nests both in trees and on land . besides the unusual diet , its appearance is quite peculiar as the black fur on its body makes this anteater look like wearing a vest from a distance .\na tamandua ' s prehensile tail comes in handy for spending time in the trees . the underside and end of the tail is hairless , and the tail is used like an extra hand or foot while climbing . a tamandua also uses the tail for balance or like a tripod when needing to stand upright to slash out with the sharp , curved claws . the thick tail also makes a great pillow when sleeping !\ntamandua tetradactyla is found to the east of the andes from colombia , venezuela , trinidad island , and the guianas ( french guiana , guyana , and suriname ) , south to northern uruguay and northern argentina .\nthere are four kinds of anteaters found in the wild , but the species that is most suitable for the adventurous souls willing to invite one into their homes is tamandua tetradactyla , which goes by the common names of southern anteater , the lesser anteater , or the collared anteater . this south american insect eater is 13 to 35 inches long , plus the tail , which can extend another 15 to 26 inches . the creature weight 3 . 3 to 18 . 5 pounds , with considerable variation depending on where the specimen originates .\na type of anteater , the tamandua ( pronounced tuh man doo wah ) is often called a lesser anteater because it is much smaller than its relative , the giant anteater . this interesting animal is at home both in trees and on the ground . the tamandua is most active at night , often nesting during the day in hollow tree trunks . it has small eyes and poor vision but can hear and smell quite well .\ncurrently , there are no notable threats to the population of this species . however , southern tamanduas suffer from pet trade . in addition , they are predated by domestic dogs . on the other hand , wildfires , road traffic as well as degradation and loss of their natural habitat can pose a threat to specific populations .\nthe tamandua mexicana keep the ant and termite populations under control . this is important for humans because it decreases the ant and termite damage on crops . this is significant in order to produce abundant and healthy crop products .\nwhere can i buy a tamandua anteater , and also do you know if they are legal in australia , melbourne , but i really want to know the first question actually , yeah . well i hope you answer this\nrecent studies on the habitat choice of the southern tamanduas revealed that they either choose to live in forest edges or forested habitats regardless of the landscape or topography with the open grasslands being their least preferred choice . the average size of their territory ranges from 350 to 400 hectares . foraging is carried out in the open areas whereas they spend a major portion of their time in trees . in fact , it has been found that the southern tamanduas spend 60 % of their entire time either foraging in trees or resting among branches . they usually find shelter in hollow trees and in the absence of proper tree hollows , they might also use abandoned ground holes as shelters .\nan adaptable species , southern tamanduas can be found in forests , savannas , tropical rainforests , scrub forests , and mangroves , but most commonly occur near streams and rivers . they have been documented at elevations reaching 6 , 500 feet ( 2 , 000 meters ) . when they are not active , tamanduas commonly shelter in tree hollows .\nthe adult tamandua\u2019s body length is between 13 and 35 inches ( 33 - 88 cm ) ; with a prehensile tail , which means it can grasp things , of about 15 to 26 inches ( 38 - 66 cm ) ; and it weighs between 3 - 18 pounds ( 1 . 5 - 18 . 5 kg ) . the tamandua anteater is mainly nocturnal , but actively hunts for bees , termites , and ants to eat when it is awake .\nthey also must be wormed soon as you get them . due to their lack of stomach acid they are very prone to intestinal parasites and stress causes them to come out a proliferate . tamandua often die from internal parasites , especially\nfor an indoor tamandua a cat tree would be good . mine does enjoy the cat condo from time to time . i would advise it not being allowed much unsupervised access as fiber can come loose from clawing and be hazardous .\ntamandua mexicana has no defined breeding season . however , it is commonly observed that the male finds a mate in the fall and the female gives birth to one offspring in the spring . the females\u2019 gestations period lasts from 130 - 190 days . the young tamandua initially stays in the shelter of a hollow tree , but later clings and is carried on their mothers back . the young stay with their mother until one year of age before entering life on their own .\nsouthern tamanduas have short dense fur . their coat color varies depending on where they live . in the south , they have bold dark markings over their shoulders and back , while the rest of their bodies range from brown to blond . in the north and west , they may have lighter markings or be a solid color\u2014black , brown or blond\u2014and have no markings .\nif one wants to feed a formulated food . i know of a reportedly 22 year old tamandua who was fed termants bu mazuri his whole life . it still uses a lot of corn products but obviously manages to meet their needs quite well .\ntamandua tetradactyla is found in south america east of the andes from columbia , venezuela , trinidad , and the guianas , south to uruguay and n argentina . its habitats consist of wet and dry forests , including tropical rainforest , savanna , and thorn scrub .\nburton , andrew , and gerardo ceballos .\nnorthern - most record of the collard anteater ( tamandua mexicana ) from the pacific slope of mexico .\ninstituto de ecologia , universidad nacional autonma de mexico . 10 . ( 2006 ) : 67 - 70 . print .\nan aza listserv has been created for those interested in tamanduas , which may prove a useful tool in sharing husbandry notes . to post to this list , you may send email to : tamandua @ lists . aza . org ; general information about the mailing list is available at\nthe tamandua tetradactyla inhabits the forested regions of south america , including venezuela , northern argentina , trinidad and the eastern part of the andes . their habitat varies from dry grasslands to temperate rainforests , thorn shrubs and savannas . they are found commonly near rivers and streams with many vines .\nhealthy tamanduas are thought to have a captive lifespan of about 9 - 11yrs . tamandua mexican has a lifespan of 16 so tamandua tetradactyla could well be similar with real quality care as the info on life span is limited and based on cases before care and diet were improved with studies . their normal temp is about 93 . 6f give or take a little . tamanduas generally respond well to canine medications when needed . try to find a good vet that can get inflo from a zoo vet . there are some medicinces like certain antibiotics that should not be given .\ntamanduas are highly beneficial for people in the amazon , who use them to clear their homes from insects such as ants and termites that are primary prey species of these animals . moreover , many local zoo and safari parks offer their visitors to purchase a tamandua for the above mentioned reason .\na good dealer will make sure yours is healthy and eating before you get it but you need to be prepared . some remain picky . it could be a few days after arrival before a tamandua will first eat in a new home so you don ' t need to panic right away .\nas the southern tamanduas are not seen commonly around human settlements they are not depicted in cultural human societies as the giant anteater is , which is terrestrial by nature and seen more frequently than the tamanduas . however , tamanduas often get killed by hunters for their thick tendons present in their tail which is used in making rope . besides this , some amazonian indians capture tamanduas and take them to their homes in order to rid themselves from ants and termites .\nthe first southern tamandua maintained in a north american collection was an individual ( of unknown sex ) imported in 1883 ; the animal was housed at the philadelphia zoo . longevity data indicate that the species may live as long as 20 + years . the oldest living animals are a female at houston zoo ( studbook # 243 , at 11 . 7 years of age ) and a male at sacramento zoo ( studbook # 181 , at 18 . 0 years of age ) . the oldest female to breed did so at an age of 10 . 6 years , while the oldest male was 18 . 3 years of age at estimated conception . despite a maximum longevity of 19 . 18 years ( over the last decade ) , median life expectancy is much lower .\na powerful sense of smell helps the animal find a food source , like a termite mound . the tamandua feeds only a short time at each ant nest or termite mound so it won ' t get many bites . this also helps ensure there are plenty of snacks at the same location the next time !\n) . head and body length ranges from 470 to 770 mm and tail length from 402 to 672 mm . northern tamanduas are fawn to brownish colored and have a distinct , black\nv\ngoing down their backs . one of their names , vested anteaters , is derived from this\nv\nas it makes the anteater appear to be wearing a vest . northern tamanduas always have this vivid , black\nvest\non their trunk that continues from the shoulders to the rump . southern tamanduas , northern tamandua ' s closest relative , only has this\nv\nin some specimens from the southeastern portion of their range , the part of their range which is farthest from the range of northern tamanduas . sometimes the two species can only be distinguished by characters of the skull .\nthus , the tamandua is primarily kept as an ambassador species because is a good example of an animal whose future is strongly depending on the attitude of humans towards its natural environment , and for educational reasons as a good example for a unique life form . it thus contributes to a better understanding of the very particular and endemic fauna of south america .\nthey are good swimmers and like water so a child ' s wading pool on warm days might be good . some have liked soaking in warm water but most tamandua do not seem to like water that much . not all enjoy getting in water pua loves going to the river but usually avoids getting wet but if heated up she has waded in and even swims but it has to be just right .\nthe primary way of communication among the tamanduas is through smell . their anal glands produce a special secretion that has a very strong distasteful smell . they use this secretion to mark trees , paths or any conspicuous object and also to advertise their presence , status and sexual condition to the opposite sex . sometimes they use this stench for marking their territorial boundary . the southern tamanduas are very quiet animals and make sounds only during fights which can be heard in the form of snorts , hisses , roars and sniffs . on the other hand , during the postnatal care , the young tamanduas often make a high - pitched grunting noise to communicate with their mother .\nkeepers say the tamanduas can tell the different ant species apart by their smell , and they only like to eat certain types ! tamanduas like to climb , too ( especially palm trees ) , so while out on a walk or meeting guests , keepers have to keep their tamandua from getting too close to any trees . otherwise , our animal ambassador just might grab onto a branch with those mighty forearms , and it would be tough to convince him or her to let go !\na specialized mouth and tongue let tamanduas eat up to 9 , 000 ants in a single day ! tamanduas don ' t have teeth to chew their food ; instead , their stomach grinds the food after it is swallowed . a 16 - inch - long ( 41 centimeters ) sticky tongue with small barbs on it is just right for stealing ants and termites from their home . the tamandua ' s mouth is only as round as a pencil , but it can also lick up honey and soft , juicy fruits .\nwhile some anteaters can be gluttons and highly food motivated some are hard to get eating when newly acquired . they usually love the flavor of milk so a kitten milk replacer can be used for flavor short term . milk replacer should not be used long term . there is too much retinol in it . if used it should be temporary to wean them onto a healthy food mix . i have recently been told many tamandua in asian zoos are dying young from retinol toxicity . do not use long term . try to keep any use in adults to under a month .\nfemales give birth to one young at a time . rarely twins are born but the mother tamandua can not care for more than one young at a time in the wild so one is rejected . in the case of twins at least one young should be removed and bottled and the other watched closely . rarely twins have been left with mom and survived with supplemental feeding of both but this would never happen in the wild and it ' s more common for mom to reject one or even both so it is risky to try leaving both with mom . it ' s a tricky decision since mom ' s milk is best . the first 3 weeks the most touchy for bottle raising .\nthe tamandua , sometimes referred to as the ant bear , is a medium sized anteater . they weight about 7 - 19 pounds . my experience is healthy adults average on the larger size over 10 pounds . they are about 2 feet long not counting the tail . the tail is roughly another 2 feet in length and is prehensile . most are about the size of a large house cat or small dog . the standard coloring is tan with a black vest and is why they are often referred to as collard anteaters . however they also come in all blond , all black , all tan , gray and with faded vests when present . the color varies based on the region they live in the wild .\ngeneral info the tamandua , sometimes referred to as the ant bear , is a medium sized anteater . they weight about 7 - 19 pounds and are about 2 feet long not counting the tail . the tail is roughly another foot in length and is prehensile . most are about the size of a large house cat or small dog . the standard coloring is tan with a black vest and is why they are often referred to as collard anteaters . however they also come in all blond , all black , all tan , gray and with faded vests when present . the color varies based on the region they live in the wild . the actual collared anteaters are hard to find now and most in captivity are non - vested or only partly vested .\nif you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\namerica meridionali ;\nrestricted to brazil , pernambuco , pernambuco ( = recife ) , by thomas ( 1911 a ) .\nsouth america east of the andes from colombia , venezuela , trinidad , and the guianas , south to uruguay and n argentina .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nis listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , its occurrence in a number of protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nis found to the east of the andes from colombia , venezuela , trinidad island , and the guianas ( french guiana , guyana , and suriname ) , south to northern uruguay and northern argentina . it ranges from sea level to 2 , 000 m asl ( emmons and feer 1990 ) .\nit mainly feeds on ants and termites , but also attacks bees nests to eat honey ( emmons and feer 1990 ) . the female gives birth to a single young once per year ( silveira 1968 ) .\nis sometimes ( inappropriately ) used as a pet species or consumed . the skin is sometimes used to make leather products . tamanduas that are found in the wild are donated or sold to private persons or zoos , and may be involved in animal traffic .\n2008 , d . a . meritt jr . pers . comm . 2010 ) . habitat loss and degradation , wildfires , and road traffic represent a threat in some areas . in uruguay ,\nare needed to investigate population densities and dynamics in different parts of its range . studbooks for captive tamanduas exist in some range countries ( brazil : projeto tamandu\u00e1 ; international : alpza ) , and a population management plan has been established in aza zoos .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nas its name suggests , the collared anteater usually eats ants and termites , but it will also attack bees nests to get the honey .\nthe collared anteater has no teeth , but has an impressive 40cm long , cylindrical tongue .\na semi - arboreal species , the collared anteater has a prehensile tail which it uses as a 5th limb when climbing .\nwith poor eyesight and hearing , the collared anteater locates food using its good sense of smell .\ninformation on the collared anteater is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ntoday ' s hours : 8 a . m . to 7 p . m . last admittance 6 p . m .\nhead to freedom plaza for the fast & the fierce 5k and fun run . then , make your way to the zoo for an after - party on the great meadow !\nshow the animal lover in your life how big your heart is with the gift that supports animal care and conservation .\nsplash into fun with nature cubs summer preschool classes ! attend the beach buddies series starting july 10 , or pick a weekend class about elephants , monkeys , pandas and other zoo favorites .\ntamanduas are arboreal relatives of anteaters , whom they resemble . native to south america , they can live in a variety of habitats , eating mainly social insects such as ants , termites and bees .\ntamanduas , and all anteaters , belong to the suborder vermilingua , which literally means\nworm - tongue ,\ndescribing their famous long tongues .\nthe underside of their tails is fur - less ; this allows them to grip tree branches more securely as they move through the trees .\nthey have large claws , resembling those on the feet of their relative , the giant anteater .\ntamanduas are found throughout much of south america : throughout all of guyana , trinidad and tobago , suirname , french guiana , brazil , and paraguay . this species also inhabits parts of uruguay , argentina , bolivia , peru , ecuador , colombia and venezuela .\ntamanduas hiss and emit an unpleasant odor from their anal glands when threatened or disturbed . they can also defend themselves using their impressive claws and strong forelimbs . if a predator attacks them in a tree , tamanduas stand on their hind legs balancing themselves with their tail , and reach out with their claws and strong arms until the predator approaches . if threatened while on the ground , tamanduas lean against a tree or rock and use their forelimbs to grab potential predators .\nat the smithsonian ' s national zoo , tamanduas consume insects and a mash of insectivore diet .\ntamanduas typically mates in the fall , and female tamanduas are capable of having multiple estrus cycles throughout the breeding season . pregnancy lasts between 130 and 150 days , after which a single offspring is born . twin births can occur , but are uncommon . as with other species of anteater , mothers carry young tamanduas on their backs throughout the first months of life . young remain with their mother for about one year before reaching sexual maturity and heading off on their own .\nresearchers believe tamanduas are primarily nocturnal , but they have been observed being active during the daytime as well . whenever they are awake , they are typically active for an eight - hour period , which they spend mainly looking for food . they move easily in and through trees , but are awkward on the ground . they have to walk on the outside of their feet to avoid puncturing themselves with their long , strong claws .\nin certain regions , tamanduas are hunted for their meat or skins , which can be made into leather products . they are also collected from their native habitats and sold as pets . other hazards include vehicular traffic and wildfires . like most species , tamanduas are also affected by habitat loss and degradation .\nbeautiful and engaging , red pandas are classified as endangered on the iucn red list of threatened species . there may be fewer than 2 , 500 adult red pandas living in the wild today .\nsmithsonian\u2019s national zoo & conservation biology institute 3001 connecticut ave . , nw washington , dc 20008\nin its central and south american forest and scrub habitat . it has thick , coarse fur that is light yellow , tan , brown , or gray . the kinky hair keeps angry ants from reaching the animal\u2019s skin when dining at an anthill .\nmany also have a large , black band covering the sides of their body or a black\nv\ngoing down their back . the enormous front claws help tamanduas climb . they have four toes on the front feet , with an extra - long claw on the third toe . these long claws cause tamanduas to walk on the outside edges of their front feet so the claws don ' t dig into their feet ! the important claws are also used for defense and when digging for food .\none baby is born in early spring and is cared for by the mother only . the new baby does not resemble the parents very much , as its coat is a solid color , but its eyes are open , and it has those giant claws . the youngster spends the first part of its life on the mother ' s back ; she places her baby on a safe branch for a short time while she looks for food .\ncurrently , the san diego zoo has four tamanduas : three females , named lola , blanca , and jamaree ; and a male , named otis . jamaree is on exhibit in the children ' s zoo . the others live off exhibit but serve as animal ambassadors , meeting zoo and safari park guests up close during animal presentations and making appearances on television . you may see one out on a walk , looking for ants .\n, with stable populations . fortunately , tamanduas are able to adapt to a variety of habitats as needed .\nyou can help us bring other species back from the brink by supporting the san diego zoo global wildlife conservancy . together we can save and protect wildlife around the globe .\nat 91 degrees fahrenheit ( 33 degrees celsius ) , tamanduas have one of the lowest body temperatures of any active land mammal .\npeople living in the amazon sometimes use tamanduas to rid their homes of ants and termites .\na smelly scent gives tamanduas the nickname\nstinkers of the forest .\nthe animal can spray a foul - smelling secretion said to be four times more powerful than a skunk ' s !\ntropical rainforest , dry forest , savanna and thorn scrub , most common near streams and rivers .\nfor air transport , container note 75 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed .\nalthough the tamanduas both are currently not listed as being in concrete danger they already suffer from loss of environment . very often they fall victim to their habit of intruding into human settlements where they are regarded as noisy and unwelcome visitors . further , they are hunted for the pelts or for the pet trade as they are considered as good pets ( which is definitely not the case ; partially due to their sometimes very aggressive nature against their keepers ) .\nthey perform their walking by supporting their body on the wrists in order to keep their claws in shape and avoiding thus to be hurt by their own claws . the toes of the hind legs are also elongated which provide an improved grip when climbing up on the trees . they have four short , but muscular feet . when they walk on the surface their long tail drags along rather than being held upright .\nyou came across this error because the pageyou were trying to visit does not exist .\nwe ' ve recently redesigned the site so old links may not work . have a look at some of these changes .\nyou may want to update your bookmarks or try to find the updated information using the links below . if you are still unable to find the information you are looking for , please contact the webmaster using the information below .\nfaculties / academics - find links to all faculties , departments and other academic resources e . g . handbooks , prospectus\nmedia centre - find media relations information here eg . news releases , events and announcements information"]}
{"id": 1266, "summary": [{"text": "stauroteuthis syrtensis , also known as the glowing sucker octopus , is a species of small pelagic octopus found at great depths in the north atlantic ocean .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is one of a very small number of octopuses to exhibit bioluminescence . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "stauroteuthis syrtensis", "paragraphs": ["jennifer hammock marked\ncephalopod video : stauroteuthis syrtensis\nas trusted on the\nstauroteuthis syrtensis\npage .\nstauroteuthis syrtensis , also known as the glowing sucker octopod , is a . . .\ncatherine sutera added text to\ntext\non\nstauroteuthis syrtensis verrill , 1879\n.\nbioluminescence in the deep - sea cirrate octopod stauroteuthis syrtensis verrill ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) .\njennifer hammock selected\nfood habits\nto show in overview on\nstauroteuthis syrtensis verrill , 1879\n.\ncatherine sutera added the english common name\nglowing sucker octopod\nto\nstauroteuthis syrtensis verrill , 1879\n.\nbioluminescence in the deep - sea cirrate octopod stauroteuthis syrtensis verrill ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nchunioteuthis ebersbachii grimpe , 1916 is a junior synonym of stauroteuthis syrtensis ( voss , 1988 ; collins and henriques , 2000 ) .\nvertical distribution , behavior , chemical composition and metabolism of stauroteuthis syrtensis ( octopoda - cirrata ) in the northwest atlantic . pdf ( 334 . 0kb )\ncollins , m . , c . henriques . 2000 . a revision of the family stauroteuthidae ( octopoda : cirrata ) with redescriptions of stauroteuthis syrtensis and s . gilchristi .\njohnsen , s . , e . balser , e . fischer , a . widder . 1999 . bioluminescence in the deep - sea cirrate octopod stauroteuthis syrtensis verrill ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) .\nto cite this page : woo , h . and m . grieco 2009 .\nstauroteuthis syrtensis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ncollins , m . , r . young , m . vecchione . 2002 .\nstauroteuthis syrtensis verrill 1879\n( on - line ) . tree of life web project . accessed february 04 , 2009 at urltoken .\nfigure . geographical distribution of s . syrtensis . chart modified from collins and henriques ( 2000 ) .\ncollins , m . a . and c . henriques . 2000 . a revision of the family stauroteuthidae ( octopoda : cirrata ) with redescriptions of stauroteuthis syrtensis and s . gilchristi . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . , 80 : 685 - 697 .\nthis description is taken from collins and henriques ( 2000 ) . more details of the description of s . syrtensis can be found here .\nfigure . reproductive tracts of s . syrtensis . left - male . right - female . drawings modified from collins and henriques , 2000 .\nfigure . shell of s . syrtensis . left - side view . right - top view . drawings from collins and henriques , 2000 .\nbeing without adhesive suckers would seem to put you at a major disadvantage if you ' re an octopus , but the deep - sea octopus stauroteuthis syrtensis manages just fine . in the place of the usual suckers are rows of flashing photophores , which the octopus cannily uses to lure its prey to certain death or to startle intruders .\njohnson , s . , balser , e . j . , fisher , e . c . and e . a . widder . 1999 . bioluminescence in the deep - sea cirrate octopod stauroteuthis syrtensis verrill ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole , 197 : 113 - 114 .\ncollins , m . a . ; henriques , c . ( 2000 ) . a revision of the family stauroteuthidae ( octopoda : cirrata ) with redescriptions of stauroteuthis syrtensis and s . gilchristi . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . 80 ( 4 ) : 685 - 697 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\njustification : stauroteuthis syrtensis has been assessed as data deficient . little is known about this species , but like many opisthoteuthid species it occurs in waters that are being increasingly targeted by commercial deep - water fisheries . research is urgently required into the effect of fishing activity on population sizes as their longevity and low fecundity make them particularly susceptible to fishing pressure .\nfigure . side view of the beaks of s . syrtensis , upper jaw ( left ) , lower jaw ( right ) . drawings from collins and henriques , 2000 .\njsl ii dive 1997 . animal swims into the bottom , then spreads its web from : vecchione , m . and r . e young . 1997 . aspects of the functional morphology of cirrate octopods : locomotion and feeding . vie et milieu , 47 : 101 - 110 . online abstract : urltoken to see other cephalopod videos : urltoken [ taxonomy : binomial = stauroteuthis syrtensis ]\njsl i dive 2621 . drifting in a bell - shaped posture from : vecchione , m . and r . e young . 1997 . aspects of the functional morphology of cirrate octopods : locomotion and feeding . vie et milieu , 47 : 101 - 110 . online abstract : urltoken also : urltoken to see other cephalopod videos : urltoken [ taxonomy : binomial = stauroteuthis syrtensis ]\n( of chunioteuthis ebersbachii grimpe , 1916 ) collins , m . a . ; henriques , c . ( 2000 ) . a revision of the family stauroteuthidae ( octopoda : cirrata ) with redescriptions of stauroteuthis syrtensis and s . gilchristi . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . 80 ( 4 ) : 685 - 697 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nstauroteuthis feeds on small crustaceans that are attracted to light . once the unsuspecting critter is close , the octopus grabs it and traps it within a mucus web produced by glands on its arms . in the first study ( pdf ) to document stauroteuthis ' bioluminescence , duke university ' s sonke johnsen and colleagues observed that , when disturbed , the octopus splayed out its arms and exposed all its flashing photophores in an attempt to scare off unwanted guests .\nstauroteuthis syrtensis appears to be relatively common off the continental slope of the eastern usa although it occurs across the north atlantic . it has been observed off the usa from submersibles ( e . g . , vecchione and young , 1997 , johnsen , et al . , 1999 ) and is regularly caught in bottom trawls at the appropriate depths ( vecchione , pers . obs . ) . a video of this species can be found here .\ndistribution records for octopods examined by collins and henriques , 2000 indicate that s . syrtensis is widespread in the north atlantic where they are found near bottoms of 500 to 4000 m with maximum abundance between 1500 and 2500 m .\nvecchione , m . and r . e . young . 1997 aspects of the functional morphology of cirrate octopods : locomotion and feeding . vie milieu 47 ( 2 ) : 101 - 110 . , collins , m . a . and c . henriques . 2000 . a revision of the family stauroteuthidae ( octopoda : cirrata ) with redescriptions of stauroteuthis syrtensis and s . gilchristi . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . , 80 : 685 - 697 . ( 2 )\nfigure . lateral view of the digestive tract of s . syrtensis . drawing modified from vecchione and young , 1997 . insert - dorsal view of buccal mass with paired salivary glands . drawing from collins and henriques ( 2000 ) .\nthis species is most easily separated from s . gilchristi by the larger sucker size in the latter ( s . gilchristi females up to 5 mm in maximum sucker diameter and males up to 9 mm in maximum sucker diameter compared to 2 . 2 mm in females and 6 mm in males of s . syrtensis ) , and the more distal position of the largest suckers in the latter females ( suckers 1 - 3 in s . syrtensis vs 9 - 14 in s . gilchristi . the latter feature suggests the that s . gilchristi lacks sexual dimorphism in sucker size .\nfigure . oral view of arms and side view of suckers of s . syrtensis . top - male arm , r . v . discovery sta . 52104 , with proximal , mid - arm and distal sucker enlarged . bottom - female arm , same octopod as in title drawing ( r . v . discovery sta . 51014 ) , with proximal , mid - arm and distal sucker enlarged . drawing from collins and henriques ( 2000 ) .\nesophagus slightly expanded but not a distinct crop . buccal mass with a single large posterior salivary gland on surface ( see aldred et al . , 1983 ) according to vecchione and young , 1997 , but two pairs of small salivary glands according to collins and henriques , 2000 . ( insert in drawing to right shows a dorsal view of the buccal mass of s . syrtensis with two pairs of salivary glands , from collins and henriques , 2000 . compare this with the single pair shown on the overall lateral view of the digestive tract , from vecchione and young , 1997 ) . anal flaps , ink sac , radula absent . posterior region of lips near beaks and more distal region within lips with large masses of secretory glands .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species is widespread in the north atlantic at depths of 500 to 4 , 000 m with peak abundances occurring between 1 , 500 and 2 , 500 m ( collins and henriques 2000 ) . on georges bank , individuals have been observed at depths 600 m and typically within 100 m of the bottom in three ~ 900 m deep canyons indenting the southern edge of georges bank ( jacoby et al . 2009 ) .\n( 2001 ) estimated 8 - 9 individuals per square kilometre in the north east atlantic at depths between 1 , 000 and 2 , 000 m .\ncollins and villanueva ( 2006 ) suggest that all members of the cirroteuthidae are benthopelagic . although most specimens have been collected from bottom trawls which are biased towards soft sediments , deep - sea photographic surveys and observations from submersibles have shown cirroteuthids associated with both soft and rocky bottoms ( collins and villanueva 2006 ) . the bathymetric distribution of this species varies geographically , occurring in shallower waters around greenland ( collins 2002 ) than in the british isles ( collins\n2001 ) . collins and villanueva ( 2006 ) suggest this distribution is likely influenced by factors such as temperature , food availability and dissolved oxygen concentration . jacoby\ncollins and villanueva ( 2006 ) highlight the extension of commercial fishing into deeper waters . this has yielded many cirrate octopod specimens for research but the consequences of fishing mortality remains unclear . these cephalopods are potentially long lived and slow to reach maturity and collins and villanueva ( 2006 ) suggest that fishing may already have significantly reduced population sizes in certain areas . however , this has not been quantified for this species .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place . research is required to investigate whether commercial deep - sea fishing is significantly reducing population sizes .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nverrill a . e . ( 1879 ) . notice of recent additions to the marine fauna of the east coast of north america . american journal of science and arts ( 3 ) 17 : 309 - 315 [ aprile ] ; ( 3 ) 18 [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nhochberg f . g . , norman m . d . & finn j . k . ( 2014 ) . family stauroteuthidae . pp . 266 - 267 , in p . jereb , c . f . e . roper , m . d . norman & j . k . finn eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date . volume 3 . octopods and vampire squids . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes [ rome , fao ] . 4 ( 3 ) : 353 pp . 11 pls . page ( s ) : 266 [ details ]\n( of chunioteuthis ebersbachii grimpe , 1916 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of chunioteuthis ebersbachii grimpe , 1916 ) abbott r . t . ( 1974 ) . american seashells . the marine mollusca of the atlantic and pacific coast of north america . ed . 2 . van nostrand , new york . 663 pp . , 24 pls . [ october 1974 ] . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nmedin . ( 2011 ) . uk checklist of marine species derived from the applications marine recorder and unicorn . version 1 . 0 . [ details ]\nintergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nthis species has been frequently observed in waters off the continental shelf of eastern north america , but has also been found in locations in the northeastern atlantic .\nis described as\nbenthopelagic\n- - being found in open water , but near the bottom . and can be found in depths of the ocean ranging from 500 - 4000m . this large range seems to relate to water temperature .\n, distinguished by fins used for swimming , an internal shell ( to which the fins attach ) and cirri , paired filaments or papillae , on each sucker . like other species in the\nhas a u - shaped internal shell , and secondary webbing that connects the arms to the primary web . this allows the arms to move inwards towards the mouth without collapsing the large bell - shaped web of skin that forms around arms . the web covers nearly two thirds of their total length ending at sucker 25 , with each arm bearing between 55 to 65 suckers . the average arm length is about 70 - 85 % of its total length with total lengths ranging from 280 - 500mm .\nthe body of these animals is soft and gelatinous , and is often heavily damaged in trawls and collections . it is often found hanging in the water with its webbed arms forming a bell shape . there are large glands near the mouth that may produce mucous to trap small prey animals .\nmales have sexually dimorphic suckers . the first 8 suckers are barrel shaped , suckers 9 to 22 - 25 are enlarged and pointed . suckers 9 to 12 are very closely packed and suckers 13 to 18 are the largest with a diameter of about 6 . 5 mm . females have smaller suckers with suckers 1 to 3 as the largest with a diameter of 2 . 2 mm . suckers 1 to 4 are very tightly packed , but suckers 5 to 24 are well separated . in both sexes , the suckers diameter decreases dramatically after sucker 25 nearing where the web ends . both male and females have three kinds of suckers , proximal , mid arm , and distal . this sexual dimorphism in the size and shape of the suckers is unique to the species , and is probably related to sperm transfer or other reproductive activity .\nhas been has been determined by examining preserved specimens . the male genital system consists of testis , vas deferens , needhams sac , accessory gland , and terminal organ . the seminal vesicle is packed with about 100 spermatophores each with a length of 1 - 2mm .\nthe female genitalia are unpaired and consist of a single oviduct ( with both proximal and distal portions ) and an oviducal gland . the majority of the eggs were less than 1mm , but the largest found were in upwards of 11mm . this larger egg size suggests a more developed maturation stage . the ovary contained about 900 eggs . eggs were also found in the proximal oviduct maybe ready for fertilization .\n( collins and henriques , 2000 ; collins , 2002 ; collins , et al . , 2008 )\nbecause no juvenile specimens have been found , little is known about the parental care of these species .\nhave mostly been found in a bell posture with their arms extending and their web spread . in the bell posture , they use their fins to swim . they can also move by expanding their web and then contracting it to expel water and propel them through the ocean . live animals in the wild have only been found alone , not in groups .\nhas not been observed . the species has large eyes , and is likely sensitive to chemicals and touch .\nin that they have modified suckers that are capable of producing blue - green bioluminescence with a maximum wavelength of 470nm . these modified suckers are unlike other suckers because they are not able to attach . their use is not well understood , but it is suggested that they may be used to attract prey or be used to attract a mate .\n( collins , et al . , 2008 ; johnsen , et al . , 1999 )\n. the bell shape of the web , along with mucus produced by glands around the mouth , maybe be used to capture zooplankton . the bioluminescence of the suckers is also thought to be used to attract prey , but this has not yet been confirmed .\n( collins and henriques , 2000 ; johnsen , et al . , 1999 ; collins and henriques , 2000 ; collins , et al . , 2008 ; johnsen , et al . , 1999 )\nbecause little has been witnessed in the wild about this species , its predators have not been observed . when observed ,\nis normally in a bell posture . when disturbed though , the animal goes into a balloon posture with the arms closed at the tips . in the balloon posture , the fins remain motionless .\nhas also been seen in a pumpkin posture when threatened which is like the balloon posture , but smaller . when trying to escape , the\nthe population size of this species is unknown . it has not been evaluated by the iucn , and is not listed in cites or under the u . s . endangered species act .\nhye woo ( author ) , rutgers university , michael grieco ( author ) , rutgers university , david howe ( editor , instructor ) , rutgers university .\nthe body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .\nreferring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water . also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones . bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans ( below 9000 m ) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone . see also oceanic vent .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nan aquatic biome consisting of the open ocean , far from land , does not include sea bottom ( benthic zone ) .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nanimal constituent of plankton ; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae . ( compare to phytoplankton . )\ncollins , m . , r . young , m . vecchione . 2008 .\nstauroteuthidae grimpe 1916\n( on - line ) . tree of life web project . accessed february 04 , 2009 at urltoken .\nvecchione , m . , r . young . 1997 . aspects of the functional morphology of cirrate octopods : locomotion and feeding .\nvecchione , m . 2000 .\ncephalopods in action - - vecchione and young , 1997\n( on - line video ) . cephalopods at the national museum of natural history . accessed october 10 , 2007 at urltoken .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmales with sexually dimorphic suckers : suckers 1 - 8 small , barrel shaped ; suckers 9 to 22 - 25 enlarged , conical ( see drawings on upper right ) ; suckers 9 - 12 closely packed ; suckers 13 - 18 largest ; maximum sucker diameter 6 . 5 mm .\nfemales with arm suckers uniformly small : maximum diameter found on suckers 1 - 3 , largest sucker diameter 2 . 2 mm ; suckers 1 - 4 tightly packed , barrel shaped ; suckers 5 to about 24 small and well spaced , separated by up to 15 mm ( see drawings on lower right ) . horizontal scale bars 100 mm , vertical scale bars 2 mm .\nboth sexes : suckers distally from number 19 - 24 , become smaller , closely packed and more cyclindrical ; suckers minute at arm tips .\nfigure . the graph relates the maximum sucker diameter to the size of the octopod . head width is used as the size standard since mantle length is highly variable due to fixation and preservation . sexual dimorphism in sucker size between males and females is clearly demonstrated by the chart . chart modified from collins and henriques ( 2000 ) .\nmaximum length of eggs found in the oviducts were 11 mm and the largest ovarian eggs were 9 . 5 mm . the ovary has about 900 oocytes of which 22 were more than 8 mm long . most oocytes were less than 1 mm in length . about 40 sheaths , presumably from eggs that had been released , were found in the ovary .\nvecchione , m . and r . e . young . 1997 aspects of the functional morphology of cirrate octopods : locomotion and feeding . vie milieu 47 ( 2 ) : 101 - 110 .\ncape hatteras , u . s . a , sw u . k . ( 2 )\ncollins , martin , richard e . young , and michael vecchione . 2002 .\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\na catalog of the type - specimens of recent cephalopoda in the national museum of natural history . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 278\nsweeney , m . j . and c . f . e . roper / n . a . voss , m . vecchione , r . b . toll and m . j . sweeney , eds .\nsystematics and biogeography of cephalopods . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 586 ( i - ii )\nnotice of recent additions to the marine fauna of the eastern coast of north america , no . 7\ntaxon validity : [ fide nesis ( 1987a : 282 ) ] . repository : nmnh holotype 382471 [ fide roper and sweeney ( 1978 ) ] . type locality : 43 54 ' n , 58 44 ' w ( atlantic ocean )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nthe newsfeed for this eol taxon page gathers updates associated with items shown on it , including curator actions and comments from eol users .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ncirri long , up to 50 mm ; first rudimentary cirri present before sucker 3 or 4 ; cirri end at web margin at sucker 19 - 24 .\nthe upper beak ( drawing on the near right ) has a gently curving rostral edge . the lower beak ( drawing on the far right ) has an elongate rostrum and a hood that is nearly flat in profile along the crest . bar is 10 mm .\nmale reproductive ( illustration on near right ) and female reproductive tract ( illustrated on far right ) .\nthe shell us u - shaped with large wings flattened dorsolaterally where fins attach . bar is 20 mm .\nall table measurements are in mm . ios - institute of oceanographic sciences ( now the southampton oceanography centre ) . nmsz - national museum of scotland . zub - university of bergen , museum of zoology . diam . - diameter ; l - length ; lam - lamella ; max . - maximum ; mw - mantle width ; tl - total length ; wt . - weight . the table , slightly modified in form , is from : collins and henriques ( 2000 ) .\nthis page is a note that is attached to a leaf of the tree of life .\ntol notes provide brief accounts of characteristics , short summaries , commentaries , media files , taxonomic information , or identification tools for a given group of organisms .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nto truly appreciate the wondrous beauty of life in the ocean , you have to see it at night . when the sun sets , it comes to life in a dazzling display of colors and lights that rivals the best fireworks shows .\nan astonishing variety of species use bioluminescence ( the natural production of visible light through a chemical reaction ) to catch food , hook up with mates , or scare off intruders . in this gallery , we ' ll look at some of the wildest , and most clever , uses of light at sea .\nsome species know how to make a quiet exit . but the deep - sea shrimp retreats in a blaze of bioluminescent glory . when confronted by a predator , the bright red critter spews a glowing blue ooze from the base of its antennae into the water .\nthe light temporarily stuns the offender , giving the shrimp precious time to back - flip its way to safety . it ' s similar to the time - tested strategy used by squids and octopuses , which squirt clouds of ink into the faces of their enemies .\nthe glass squid is a master of luminous disguise . unlike the many species that use bioluminescence as an attention - grabbing beacon , this animal uses light as a cloak to evade prying eyes .\naside from its opaque eyes and the polka dot - like chromatophores ( pigmented cells that aid in camouflage ) that cover its body , the glass squid is completely transparent . the chromatophores are not an issue , but the opaque color of its eyes can be a dead giveaway . many species hunt for prey by scanning the water column above them , looking for any telltale silhouettes that might signal the presence of their next meal .\nto confound its potential predators , the glass squid makes use of two u - shaped light - emitting photophores located at the base of its eyes : the lights cancel out the shadows cast by the opaque eyes . the effect of this strategy , called counterillumination , is to break up the squid ' s silhouette by mimicking the intensity and color of downwelling light from the surface .\nto survive in the dark recesses of the ocean , it helps to have a sharp pair of eyes . and preferably eyes that can see through others ' visual deceits . on both counts , the short nose green - eye fish swims above the fray .\nlike many deep - sea predators , its eyes are turned upward to scan for prey blocking the light that comes from above . but where another fish might have been fooled by a prey using counterillumination , the short - nose green - eye fish uses its sophisticated peepers ( pdf ) to break up any bioluminescent shams .\nthe green fluorescent pigment in the lenses of its eyes acts like a filter , absorbing the sea ' s ambient deep blue light . researchers believe this property allows the short - nose green - eye fish to distinguish between the lighter shade of blue given off by bioluminescent creatures and the richer blue of the ocean .\nthe tropical mantis shrimp is known for one thing above all else : its amazing eyes . unlike our own primitive eyes , which detect three primary colors , the mantis shrimp ' s can see 12 . they can also perceive different forms of polarized light - - light waves oscillating in a single direction . this ability is primarily thought to help the shrimp nab the transparent animals that it feasts on .\non the dimly lit seafloor , where the shrimp dig their burrows , their complex eyes have another crucial function : interspecies communication . pigments in the shrimp ' s appendages absorb the ocean ' s ambient blue light and emit it in a yellow - green color , resulting in the characteristic spotty markings . the light ' s wavelength is so specific that only other members of the species can trace it , which allows the mantis shrimp both to flaunt its goods to prospective mates and to threaten encroachers .\nat first blush , the hawaiian bobtail squid looks like just another bioluminescent cephalopod . like many of its relatives , the bobtail squid makes deft use of its light - emitting photophores to hunt , communicate with its peers , and hide from predators lurking below . but it ' s a fraud .\ninstead of producing the light itself , the squid relies on a bioluminescent bacterium that dwells within its photophores . in exchange for shelter and a stable source of nutrients , the bacteria provide the squid with the ability to make light .\nthe relationship begins immediately at birth . after emerging from its egg , the juvenile bobtail squid acquires the bacteria from the environment , and they start the process of colonizing its developing light organs .\nstudies have shown that the squid can even control the intensity of the luminescence produced by the bacteria in order to match that of the downwelling light in the water column .\nwhen something looks too good to be true , it usually is . take the case of the deep - sea siphonophore , which makes red light to trap its prey . a close relative of the jellyfish , it was recently discovered by a team of monterey bay aquarium research institute ( mbari ) researchers .\nlike all siphonophores , this unnamed species is what scientists call a\nsuperorganism\n: an animal that grows by budding off highly specialized structures , known as zooids . each zooids performs a specific function , such as feeding or reproduction .\nthis creature ' s feeding zooids employ unique red\nlures\nat the tips of some tentacles to catch unwitting passers - by . to the fish that fall for the alluring bait , the red fluorescent tip looks just like a fat , juicy crustacean . the dangling blobs themselves are harmless , but nearby tentacles are equipped with a battery of potent stinging cells , that make quick work of the small fish .\nphotophores contained within the tips are responsible for producing the red light . mbari scientist steven haddock believes the lures are an adaptation for living at depth , where food is scarce and fish are even scarcer .\nsome bioluminescent species get really cranky when you disturb them . tomopteris , a tiny marine worm , erupts into a shower of angry sparks and unloads its eggs into the water before rapidly undulating away . what is unusual about this worm is that the sparks it shoots from its paddle - shaped swimming legs are golden yellow in color and not blue , like practically every other bioluminescent organism .\nother marine worms are thought to release glowing blue particles into the water to make themselves look less tasty to hungry predators . few deep - living species have the ability to detect yellow light , which , because it has a higher wavelength , gets absorbed in the shallow surface waters , so it is unclear why tomopteris uses it . for the moment , researchers are still trying to suss out the chemistry of the yellow luminescence , which may yield some clues about its unique function .\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nall prices are net prices . vat will be added later in the checkout .\nherring , p . j . in the mollusca vol . ii ( ed . wilbur , k . m . ) 449 - 489 ( academic , new york , 1988 ) .\nchun , c . report on the scientific results of the \u201cmichael sars\u201d north atlantic deep - sea expedition 1910 ( 1913 ) .\nbudelmann , b . u . et al . in microscopic anatomy of invertebrates ( eds harrison , f . w . & kohn , a . j . ) 119 - 414 ( wiley - liss , new york , 1997 ) .\nbuck , j . in bioluminescence in action ( ed . herring , p . j . ) 419 - 456 ( academic , new york , 1978 ) .\nhanlon , r . t . & messenger , j . b . cephalopod behaviour ( cambridge univ . press , 1996 ) .\nby submitting a comment you agree to abide by our terms and community guidelines . if you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate .\nnature is part of springer nature . \u00a9 2018 springer nature limited . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 1271, "summary": [{"text": "the worm-eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) is a small new world warbler that breeds in the eastern united states and migrates to southern mexico and central america for the winter . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "worm - eating warbler", "paragraphs": ["description : worm - eating warbler is the only warbler species in the genus helmitheros .\nvisit the bent life history for extensive additional information on the worm - eating warbler .\nsinging male worm - eating warbler , vinton co . , oh , 1 may .\nthe oldest known worm - eating warbler in the wild was 10 years , one month old .\nrelative abundance of worm - eating warbler , derived from breeding bird survey data , 1994 - 2003 .\nthanks very much to gerry dewaghe for permission to use his marvelous photograph of a worm - eating warbler .\nworm - eating warblers inhabit deciduous woods with banks , slopes , or gullies .\nthe worm - eating warbler was first described in 1789 by johann friedrich gmelin , a german naturalist , botanist and entomologist .\ngreenberg , r . 1987 . seasonal foraging specialization in the worm - eating warbler . condor 89 : 158 - 168 .\nworm - eating warblers feed on spiders and insects , such as caterpillars . they primarily\ndiet : worm - eating warbler feeds mainly on caterpillars , insects and spiders , according to the season . it also consumes slugs .\nthe foraging behavior of the worm - eating warbler has been studied in both its summer and its winter habitats ( e . g . ,\ngreenberg , r . 1987 . seasonal foraging specialization in the worm - eating warbler . condor no . 89 : 158 - 168 . close\nrange : worm - eating warbler breeds in south - eastern united states , in dense deciduous forests . it winters in central america and caribbean .\none of 5 + worm - eating warblers singing along roadsides in the mark train national forest .\nworm - eating warblers are sensitive to forest fragmentation , requiring large , unbroken tracts of habitat .\nhelmitheros vermivorus = worm - eating warbler sleeping , feedis on midges , back to sleep . at montrose point , chicago , may 2016 photo gallery at urltoken\nhabitat : worm - eating warbler lives mainly in dense undergrowth on wooded slopes . it breeds in mature forests with dense understory , and it winters in tropical forests .\nthe oldest recorded worm - eating warbler was a male , and at least 8 years , 1 month old when he was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in connecticut .\nthe worm - eating warbler\u2019s nest is a cup of dead leaves and is lined with moss and fungi . it is placed on the ground , often under a sapling or shrub .\nworm - eating warblers forage in trees and shrubs , as well as on the ground , probing dead leaves for insects .\nyour ebird trip data anywhere on the worm - eating warbler\u2019s journey \u2014 wherever it \u201changs out\u201d \u2014 - is a valuable contribution to learning more about this obscure but fascinating little forest songbird .\ndonegan , t . m . and b . c . huertas h . 2002 . first mainland record of worm - eating warbler helmitheros vermivorus for colombia . cotinga 17 : 77 - 78 .\nflight : worm - eating warbler performs direct flights within canopy . before or after a fight , male may use fluttering flight , in aggressive behaviour . it can hover in order to capture flying insects .\nthough common in houston during spring migration , this well camouflaged warbler can be difficult to spot as it prefers to remain in the understory in dense thickets and woodlands . the song of the worm - eating warbler is a rapid , dry trill , often insect - like .\nthe worm - eating warbler is next , another early offshoot and ( still ) the only member of the genus helmitheros . on its wintering grounds , this species specializes in foraging at dead , curled leaves .\nwe included slope ( si2 ) in our model because of the prevalence of steep slopes in the territories of worm - eating warblers . we defined slope classes based on data from gale and others ( 1997 ) who identified the relative preference of various slopes for worm - eating warblers\nin the forest understory , the worm - eating warbler specializes in recovering invertebrates from suspended tangles of dead leaves . this warbler seeks out dangling leaf clusters and pries or tears each crisp leaf open with its slim pointed beak to expose caterpillars , spiders and small insects . it will systematically work its way up through brambles and vines searching through the hanging curled leaves for its meal . the worm - eating warbler will also glean insects off green leaves and probe the bark of tree trunks and branches for insects .\nstatus in tennessee : the worm - eating warbler is an uncommon to fairly common migrant across the state , and a fairly common summer resident in east and the western highland rim of middle tennessee . it arrives in mid - april and departs by early september . populations appear to be declining in the state . the worm - eating warbler appears on the audubon watchlist due to threats of forest fragmentation on the breeding grounds , and deforestation on the wintering grounds .\na small , drab , but elegantly marked bird of the eastern deciduous forests , the worm - eating warbler is often found on steep slopes with dense understory . true to its name , it feeds largely on caterpillars (\nworms\n) .\nthe worm - eating warbler is olive - brown at a glance with a buffy head and underparts , and distinct black stripes on its crown and through its eyes . these bold head stripes are helpful field marks . its legs are noticeably pink .\nalthough the worm - eating warbler forages in the understory near the ground and nests on the ground , it does not spend much time on the forest floor . it does not forage there , and when on the ground it hops instead of walking .\nthe breeding season for the worm - eating warbler in new jersey is between early - may and mid - august . nests are built on the ground , usually on hillsides among dead leaves and tree roots , often at the base of a sapling .\nthe worm - eating warbler has brownish - olive upperparts , an orange - buff breast , and a head heavily striped with black and buffy orange . other than the stripes on the head , it is very plain , lacking wing bars or other stripes .\nwe also included forest patch size ( si3 ) as a model parameter to account for the preference of worm - eating warblers for forest interiors . we fit a logistic function\nprotection / threats / status : worm - eating warblers are mainly threatened by habitat loss , due to fragmentation and destruction of forested habitats , and human developments . they are preyed upon by mammals and snakes when at nest . corvids can take eggs and nestlings . nest can be parasitized by brown - headed cowbirds in fragmented forests . however , at this moment , worm - eating warbler\u2019s populations seem to be stable across united states .\ncomments by don verser : worm - eating warblers sometime give a thin call note , similar to that of black - and - white , when moving around in the woods .\n. we assumed worm - eating warblers occurred in forests with low stem densities , but these habitats had lower suitability scores than sites with well - developed understories characterized by dense stems .\nthe breeding range of the worm - eating warbler extends across much of the eastern half of the us from iowa in the northwest to new england in the northeast and as far south as the gulf coast . it winters in the west indies , central america and southeastern mexico .\nthe worm - eating warbler is sensitive to forest fragmentation and requires large tracts of mature forest with dense understory patches of shrubs . feral cats and subsidized predators may threaten this species\u2019 nesting success since their nest locations are highly vulnerable on the ground . it is currently listed as a species of\nworm - eating warblers breed across much of the eastern u . s . , though locally . they winter in mexico , central america , and the west indies . the population is stable .\nthe appalachian mountains are at the core of the worm - eating warbler\u2019s breeding range . pennsylvania accounts for approximately 10 percent of the total nesting population , so it is critical that our state maintains the quality and quantity of forest needed for the continued existence of this songbird . the northern edge of the worm - eating warbler\u2019s breeding range extends through pennsylvania following the eastern edge of the appalachian mountains . it breeds primarily east of the allegheny front and is much less common , even accidental in some counties , in the western and northern parts of the state and absent through the northwest corner in summer .\nwhen male is establishing its territory , it can be aggressive , pursuing neighbours and chasing them , trying to peck each other . usually , males fight more often than females . breeding territory is established by male by singing from perches after arriving on breeding areas . worm - eating warblers are monogamous . female solicits copulation by spreading and drooping wings , with tail cocked upwards . copulation occurs usually in subcanopy , on small branches . worm - eating warbler is migratory . they travel by night , probably long distances .\nstasz , j . l . 1996 . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorus ) . pages 352 - 353 in c . s . robbins and e . a . t . blom , editors . atlas of the breeding birds of maryland and the district of columbia . university of pittsburgh press , pittsburgh .\nduring spring migration , magee marsh braces itself for an all - out warbler ( and birder ) invasion .\ngale , g . a . 1995 . habitat selection in the worm - easting warbler ( helmitheros vermivorus ) : testing different spatial scales . university of connecticut , storrs , connecticut . ph . d . dissertation .\nlate in incubation the female worm - eating warbler sits so tight on her nest that only touching her will flush her . her cryptic coloring makes immobility a safe strategy . if she is flushed , she will flutter across the ground with her wings and tail spread , acting helpless to lure predators away from the nest .\nhanners , l . a . , and s . r . patton . 1998 . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) . the birds of north america , no . 367 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the birds of north america , inc . , philadelphia , pa .\nvitz , andrew c . , lise a . hanners and stephen r . patton . 2013 . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nyoung worm - eating warblers typically leave their nest 8 - 10 days after hatching . chicks as young as five days old have been observed leaving the nest and surviving , although they cannot fly at that age .\nbehaviour : worm - eating warbler forages in trees among foliage , on branches and twigs . it also forages in leaf litter , searching for caterpillars and other invertebrates . it feeds using several manners . it can hang towards live or dead leaves , insert bill into holes and bark crevices or leaf curls for grabbling preys , and also perform sally - hover attacks for taking moving insects , and remove prey from curled leaf , grasping it with foot and using its bill . worm - eating warbler is rarely seen on the ground where it hops rather than walks . it is an arboreal bird , moving easily from branch to branch by hopping or creeping on trunks .\nthree or four worm - eating warblers are on territory on our property in central missouri near columbia by about the time morels are coming up in mid - april . they are vigorous singers and have a subtle beauty .\nworm - eating warbler : breeds from southeastern iowa , across the ohio valley , into the mid - atlantic states and southern new england , ranging into the southern states . spends winters in the tropics from central mexico , the yucatan peninsula , and the west indies to areas south . dry , wooded hillsides are the preferred habitat of this species .\nthe worm - eating warbler is a small migratory songbird about 5 - 5 \u00bd inches in length . both the male and female are a dull olive color . the back is darker than the buff - colored belly and breast and the buff - colored head has black stripes along the eyes and on the crown . its tail is relatively short and its bill large .\ngale , g . a . , l . a . hanners and s . r . patton . 1997 . reproductive success of worm - eating warblers in a forest landscape . conserv . biol . no . 11 : 246 - 250 . close\nstephenson , t . and s . whittle ( 2013 ) . the warbler guide . princeton university press , new jersey , usa .\ncurson , j . ( 2018 ) . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nreproduction : worm - eating warbler female selects the nest - site within the male\u2019s territory , usually the same site year after year . female builds the nest alone , but male remains nearby . nest is placed near water , stream or wetland . nest is situated on the ground , on hillside or bank . it is often well hidden among vegetation , against roots , beside rock ledge , or in dense low shrubs .\na dry trilled song in the undergrowth of deciduous woods in summer announces that the worm - eating warbler is at home . less colorful than most of its relatives , it is also more sluggish , foraging deliberately in the woodland understory or on the ground , probing among dead leaves with its rather long bill . despite the name , it does not feed on earthworms ; it does eat caterpillars , but no more than many other warblers .\nthe ovenbird , a spotted warbler that walks on the ground , isn\u2019t closely related to waterthrushes as was once thought . in fact , it appears to be a basal member of the wood - warbler clade \u2014 an early offshoot of the group \u2014 and is now the only member of the genus seiurus .\nworm - eating warblers nest on steeper slopes and ravines in deciduous woodlands , with the core population in the appalachians . they also nest more sparsely in lowland forest . they sing an insect - like buzzy fast - paced trill . the following is a link to this photographer ' s website : urltoken .\nto learn more about revisions to wood - warbler taxonomy , check out the pending aou proposal ( pdf ) , the paper on which it\u2019s based ( a comprehensive multilocus phylogeny for the wood - warblers and a revised classification of the parulidae ( aves ) ) , birding \u2018s interview with the study\u2019s lead author ( pdf ) , john boyd\u2019s parulidae , and nick sly\u2019s new wood - warbler taxonomy post .\nrelationships among these three groups are not yet clear , nor are the relationships of several odd species , including the yellow - breasted chat , which though traditionally considered a wood - warbler might belong in the icteridae or somewhere else nearby .\ndescription : this stocky , flat - headed , overall buffy - olive warbler has distinct black crown stripes , and a black stripe through eye . the male and female look the same . length : 5 . 25\nwingspan : 8 . 5\nweight : 0 . 46 oz\nthe kirtland\u2019s warbler is an endangered species restricted to a very specific type of habitat mostly found in michigan ; jack pine forests . its habitat is managed for this species in a few national forests by ensuring that there are jack pine stands of the age and composition this species requires . brown - headed cowbird populations are also controlled on its breeding grounds .\nfurther studies are required to assess effects of various logging practices on both wintering and breeding grounds . however , this warbler probably is tolerant of many different forest management and logging practices ; selective logging and thinning\novermature\ntrees may create favorable conditions ; may nest in clearcut areas as young as 7 years old where several hardwoods have been left standing in the clearcuts ( see bushman and therres 1988 ) .\nmembers of the parulidae are not colonial nesters but often occur in mixed flocks with other species after the breeding season . they forage in a variety of ways for invertebrates , small fruits , and nectar . while the waterthrushes forage on the ground in streams and wetlands , and the black - and - white warbler creeps along tree trunks , most wood - warblers glean the vegetation of trees and bushes and make short sallies for their insect prey .\nthe wood - warblers are known for their colorful plumages \u2013 the blackburnian warbler being one of the most striking members of this family with its deep orange - red throat that contrasts with its handsome black and white plumage . however while many species are known for their beautiful breeding plumage colors , they are also known to bird watchers as being extremely challenging to identify when in the fall they revert to their drab tan , olive , and pale colored plumages .\nlet\u2019s take a look at what the future might hold . in order to make this less scary , i\u2019ve attempted to devise seven memorable group names to help you mentally organize the 14 proposed genera and hundred - plus species with ease : the ovenbird , the worm - eater , the other oddballs , the ( mostly ) gray jobbies , the sneaky yellow dudes , the rot - your - retinalicious eye candy , and the southern tribes .\nthis week , 8 may \u2013 14 may 2011 , is wood - warbler week on 10 , 000 birds ! though wood - warblers , the mostly brightly colored birds of the family parulidae , are only found in the new world we felt that birders the world over would be pleased to see a plethora of posts about these striking and sought after species . we are devoting a whole week to wood - warblers but are only just barely scratching the surface of possible topics involving this amazing family of birds .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\nbahamas ; belize ; canada ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; dominican republic ; el salvador ; guatemala ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nspecies accounts have been redesigned and the site is now faster , with new functionalities , maps , and rich media . new tools will be added that will enhance user experience . revisions of species account text are ongoing .\nintegration with macaulay library means that a wealth of new audio , images , and video are now incorporated into species accounts , as are tools that allow users to search the full archive of macaulay media resources .\nbirdvis lets anyone visualize , explore , and interact with the multidimensional output of distribution models for selected species , to examine regional and seasonal patterns of abundance through the annual cycle .\nexplore these free , all - access species to see if bna is right for you . have an account ? sign in\ncomplete access to the bna database through institutional , organizational or personal subscriptions . gift subscriptions are also available !\nhelp build the world ' s best resource for north american birds . contribute text , photos , audio , video , maps , translations , and observations .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrobinson , scott k . ; thompson , frank r . , iii ; donovan , therese m . ; whitehead , donald r . ; faaborg , john\nscience , volume 267 , issue 5206 , pp . 1987 - 1990 ( sci homepage )\nsounds provided by macaulay library . listen to more sounds of this species from the ml archive .\nhas disappeared from some areas with clearing of forest . current numbers probably stable . will become more vulnerable to parasitism by cowbirds where forest is broken up into smaller patches .\nleafy wooded slopes . during breeding season , frequents dense deciduous woodlands . prefers cool , shaded banks , sheer gullies and steep , forested slopes covered with medium - sized trees and an undergrowth of saplings and shrubs . in winter in the tropics , forages alone in dense thickets or in the forest undergrowth , usually near the ground .\nforages mostly in trees and shrubs . probes in curled , dead leaves for insects , and searches on bark of trunks and limbs . forages also on the ground , walking while seeking insects on the leaf - litter .\n4 - 5 , sometimes 3 - 6 . white , with brown spots and blotches . incubated by female alone , 13 days . in most areas , rarely parasitized by cowbirds , possibly because it breeds mainly in dense woods far from edges . in some areas , parasitism by cowbirds appears to be more common . young : fed by both parents . leave the nest at 10 days of age . probably 1 brood per year .\nfed by both parents . leave the nest at 10 days of age . probably 1 brood per year .\nmostly insects . eats smooth caterpillars , but rarely or never takes the earthworms that the name would seem to imply . also feeds on small grasshoppers , bugs , ants , bees , walkingsticks , beetles , sawfly larvae , and spiders . feeds nestlings on moths and grubs .\nmales defend territories by singing from perches at mid - levels or on the ground . besides the usual insect - like trill , male also sings a musical , varied song during flight as part of courtship . nest : placed on ground , normally on hillside against a deciduous shrub or sapling , well concealed by dead leaves . nest ( constructed by female ) is an open cup of dead leaf skeletons ; lined with fungus filaments , hair moss , maple seed stems , animal hair .\nmigrates mostly at night . fall migration begins early , many moving south in august . very rare stray in west , mostly in fall .\nsong like that of chipping sparrow , but faster , buzzy , and more insect - like .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\nwarblers aren ' t the most cooperative subjects , but they are one of the most beautiful and addictive . follow this advice to best capture the elusive birds .\nsmack - dab in the middle of the u . s . , missouri is a confluence of regions , creating a high variety of very different bird habitats\u2014close in proximity for a great birding trip .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nstripes and eye - lines . as its name suggests , it eats a steady diet of moth caterpillars and worms . it usually forages in understory vegetation and dead leaves .\nsong is a musical trill , all on one pitch (\noregon\ngroup ) .\ndespite its name , it only rarely , if ever , eats earthworms . instead , it feeds mostly on caterpillars , which were once referred to as worms .\nlate in incubation the female sits so tight on her nest that only touching her will flush her . her cryptic coloring makes immobility a safe strategy .\na group of warblers has many collective nouns , including a\nbouquet\n,\nconfusion\n,\nfall\n, and\nwrench\nof warblers .\nthe wood - warblers are one of the one hundred eighteen families of birds in the order passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) ; a large taxonomic order that includes other small perching birds such as the vireos , the white - eyes , and the tanagers .\nthe wood - warblers , or parulidae ( pronounced pah - roo - luh - dee ) , are a large family of one hundred and twenty - two species in twenty - six genera that only occur in north and south america .\nnorth america has ninety species of wood - warblers in twenty - six genera ; included in this family are the yellowthroats , a seemingly dizzying array of warblers , and the waterthrushes .\nlike several other passerines , the wood - warblers are small birds with medium length tails , medium length legs and strong feet suited to perching . they have short to longish wings ( in migratory species ) , and medium length , thin , pointed bills .\nmembers of the parulidae come in a variety of colors . different shades of yellow and olive occur in many species , including the dull , brown , streaked plumages of females and immatures . in addition to having bright yellow in their plumages , males in bright breeding plumage can show orange , blue , grays , and handsome patterns of black and white .\nmost species of wood - warblers are long distance migrants to central and south america .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nbna account authors : hanners , lise a . , and stephen r . patton\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nnatural vocalization ; complex song from a bird moving low and hidden in the dense undergrowth of mixed forest . later playback of this cut resulted in an aggressive reaction and more typical song and calls .\nrecorded with iphone se . amplification used in audacity . same bird as xc383680 .\nthis was probably the male , calling in response to playback of song . the probable female was seen a few minutes before , sitting very quietly about 2m up in saplings . nest likely nearby .\nbird heard singing in the distance . came straight in to minimal playback . perched directly over head and sang for approximately 10 min .\nheard calling in large oak tree near steep ravine . responded aggressively to playback .\nsinging from 2 meters up , hemlock - hardwood forest , on a slope , natural conditions .\nnatural vocalizations from two birds ( one probably the same as in xc101626 ) chasing through low vegetation ( 1 - 3m up ) along rocky ridgetop with oak and hickory . one bird had wings hanging and quivering and tail cocked .\nnatural song from a bird perched between 3 - 6m up in short oak - hickory woodland on ridgetop by rock outcroppings . second and fourth songs were while flying between perches .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nover much of e usa s of great lakes ( excluding florida peninsula and much of s atlantic coastal plain ) ; distribution centred around appalachians and adjacent areas . migrates to lowlands of central america from s & e mexico s to w panama , and caribbean .\n13 cm ; 11\u00b78\u201317\u00b74 g . head is rich buff , with broad blackish lateral crown\u00adstripe and narrower blackish eyestripe ; upper\u00adparts uniformly olive - brown . . .\nbreeds on wooded ravines and hillsides in deciduous and mixed woodlands with dense undergrowth , . . .\nfeeds on insects , especially caterpillars , and other arthropods , especially spiders ( araneae ) . forages primarily by gleaning in understorey . . .\nseason may\u2013jul , egg - laying may\u2013jun . nest a cup of dead leaves , lined with hair , moss and stems of maple (\nshort - distance to medium - distance migrant . leaves breeding grounds mainly from late jul , those in e . . .\nnot globally threatened . listed as a species of conservation concern by us fish & wildlife service . generally fairly common throughout range . discontinuous distribution ; . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nin past , sometimes considered to include limnothlypis but , despite superficial similarities , they are apparently not closely related ; may be closest to vermivora .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nchief , bird section , u . s . g . s . - b . r . d . - p . w . r . c .\nbanks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner\nchecklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada\nbulletin of the british ornithologists ' club , vol . 122 , no . 4\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nlet your mind\u2019s eye sweep over the rich expanse of the avian family tree . revel in its deep , gnarly divisions , its long , slender shoots . you\u2019ll come to a profusion of branches and twigs \u2014 the songbirds , or passerines \u2014 and if you look closer still , a colorful cloud of myriad forms , the nine - primaried cardinals , tanagers , finches , blackbirds , sparrows , and , blazing in their full resplendent glory , the wood - warblers .\nso dense is this part of the tree , so close and tangled the relationships , that scientists struggle still to delineate families , genera , and species , but growing evidence places the wood - warblers ( parulidae ) closest to the blackbirds and relatives ( icteridae ) and the sparrows and relatives ( emberizidae ) .\nwaterthrushes ( now in the genus parkesia ) ; swainson\u2019s , prothonotary , and black - and - white warblers ; and a greatly reduced vermivora ( now containing only the blue - winged , golden - winged , and presumed - extinct bachman\u2019s warblers ) form a group of rather dissimilar small genera .\nnext are the yellowthroats . it turns out that warblers once placed in the genus oporornis ( kentucky , mourning , macgillivray\u2019s , and connecticut ) are in fact scattered among the yellowthroats , and the aou proposal recommends merging everything into genus geothlypis . i can dig it . they\u2019re broadly similar in habits ( low skulkers ) and song type ( carolina wren - like ) .\ndavid j . ringer is exploring the world one bird at a time . his fascination with birds and nature began at the age of four or five , and he now works full time in conservation . he is a writer and communicator whose day jobs have taken him to six continents and more than 25 countries , including papua new guinea , vanuatu , kenya , and cameroon . follow him on twitter at @ realdjringer .\nit might all make sense and i view it as a good thing , but i\u2019ll miss \u201coporornis\u201d . seriously miss it . if ever i get to see a connecticut again , it just won\u2019t be the same because now it is in the same group as the easily observed common yellowthroat .\ni\u2019m curious about the picture of the \u201credstart\u201d . i\u2019ve seen lots of slate - throated redstarts here in mexico but they have all been red - bellied with slate color on head and back . howell and webb says that there is a group called connectens that is orange - red on underparts . they also list similar species as being painted redstart which is also red . so is this an error or are there some that are yellow - bellied ?\nwait ! i just checked my panama book and they show a yellow and black bird like your picture . other folks may find the same confusion .\n@ jochen \u2013 john boyd points out that given connecticut\u2019s distinctiveness and its position in the clade , it could be retained in oporornis . that\u2019s not the proposal the aou is considering , but it does make sense .\n@ corey \u2013 get \u2019em while you can ! as if you needed another excuse to bird\u2026 .\n@ chivis \u2013 yep , slate - throated whitestarts have redder underparts \u201cup north\u201d in their range and yellower down south .\noutstanding analysis , david . i love taxonomic revisions as much as the next amateur field ornithologist , but i\u2019m sure i\u2019m not alone in disliking some of these proposals . obliterating very distinctive genus names cuts at the emotional heart of out interest .\nwelcome to 10 , 000 birds , just the place for people who love birds , pictures of birds , and people who write about birds , birding , conservation , and much more .\nget 10 , 000 birds in your email inbox every day . sign up for our free email newsletter !\nfb , by james hogg : i always seem to end up at a se . . .\ntempted to buy this beer just for the design , love it ! . . .\nstill going strong . bravo ! i know where you are coming fro . . .\n\u00a9 2013 10 , 000 birds . all words , images , and opinions are the property of their respective authors unless stated otherwise .\na curated database of candidate human ageing - related genes and genes associated with longevity and / or ageing in model organisms .\na curated database of genes associated with dietary restriction in model organisms either from genetic manipulation experiments or gene expression profiling .\nprojects focused on gene expression profiling of ageing and of dietary manipulations of ageing , such as caloric restriction .\nsoftware for ageing research , including the ageing research computational tools ( arct ) perl toolkit .\na curated database of ageing and life history information in animals , including extensive longevity records .\nthe benchmark genome assembly and annotation of the long - lived , cancer - resistant naked mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber ) .\na high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .\nanalyses using the anage database to study the evolution of longevity and ageing in vertebrate lineages .\na portal of ageing changes covering different biological levels , integrating molecular , physiological and pathological age - related data .\nthe whosage database contains people and biotech companies that are contributing to increase our understanding of ageing and life - extension .\ncomments , suggestions , ideas , and bug reports are welcome . please contact us .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nthough it eats caterpillars , as do most warblers , it does not eat earthworms as its name would imply .\nthe song is a rapid buzz , similar to that of the chipping sparrow . a short , high - pitched flight call is also given .\nnumber : usually lay 4 - 5 eggs . color : white and sometimes with darker markings . incubation and fledging : the young hatch at about 13 days and fledge at about 10 - 11 days , though remaining dependent on the adults for some time .\nadult has brownish - olive upperparts , without any wing bar or tail spots . underparts are buffy , more orange - buff on throat . undertail coverts show dusky centres . head is buffy , with conspicuous black stripes on crown and through the eye . pointed bill shows dark upper mandible , and pinkish lower mandible . eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are pinkish - brown . both sexes are similar . immature resembles adults .\nfemale builds the nest , first by forming the cup with pliable leaves . she performs repeated trips with leaves , and she moulds them into the cup . then , interior is lined with fine stems or moss . she may add hair and pine - needles , soft grasses and horse hair . female lays 4 to 5 white or pinkish eggs with brown markings . incubation lasts about 12 to 14 days , by female . male feeds her at nest during this period . if parents are disturbed at nest , they begin distraction display , with spread wings and fanned tail , both depressed , uttering alarm call \u201cchip\u201d , or they only flutter across the ground until intruder moves away from the nest .\na guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124\nchicks are altricial , with brownish - grey down growing two days later . they are brooded by female for the five first days . both parents feed the young and clean the nest , removing fecal sacs . young fledge at about 10 days of age , and they remain with parents for about three weeks after fledging , in shrub and subcanopy . this species produces only one brood per year , sometimes more if first is destroyed or lost .\n. the suitability of a forest patch is influenced not only by its size , though , but also its landscape context ( si4 ) . in predominantly forested landscapes , small forest patch sizes not otherwise suitable may be used due to their proximity to a large forest block ( rosenberg and others 1999 ) . we built a logistic function\nbased on the assumptions that landscapes with < 30 percent forest were poor habitat ( suitability index score \u2264 0 . 100 ) and landscapes with > 70 percent forest were excellent habitat ( suitability index score \u2265 0 . 900 ;\n. the maximum suitability index score of either si3 or si4 was assigned to each site to account for the higher suitability of small forest patches in heavily forested landscapes .\nto calculate the overall suitability index score , we determined the geometric mean of si scores for forest structure ( si1 and si5 ) and landscape composition ( max ( si2 , si3 ) and si4 ) separately and then the geometric mean of these means together .\nandrew c . vitz , lise a . hanners , and stephen r . patton\nthe introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library\u2019s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species .\na subscription is needed to access the remaining account articles and multimedia content . rates start at $ 5 usd for 30 days of complete access .\nthis species breeds locally within the area denoted as ' migration ' and winters in the eastern caribbean , as well as in the range shown here . see the text for details . adapted from dunn and garrett 1997 .\nlack , d . and p . lack . 1972 . wintering warblers in jamaica . living bird no . 11 : 129 - 153 . close\n) . studies of forest birds conducted at sites in the ozarks , southern illinois , tennessee , ohio , and west virginia have provided important information about its breeding biology , response to prescribed fire , and how it is affected by habitat fragmentation and forest management . a long - term study of the species ' demography and population ecology has been conducted at the nature conservancy ' s devil ' s den preserve in southwestern connecticut since 1991 (\n) . most of the information on the post - fledging ecology of this species is from a study in southern ohio ( vitz and rodewald 2010 , vitz and rodewald 2011 ) . unpublished data and observations are frequently provided herein .\nvitz , a . c . , l . a . hanners , and s . r . patton ( 2013 ) .\n) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( a . f . poole , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nthis form needs javascript to display , which your browser doesn ' t support . sign up here instead\nwhat information do we collect ? when you visit our website you may provide us with two types of information : personal information you knowingly choose to disclose that is collected on an individual basis and website use information collected on an aggregate basis as you and others browse our website .\npersonal information you choose to provide we may request that you voluntarily supply us with personal information , including your email address , postal address , home or work telephone number and other personal information for such purposes as correspondence , placing an order , requesting an estimate , or participating in online surveys . if you choose to correspond with us through email , we may retain the content of your email messages together with your email address and our responses . we provide the same protections for these electronic communications that we employ in the maintenance of information received by mail and telephone .\nwebsite use information similar to other websites , our site may utilize a standard technology called\ncookies\n( see explanation below ,\nwhat are cookies ?\n) and web server logs to collect information about how our website is used . information gathered through cookies and server logs may include the date and time of visits , the pages viewed , time spent at our website , and the sites visited just before and just after ours . this information is collected on an aggregate basis . none of this information is associated with you as an individual .\nhow do we use the information that you provide to us ? broadly speaking , we use personal information for purposes of administering our business activities , providing service and support and making available other products and services to our customers and prospective customers . occasionally , we may also use the information we collect to notify you about important changes to our website , new services and special offers we think you will find valuable . the lists used to send you product and service offers are developed and managed under our traditional standards designed to safeguard the security and privacy of all personal information provided by our users . you may at any time to notify us of your desire not to receive these offers .\nwhat are cookies ? cookies are a feature of web browser software that allows web servers to recognize the computer used to access a website . cookies are small pieces of data that are stored by a user ' s web browser on the user ' s hard drive . cookies can remember what information a user accesses on one web page to simplify subsequent interactions with that website by the same user or to use the information to streamline the user ' s transactions on related web pages . this makes it easier for a user to move from web page to web page and to complete commercial transactions over the internet . cookies should make your online experience easier and more personalized .\nhow do we use information collected from cookies ? we use website browser software tools such as cookies and web server logs to gather information about our website users ' browsing activities , in order to constantly improve our website and better serve our users . this information assists us to design and arrange our web pages in the most user - 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{"id": 1302, "summary": [{"text": "the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , also known as the haitian solenodon , or agouta , is a solenodon found only on hispaniola , the island shared by haiti and the dominican republic .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it was first described by brandt in 1833 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "a similar but smaller species , marcano 's solenodon ( s. marcanoi ) , once lived on the island , but became extinct after european colonization . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "hispaniolan solenodon", "paragraphs": ["the two living solenodon species are the cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubansus ) and the larger hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) .\nhispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , arkive . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken\nvenom system of solenodons . hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus ( . . . | download scientific diagram\nthe hispaniolan solenodon belongs to an ancient group of mammals and is one of only two solenodon species alive today .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is relatively long - lived , potentially reaching 11 years of age .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon ( s . paradoxus ) lives in haiti and the dominican republic .\ndana campbell set\nfile : hispaniolan solenodon . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nsolenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833\n.\ndana campbell marked\nfile : hispaniolan solenodon . jpg\nas trusted on the\nsolenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833\npage .\nyan wong set\nfile : hispaniolan solenodon crop . jpg\nas an exemplar on\nsolenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833\n.\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )\ntitle =\narkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubanus ) , known as the \u2018almiqui\u2019 in cuba , is a soricomorph endemic to cuba . the cuban solenodon belongs to the family solenodontidae along with a similar species , the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) . the cuban solenodon is unusual among mammals because it has a venomous saliva .\na female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is one of the only mammals in the world that can inject prey with a venomous bite .\na female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs\na hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua\na hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua\nconservationists are in the dominican republic to save one of the world ' s strangest and most ancient mammals - the hispaniolan solenodon .\nhispaniolan solenodons are only a handful of mammals that are venomous . the second lower\nfeatured photo : the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . photograph : miguel landestoy source : the guardian\nsolenodon are relatively long lived animals . a cuban solenodon lived more than 5 years in captivity . they may be able to live longer as a hispaniolan solenodon lived to 11 years in captivity ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is one of only a few mammal species capable of producing toxic saliva , which it uses to immobilise its invertebrate prey .\nthis may explain why the hispaniolan solenodon , which is found on an island shared by haiti and the dominican republic , is so unusual .\nthe distinctive long snout of the hispaniolan solenodon is attached to the skull with a unique ball - and - socket joint , giving it great flexibility .\ncenter : the hispaniolan hutia ( plagiodontia aedium ) is the only surviving native rodent on hispaniola . right : iucn red list range of the solenodon .\ndiet : the hispaniolan solenodon ' s diet includes insects and other invertebrates , small reptiles , some fruit and vegetables , and possibly an occasional young chicken .\nafter sequencing the mitochondrial genome of the hispaniolan solenodon , scientists confirmed that the endangered venomous mammal diverged from all other living mammals some 78 million years ago .\nlarge , and with a long , thin snout , the hispaniolan solenodon resembles an overgrown shrew ; it can inject passing prey with a venom - loaded bite .\neven as scientists try and find out basic data on the cuban solenodon , researchers are discovering surprises regarding the better - known hispaniolan species . surveying the species\u2019 various populations , samuel turvey and his team recently discovered that the hispaniolan species is actually three distinct subspecies .\nhabitat : hispaniolan solenodons typically live in forests , but sometimes make their homes in plantations or gardens .\nottenwalder , j . a . 1999 . observations on the habitat and ecology of the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) in the dominican republic . monografies de la societat d ' historia natural de les balears 6 : 123 - 167 .\nhispaniolan solenodons are found in forests and brush country on the island of hispaniola in the caribbean . they are\nfigure 3 . venom system of solenodons . hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus ( a ) ; with deeply grooved lower canines ( as indicated by the arrow ) that aid in flow and injection of venom ( b ) . illustrations : kathleen reinhardt .\nit is the middle of the night , and local research assistants nicolas corona and lleyo espinal have been trawling the dense forest vegetation , attempting to track down the elusive hispaniolan solenodon .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . notice the small eyes , hairless tail , rusty - orange coloured fur and crazy claws . photograph : miguel landestoy\nturvey , s . t . , meredith , h . m . r . , and scofield , r . p . ( 2008 ) . continued survival of hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus in haiti . oryx 42 ( 4 ) : 611\u2013614 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605308001324 .\ntop left : jose with a solenodon caught in the field . top right : the last survivors team working in the field at night , to maximise chances of catching these nocturnal mammals . bottom left : hispaniolan solenodon , ( solenodon paradoxus ) , stuffed specimen in the natural history museum , vienna . bottom right : overlooking a disappearing landscape in the dominican republic .\nthe haitian solenodon weighs 700 - 1000 g ( 25 - 35 oz ) .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon spent most of the last 78 million years without any natural predators , but is now endangered as a result of habitat loss and predation from cats and dogs brought to the islands by human settlers .\nhispaniolan solenodons and people : other than an occasional runin in a farm field or garden , solenodons and humans rarely see one another .\n\u201c [ the programme ] drew a lot of international attention to the hispaniolan solenodon , \u201d rupp said . \u201csome of this attention actually spilled over into the dominican press which published a few articles on the species . \u201d\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is one of the creatures highlighted by the zoological society of london ' s ( zsl ) edge of existence programme , which focuses its efforts on conservation plans for animals that are both endangered and evolutionarily distinctive .\nnatural history museum geneticist , selina brace , who recently co - authored a paper on the hispaniolan solenodon with turvey , called solenodons a \u201cfabulously quirky creature\u201d and said she was \u201cinstantly hooked\u201d after seeing a picture of this oddity .\nwith a long snout and short brown - red fur , the hispaniolan solenodon looks like a large shrew . its hairless feet , nose and tail recall those of a possum . the species , sometimes called the dominican solenodon , is found only on hispaniola , the island shared by haiti and the dominican republic .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is considered endangered . dogs and cats prey on the animal , and humans have cleared many of the forests where it lives . ( \u00a9 n . smythe / photo researchers , inc . reproduced by permission . )\nhispaniolan solenodons are slow clumsy animals and they have an ungainly gait . instead of running in a straight line they tend to take a zigzag course .\nthe haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon mainly feeds on insects , worms and lizards . they may also occasionally feed on fruit , roots and other vegetation . they probe the earth with their snout and dig or rip open rotten logs with their claws in order to locate their prey .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon ( stock image ) is one of the only mammals in the world and can inject prey with a venomous bite . now experts have come one step closer to revealing how it got its potentially deadly weapon by sequencing the creature ' s mitochondrial genome\nthe haitian solenodon .\ndominican fauna . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nhaitinalmikki\nto\nsolenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833\n.\nscientists discovered that the hispaniolan solenodon , a venomous mammal that lives in the dominican republic and haiti , diverged from all other mammals 78 million years ago , long before earth ' s largest dinosaurs died off , according to new research published monday in the journal of mitochondrial dna .\na female hispaniola solenodon with a radio collar attached so researchers could track its movements . photograph : tiffany roufs\nthe cuban solenodon was discovered in 1861 by the german naturalist wilhelm peters . only 36 cuban solenodons had ever been caught . by 1970 , it was thought that the cuban solenodon had become extinct , since no specimens had been found since 1890 . on june 2 , 1970 , the cuban solenodon was classified as endangered .\nthe cuban solenodon is found in dense , humid forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .\nyan wong added a link to\nthe last survivors\non\nsolenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833\n.\nthe solenodon is an ancient creature ; it survived the meteorite that wiped out the dinosaurs . turvey noted :\nrebecca morelle science reporter with bbc news recently joined the durrell team in the dominican republic , attempting to track down one of the most strange and ancient mammals in the world - the hispaniolan solenodon . read the full reports below and log on again tomorrow to find out what the search revealed .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is also an opportunistic scavenger and may prey on amphibians , reptiles and small birds if or when the opportunity arises . indeed , local people believe it to eat snakes and chickens ( 5 ) , and such remains have been found in solenodon faeces , although this may be the result of scavenging dead animals ( 2 ) . it lunges at its chosen prey , pinning it down with its strong forelimbs , and then scoops up the prey with its lower jaw . a bite from the solenodon injects the victim with toxic saliva from its lower incisors and renders the prey immobile ( 2 ) . potential animal predators of the hispaniolan solenondon include boas and birds of prey ( namely owls ) ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .\nas the bag is opened , a pungent , musty smell - the solenodon ' s signature scent - seeps out .\nmassicot , p .\nhaitian solenodon .\nanimal info . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .\nthe plight of the solenodon in haiti may be the most dire of all . haiti\u2019s forests have been decimated over centuries and the solenodon survives only in the massif de la hotte region , the impoverished nation\u2019s last significant stand of cloud forest .\nnow the why . why would the solenodon evolve venomousness while pretty much every mammal on earth gets along fine without it ? well , it may not be the case of the solenodon evolving venomousness , as much as other mammals losing it .\ns . paradoxus has acquired several adaptations which allow it to remain as one of the very few hispaniolan land mammals left . it has a magnificent sense of smell and is able to hear very well ; but in return , its eyesight is not near as developed . its snout contains sensory whiskers along its length . the hispaniolan solenodon has a fast - paced life in the sense that it is always on the move . however , it is on the move at a rather slow speed . it could easily beat a\ninternational wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .\nsolenodon\n( on - line ) . accessed october 3 , 2001 at urltoken .\nand then , once they know that , says dr young , the conservation of the solenodon can really begin in earnest .\neatroff , a .\nsolenodon paradoxus .\nanimal diversity web . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .\nnorvis hernandez , a cuban biologist , is one of the few people on planet earth who has seen a living , wild cuban solenodon . smaller than its hispaniola cousin , the cuban solenodon is easily distinguished by its black - and - white hair .\nthe cuban solenodon measures 16 \u2013 22 inches ( 40 \u2013 55 centimetres ) long from nose to tail with an extremely elongated snout and a long , naked , scaly tail . the cuban solenodon weighs around 1 kilogram ( 2 . 2 pounds ) .\n\u201cthe solenodon lineage diverged from other placental mammals circa 78 million years ago . that means [ it ] has existed since the cretaceous period , \u201d said adam brandt , lead author of a recent study that took the first look at the solenodon\u2019s mitochondrial dna .\nthe solenodon has been placed in a bag , which is the best way to keep it calm while it is temporarily captured .\nthe international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .\nsolenodon\n( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .\nthe cuban solenodon is an insectivore and emerges from rocks and hollow logs at night to prey on insects , spiders and lizards .\nhispaniolan solenodons breed up to twice per year . females will give birth to 1 - 3 young and at birth they weigh 40 - 55 g ( 1 . 4 - 1 . 9 oz ) . the young are\neatroff , a . ( 2002 ) . \u201c solenodon paradoxus , \u201d animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .\ntheusch , m . ( 2002 ) . \u201c solenodon cubanus , \u201d animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .\nsolenodon lives in family groups in caves , natural hollows , and burrows in dense , wet mountain forests ( nowak , 1999 ) .\nis incapable of causing any significant detriment to the human economy . when it was present in higher numbers , farmers reported destruction of crops as a result of solenodon activity . however , this crop destruction was incidental to the solenodon ' s predation on insects beneath the soil .\nthe two living species in this family are the cuban solenodon ( suh - len - uh - dun ) , which is also known as the almiqui ( ahl - mee - kee ) , and the hispaniolan solenodon , which is sometimes called the haitian solenodon . both have extremely long snouts that extend beyond the end of their lower jaw . their four relatively tall legs , clawed feet , and long tails are nearly hairless . most are brown on the back , or sometimes black in the cuban solenodon , and have lighter - colored fur on their undersides . cuban solenodons have longer , coarser , back hair , giving it a shaggier appearance . they are also slightly smaller than hispaniolan solenodons . overall , adult solenodons range from about 10 to 15 inches ( 25 to 38 centimeters ) in length , and their tail adds another 6 to 10 inches ( 15 to 25 centimeters ) . adults weigh 1 . 3 to 2 . 4 pounds ( 0 . 6 to 1 . 1 kilograms ) .\nottenwalder , j . a . ( 1991 ) the systematics , biology , and conservation of solenodon . phd thesis , university of florida .\nit took hernandez and her colleagues 12 days of searching in the field to finally catch a cuban solenodon , known locally as the almiqui .\nmassicot , p . 2001 .\nanimal info - cuban solenodon\n( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .\nbaillie , j .\nsolenodon cubanus .\n2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .\nbaillie , j .\nsolenodon marcanoi .\n2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .\nbaillie , j .\nsolenodon paradoxus .\n2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .\nwhile venom can land solenodon a meal and protect it from its natural enemies , it won\u2019t do a lick of good against humans . habitat destruction on cuba and hispaniola has hit the solenodon hard . add to that the invasive species that humans have brought along and you\u2019ve got a massacre .\nthe most important adaptation of the hispaniolan solenodon is its ability to secrete venomous saliva . the venom is secreted from enlarged submaxillary salivary glands which are located in a groove in the second lower incisor . the term solenodon actually means \u2018grooved tooth\u2019 in greek . this venom is used as a means of defense to stun its prey . this is the only documented venom delivery system in any recent mammal . however , discoveries have been made to support the hypothesis that salivary venoms and venom delivery systems have indeed evolved independently in early mammal lineages .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is a high priority for global conservation due to its endangered threat status and its evolutionary distinctiveness , and is ranked in the top 10 mammals to conserve by edge urltoken effectively nothing is known about the species\u2019 landscape - level distribution , surviving population size , habitat requirements or specific anthropogenic threats , which make it impossible to identify appropriate in situ or ex situ conservation management strategies .\nthe team i am with , made up of scientists from jersey ' s durrell wildlife conservation trust , the zoological society of london ( zsl ) , the hispaniolan ornithological society ( soh ) , have embarked on a project called the last survivors .\nwoods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .\nif there was any justice in the animal kingdom \u2013 any at all \u2013 the solenodon would be as famous as the tiger . the solenodon is a rabbit - sized , shrew - like mammal that is only found on two caribbean islands : cuba and hispaniola ( the dominican republic and haiti ) .\nan asteroid strikes earth as flying reptiles look on . somehow the solenodon survived this . illustration : mark garlick / getty images / science photo library rm\nmotion - sensitive camera traps that the team have been setting outside solenodon burrows are beginning to shed light on how much of an issue this might be .\n* * * as in most nocturnal terrestrial insectivores , the haitian solenodon ' s sense of touch is highly developed , while smell and hearing are also important .\n4 . woods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .\n' it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonisation and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives . '\nthe solenodon is endangered and experts may redouble their efforts to save the animal seeing as it ' s the only remnant of an incredibly old group of animals .\nall laughing at the expense of the solenodon aside , please no touchy this animal if you happen to find one . not just because solenodon is endangered , but because it has a venomous bite , an extreme rarity for a mammal . ( shrews have a venomous bite too , and male platypuses have venomous spurs on their hind legs , though the males only use these to fight each other . ) sitting underneath the solenodon\u2019s lower incisors are salivary glands that send venom along grooves in its teeth . all the solenodon has to do is break the victim\u2019s skin\u2014or cuticle , in the case of insects\u2014for the venom to get in there and work its magic .\nthere is thought to be little hope for this species in haiti ( 2 ) , but in the dominican republic , the hispaniolan solenodon is known to occur in several areas ( 6 ) . these areas still face threats from logging , agriculture and cattle ranching ; however , both international conservation organisations ( for example , the nature conservancy and durrell wildlife conservation trust ) and national conservation organisations ( for example , sociedad ornitologica de la hispaniola and grupo jaragua ) are working to address these threats and implement management plans for protected areas ( 6 ) . the focus of efforts should be to conserve this species in protected forest reserves ; however , the enormous pressure from increasing human populations on hispaniola may mean that the survival of the hispaniolan solenodon ultimately depends on zoos ( 2 ) , although , as yet , captive breeding of this unique mammal has not been successful ( 7 ) .\nthe master escapist then survived subsequent ice ages and other natural disasters that have shaped earth\u2019s history . and they are still around today\u2013perhaps most impressive of all is that the solenodon has not yet been driven to extinction by human impacts\u2026yet . today , the solenodon is threatened by the presence of invasive predators and by deforestation . turvey commented :\n1 . solenodons have unusually flexible snouts . the hispaniolan solendon has a ball - and - socket joint at the base of its snout , similar to a human shoulder joint . this increases its mobility and allows it to use its snout to explore narrow crevices for potential prey .\nto cite this page : eatroff , a . 2002 .\nsolenodon paradoxus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nto cite this page : theusch , m . 2002 .\nsolenodon cubanus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\n8 . solenodon nipples are located near their rumps . the female solenodon gives birth to one to three young at a time , but only two will survive . she only has two nipples , and they\u2019re located toward her back , almost on her buttocks . young solenodons stay with their mothers for several months , which is long compared with other insectivores .\nturvey said the fact that the solenodon survived so many upheavals \u201cmakes it even more tragic that these \u2018living fossil\u2019 survivors are now in danger of extinction due to human activities . \u201d\nthick gloves are donned , essential for protection against the solenodon ' s most ancient feature - it is the only mammal in the world that can inject venom through its teeth .\neisenburg , j . f . , and n . gonzalez gotera . 1985 . observations on the natural history of solenodon cubanus . acta zoologica fennica 173 : 275 - 277 .\nfor whatever reason , though , solenodon held onto it . indeed , solenodon is a truly ancient mammal , having diverged some 76 million years ago\u2014not long ( in evolutionary time , that is ) before the dinos met their match in the form of an asteroid punching earth right in the face . ( braun notes , though , that debate still swirls around the evolution of venom in mammals . it may be that venomousness was rare in early mammals , as it is today , and solenodon has just always been an oddity . )\nhe says :\nwe are really laying the groundwork for the survival of the solenodon - what we want to do is ensure the long term survival of this unique animal .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is nocturnal , secretive and rare , and so , unsurprisingly , is rarely seen and has not been widely studied ( 2 ) . it is capable of climbing near - vertical surfaces but spends most of its time searching for food on the ground . it uses its flexible snout to explore cracks and crevices , and its massive claws to dig under rocks , bark and soil , for invertebrates such as beetles , crickets , insect larvae , earthworms and termites ( 2 ) .\nthe most significant threats to the haitian solenodon appear to be the continuing loss of its forest habitat and predation by introduced cats and dogs , especially by dogs in the vicinity of settlements .\nperhaps the solenodon\u2019s elusive nature has helped it to survive up until this point ; however , the anthropocene is characterized by unprecedented changes to the course of evolution and the requirements for persistence of species . the solenodon\u2019s problem is that it has been too successful in staying off the radar\u2013it has failed to capture the attention of humans . without recognition from people , this threatened species may not be able to garner the conservation support it needs . will the anthropocene be the last epoch the solenodon ever sees ? or will it survive yet another phase of hardship on earth ?\nwhat you don\u2019t have , though , is a venomous bite . . . unless you are in fact a lizard person from outer space . or , better yet , a mysterious mammal called the solenodon . they ' re one of just a handful of mammals with venom glands that deliver a powerful toxin . but wait , there\u2019s more : the solenodon\u2019s nose has a ball - and - socket joint like the human hip , making it crazy flexible . and a lady solenodon\u2019s teats are . . . oddly placed . let ' s just leave it at that for now .\neisenberg , john f . , and edwin gould .\nthe behavior of solenodon paradoxus in captivity with comments on the behavior of other insectivora .\nzoologica 51 ( 1966 ) : 49\u201357 .\neven if you do get a dose of solenodon venom , you\u2019re getting off easy . the venom incapacitates other victims like lizards , and in laboratory tests , scientists dosed mice with the venom and recorded breathing problems , convulsions , and paralysis . and the solenodon doesn ' t stop at prey smaller than it . \u201cthere ' s one report of a solenodon kept in captivity in london that ate an entire chicken , \u201d says molecular biologist rodrigo ligabue braun of brazil\u2019s federal university of rio grande do sul . \u201che bit a chicken and then ate all the parts he wanted . \u201d\ndogs in particular are a problem on hispaniola , \u201calthough we ' ve also recorded or heard of cases where the solenodon has bitten a dog and the dog has died from presumably the venom , \u201d nunez - mino says . feral cats , too , aren\u2019t just a potential executioner , but competition : the felines target the lizards and large insects and such that the solenodon relies on to survive .\n3 . they\u2019re venomous . solendons are one of only a few venomous mammals . other venomous mammals , like the duck - billed platypus , are only capable of passively conveying venom ; the solenodon actually injects its venom like a snake through specially modified teeth . the second lower incisors have special grooves through which venom flows . in fact , the name \u201csolenodon\u201d is derived from the greek for \u201cgrooved tooth . \u201d\nvarona , l . s . 1983 . remarks on the biology and zoogeography of solenodon ( atopogale ) cubanus peters , 1861 ( mammalia , insectivora ) . contributions to zoology 53 : 93 - 98 .\nchances are you\u2019re not far behind the aromatic wonder that is the solenodon . foraging typically at night , it jams its long , highly mobile ball - and - socket schnoz into the soil to root around for invertebrates , things like worms and insects . its many sensitive whiskers help it feel around the dirt , which is just as well because the solenodon ain\u2019t got much going on in the eyesight department .\nif you have never heard of the solenodon until now , you\u2019re not alone . the solenodon ( pronounced so - leen - o - don ) lives only on two islands in the world\u2013cuba and hispaniola . the nocturnal , insect - eating solenodon is elusive and eccentric . it\u2019s one of the only mammals in the world that is venomous . it is suspected to have the ability to echolocate . another strange trait it boasts is having a joint in its snout . the nasal ball and socket setup allows it to deftly take in the olfactory environment . this small critter has long claws that curve outward from furless feet .\neisenberg , j . e . , and e . gould . 1966 . the behaviour of solenodon paradoxus in captivity , with some comments on the behaviour of other insectivores . zoologica 51 : 49 - 58 .\ncurrently the hispaniola solenodon is considered endangered by the iucn red list \u2013 though two of its subspecies may be close to extinction . the cuban solenodon is in an even more precarious position . also considered endangered , the species has been feared extinct more than once . the zsl\u2019s edge programme , which categorizes animals based on their threatened status and evolutionary distinctness , lists the pair of solenodons as number seven in the top 100 mammals .\nas our close encounter with the solenodon nears its end , the team record the gps location where it has been found , measure the animal , and take some dna samples by pulling out a tuft of hairs .\nthere are a whole slew of reasons why the solenodon\u2019s star should rise , including the facts that it\u2019s one of the only venomous mammals and david attenborough really likes it . but , most of all , the solenodon should be famous because it somehow survived the asteroid collision that killed off the dinosaurs , not to mention the next 66 million years of other catastrophes , from ice ages to the rise of bipedal destroyers named homo sapiens .\nalthough the cuban solenodon is not yet extinct , it is still an endangered species because it only breeds a single litter of one to three in a year and because of predation by species that were introduced by humans .\nsolenodons are some of the most unique and rare mammals in the world . solenodon - like animals lived all over north america 30 million years ago , but today they are only found on the islands of cuba and hispaniola .\nresearch shows the solenodon evolved more than 70 million years ago \u2013 in time to hang out with dinosaurs . but today these unique mammals face a barrage of threats including stray dogs , feral cats , invasive mongoose and deforestation .\nthey say that this scheme , which is funded by the uk government ' s darwin initiative , and is supported by the dominican republic ' s national zoo and environment ministry , could be our last chance to save the solenodon .\nthe haitian solenodon is one of the species that live in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) and the greater antillean moist forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )\nthe cuban solenodon has small eyes and dark brown to black hair . it is sometimes compared to a shrew , although it most closely resembles members of the family tenrecidae including hedgehogs , shrews , opossums , mice and even otters .\nbut turvey said the last survivors programme made considerable progress on the hispaniolan species , including surveys across the dominican republic that found the species has a larger range than expected . as a result , the species will likely be downlisted by the iucn red list in the future . the programme\u2019s work has also led to a new focus \u2013 and concern \u2013 for the nearly extinct subspecies in haiti .\nboth the hispaniola and cuban solenodon species are listed as endangered by the international union for the conservation of nature . their keen senses of smell and hearing help them to avoid human contact , though some local people have become skilled in tracking it down .\nbehavior and reproduction : during the day , hispaniolan solenodons rest in various hiding places , including hollow trees or logs , tight places in caves or slender cracks in rocks , or in the burrows they make . several solenodons may rest together in a burrow . when they become active at night , they scout around on the surface looking for food . adults are loners during this period , even fighting with one another .\nin 2009 , a number of conservation groups \u2013 dwct , zsl\u2019s the edge programme , la sociedad ornitol\u00f3gica de la hispaniola ( soh ) and the dominican republic\u2019s ministry for environment and natural resources \u2013 kick - started a three - year research and conservation programme on the hispaniola solenodon called the last survivors ( the program also included the hispaniola hutia , a tree - dwelling rodent ) . while it resulted in researchers learning more about the solenodon than ever before , the conservation impacts have been negligible , according to rupp .\nthe haitian solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws .\nconservationists , though , are working to protect this incredible and ancient mammal . groups like the durrell wildlife trust are working with local organizations and the dominican republic ministry of environment to better understand the solenodon , from its populations to the makeup of its venom .\nshe said that the cuban solenodon\u2019s keen senses of smell and hearing make it almost impossible to capture with conventional methods . the species not only avoids human contact but , according to hernandez , is never tricked by the mechanical traps scientists commonly use to catch small mammals .\nfrom the few reports of human envenomations , it sounds like the experience is no picnic . symptoms are similar to a snake bite , including localized swelling and severe pain , perhaps lasting several days . ( ask your doctor if solenodon venom is right for you ! )\nthe cuban solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . the cuban solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their fore claws .\nsolenodons and people usually do not see one another , unless the solenodon makes its home in a plantation or garden . homeowners and farmers sometimes view them as pests because they occasionally damage crops while rooting around in the dirt for insects and other prey that live near plants .\nif the also - venomous shrews are any indication , the solenodon may not always be killing and consuming its prey outright . shrews will often bite and incapacitate their victims , then drag them to their dens and come back later and gnaw on the comatose things . the solenodon may well do the same . ( oh relax\u2014it\u2019s not that bad in the grand scheme of things . the tarantula hawk is a wasp that stings , well , tarantulas , then drags them back to a den for its larva to devour it alive over the course of several weeks . )\nresearchers aren\u2019t entirely sure where the various solenodon populations were located when the asteroid hit \u2013 whether they were already on the landmasses that would become modern - day cuba and hispaniola or on the mainland \u2013 but they think the populations were close to ground zero of the asteroid\u2019s impact in chicxulub , mexico .\nthe forelimbs of the hispaniolan solenodon are much more developed that the hindlegs but all of the limbs have claws with five digits which are used for digging . this creature shows a mix of primitive and derived traits . the primitive characteristics consist of a poisonous bite and the ability to echolocate . echolocation is the ability to send calls out into the environment and hear the echo from different objects close by . this helps them with feeding and navigation . also , s . paradoxus has a prootic canal for the lateral head vein . this canal is broadly distributed in mesozoic mammals but is essentially unknown to placental mammals . among the more derived characteristics are low birth frequency , low number of young per litter , and its os proboscis bone . this bone is located at the tip of the cartilaginous snout for support .\nfirst described in 1861 , scientist lost track of the cuban solenodon near the end of the 19th century . no one had saw it for almost a hundred years \u2013 and many assumed it was extinct \u2013 until researchers spotted a few in the mid - 1970s . and then no one saw it again until 2003 .\nit ' s just impressive it ' s survived this long ,\nadam brandt , a postdoctoral researcher at the university of illinois , said in a press release .\nit survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonization and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives .\nit ' s just impressive it ' s survived this long ,\nadam brandt , a postdoctoral researcher at the university of illinois , said in a news release .\nit survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonization and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives .\nthree cuban solenodons were captured in 1974 and 1975 and research revealed that it still existed in many places at the eastern end of cuba . however , the cuban solenodon is still very rare . prior to 2003 , the most recent sighting was in 1999 mainly because it is a nocturnal burrower , living underground and it is very rarely seen .\n\u201cthis experience of watching this ancient species [ was ] wonderful , it was for a short time because i do not like to feel that this species [ was ] stressed , \u201d said hernandez who caught a female solenodon in alejandro humboldt national park for brief study before releasing it again . \u201ci cannot explain what i felt the first time i touched it . \u201d\nresearchers at the university of illinois and the university of puerto rico used two different methods to sequence the nucleotides that make up solenodon mitochondrial dna - - the kind passed unchanged from mother to offspring - - to determine the history of the species ' lineage . both methods produced the same conclusion , the species diverged from the mammalian tree of life some 78 million years ago .\nlike other mammals , solenodon mothers nurse their babies with milk delivered through their nipples . a mother may have up to three babies in each litter , but she has only two nipples . all three of her young cannot feed at once . as a result , one of the three babies typically gets less of the nourishing milk than the other two , becomes weaker and weaker , and eventually dies .\nthe main threats are habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment , charcoal production , and urban development . the impact of exotic predators , such as dogs , cats and mongooses has not been quanitified , although feral dogs are known to have severe localised impacts on solenodon populations . since the species had no natural predators before european colonisation of hispaniola , and is a slow clumsy mover , it does not possess many defences against introduced animals .\naccording to the world conservation union ( iucn ) both species are endangered , facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild . the u . s . fish and wildlife service also list these two species as endangered . the causes for their decline include hunting by dogs and cats , and the removal of the forests where the solenodons live . the iucn lists a third species , marcano ' s solenodon , as extinct .\nthe species\u2019 ecology is becoming better understood thanks to recent research efforts . it is nocturnal and finds shelter during the day by burrowing or hiding in hollow logs or crevices . classed as an insectivore , the solenodon feeds mostly on spiders and insects found in the soil , although the diet may be supplemented with worms , snails and occasional plant material . the solenodon is one of the few species of mammal that can produce toxic saliva ( along with some species of shrew ) . a special groove in the second incisor carries the venom to its prey . the reproductive rate of this species is low , with females producing two litters containing 1 - 3 offspring per year . the young stay with their parents for several months , while other offspring are born and raised . the lifespan of wild solenodons is thought to be relatively long , as one individual survived for more than eleven years in captivity .\ncuban solenodons are nocturnal ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) . during the day , they stay in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows ( massicot , 2001 ) . only the toes of solenodon come into contact with the ground . however , they can run surprisingly fast and can also climb ( nowak , 1999 ) . although cuban solenodons are often found near vertical surfaces , they spend much of their time on the ground ( massicot , 2001 ) .\nthere is really nothing on the planet like the solenodon . there are just two surviving species today , one found on cuba and the other , more well known , on hispaniola . but these two species alone are so distinct from any other mammal that they represent an entire biological family : solenodontidae . to put that in perspective every single species of mice and rat \u2013 from the african pygmy mouse to the northern luzon giant cloud rat \u2013 also represent a single family of 700 - plus species .\nlike most other insectivores , solenodons rest during the day and become active at night . they usually spend their days in small groups within burrows or shallow hollows in the ground , but may also rest in small hiding places . they spread out at night to look for food alone , and will attack fellow solenodons that get too close , often inflicting nasty bites . if a predator approaches , the solenodon has the option of charging and biting , or running off . unless it is startled or has nowhere to flee , it will usually choose running over fighting .\nendemic to the island of hispaniola ( haiti and the dominican republic ) . s . paradoxus paradoxus occurs in northern hispaniola . s . p . woodi occurs in the south of the island , in the sierra de baoruco - jaragua region of the southwest dominican republic , and also as an isolated population in the massif de la hotte region of haiti . the species\u2019 range has substantially decreased with following centuries of deforestation , particularly in haiti , but the solenodon remains relatively widely distributed in the forests of the dominican republic today . classified as endangered ( en b2ab ( iii , v ) ) on the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species .\nbut should you be lucky enough to bump into a solenodon in the wild , you\u2019re in for a treat . mildly put , this is a singular mammal . it\u2019s about as big as a large rat with a tail to match . ( looks kind of like a rodent of unusual size , don ' t it ? ) it\u2019s got long , sharp nails and ambles with a wobbly , i\u2019m - just - coming - off - anesthesia gait . females with their young are particularly awkward . \u201cthe teats are sort of in the armpit of the rear legs , and sometimes the females will kind of run around dragging the babies , \u201d nunez - mino says .\nthe haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country , as well as around plantations . it is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . its diet includes insects and spiders found in soil and leaf litter . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws . this species is relatively social , and up to eight individuals may inhabit the same burrow . litter size is 1 or 2 young . the young are born in a nesting burrow . young solenodons remain with their mother for several months , which is exceptionally long for insectivores .\n, are all that is left of a once rich and unique land mammal fauna ( not including bats ) which was made up of at least 25 species . both species are currently listed as endangered by the iucn . glover m . allen wrote about these species 100 years ago in the \u201cmemoirs of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard college\u201d . of the solenodon he said \u201dof the habits of this species in the wild very little is definitely known\u201d while he wrote the following about the hutia : \u201cof this interesting animal , nothing further seems to have been discovered since it was first described nearly seventy - five years ago\u201d . the situation has unfortunately not moved on much in the last one hundred years .\nthe project will take place in the key biodiversity area ( kba ) of massif de la hotte , a mountainous area in the far south - west of haiti , home to one of the few remnants of forest . this region has been highlighted by the alliance for zero extinction ( aze ) as the highest global priority for urgent conservation action and is likely to represent the only part of the country where solenodons still persist . whilst the macaya national park encompasses the majority of the massif de la hotte , there is huge pressure on the remaining forest patches for charcoal production and clearing to provide areas for pasture and for crops which will result in the forest habitat becoming smaller and increasingly fragmented ; this leads both to destruction of solenodon habitat and potential escalation of human - animal conflict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe haitian population and the southern dominican republic population may represent a distinct species and is already differentiated as a different subspecies ( s . turvey pers . comm . ) .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & chanson , j . ( global mammal assessment team )\njustification : listed as endangered because its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km\u00b2 , its range is severely fragmented , it is restricted to forest habitats , and there has been an observed shrinkage in its distribution and anecdotal information on habitat destruction and degradation within its range , and a decline in the number of individuals due to invasive species and persecution .\nthis species occurs in the massif de la hotte ( haiti ) and the dominican republic .\nthis species is rare . in haiti the species could be considered critically endangered because there is an isolated population with a range less than 100 km\u00b2 , threatened by habitat loss and persecution ( s . turvey and l . davalos pers . comm . ) .\nthe most significant threat to this species appears to be the continuing demise of its forest habitat and predation by introduced rats , mongoose , cats and dogs , especially in the vicinity of settlements . in haiti persecution and hunting for food ( samuel turvey pers . comm . ) is a threat , and there is devastating habitat destruction also occurring .\nit is protected by law in the dominican republic ( general environmental law 64 - 00 ) . there is a recovery plan published in 1992 which suggested comprehensive surveys , and management in the national park pic macaya , and education , and the control of exotic mammals , and breeding programmes . at the moment it is not being implemented ( samuel turvey pers . comm . ) . it is found in most protected areas in the dominican republic ( sixto inchaustegui pers . comm . ) . it is one of the species that lives in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot and the greater antillean moist forests ecoregion ( olson and dinerstein , 1998 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nrare footage of one of the world ' s most strange and elusive mammals has been captured by scientists ."]}
{"id": 1312, "summary": [{"text": "the common green bottle fly ( biological name phaenicia sericata or lucilia sericata ) is a blow fly found in most areas of the world , and the most well-known of the numerous green bottle fly species .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it is 10 \u2013 14 mm long , slightly larger than a house fly , and has brilliant , metallic , blue-green or golden coloration with black markings .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it has short , sparse black bristles ( setae ) and three cross-grooves on the thorax .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the wings are clear with light brown veins , and the legs and antennae are black .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the maggots ( larvae ) of the fly are used for maggot therapy . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "common green bottle fly", "paragraphs": ["common green bottle fly ( calliphoridae : lucilia sericata [ phaenicia sericata ] ) under a microscope .\na common green bottle fly ( lucilia sericata ) feeding on a pink salmon carcass near the mashiter river .\nvariation in developmental time for geographically distinct populations of the common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) .\ngreen bottle fly prevention and control may be comprised of both exterior and interior procedures .\ncommon green bottle fly ( calliphoridae : lucilia sericata [ phaenicia sericata ] ) collecting around a dead carcass for feeding .\nfigure 3 . ventral view of the common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) . photograph by joseph berger , urltoken\ngallagher mb , sandhu s , kimsey r . variation in developmental time for geographically distinct populations of the common green bottle fly ,\nvariation in developmental time for geographically distinct populations of the common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nfigure 2 . dorsal view of the common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) . photograph by joseph berger , bugwood . org .\nthe bottle fly is a predominant type of large flying insect , in which the adults can be identified easily by their green or blue metallic coloration . they are categorized based on the body color . to be precise , the blue and green bottle fly life cycle is similar to the life cycle of the common bottle fly .\nfigure 4 . anterior - lateral view of the common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) . photograph by joseph berger , bugwood . org .\nm . b . gallagher , s . sandhu , and r . kimsey , \u201cvariation in developmental time for geographically distinct populations of the common green bottle fly ,\nfigure 1 . common green bottle flies , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) , on dog feces . photograph by whitney crenshaw , colorado state university , bugwood . org .\n\u2013 keep the property clean and get rid of all sources that provide green bottle flies a suitable development habitat .\nconservation status : the common blow fly is considered very stable - not endangered . videos :\nfly baits are a common method of fly control . if you use fly baits , remember to keep the fly bait as far away as possible from your house or building . fly bait such as marlin fly bait , bonanza fly bait or maxforce granular fly bait work quickly , killing flies in about 60 seconds , and keeps controlling them for up to 30 days .\nbrodie b , gries r , martins a , vanlaerhoven s , gries g . bimodal cue complex signifies suitable oviposition sites to gravid females of the common green bottle fly . entomol exp appl . 2014 ; 153 : 114\u201327 .\nblow flies also include a number of species including the common bluebottle fly , calliphora vomitoria ( linnaeus ) the green bottlefly , phaenicia sericata ( meigen ) and others .\ngallagher mb , sandhu s , kimsey r . variation in developmental time for geographically distinct populations of the common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) . journal of forensic sciences . 2010 ; 55 ( 2 ) : 438\u2013442 .\ngreen bottle flies deposit eggs in decaying tissue , which the larvae feed on after hatching this is why the pests often swarm near and develop in dead animals in wall voids , crawl spaces , attics and garages . outside homes green bottle fly preferred development sites are trashcans , spilled trash and animal feces .\nblow flies comprise the family calliphoridae in the insect order diptera , the true flies . they are related to botflies and flesh flies , the larvae of which also live in dead or live animal tissues and dung . the common blow fly is eucalliphora lilea ; the cluster fly is pollenia rudis ; the green bottle fly is phaenicia sericata ; the black blow fly is phormia regina ; and the screwworm fly is cochliomyia hominivorax .\nfigure 5 . adult female common green bottle flies , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) , laying eggs . note the extended ovipositor on adult in lower right corner . photograph by susan ellis , bugwood . org .\nthe green bottle fly is found throughout the world , but is more likely to be found in the northern hemisphere . this species is widely distributed throughout the united states and southern canada .\nweeds & escapee plants : a to f ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : g to l ( common names with photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : m to q ( common names and photo ) .\nweeds & escapee plants : r to z ( common names with photo ) .\n\u2013 seal and repair screens , holes , gaps and any other entryway that green bottle flies may use to enter the home or may allow animals to enter the structure .\nthe green bottle fly is measured up to 10 - 14mm long , slightly larger than a house fly , and has brilliant , metallic , blue - green or golden colorations with black markings . it has black bristle - like hair and three cross - grooves on the thorax . the wings are clear with light brown veins , and the legs and antennae are black .\ncommon green bottle fly lucilia sericata ( phaenicia sericata ) ( order diptera ; family calliphoridae ) lucilia sericata ( phaenicia sericata ) , female ( photo taken by rachel havlik ) ( kansas : sedgwick county . derby , 37\u00b033\u201923 . 45\u2019\u2019 n , 97\u00b015\u201906 . 10\u2019\u2019 w . in home around light fixture . may 24 , 2013 ) .\nsukontason kl , et al . ommatidia of blow fly , house fly , and flesh fly : implication of their vision efficiency . parasitol res . 2008 ; 103 : 123\u201331 .\nexclude blow / bottle flies from a structure with proper screening and maintenance of doors and windows .\nthey also stimulate fluid production and auto - irrigation of a wound as well as secrete antibacterial substances . sterile preparations of larvae of the common bluebottle fly (\nthe life cycle of a bottle fly includes four successive stages , namely eggs , larvae , pupae , and adults . this article explains this process in detail .\nthe adult bottle fly measures about 1 / 4 - inch to 3 / 8 - inch in length . depending upon the species , the adult color may be metallic - green , blue , bronze , or copper . adults become sexually mature within 2 weeks after emerging . following mating , the female breeds in damp areas , compost bins , and unprotected wounds of animals . thus , the life cycle of the bottle fly starts again . within one year , usually 3 - 4 generations of bottle flies are completed .\n] , separated the green color channel , manually selected wings , and graphed histograms of pixel values .\nthe blue bottle fly have a dull bluish - black thorax and a shiny metallic dark blue abdomen . its body and legs are covered with black bristle - like hair , the eyes are red in colour with clear and black legs and antennae . they measure up 10 to15mm long which makes them slightly large than the common house fly\nin many animal rearing situations , the majority of the flies are the common house fly . these are controlled with fly parasites , filth fly traps and manure management . a small number of biting flies can torment the animals and ranch hands . add a few biting fly traps to your program to remove these pesky critters and improve the health of your animals .\ntransmit disease while unsightly and a nuisance , the green bottle fly is also a potential threat to human health since these pests transmit diseases like dysentery and salmonellosis through food contamination . symptoms can range from mild cramps to severe diarrhea , vomiting , headache , weakness and fever .\nfirst , contact your pest management professional for assistance . your pest management professional will positively identify the offending pest , conduct an inspection and then develop an integrated pest management plan ( ipm ) to resolve the problem . the key components of a green bottle fly ipm plan include :\nthere are a bunch of fly species common to the midwest . each has very unique differences , but the one i ' d like to focus on is the bluebottle fly and the dead truth about why they might be in your house .\ngreen bottle flies complete their life cycle in a short time , but the period of time is affected by factors such as the quality of their food source , seasonality , temperature and humidity . the adult female fly deposits up to about 200 eggs that hatch and become larvae in 1 - 3 days . within about 3 - 10 days , fully developed larvae leave their development site and burrow into the soil . pupal development takes approximately 6 - 14 days after which time the adults will emerge and begin to feed on plant nectar , a carcass or garbage . the female fly lays eggs about 2 weeks after they leave the pupal stage . green bottle flies usually complete 3 or 4 generations per year , more in the warmer regions of their distribution areas . one female green bottle fly will lay about 2 , 000 - 3 , 000 eggs in her lifetime\nblow and bottle flies are found worldwide , occurring nearly every place inhabited by people . the name blow fly comes from the bloated condition of the rotting animal carcasses that their larvae , known as maggots , infest . blow flies are one of the most common flies found around dead animals . these flies are common in populated areas and are often found near meat - processing plants , garage dumps and slaughterhouses .\nwithin a few days , the larva matures and pupates in a dry place . the resulting cocoons have a tough , brown - colored covering . as compared to other flies , the pupation stage of a bottle fly is very long ( about 2 weeks ) . during low temperature conditions , a pupa may take about three weeks to emerge into an adult bottle fly .\nchemicals \u2013 chemical products to treat fly resting places and using chemical fly baits , residual insecticide and aerosol products in locations where flies are active .\nblow fly maggots are important in forensic analyses in cases of homicide and other human deaths . because the maggots grow at constant rates , their size and stage of development can provide clues to the time and conditions of death . blow flies have played a role in medicine : species such as the green bottle fly and the black blow fly were once commonly used to clean open wounds in humans because the maggots tend to feed only on decayed tissue .\neggs are usually laid on meat or dead animals . some blow fly species , such as the screw worm fly , lay their eggs on living animals .\n\u201cnzi\u201d is the swahili word for fly , reflecting the trap\u2019s development in africa to control the deadly tsetse flies that spread sleeping sickness . the trap mimics the shape of a large animal , as perceived by the fly visual system . the front blue panel is perceived by the fly eye as the underbelly of an animal . expecting a blood meal from the animal\u2019s \u201cunderbelly , \u201d the fly swoops down . but instead of the expected juicy underbelly , the fly is greeted by sunlight pouring down from the top of the trap . the natural fly response is to fly up into the sunlight , where it is stopped by mosquito netting and then channeled into a clear plastic bottle and trapped .\ncolors include : blue , gold , green , bronze , black / bluish , all with a metallic sheen , or irridescence .\nfly ( red eyed , small ) ) probably in the family : sapromyzidae .\ncalliphorid flies are generally found everywhere and are mostly stout , large to moderate in size and are often shiny with metallic colouring , with blue , green , or black thoraces and abdomens . they fly mainly by day .\nspider eating fly alive . nature at its best ! ! epic . amazing quality .\nthe bottle fly is a species of the common blow fly which is found in almost all habitats of the world . while flying , this fly produces a characteristic buzzing sound . it is a scavenger and feeds on dead and decayed organic matter , meat , feces , etc . nevertheless , when there is a shortage of decayed organic matter , the female feeds on the nectar of strongly - fragrant flowers for laying healthy eggs . thus , this fly plays a major role as a pollinator in the ecosystem . coming to its life cycle , it is similar to that of other flies and comprises four successive stages .\nthe most common signs of bottle flies are either the adults themselves or their larvae . the adults may be seen resting on surfaces or buzzing around potential food sources in which to lay eggs . larvae may be observed when they crawl out of the breeding material to pupate .\ncitation : blenkiron c , tsai p , brown la , tintinger v , askelund kj , windsor ja , et al . ( 2015 ) characterisation of the small rnas in the biomedically important green - bottle blowfly lucilia sericata . plos one 10 ( 3 ) : e0122203 . urltoken\nthe common green bottle fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) , formerly phaenicia sericata , is a common visitor to carrion , feces , and garbage . lucilia sericata , is also one of the most common species in the genus ( whitworth 2006 ) . this blow fly is a member of the family calliphoridae , and like many of the other blow flies , l . sericata plays an important role in forensic , medical and veterinary science . in forensic science , the larvae or maggots help to determine the period of insect colonization as it relates to the time of death , aiding law enforcement in their investigations . medical treatment using maggot therapy can help to heal infections that are otherwise incurable ( rueda et al . 2010 ) . in the field of veterinary medicine , feeding by larval l . sericata can cause substantial losses in animals and production ( strikewise 2007 ) .\nwe present here the draft genome sequence of a providencia stuartii strain , derived from the salivary glands of larval lucilia sericata , a common blow fly important to forensic , medical , and veterinary science . the genome sequence will help dissect coinfections involving p . stuartii and proteus mirabilis , as well as blow fly\u2013bacteria interactions .\nfly glue traps such as catchmaster gold sticks - 10 . 5\nand catchmaster goldstick - 24\n, or revenge jumbo fly catchers may be used to trap and kill blow flies . you can use the goldsticks inside or outside . the jumbo fly catchers are perfect for hanging in gararges or basements . we carry a large assortment of blow fly glue traps\ncommon green bottle fly ( phaenicia sericata ) , filmed in the u . k . on 25 july 2014 . author : the nature box license : cc by - sa 4 . 0 link : urltoken details of the licenses can be found on this channel ' s\nabout\npage . link to this video\u2019s license : urltoken in this video , no changes or modifications have been made to the original material . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -\nabout the same size as the house fly maybe a little bit bigger and more robust .\nopen doors , cracked window frames , and holes in screens allow green bottle flies to enter homes . once inside , they can contaminate food and lay eggs in wastes and wet garbage . they eat from dirty dishes and trashcans but will consume almost any edible items left out in the open .\nin each replicate of experiment 3 ( n = 10 ) , we mounted one live female fly and one live male fly 7 cm apart on an aluminum t - bar ( fig .\nadult flies were collected using plastic bottle fly traps and entomological nets at the laleh park in center of tehran as well as the livestock shopping center and close vicinity of slaughter houses in the east and south of tehran , iran . the traps were made by cutting the top of a plastic water bottle , placing some sands ( 3 cm ) into the bottom of the bottle , putting some raw sheep / chicken liver ( 100 g ) on top of the sand , and then inverting the top of the bottle into the bottom , and tape the two halves together . larval collection from natural infestations of sheep and cattle were performed , but it was unsuccessful because of insecticide application on the animals .\n! at first the fly will be soft and not contain its bright green color . it will take the body of the fly 48 hours to harden , which it will then display , color and finally have fully functional wings . mating activity will then occur anywhere from 3 - 8 days after emergence . then the life cycle will start all over again !\nif a large number of green bottle flies are found inside a structure , they are usually breeding inside the home or in the immediate area of the home . examples of such breeding sites may be a dead mouse or squirrel in the attic or wall void , or a dead bird or other animal in the chimney .\nfarkas r , hell e , hall mj , gyurkovszky m . in vitro rearing of the screwworm fly\nadults : the adults are usually a metallic green and can also have a copper green color . the mouthparts are usually yellow ( apperson et al . 2011 ) . the back is hairy and the overall diameter is about 8\u201310 mm . the squamae at the base of the wings are hairless ( salimi et al . 2010 ) .\n, the common green - bottle fly , by artificially inducing myiasis in a controlled clinical situation . the first documented descriptions of this method date back to the 16th century ; later descriptions of successful maggot applications were found in the writings of napoleon\u2019s surgeon , and , finally , the founder of the modern maggot therapy is believed to be william baer , professor of orthopedic surgery at the johns hopkins school of medicine in maryland , usa , who was a pioneer in the use of sterile maggots for wound therapy , and made observations of the maggot therapy of traumatic wounds during world war i on the battlefields in france .\nwe used the same high - speed video technology as described above , except that we exposed the mounted fly to diffuse instead of point source light . we placed the fly inside a ping pong ball \u201cdiffuser\u201d ( fig .\nfirst study on the larval growth parameter and growth rate of a forensically important blow fly , hyp . . .\nall flies have either sponging / lapping or piercing / sucking mouth parts . the bluebottle fly falls into the\nfilth fly\ncategory . this type of fly has a sponge - like mouthpart to suck up the decomposing liquid that its stomach acids produce when it comes into contact with the organic things it lands on . gross ! ! !\nblow / bottle flies do not always require chemical control . however , if necessary , spray entry points on building or fly resting areas with residual liquid insecticides such as cyper wsp or lambdastar ultra cap 9 . 7 . in order to maintain a residual control , use these insecticides once a month .\nin many areas such as the american southwest , blow flies are the most common type of flies found in and around houses and other human habitations . blow flies range in length from 7 to 16 mm ( 0 . 28 to 0 . 63 in ) ; they have robust bodies and wide heads . the name blow fly comes from the bloated condition of the rotting animal carcasses that their larvae , known as maggots , infest . the most frequent species found under these conditions is the common blow fly . adult blow flies feed primarily on flower nectar , plant sap , and other sugary materials .\nlucilia sericata is a common green bottle fly that you may have come in contact with while enjoying the great outdoors , or sitting in your living room watching televison . many people become annoyed with the presence of flies . yet , this organism is amazing ! this webpage was created in order to inform the public about this impressive organism . they can fight crime and even heal wounds ! these blow flies have complex life cycles and are able to reproduce very quickly . this incredible organism helps decompose material and pollinate flowers . you might not think that a little pest like lucilia sericata is capable of so many different things that help out the environment . however , if you are a sheep this fly might be your worst enemy . hopefully after exploring this site you will gain an appreciation for lucilia sericata and will hopefully think twice about grabbing that fly swatter ! to begin check out the classification page . go back to urltoken\nhabitat : blow flies prefer moderate , temperate and tropical climates mainly . they are especially common in the southern hemisphere but can be found in all warm , moist climates and coastal regions .\ngreen lacewing ( scientifically known as chrysoperla rufilabris ) is widely used in various situations to control many different pests . many species of adult lacewings do not kill pest insects , they actually subsist on foods such as nectar , pollen and honeydew . it\u2019s their predacious offspring that get the job done . if you\u2019re looking for effective aphid control , green lacewing larva should help do the trick .\nin conclusion , we describe a previously unidentified visual mate recognition system in the common green bottle fly . the system depends upon both the sex - and age - specific frequencies of light flashes reflecting off moving wings , and the ability of male flies to distinguish between the frequency of light flashes produced by rival males and prospective mates . our findings imply that insect photoreceptors with fast processing speed may not only support agile flight with advanced maneuverability but may also play a supreme role in mate recognition . with emerging evidence that light flash mate cues also occur in other insects ( unpublished data ) , there may be an opportunity for optimizing light traps for capture of specific nuisance insects in urban and industrial settings .\neffects of temperature and diet on black soldier fly , hermetia illucens ( l . ) ( diptera : stratiomyidae ) , development\ndiet : larvae blow flies feed exclusively on carrion and excrement where they develop after hatching from eggs . adult blow flies feed on flower nectar . swarming of females on carcasses or excrement is common .\nlike to lay their eggs in an area that is usually exposed to light . check out this youtube video of a fly laying\nfilth feeders green bottle flies are classified as filth feeders that develop in and feed on dead animals , feces , garbage and decomposing plant materials . because of their unsanitary habitats , they may carry pathogenic bacteria that can be transmitted to people and animals via mechanical transmission . outside , they are commonly seen on dog feces and are one of the many reasons why it is so important to pick up dog feces .\negg > lava > pupa > adult : female blowflies , lays several batches of eggs of up to 180 on suitable food materials ( carcasses or meat ) . the eggs are whitish in colour and about 1 . 5mm long and will hatch within 1 - 2 days . upon hatching , the larvae may feed on the surface and then burrow into the food material . the larvae or maggots are usually whitish in colour , legless and measure up to 18mm long . larvae pass through three moults before emerging into adulthood . the fully grown or mature larvae will leave the food source to pupate in soil or dry areas . the pupae are reddish brown and will develop into adult blow flies within 1 - 2 weeks . although the green bottle fly has very similar egg laying patterns and larval development as the blue bottle fly , they are slightly slower due to their dependence on outside ambient conditions .\nblow flies are commonly known worldwide and in britain . alternatively , the name bottle fly may reflect the shiny , glass - like or metallic coloration of the flies . blow flies enter buildings , and structures , domestic homes , and stables ready to breed . they are more than just a nuisance ; are of medical importance because of their mechanical transmission of disease organisms and ability to cause meiosis ( infestation of tissues / cavities ) in humans and animals by the fly larvae .\naustralian museum . ( november 2009 ) . decomposition : \\ fly life cycle and development times . urltoken ( 30 august 2011 ) .\n) , and immobilized the wings of each fly with cyanoacrylate adhesive . we illuminated the male from above by an led ( fig .\nthe p . stuartii strain crippen was isolated from lucilia sericata , a green bottle fly , which is of importance to decomposition ecology ( 18 ) as related to the medical and forensic sciences ( 16 , 17 ) . our strain was coisolated along with proteus mirabilis strain wood ( 19 ) , which can affect l . sericata attraction to , and colonization of , resources ( 20 , 21 ) . mixed microbial communities , including proteus - providencia coinfections , which increase the incidence of bacteremia and urolithiasis ( 8 ) , can have properties distinct from those of their individual components ( 22 , 23 ) . this property of mixed cultures has also been shown to impact fly behavior and life history ( 24 ) . therefore , knowledge of this genome will help elucidate fly\u2013microbe interactions that are important to forensic science and ecology , as well as coinfections relevant to medicine .\neffect of fly sex and age on the frequency ( hz ) of wing - reflected light flashes and their effects on attraction of males .\np\u00f6ppel a - k , vogel h , wiesner j , vilcinskas a . 2015 . antimicrobial peptides expressed in medicinal maggots of the blow fly\ndesign by oleg ko\nblow fly ,\nmicrosoft\u00a8 encarta\u00a8 online encyclopedia 2009 urltoken \u00a9 1997 - 2009 microsoft corporation . all rights reserved .\nmaggots are the most obvious sign of any fly infestation . they are often found in decaying food or in any type of rotting organic matter .\nthe green bottle fly maggot , lucilia sericata , is a species with importance in medicine , agriculture and forensics . improved understanding of this species\u2019 biology is of great potential benefit to many research communities . micrornas ( mirna ) are a short non - protein coding regulatory rna , which directly regulate a host of protein coding genes at the translational level . they have been shown to have developmental and tissue specific distributions where they impact directly on gene regulation . in order to improve understanding of the biology of l . sericata maggots we have performed small rna - sequencing of their secretions and tissue at different developmental stages .\ngreen p , simmonds m , blaney w . diet nutriment and rearing density affect the growth of black blowfly larvae , phormia regina ( diptera : calliphoridae ) . european journal of entomology . 2003 ; 100 ( 1 ) : 39\u201342 .\nlucilia sericata larvae are commonly known as green - bottle blowfly maggots and are an important species in forensics , agriculture and biomedicine [ 1 , 2 ] . their ability to assist in wound debridement has been exploited for centuries and they are still used today in the treatment of chronic skin wounds and ulcers to promote healing [ 3 ] . lucilia have also proven useful in forensics for estimation of post - mortem intervals [ 4 ] . conversely in agriculture , lucilia , both l . sericata and to a greater extent l . cuprina , are parasites of sheep causing blow - fly strike which has detrimental economic effects worldwide [ 5 , 6 ] .\nfigure 8 . adult australian sheep blow fly , lucilia cuprina ( wiedemann ) . image taken in australia . photograph by lesley ingram , bugwood . org .\nblow flies are slightly larger than true house flies , and the bodies of many are metallic blue or green in color . worldwide , there are about 1200 species of blow flies , and in north america there are 80 . in many areas including the american southwest , blow flies are the most common type of flies found in and around buildings . blow flies range in length from 7 to 16 mm ( 0 . 28 to 0 . 63 in ) ; they have robust bodies and wide heads .\nduring cold climatic conditions , the pupae and adults hibernate until the temperature is warm and favorable . in general , the life span of a bottle fly is about 3 weeks , which may be shortened in warmer areas . it is mostly found outdoors . in case you find a fly indoors , check for the infestation site . besides scavenging on dead organic matter , it is also a carrier of disease - causing microbes . hence , it is often considered as a serious pest . if necessary , you can hire professional a pest control service to get rid of the infestation .\nvan hateren jh , hardie rc , rudolph a , laughlin sb , stavenga dg . the bright zone , a specialized dorsal eye region in the male blow fly\ndead animals in chimneys will often cause the larva of this fly type to drop down into the fireplace , pupate and then infest the inside of a house .\nthe female blow fly typically lays her eggs on the body of a recently killed animal . the eggs hatch quickly and the maggots then feed on the decaying tissues . in warm weather , some species can complete their larval growth within a week . they then burrow into the soil and pupate , to emerge later as adult flies . blow flies play an essential role in nature by decomposing dead tissue . the cluster fly species of blow fly is an exception : its larvae prey on earthworms .\nk . sukontason , k . l . sukontason , s . piangjai et al . , \u201cidentification of forensically important fly eggs using a potassium permanganate staining technique , \u201d\nblow fly , any of a large family of flies known for the habit of the larvae , or immature flies of , infesting animal carcasses . they are found worldwide , occurring nearly every place inhabited by people . blow flies are slightly larger than true house flies , and the bodies of many are metallic blue or green in color . worldwide , there are about 1200 species of blow flies , and in north america there are 80 .\ngreen lacewing eggs are oval and pale green . just before the larvae hatch , eggs turn gray . the eggs are shipped in vials with food and a carrier such as rice hulls , bran or vermiculite . it is best to allow a few of the lacewing larvae to begin emerging from the eggs before releasing . as soon as a few emerge , release as soon as possible to avoid cannibalism . the best time to release is early morning or late afternoon . eggs can be stored at no lower than 50\u00b0f for up to 48 hours .\nwall r , fisher p . visual and olfactory cue interaction in resource - location by the blow fly , lucilia sericata . physiol entomol . 2001 ; 26 : 212\u20138 .\nruck p . photoreceptor cell response and flicker fusion frequency in compound eye of the fly , lucilia sericata ( meigen ) . biol bull . 1961 ; 120 : 375\u201383 .\nsome blow fly species , such as the screwworm fly , lay their eggs on living animals . the maggots then feed on the animal ' s healthy tissue . because blow flies routinely move between dead animals or dung and human habitats , they may transmit disease organisms to people , including the bacteria that cause dysentery , typhus , and cholera .\nlocate and eliminate all possible breeding sources . blow flies and bottle flies feed and breed on dead animals and garbage . whenever possible , remove all material where the flies can lay their eggs . killing adult flies will reduce infestation , but elimination of breeding areas is necessary for proper management\n: figure s1a ) , one that produced light pulses at 190 hz approximating the wing flash frequency of a flying female , and the other that produced constant light at the same intensity . second , we isolated the pulsed - light effects from phenotypic traits of female flies by mounting one live female fly and one live male fly side by side ( fig .\ntatler b , o\u2019carroll d , laughlin s . temperature and the temporal resolving power of fly photoreceptors . j comp physiol a sens neural behav physiol . 2000 ; 186 : 399\u2013407 .\nk . l . sukontason , r . ngern - klun , d . sripakdee , and k . sukontason , \u201cidentifying fly puparia by clearing technique : application to forensic entomology , \u201d\ntarone am , foran dr . gene expression during blow fly development : improving the precision of age estimates in forensic entomology . journal of forensic sciences . 2011 ; 56 : s112\u2013s122 .\n) , the rounded lens of which was sanded down to be flush with the sphere\u2019s surface . sanding the lens ensured that the emitted light was visible to flies from many viewing angles rather than from the narrow viewing angle that the lens otherwise creates . by random assignment , one led in each pair emitted constant light ; the other emitted light pulsed at 290 hz ( experiment 5 ) , 250 hz ( experiment 6 ) , 178 hz ( experiment 7 ) , or 110 hz ( experiment 8 ) . we selected the frequencies of 290 hz and 110 hz to test the response of males to pulse frequencies that are well above or below the wing flash frequencies produced by flying common green bottle flies . in each of experiments 5\u20138 , we analyzed the mean numbers of alighting responses by males on paired spheres holding leds emitting constant light or pulsing light by a paired two sample for means\ntarone am , foran dr . 2010 . gene expression during blow fly development : improving the precision of age estimates in forensic entomology . journal of forensic sciences 56 : s112 - s122 .\n] . after that , they were preserved in a small glass bottle containing 70 % ethanol . the preserved larvae were dissected individually at two sites to obtain three body portions by using a sharp blade under a stereo microscope ( olympus , japan ) , according to the method described by sukontason et al . [\ntomberlin jk , adler ph , myers hm . development of the black soldier fly ( diptera : stratiomyidae ) in relation to temperature . environmental entomology . 2009 ; 38 ( 3 ) : 930\u2013934 .\nwarren ja , anderson gs . effect of fluctuating temperatures on the development of a forensically important blow fly , protophormia terraenovae ( diptera : calliphoridae ) . environmental entomology . 2013 ; 42 : 167\u2013172 .\nwe next looked at the patterns of insect trna fragments that were found in each sample ( fig . 2 ; s2 table ) . a trna glygcc was the most common fragment identified , accounting for 55\u201370 % of all insect trna counts . other common trnas were aspgtc , lysctt , lysttt , hisgtg , procgg and valcac . interestingly when the fragments are matched to the known drosophila mature trna sequences they are predominantly at the 5\u2019 end , particularly when the trna is highly abundant . the fragmentation patterns for trnas were generally consistent across samples with the only differences seen for those with lower read counts suggesting that they are random degradation products .\nvideo - recording wing movements of abdomen - mounted common green bottle flies , lucilia sericata , under direct light at 15 , 000 frames per second revealed that wing movements produce a single , reflected light flash per wing beat . such light flashes were not evident when we video - recorded wing movements under diffuse light . males of l . sericata are strongly attracted to wing flash frequencies of 178 hz , which are characteristic of free - flying young females ( prospective mates ) , significantly more than to 212 , 235 , or 266 hz , characteristic of young males , old females , and old males , respectively . in the absence of phenotypic traits of female flies , and when given a choice between light emitting diodes that emitted either constant light or light pulsed at a frequency of 110 , 178 , 250 , or 290 hz , males show a strong preference for the 178 - hz pulsed light , which most closely approximates the wing beat frequency of prospective mates .\nk . sukontason , r . methanitikorn , k . l . sukontason , s . piangjai , and j . k . olson , \u201cclearing technique to examine the cephalopharyngeal skeletons of blow fly larvae , \u201d\nvoss sc , spafford h , dadour ir . temperature - dependent development of nasonia vitripennis on five forensically important carrion fly species . entomologia experimental et applicata . 2010 ; 135 ( 1 ) : 37\u201347 .\nbaque m , filmann n , verhoff m , amendt j . establishment of developmental charts for the larvae of the blow fly calliphora vicina using quantile regression . forensic science international . 2015 ; 248 : 1\u20139 .\nmcwatters hg , saunders ds . the influence of each parent and geographic origin on larval diapause in the blow fly , calliphora vicina . journal of insect physiology . 1996 ; 42 ( 8 ) : 721\u2013726 .\ndavies k , harvey ml . internal morphological analysis for age estimation of blow fly pupae ( diptera : calliphoridae ) in postmortem interval estimation . journal of forensic sceinces . 2013 ; 58 ( 1 ) : 79\u201384 .\nadult age estimation is generally confined to the period immediately following eclosion , where wings are gradually unfurled as hemolymph moves into veins , and general body coloration of the fly develops . 62 there is little call for determining age of adult flies , given that their mobility makes connecting them to development on a specific source of carrion problematic . the puparium left behind following eclosion is likely to provide as much information as the adult fly itself .\neach green lacewing larva will devour 200 or more pests or pest eggs a week during their two to three week developmental period . after this stage , the larvae pupate by spinning a cocoon with silken thread . approximately five days later adult lacewings emerge to mate and repeat the life cycle . depending on climatic conditions , the adult will live about four to six weeks .\nnabity p , higley l , heng - moss t . light - induced variability in development of forensically important blow fly phormia regina ( diptera : calliphoridae ) . journal of medical entomology . 2007 ; 44 ( 2 ) : 351\u2013358 .\nvoss sc , spafford h , dadour ir . temperature - dependent development of tachinaephagus zealandicus ashmead ( hymenoptera : encyrtidae ) , on five forensically important carrion fly species . medical and veterinary entomology . 2010 ; 24 ( 2 ) : 189\u2013198 .\nadult were transferred individually into a bottle trap including sand and meat to lay eggs at 28\u00b0 c\u00b11 , 40 % \u00b15 relative humidity and 12 h photoperiodicity , protected with an external net curtain to avoid the entry of other insect species . after laying eggs , the dead specimens were identified morphologically by using the taxonomic keys of james 1947 , zumpt 1965 , mcalpine 1981 , and whitworth 2006 .\nthe present nzi trap design , tested mainly in africa , caught thousands of stable flies ( stomoxys spp . ) per day in the forests of kenya\u2019s nairobi national park . the traps worked best in sunny locations away from bushes and trees . octenol or fermented cow urine as an attractant bait increased fly catches in trials , but the traps work fine even without these added attractants . so far , the nzi trap has been the best biting fly trap design we have tested in north america .\nsp . ) was similar but the development duration of larval and pupal stages in the blowflies were shorter than the flesh fly . life cycle span from egg to eclosion in blowflies ranged from eight to twelve days whereas it was ten to sixteen days in the flesh fly . egg hatching and larval stages prolonged each about one fourth of the total pre - imago time whereas duration of pupation took almost half of the time of the total pre - adult development time for all of the three species .\nteh ch , nazni wa , lee hl , fairuz a , tan sb , et al . ( 2013 ) in vitro antibacterial activity and physicochemical properties of a crude methanol extract of the larvae of the blow fly lucilia cuprina . med vet entomol .\nnassu mp , thyssen pj , linhares ax . developmental rate of immatures of two fly species of forensic importance : sarcophaga ( liopygia ) ruficornis and microcerella halli ( diptera : sarcophagidae ) . parasitology research . 2014 ; 113 ( 1 ) : 217\u2013222 .\n) , immobilizing their wings and illuminating the wings of the male by the 190 - hz light pulses while keeping the wings of the paired female under constant illumination . in both experiments , we placed the t - bar with the two mounted flies into a bioassay cage containing 50 male flies and recorded the numbers of alighting responses on either fly in each pair . in both experiments , the female or male fly exposed to pulsed light ( 190 hz ) received many more alighting responses ( mean \u00b1 se ) by males than did the fly illuminated by constant light ( exp . 2 : 27 . 8 \u00b1 4 . 32 vs . 0 . 9 \u00b1 0 . 31 ; n = 10 , t crit . two - tail = 2 . 26 ,\n] , suggesting that females send and males perceive the visual signals or cues . occupying vantage points in their territories , males survey rapid fly - bys of females and males , and then decide whether to fend off rival males or pursue prospective female mates .\nsensory perception of light flashes produced by moving wings seems to be facilitated by the functional design , neural circuitry , and processing speed found in the sexually dimorphic compound eyes of several species of flies . for example , males but not females of the blow fly\n; additional file 5 : video s3 ; additional file 6 : video s4 ) that are detectable from all directions , allowing a territorial male fly to rapidly notice a female irrespective of her flight trajectory , particularly when he is perching at a vantage point that optimizes contrast between fly flash signals and background . remarkably , the flash frequency is so informative that it allows the territorial male to distinguish between old and young females , and to pursue primarily young females that are preferred mates . furthermore , the low mating propensity of\na pyrethrum aerosol will provide a contact kill for immediate relief . it may take a while for sanitation methods , residual chemical methods and fly baits to begin working . cb 80 pyrethrin aerosol or pt 565 can be used as a contact , quick kill insecticide .\noshaghi ma , maleki ravasan n , javadian e , rassi y , sadraei j , enayati aa , vatandoost h , zare z , emami sn . application of predictive degree day model for field development of sand fly vectors of visceral leishmaniasis in northwest of iran .\nblow flies control includes inspection , sanitation , mechanical control , and insecticide application . physical control methods should be first used to get rid of blow flies in a particular location ( removal of food source ) . approved insecticide and sticky paper can be used to control the remaining lava , and adult . blow flies can be controlled in buildings , restaurant and homes by good sanitation or hygiene practice , fly screen , electronic fly killers ( efk ) etc . call now for pest exterminators in london to solve your london pest control\nzuha r , razak t , ahmad n , omar b . interaction effects of temperature and food on the development of forensically important fly , megaselia scalaris ( loew ) ( diptera : phoridae ) . parasitology research . 2012 ; 111 ( 5 ) : 2179\u20132187 .\nthe key factor in the preparation of maggots is their sterility , as the outer surfaces of fly eggs are heavily contaminated with different microorganisms , and because of this numerous studies have been devoted to solving the sterility problem . the modern founder of maggot use , baer ,\nbrown a , horobin a , blount dg , hill pj , english j , et al . ( 2012 ) blow fly lucilia sericata nuclease digests dna associated with wound slough / eschar and with pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm . med vet entomol 26 : 432\u2013439 . pmid : 22827809\nlucilia sericata and a similar species , lucilia cuprina ( wiedemann ) , are known in britain and australia for causing sheep strike . as a result , l . sericata is sometimes called the sheep blow fly . sheep strike , also known as blowfly strike , is a type of myiasis ( invasion of living tissue by fly larvae ) and usually is observed near the rear of the sheep where there is fecal matter and urine on the wool ( strikewise 2007 , australia museum 2009 ) . this condition is quite serious and untreated sheep die .\nmatching of the counts to mirbase v19 identified known annotated mirnas from insect and mammals . the counts per matched mirna as a proportion of all counts that matched to mirbase are shown in the four tissues . species nomenclature is used for the mirna with the perfect matches to the l . sericata reads : dme , drosophila melanogaster ( fruit fly ) ; tca , tribolium castaneum ( red flour beetle ) ; sha , sarcophilus harrisii ( tasmanian devil ) ; dps , drosophila pseudoobscura ( fruit fly ) ; aae , aedes aegypti ( mosquito ) .\ngaudry e , blais c , maria a , dauphon - villemant c . study of steroidogenesis in pupae of the forensically important blow fly protophormia terraenovae ( robineau - desvoidy ) ( diptera : calliphoridae ) . forensic science international . 2006 ; 160 ( 1 ) : 27\u201334 .\nadult diagnosis : adult blow flies are just under a centimeter in length and are characterized by metallic green , bronze or blue thorax and abdomen coloration . the thorax of the insect is covered in black bristles . eyes are pronounced and red . wings are clear and membranous with typical dipteran wing formation - two large flight wings and two small hind wings reduced to halteres . adults have cross grooves on the thorax which are characteristic of the species .\nvoss sc , cook df , wei - feng h , dadour ir . survival and development of the forensically important blow fly , calliphora varifrons ( diptera : calliphoridae ) at constant temperatures . forensic science , medicine , and pathology . 2014 ; 10 ( 3 ) : 314\u2013321 .\ntime between death and discovery of remains , or postmortem interval ( pmi ) , can be assessed using blow fly maggot age . forensic entomologists rely on published , often nonlocal , species - specific developmental tables to determine maggot age . in a series of common garden experiments , we investigated the developmental rate variation between populations of lucilia sericata collected from sacramento , ca , san diego , ca , and easton , ma at 16 degrees c , 26 degrees c , and 36 degrees c . for the 16 degrees c trial the time measurement started at egg hatch , while for the higher temperatures the experiment began at oviposition ; the wandering stage signified the endpoint for all experiments . the distribution of developmental times differed significantly ( anova , p < 0 . 001 ) between the three populations within each temperature treatment . we discovered that regional variation of developmental times within a blow fly species exists . this study demonstrates the importance of assembling local population - specific developmental tables when estimating larval age to determine pmi .\nthe thought of using live insects to treat human ailments would make most pale , but the results can sometimes outperform drugs and surgery typical of more traditional western medicines . honey bees , fly maggots , ants , and plasmodium - carrying mosquitoes are examples of insects used in human therapy .\nthe most common way of estimating pmi using dipteran larvae , such as l . sericata , is to determine the developmental stage the immature is in when collected . although this method is usually accurate , it can vary , as many factors can determine the growth rate of a larva . tarone and foran ( 2010 ) have developed a method using gene expression that provides greater precision in age estimation resulting in a more accurate and precise minimum pmi estimation .\nflies which cause myiasis are grouped into two categories : obligate and facultative parasites . obligate parasites ingest living tissue to complete their lifecycles , and hence their larvae may produce severe damage in healthy tissue ; they are not suitable for use in maggot therapy . in contrast , facultative parasites are able to parasitize living hosts in favorable conditions but usually develop on carrion , and therefore this type of maggot is used for wound healing , with the most common being l . sericata ."]}
{"id": 1324, "summary": [{"text": "the desert dormouse ( selevinia betpakdalaensis ) is a species of rodent in the dormouse family , gliridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this species was formerly placed in its own family , seleviniidae , but it is now considered to be a dormouse , monotypic within the genus selevinia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is endemic to kazakhstan . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "desert dormouse", "paragraphs": ["dormouse : this desert dormouse is one of the species referred to as \u00b4mouse\u00b4 ( hebrew akbar ) . ( full text )\nhazel dormouse - muscardinus avellanarius the hazel dormouse is also known as the common dormouse . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nhazel dormouse - muscardinus avellanarius the hazel dormouse is the smallest species of dormouse . source : paignton zoo intended audience : general reading level : elementary school teacher section : yes\nblurb [ 20 ] =\nthis desert dormouse is one of the species referred to as ' mouse ' ( hebrew akbar ) .\nthe red desert is the location of crims , the castle at salazen grum where the red queen lives . as alice goes to crims with bayard the bloodhound , they also pass the red desert . the desert mostly consists of red or green ground and bare trees . the red desert has only appeared in the 2010 movie .\nhaberl , werner .\ndormouse hunting in slovenian tradition .\ndormouse culture , tradition & myths . 2007 . 3 october 2007\ndistribution : widespread throughout namibia , including etosha national park and in the namib desert .\nexplore the spectacular desert around this property or use it as a base to visit sossusvlei .\nsearch desert dormouse and thousands of other words in english definition and synonym dictionary from reverso . you can complete the list of synonyms of desert dormouse given by the english thesaurus dictionary with other english dictionaries : wikipedia , lexilogos , oxford , cambridge , chambers harrap , wordreference , collins lexibase dictionaries , merriam webster . . .\nthe red desert is a location that first appears in tim burton ' s alice in wonderland .\nforest , swamps , rocky areas , cultivated fields , and steppe desert . most active at night .\nthe almost 30 extant species are commonly placed into nine ( or eight ) genera . because only one species of dormouse is native to the british isles , the hazel dormouse or common dormouse ( muscardinus avellanarius ) , in everyday english usage the term dormouse usually refers to this specific species . ( the edible dormouse , glis glis , has been accidentally introduced to the british isles ) . the hazel dormouse gained fame as a character in alice ' s adventures in wonderland by lewis carroll , where the dormouse is often found falling asleep during the scene .\nedible dormouse - glis glis the edible dormouse looks like a gray squirrel . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe dormouse is a famous character in lewis carrol ' s book , alice ' s adventures in wonderland ! in the famous tea party scene , the dormouse keeps falling asleep .\na private and secluded hide - a - way in the namib desert . ideal for those wanting a break from civilization\nenglish : common dormouse ; french : muscardin ; german : haselmaus ; spanish : muscardino .\net al 2003 ecology . pdf\nlong living and reproduction skipping in the fat dormouse\nenglish : orchard dormouse ; french : lerot ; german : gartenschl\u00e4fer ; spanish : lir\u00f3n careto .\nthe march hare and the hatter put the dormouse ' s head in a teapot . illustration by\nedible dormouse - glis glis the edible dormouse is also knonw as the fat dormouse . it is found throughout much of central and southern europe through northern turkey to the caucasus , northern iran and turkmenistan . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nshortages before fruits and seeds have ripened .\ncarnivorous\ndormice switch to nuts and seeds in the fall , so that their fat intake increases in preparation for hibernation . only the desert dormouse is thought to be purely carnivorous .\nafrican dormice live in a wide range of forested habitats , ranging from thick forest where they may even be diurnal , to thinly wooded riverbanks of mountainous , rocky areas . the desert dormouse lives in desert scrub . only the little - studied mouse - tailed dormice appear to live on or under the ground . in southeastern europe , roach ' s mouse - tailed dormouse ( myomimus roachi ) has been trapped in a variety of open habitats , but never in forest .\nand of dormouse fat as a medicament is documented there since the 13th century . seasonal dormice feasts were welcome\nmagda per\u0161i\u010d ( september 1998 ) . urltoken\ndormouse hunting as part of slovene national identity\n] .\nhazel dormouse - muscardinus avellanarius the hazel dormouse is found in deciduous forests in much of europe as well as northern asia minor . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nbetpaqdala , desert in eastern kazakhstan , situated west of lake balqash . it has an area of about 29 , 000 square miles ( 75 , 000 square km ) and an average elevation of 1 , 000\u20131 , 150 feet ( 300\u2013350 m ) . the desert is generally flat or gently undulating but is more\u2026\nenglish : dormouse ; french : loir myomime , loir d ' ognev ; german : mausschl\u00e4fer ; spanish : lir\u00f3n colipelado .\ndespite its name , the garden dormouse is most often found in forests . also cultivated fields , rocky areas , and marshland .\nalthough the edible dormouse is the only living member of its genus , a number of fossil species are also known . the genus\nasian garden dormouse - eliomys melanurus the asian garden dormouse is found in egypt , iraq , israel , jordan , lebanon , libya , saudi arabia , syria , and turkey . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nroach ' s mouse - tailed dormouse was only discovered in europe in the mid - twentieth century . despite years of concentrated research , scientists in the united kingdom only discovered at the end of the twentieth century that hedges were an important habitat for the hazel dormouse .\n; if another animal grasps the tail , the skin breaks easily and slides off the underlying bone , allowing the dormouse to escape . the exposed\ndormice range in size from about 2 . 5 - 3 . 1 inches ( 6 . 5 - 8 centimeters ) in the japanese dormouse ( glirulus japonicus ) to 5 . 1 - 7 . 5 inches 913 - 19 centimeters ) in the edible dormouse , myoxus glis ( or glis glis ) ( niemann 2004 ) .\nenglish : fat dormouse ; french : loir , loir gris ; german : siebenschl\u00e4fer ; spanish : lir\u00f3n ( castillian ) , lir\u00f3n gris , rata durmidora ( catalan ) .\nthe name dormouse is based on this trait of hibernation ; it comes from anglo - norman dormeus , which means\nsleepy ( one )\n; the word was later altered by folk etymology to resemble the word\nmouse .\nthe sleepy behaviour of the dormouse character in lewis carroll ' s alice ' s adventures in wonderland also attests to this trait .\nrachkovskaya , e . i . 1995 . vegetation of kazakhstan and middle asia ( desert region ) . vegetation map of kasakhstan and middle asia . scale 1 : 2 500 000 . komarov botanic institute , russian academy of sciences , saint petersburg . urltoken\nbaudoin , c . 1984 . dormouse . pages 210 - 212 in d . macdonald ( ed . ) , the encyclopedia of mammals . new york : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .\ngarden dormouse - eliomys quercinus garden dormice are found found throughout europe to asia and north africa . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\ndormouse , ( family myoxidae ) , any of 27 species of small - bodied eurasian , japanese , and african rodents . the largest , weighing up to 180 grams ( 6 . 3 ounces ) , is the fat , or edible , dormouse ( glis glis ) of europe and the middle east , with a body up to 19 cm ( 7 . 5 inches ) long and a shorter\u2026\nconcerted efforts to understand the complex ecology and difficulties of protecting this vulnerable family have led to a series of international dormouse conferences , where scientists have been able to share information on the appealing but enigmatic myoxidae .\nin addition to chromosomal variation observed within e . quercinus , large morphological variation is present across the distribution of this species ( filippucci et al . 1988a ; kryst\u0161fek and kraft 1997 ) . however , this morphological diversity does not correspond to chromosomal races , which has led to uncertainties regarding the taxonomic status of garden dormouse populations ( cristaldi and canipari 1976 ; filippucci et al . 1988a ) . in the past decades , 5 or more species have been described in the genus eliomys across europe ( miller 1912 , cited in kry\u0161tufek and kraft 1997 ) . these taxonomic changes can have important consequences on the protection status of garden dormouse populations and thus on the long - term persistence of the garden dormouse karyotypic and morphological diversities . the biogeographic history and the genetic structure of garden dormouse populations thus need to be assessed using independent molecular markers .\ndormice historically and currently have been used by humans as food , with records of such usage dating back thousands of years . in ancient rome , the edible dormouse was considered a delicacy , often used as either as a savory appetizer or as a dessert ( dipped in honey and poppy seeds ) , with the romans using a special kind of enclosure , a glirarium to rear the dormice for the table . ranging in length from about 5 to 7 . 5 inches without the tail , the edible dormouse has stores of fat reserves that make them desirable as food and dormouse fat also was used by the elizabethans to induce sleep .\nendemic of kazakhstan . distributed from dar ' yalyk desert ( 100 km to east from dzhusaly ) to zaysan and alakol ' basins . northern border is unclear . findings near bayanaul ( pavlodar region ) need confirmation . possibly distributed in nw china ( gromov and erbaeva , 1995 ) .\ntypes and severity of threats the main anthropogenic threats are agriculture , especially irrigated cotton production , hunting and poaching , and the overuse of woody plants for firewood and silk production . overgrazing of livestock occurs in non - irrigated areas . unregulated construction of roads threatens especially fragile desert ecosystems .\njapanese dormouse - glirulus japonicus japanese dormice are found on the islands of honshuu , shikoku , and kyuushuu in japan . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nedible dormice inhabit deciduous or mixed woodland . both this species and the garden dormouse ( eliomys quercinus ) are also found in orchards . the latter species , also called the orchard dormouse , is also able to live on the ground , since small numbers are discovered in fields , swamps , steppe , and even places where there are no trees . however , their title is something of a misnomer , since most live in forest habitat .\nthe earliest fossil remains of this family were discovered in europe and date from the eocene era ( about 40 million years ago ) . pleistocene fossils of leithia , a giant dormouse , have been found in sicily and malta .\ndormice tend to be omnivorous , typically feeding on fruits , berries , flowers , nuts and insects . the lack of a cecum , a part of the gut used in other species to ferment vegetable matter , means that low grade vegetable matter is only a minimal part of their diet ( niemann 2004 ) . some species are predeominately carnivorous ( african , eidble , and hazel dormice ) , whilse some have a largely vegetarian diet ( edible and hazel dormice ) ; the desert dormouse may be unique that it is thought to be purely carnivorous ( niemann 2004 ) .\ngr\u00e9goire c . l . perez , roland libois , caroline m . nieberding ; phylogeography of the garden dormouse eliomys quercinus in the western palearctic region , journal of mammalogy , volume 94 , issue 1 , 15 february 2013 , pages 202\u2013217 , urltoken\nwalter , h . , and e . o . box . 1983 . the karakum desert , an example of a well - studied eu - biome . pages 56 - 89 in n . e . west , editor . ecosystems of the world 5 : temperate deserts and semi - deserts . elsevier scientific publishing company , new york .\nthe most common desert mammals are the long - eared hedgehog ( erinaceus auritus ) , long - quilled hedgehog ( piracohinus hypomelas ) , and tolai hare ( lepus tolai ) . a variety of rodents such as gerbils ( rhombomys spp . , meriones spp . ) , and more than ten species of jerboas ( allactaga , dipus , paradipus , eremodipus , stylodipus ) also live here . the characteristic components of desert ecosystems are such rare and disappearing mammal species as the honey badger ( mellivora capensis ) , sand lynx ( felis caracal ) , sand cat ( felis margarita ) , onager ( equus hemionus ) , goitered gazelle ( gazella subgutturosa ) , and marbled polecat ( vormela peregusna ) .\nlives in steepe deserts , hollow trees , rock crevices , and human dwellings . although they are highly arboreal , they are occasionally found in swamplands . the common name\ngarden dormouse\nis misleading because of the variety of habitats in which these rodents are found .\n. . . the occurrence of the asiatic garden dormouse in this desert habitat is noteworthy since it is originally an arboreal rodent . it was previously reported from the mediterranean mountains of moab ( bodenheimer , 1958 ) as well as the arid and semi - arid habitats in azraq , jawa and al wisad ( atallah , 1978 ; searight , 1987 ; abu baker and amr , 2003b ) . it was also reported from the arid mountains of sinai and the rocky hills of negev ( osborn and helmy , 1980 ; krasnov , 1996 ) and the southern mountains of saudi arabia ( nader , et al . 1983 ) . . . .\nthirteen species of rodents representing four families ( dipodidae , gliridae , muridae and gerbillidae ) were recorded in the southern desert of wadi ramm , jordan . species accounts including external and cranial measurements and comments on their distribution and diurnal activity are given . new distribution records for the known range of eliomys melanurus , sekeetamys calurus , gerbillus andersoni . . . [ show full abstract ]\nforest dormouse - dryomys nitedula forest dormice are found in dense forests from switzerland in the west through eastern and southern europe , asia minor and the caucasus to central russia and central asia . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nwoodland dormouse - graphiurus murinus woodland dormice are found in burundi , ethiopia , kenya , lesotho , malawi , mozambique , rwanda , south africa , tanzania , uganda , zambia , and zimbabwe . source : animal diversity web intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe central asian southern desert is the richest desert complex in eurasia . the hydrothermal characteristics of this area distinguish it from the deserts to the north . precipitation is greatest during the winter and spring while the average temperature and degree of aridity are higher than in the northern deserts . consequently , the native flora and fauna have developed physiological and morpho - biological mechanisms that ensure survival in these conditions . reptile and rodent diversity are particularly high . along with several endemic jerboa species , this ecoregion is home to rare and endangered cats such as pallas\u2019 cat and the small , secretive sand cat . the main anthropogenic threats are agriculture - related , especially irrigated cotton production . other significant threats include hunting and poaching , and the overuse of woody plants for firewood and silk production .\nthe small - eared dormouse ( graphiurus microtis ) is a species of rodent in the family gliridae . it is found in angola , botswana , eritrea , ethiopia , kenya , lesotho , malawi , mozambique , namibia , south africa , sudan , swaziland , tanzania , zambia , and zimbabwe .\nsaksaul and other trees and shrubs are cut extensively for fuel wood . in the last five to seven years , the area covered by saksaul has decreased by half , leaving the topsoil prone to erosion . the reduction of native species has encouraged the spread of desert moss ( tortula desertorum ) , which provides no nutritional value for wildlife and prevents the re - seeding of higher forms of native plants .\na number of factors conspire to make more than half of all dormouse species at risk under iucn criteria . the exclusively forest - dwelling species have poor mobility and this makes them highly vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation . furthermore , a nocturnal , arboreal existence makes both survey and research work difficult . the little - understood\ndormice are also famous for their sustained periods of hibernation and torpor . indeed , the name comes from the french dormir \u2014to sleep . the hazel dormouse\u2014known in rural england as the sleep - mouse\u2014gained wider notoriety when it was portrayed in lewis carroll ' s book alice in wonderland and in the disney movie nearly a century later .\nat the start of the mating season , males exhibit territorial aggression towards each other . the hazel dormouse flicks its tail like a squirrel as a warning sign to intruders . edible dormice mark their space with glandular secretions and fight with great savagery . garden dormice share sleeping and feeding sites . males adopt a dominance hierarchy shortly after the animals emerge from hibernation .\nrepetek has been a unesco biosphere reserve since 1978 and encompasses 34 , 600 hectares . shakhsenem , kelif , zauaboiski , and sarakamysh serve as wildlife refuges . unfortunately , the current social and economic difficulties in turkmenistan and uzbekistan have caused a sharp decrease in funding for nature reserves , making proper function difficult . other protected areas included in the table combine the conservation of fragments of southern deserts with riparian forests . there are few protected areas that support self - sustainable development of desert ecosystems .\nthe ability of dormice to store reserves of fat in their bodies has made them desirable to humans as food . their appeal dates back millennia\u2014the romans kept edible dormice in darkened enclosures called glisaria . dormouse eating is well documented in southern africa , slovenia , and yugoslavia and there is good reason to suppose it has taken place wherever humans have come into contact with these mammals .\n. . . and either one of the large - sized jirds , m . crassus or m . libycus . this species was collected in high numbers from the salty dunes and mudflats of hazim , dahik , and azraq areas in the eastern desert of jordan ( abu baker and amr , 2003b ) . collected specimens had less inflated or smaller tympanic bulla than the g . nanus arabium collectred from al aqabah area ( kock and nader , 1983 ; harrison and bates , l99l ) . . . .\nthis old world family is found through most of europe apart from far northern parts ; north africa and the rest of the continent south of the equator ; and western and more patchily , central asia . the single species in the far east is the japanese dormouse , found only , as its name suggests , on islands of japan . the two balearic dormice species in the hypnomys\nthe edible dormouse is the largest of all dormice , being around 14 to 19 centimetres ( 5 . 5 to 7 . 5 in ) in head - body length , plus a 11 to 13 centimetres ( 4 . 3 to 5 . 1 in ) tail . it normally weighs from 120 to 150 grams ( 4 . 2 to 5 . 3 oz ) , but may almost double in weight immediately prior to\nin appearance , dormice have a squirrel or sometimes chipmunk - like shape . they vary considerably in size between species : an edible dormouse ( myoxus glis ) is nearly two and a half times the length of a japanese dormouse ( myoxus japonicus ) , for example . most dormice are highly adapted to a predominantly arboreal existence\u2014only mouse - tailed dormice appear to live exclusively on the ground . the feet are well adapted to grasping on to trees . on the soles , they have cushioned pads for gripping , and the four toes on the front feet and five toes on the hind feet all have strong , curved claws . the hind feet can be turned backwards , like those of a squirrel , enabling the animal to hang head - first from a branch to feed on the lowest fruit , and to run down stems with some dexterity .\n. . . young individuals were caught in july suggesting that they were born in june . a . russatus is distinguished from a . cahirinus by its yellowish - golden back color , shorter tail length than head and body length and its black pigmented skin . the melanistic form , acomys russatus lewisi was recorded from several localities from the northeastern lava desert ( atallah , 1967 ; atallah , 1978 ; searight , 1987 ; al - melhim , et al . 1997 ; abu baker and amr , 2003b ) . atallah ( 1967 ) treated this form as a distinct species ( a . . . .\nwhite salsola ( salsola arbuscula ) and sagebrushe communities with a number of endemic species ( artemisia kemrudica , a . diffusa , a . dimoana , a . arenicola , mausolea eriocarpa ) are widespread on thin sandy soils and loamy sands . the presence of original desert types that are dominated by the endemic astragalus vilosissimus and shrub bindweed ( convolvulus hammada ) are characteristic for the east part of region . the perennial saltworts ( salsola gemmascens , s . orientalis ) dominate on clay soils . halophytic , succulent semishrubs such as halostachys caspica , halocnemum strobilaceum , suaeda microphylla , and salsola dendroides , grow on solonchaks .\nthe community structure of desert vegetation is closely associated with edaphic conditions . white saxaul ( haloxylon persicum ) and black saxaul ( haloxylon aphyllum ) occupy large areas on the sands . saxaul is a high shrub ( 3 - 10 m ) . there are many endemic species found in sand the regions typical of the southern deserts ( e . g . , salsola richteri , s . subaphylla , ephedra strobilacea ferula foetida ) . sandy acacia ( ammodendron conollyi ) grows on barkhans ( sand - hills ) . in this region a diversity of shrub species such as calligonum leucocladum , c . eriopodum , and c . setosum is great .\n. . . rodents are one of the most diversified groups of mammals inhabiting temperate , arid and semi - arid habitats in north and east africa , the levant and the arabian peninsula ( harrison , 1972 ; lay , 1983 ; harrison & bates , 1991 ; wilson & reeder , 2005 ) . due to the variation in habitat structure , this group of small mammals forms an important component of the mammalian fauna for these regions including the arid zones as they are adapted to tolerate extreme desert conditions ( lay , 1983 ; granjon et al . , 1999 ; scott & dunstone , 2000 ; abu baker & amr , 2003b ; . . . .\nintroduction : little or no studies have been carried out on the rock dormouse ( graphiurus platyops ) . a distinguishing feature is their flattened skull and they are known to be active at night in rock piles . in central namibia where rocks are scarce they can be found climbing around on camelthorn trees . communication between dormice is part visual , part vocal . attention to other dormice can be gained by lashing the tail around . they also use scent trails and warning calls consist of a number of short low - pitched notes .\nthe divergence time between e . quercinus and e . melanurus was estimated at 7 . 0 mya ( montgelard et al . 2003 ) , and paleontological data attest to the presence of \u201cmodern\u201d eliomys sp . in the iberian peninsula and in north africa since the late miocene ( garc\u00eda - alix et al . 2008 ) . one can imagine that eliomys diverged into at least 2 species following the messinian crisis when contacts between europe and africa allowed the garden dormouse to colonize north africa , as shown for other terrestrial vertebrates ( agusti et al . 2006 ; dobson 1998 ) .\ndormice become sexually active after their first hibernation and bouts of wakefulness towards the end of hibernation may be caused by hormone changes that trigger sexual activity . vocal calls are important in courtship as each sex entices the other with a range of squeaks and whistles . once mated , the female builds a globular nest and gives birth to pink , blind young weighing just 0 . 07 oz ( 2 g ) . at seven days , they gain gray fur . by 18 days , the fur is brown and the babies can both hear and see . shortly after , the young are able to accompany their mother on foraging trips . they reach independence after four to six weeks . longevity is up to about 5 . 5 years in the wild . a captive garden dormouse lived for five years and six months .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species has a relatively large range ( > 100 , 000 km\u00b2 ) , but it is rare , sporadically distributed , and very infrequently recorded ( in total about 40 animals have been found from about 30 localities ) . it may be threatened by habitat loss . assessed as data deficient .\nrare , distributed sporadically , known from single findings . in total about 40 animals have been found from about 30 localities .\ninhabit rubbly , clay and saline deserts of northern type with dominant vegetation of wormwood and saltworts . hibernates , active period is from march to september . feed on insects , especially on locusts . pregnant and lactating females were found from end of may to end of june . number of embryos is 4 - 8 .\nhabitat loss due to extraction of spiraeanthus shrubs . the habitat is under increasing human induced degradation ( tilekova et al . 2016 ) .\nlisted in red list of kazakhstan ( category iii , and a species that requires special protection ) . several areas withing the range were proposed to make protected areas . breeding in captivity was unsuccessful .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t20102a115156769 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhas a stout rounded body 8 to 10 cm ( 3 . 1 to 3 . 9 inches ) long and a slightly shorter fine - haired tail of 6 to 8 cm . its gray fur is long , soft , and dense , and its underside is white . the molt of this species is unique in that patches of both skin and hair are sloughed off and replaced by a dense new growth . other rodents replace their hair during the molt but not the skin . the upper incisor teeth are large , but the cheek teeth are very small , barely jutting above the gums .\nrodent , ( order rodentia ) , any of more than 2 , 050 living species of mammals characterized by upper and lower pairs of ever - growing rootless incisor teeth . rodents are the largest group of mammals , constituting almost half the class mammalia\u2019s approximately 4 , 660 species . they are indigenous to every land area except antarctica , new zealand , \u2026\nendangered species , any species that is at risk of extinction because of a sudden rapid decrease in its population or a loss of its critical habitat . previously , any species of plant or animal that was threatened with extinction could be called an endangered species . the need for separate definitions of\u2026\nlake balkhash , lake , situated in east - central kazakhstan . the lake lies in the vast balqash - alak\u00f6l basin at 1 , 122 feet ( 342 m ) above sea level and is situated 600 miles ( 966 km ) east of the aral sea . it is 376 miles ( 605 km ) long from west to east . its area\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\njames rosindell changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : stamp of kazakhstan 408 . jpg\n.\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\naavikkounikeko\nto\nselevinia betpakdalaensis belosludov and bazhanov , 1939\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconservation status critically endangered : 1 species ; endangered : 4 species ; vulnerable : 5 species ; lower risk / near threatened : 5 species .\nphylogenetically , dormice have been grouped with the mountain beaver , aplodontidae , and squirrels , sciuridae : in appearance and behavior , dormice most closely resemble squirrels .\nthe fur is generally soft and thick and in most species , the tail is bushy and long . its primary function appears to be in assisting with balance , since it is not prehensile . dormice will readily shed their tails to escape from predators . ground - dwelling mouse - tailed dormice have thin , naked tails .\nadaptations for a largely nocturnal existence usually include large eyes , sensitive vibrissae , and an acute sense of hearing ; the rounded ears are not , however , especially large .\ngenus are probably extinct , extirpated from these western mediterranean islands by human settlers and their animals about 5 , 000 years ago .\nmost dormice occupy forest , woodland , or scrub habitat . true to their name , forest dormice are among the most arboreal , living in dense forests at up to 8 , 200 ft ( 2 , 500 m ) in altitude . hazel dormice ( muscardinus avellanarius ) are also reluctant to come to ground , preferring to stay in the canopy of largely deciduous woodland . they may remain high in tall trees for several days at a time , or spend long periods feeding on low - hanging fruits close to the ground .\ndormice live at lower densities than most rodents of equivalent size . outside the mating season , they appear to show little territoriality . most species studied coexist in small groups , with juveniles typically making up half their number . artificial nest boxes are often found with several inhabitants of both sexes inside . families tend to stay together through winter hibernation ; but a wild male , probably leaves a female after mating , in order to pursue other estrous females .\nhome feeding ranges are very variable . at one extreme , hazel dormice rarely venture more than 230 ft ( 70 m ) from their daytime nest . african dormice range far wider , and , in common with most species , males travel greater distances than females . in spectacled dormice ( graphiurus ocularis ) , the male occupies an average of 34 . 3 acres , ( 13 . 9 ha ) while the female roams over 21 acres ( 8 . 5 ha ) .\nall species studied communicate using a range of calls . five or six separate calls have been identified for forest dormice , including an alarm squeak . other calls have sexual or aggressive functions .\nduring periods of inactivity , dormice seek a variety of places in which to shelter . day nests are often constructed in\ntree hollows , with the animal weaving a round ball of vegetation , consisting of leaves , grass , moss , lichen , and shredded bark , bound together with saliva , and lined with hair or feathers . sometimes , a ball nest is made in the branches of a tree ; at other times the animal will use a bird or squirrel nest as a foundation for its own nest , or it will tuck the nest behind the bark of the tree . garden and african dormice in particular also use rock crevices . artificial nestboxes are adopted readily by many species .\nironically , it is during the period of sustained inactivity that dormice are most likely to come into contact with humans . their search for a secure , enclosed hibernation site with stable temperatures leads them into some bizarre places . while hazel dormice make their winter nests in tree stumps or on the ground , rather than in trees where temperatures fluctuate and desiccation is a threat , edible dormice may also choose woodpecker holes , artificial nest boxes , and barns . japanese dormice are known to select cottage roofs and birdhouses while african dormice sometimes winter inside house furniture .\nmost species undergo periods of hibernation in response to food shortages and low temperatures . hibernation in europe may extend from september until may . the animal curls itself into a ball , with the tail covering the mouth to reduce water loss . although hibernation is thought to occur in most species , climactic variation means that in some milder areas such as israel , dormice do not go into true hibernation , but have several hours of torpidity each day during the winter .\ndormice are nocturnal and crepuscular foragers , with most species taking their food from trees . although they are nominally omnivorous , they are the only rodent family lacking a cecum . consequently , their consumption of low grade plant food is minimal .\nmost species are specialized in taking advantage of seasonal food . typically , buds and tree flowers are eaten in spring and early summer ; insects and other arthropods , small rodents , birds ' eggs and insects in summer ; and fruit , berries , seeds , and nuts in late summer and the fall . the extent to which individual species depend on one source varies\u2014edible and hazel dormice have a largely vegetarian diet , whereas garden , forest , and african dormice are predominantly carnivorous . yet each species can alter its diet in response to particular needs .\nvegetarian\ndormice eat insects in the summer period of\nlengthy hibernation periods at either end of the year mean that for a number of species , the breeding season is very short .\nin temperate zones , it lasts typically from may to october with one litter producing on average four young . hazel dormice sometimes attempt\u2014usually unsuccessfully\u2014a second litter . forest dormice appear to be exceptional in raising three litters . productivity in africa , where breeding seasons are much longer , is largely unknown .\ndormice may be adversely affected by climate change , which causes habitat alteration and temperature fluctuations . arousal from hibernation during mild winters forces an animal to expend considerably greater amounts of energy than if it maintained consistently low internal temperatures .\nhead and body length 2 . 7\u20136 . 5 in ( 7\u201316 . 5 cm ) , tail 1 . 9\u20135 . 3 in ( 5\u201313 . 5 cm ) ; weight 0 . 6\u20131 oz ( 18\u201330 g ) . color is grayish with markings on the face , paler underneath .\nterritorial pairs and their young occupy sizeable areas of up to 34 . 5 acres ( 14 ha ) .\nseeds , nuts , fruits , grain , insects , eggs , and small vertebrates .\nformerly more common around human habitation and eaten . now largely absent because of competition with rats .\ndryomys nitedula ( pallas , 1778 ) , lower volga river , russia . fifteen subspecies .\nhead and body length 3 . 1\u20135 . 1 in ( 8\u201313 cm ) , tail 2 . 35\u20134 . 5 in ( 6\u201311 . 3 cm ) ; weight 0 . 6\u20131 . 2 oz ( 18\u201334 g ) . color is grayish to yellowish brown , buffy white underneath .\narboreal and highly agile\u2014able to leap distances of up to 6 . 6 ft ( 2 m ) between trees .\ncarnivorous in summer , eating spiders and other small invertebrates , eggs , and young birds . otherwise subsists on seeds , buds , and fruit .\nnests colonially , either in one tree or in adjacent trees . three litters south of its range and one litter of usually 2\u20135 young in temperate areas .\nclassified as lower risk / near threatened on the iucn red list . loss of forest habitat has caused declines in central europe .\nhead and body length 3 . 5 in ( 9 cm ) , tail 3 . 6\u20134 in ( 9 . 2\u201310 . 2 cm ) ; weight 0 . 8\u20131 . 2 oz ( 24\u201336 g ) . color is grayish to yellowish brown , buffy white underneath .\nhead and body length 3 . 9\u20136 . 9 in ( 10\u201317 . 5 cm ) , tail 3 . 5\u20135 . 3 in ( 9\u201313 . 5 cm ) ; weight 1 . 5\u20134 . 2 oz ( 45\u2013120 g ) . color is gray to brown , cream to white underneath .\nalthough an agile tree climber , this species can also live without trees . recorded feeding and sleeping together in groups .\nlargely carnivorous , with insects making up to 89 % of diet . also fruit , especially in fall .\nloss of forest habitat has meant this species is classified as vulnerable on the iucn red list .\nhead and body length 2 . 4\u20134 . 7 in ( 6 . 1\u201312 cm ) , tail 2\u20133 . 7 in ( 5 . 3\u20139 . 4 cm ) ; weight 0 . 7\u20131 . 9 oz ( 21\u201356 g ) . color is ocher and gray , white underneath .\nnot a specialized tree dweller , this species appears to spend most of its time on the ground .\nseven pairs of mammae suggest large numbers of offspring . breeding biology largely unknown .\nhead and body length 2 . 9\u20133 . 7 in ( 7 . 5\u20139 . 5 cm ) , tail 2 . 3\u20133 in ( 5 . 8\u20137 . 7 cm ) ; weight 0 . 6\u20130 . 9 oz ( 18\u201325 g ) . fur is grayish above and whitish underneath .\nthought to emerge at twilight to feed , sheltering from the sun under cover , or possibly in a burrow by day . when threatened , moves in a succession of short jumps .\nprobably wholly carnivorous , feeding on insects and spiders . can eat three - quarters of its own body weight in one night .\nhead and body length 2 . 5\u20133 . 1 in ( 6 . 5\u20138 cm ) , tail 1 . 5\u20132 . 1 in ( 4\u20135 . 5 cm ) ; weight 0 . 5\u20131 . 4 oz ( 14\u201340 g ) . color is pale olive brown with a darker stripe along the spine .\nan average of four young born in june\u2013july after a month - long gestation .\nmuscardinus avellanarius ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , sweden . six sub - species .\nhead and body length 2 . 35\u20133 . 5 in ( 6\u20139 cm ) , tail 2 . 1\u20132 . 9 in ( 5 . 5\u20137 . 5 cm ) ; weight 0 . 5\u20131 . 4 oz ( 15\u201340 g ) . color is yellowish brown or yellowish red , white to buff underneath .\nprobably exclusively arboreal . in temperate areas , may hibernate for up to nine months of the year .\nlong - lived species , normally producing a single annual litter of 4\u20135 young .\nhead and body length 5 . 1\u20137 . 5 in ( 13\u201319 cm ) , tail 4 . 3\u20135 . 9 in ( 11\u201315 cm ) ; weight 2 . 4\u20136 . 3 oz ( 70\u2013180 g ) . color is silvery gray , white underneath .\none of the most agile of arboreal dormice\u2014recorded making tree - to - tree leaps of more than 23 ft ( 7 m ) .\napparently a territorial species , with males scent - marking boundaries . male assists in raising of young and families may stay together through hibernation .\nhistorically regarded as a food source , particularly as a delicacy . considered a pest of fruit and vine crops .\nupperparts range from pale ashy gray to dark slaty gray , and from buffy to reddish brown , tinged with grayish . underparts are white to grayish , often tinged with buff or reddish brown . face has black and white markings . head and body length 2 . 8\u20136 . 5 in ( 7\u201316 . 5 cm ) and tail length 2 . 0\u20135 . 3 in ( 5\u201313 . 5 cm ) .\nforests and rocky areas near waterways . nocturnal , though active during the day in dark forests .\ngrains , seeds , nuts , fruits , insects , eggs , and small vertebrates .\nsudan and ethiopia , south to south africa ; through democratic republic of the congo ( zaire ) to southern angola .\nsierra leone and mali east to nigeria ; sudan , ethiopia , and somalia south to tanzania .\nupperparts range from pale ashy gray to dark slaty gray , and from buffy to reddish brown , tinged with grayish . underparts are white to grayish , often tinged with buff or reddish brown . face has black and white markings . head and body length 2 . 8\u2013 . 5 in ( 7\u201316 . 5 cm ) and tail length 2 . 0\u20135 . 3 in ( 5\u201313 . 5 cm ) .\nupperparts grayish brown to yellowish brown ; underparts buffy white . head and body length 3 . 1\u20135 . 1 in ( 8\u201313 cm ) ; tail length 2 . 4\u20134 . 4 in ( 6\u201311 . 3 cm ) ; and weight 0 . 6\u20131 . 2 oz ( 18\u201334 g ) .\nupperparts range through several gray and brown shades ; underparts are creamy or white . head and body length 3 . 9\u20136 . 9 in ( 10\u201317 . 5 cm ) ; tail length 3 . 5\u20135 . 3 in ( 9\u201313 . 5 cm ) ; and weight 1 . 6\u2013 4 . 2 oz ( 45\u2013120 g ) .\nacorns , nuts , fruits , insects , small rodents , and young birds .\nupperparts are a combination of ochraceous and gray ; underparts , insides of the limbs , and feet are white . mouse - like tail . head and body length ( 6 . 1\u201312 cm ) ; tail length ( 5 . 3\u20139 . 4 cm ) ; weight 0 . 7\u20132 . 0 oz ( 21\u201356 g ) .\nkingdon , j . the kingdon field guide to african mammals . san diego : academic press , 1997 .\nmacdonald , d . european mammals : evolution and behavior . london : collins , 1995 .\n\u2014\u2014 . the new encyclopaedia of mammals . oxford : oxford university press , 2001 .\nmacdonald , d . , and p . barrett . the collins field guide to the mammals of britain and europe . new york : harpercollins , 1993 .\nnowak , r . m . walker ' s mammals of the world online . baltimore : johns hopkins university press , 1995 . < urltoken > .\ndormice ( myoxidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\ndormice ( myoxidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nwithin the \u201ccite this article\u201d tool , pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style . then , copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list .\nbecause each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article , urltoken cannot guarantee each citation it generates . therefore , it\u2019s best to use urltoken citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication\u2019s requirements and the most - recent information available at these sites :\nmost online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers . therefore , that information is unavailable for most urltoken content . however , the date of retrieval is often important . refer to each style\u2019s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates .\nin addition to the mla , chicago , and apa styles , your school , university , publication , or institution may have its own requirements for citations . therefore , be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list ."]}
{"id": 1326, "summary": [{"text": "the hogfish ( lachnolaimus maximus ) , is a species of wrasse native to the western atlantic ocean , with a range from nova scotia , canada to northern south america , including the gulf of mexico .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "this species occurs around reefs , especially preferring areas with plentiful gorgonians .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species is currently the only known member of its genus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "hogfish", "paragraphs": ["the hogfish is a sequential hermaphrodite , meaning it changes sex during different life stages . juvenile hogfish are female , but mature into males at around 3 years old .\nthe spotfin hogfish and the spanish hogfish belong to the genus bodianus and occupy the same geographic range as l . maximus . the spanish hogfish attains a length of 61 cm and , when young , are known to clean other fishes of external parasites .\nthe hogfish is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nsize , age , and growth hogfish reach a maximum length of 3 feet ( 0 . 91 m ) total length and a maximum weight of 22 pounds ( 10 kg ) . hogfish may live for up to 11 years .\nhogfish may live up to eleven years of age . while occasionally captured as juveniles for the aquarium trade , the economic importance of hogfish generally lies in their unique flavor , and the relative rarity of them as catches in sport fishing . in florida , the hogfish is particularly important to commercial and recreational fisheries . there is some interest in the aquaculture community in raising hogfish in captivity , primarily to maintain breeding stock , and to ensure a consistent supply for fisheries .\nhogfish . fisherman\u2019s delight\u2026 getting \u2018high on the hog\u2019 . this wrasse species lachnolaimus maximus is a reef denizen , especially where\nif eventually approved , \u201chogfish in the entire florida keys would be managed exclusively by the south atlantic fishery management council . \u201d\nhogfish social groups are organized into harems , where one male will protect a group of females in his territory and mate with them .\na 25 - pound commercial trip limit for hogfish in federal waters off the keys and east florida has been recommended by federal staff . in the federal council\u2019s report , the preferred alternative could include a florida quota of 36 , 449 pounds of hogfish before a harvest closure .\nhogfish are sought after by humans ( 2 ) , due to their apparently unique taste and flavour ( 5 ) . unfortunately , this has led to fishing pressure that has reduced many populations to critically low levels ( 5 ) , and the hogfish is now vulnerable to extinction ( 1 ) . in florida , where the fish is economically important to both commercial and recreational fisheries , there are indications that the hogfish stock has been overfished for more than a decade ( 5 ) . juvenile hogfish are also sometimes captured for the aquarium trade ( 2 ) .\nhogfish have become a florida keys delicacy , but harvest of the species may be sharply curtailed under rules proposed by a federal fishery council .\nspawning occurs off the florida coast during february and march , and the larval stage of hogfish lasts several weeks before they mature into juveniles .\nthe hogfish gets its name from its long \u2018pig - like\u2019 snout , coupled with its rootling behaviour on the sea floor for crustacean prey .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hogfish ( lachnolaimus maximus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hogfish ( lachnolaimus maximus )\ntitle =\narkive species - hogfish ( lachnolaimus maximus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwow , rh , they really are fantastic fish photos \u2014 a salute to melinda riger . i had never heard of hogfish and enjoyed the post .\nthe hogfish ( lachnolaimus maximus ) gets its unusual name from its long , pig - like snout and protrusible mouth which it uses to root around the sea bottom for food ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the hogfish belongs to the second largest family of marine fishes , the wrasses , but instead of a cigar - shaped body like most wrasses , the hogfish is laterally compressed and round ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the colour of the hogfish is highly variable , and depends on age , sex and habitat ( 4 ) . generally they are pearly white and mottled with reddish - brown ( 4 ) . small hogfish may be uniformly grey , whilst large hogfish can be mostly salmon pink , with a dark maroon bar on top of the snout ( 2 ) . most individuals possess a prominent round , black blotch below the dorsal fin , yellowish pectoral fins and bright red eyes ( 2 ) .\nfood habits foraging by day , the hogfish is a large bottom - associated predator . adult hogfish feed mainly on mollusks including pelecypods , gastropods , and scaphopods , but will also feed on hermit crabs , amphipods , and sea urchins , crushing its prey with strong pharyngeal jaws . during the day , this species has been observed to shove its snout into the sand in search of mollusks . juvenile hogfish thrive on a diet of crustaceans , mollusk , and echinoderms .\ninterestingly , the hogfish is a protogynous , sequential hermaphrodite ; it begins its life as a female , and then changes its sex to male at various stages in its lifecycle , usually at or around three years of age . hogfish additionally form harems , wherein a single male is dominate over a large group of females .\nhogfish forage during the day , feeding primarily on gastropods and bivalve molluscs , but also on crabs , sea urchins , and barnacles ( 2 ) . it can use its long snout and protractible mouth to root in the sand for its favoured prey ( 3 ) . hogfish may live for up to 11 years ( 4 ) .\nthe hogfish inhabits inshore patch reefs and seaward reefs , at depths of 3 to 30 metres . it prefers areas with abundant growth of gorgonian corals ( 3 ) .\nthe hogfish is highly valued as a food fish , with the flesh marketed both fresh and frozen . human consumption of this fish has been linked to ciguatera poisoning .\nalthough commercial catch rates have decreased over the past seven years off the eastern coast of florida while remaining stable in the gulf of mexico , there is no formal stock assessment for the hogfish . recreational catches have also fluctuated but without any apparent trends . however , fishing pressure has reduced populations of hogfish in some areas to low levels . there have been successful attempts at raising hogfish in captivity and it is hoped that aquaculture will eventually reduce the fishing industry ' s pressure on natural stocks of this fish .\nhogfish is a member of the wrasse family , labridae , but its shape and size is very distinct from the smaller , cigar - shaped form of most other wrasses .\noccurring in the western atlantic , the hogfish is found from north carolina and bermuda , south to the gulf of mexico and the northern coast of south america ( 2 ) .\nhogfish are found in the western atlantic , ranging from north carolina to the gulf of mexico . this reef species , ideal for key west fishing , is most often found close to the ocean floor , near coral , rocks , shipwrecks , and other cover debris . the largest hogfish are typically found at the deepest edge of the main atlantic reef , from fifty to one hundred feet .\nan assessment of the florida stock led to the recommendation that the minimum size limit of hogfish that are captured in fisheries should be raised ( 5 ) , which would reduce the pressure on the florida stock . there have also been successful attempts at raising hogfish in captivity , and it is hoped that aquaculture will eventually reduce the fishing pressure on natural stocks of this intriguing fish ( 4 ) .\nrecreational fishermen could be limited to a four - month season harvest season , with a one - hogfish - per - day limit , under a preferred alternative crafted by the south atlantic fishery management council .\nault , j . s . , smith , s . g . , diaz , a . d . and franklin , e . ( 2003 ) florida hogfish fishery stock assessment . florida marine research institute , florida .\n\u201cfor the florida keys - east florida population , assessment results showed the [ hogfish ] population is undergoing overfishing and is overfished , and therefore is in need of a rebuilding plan , \u201d says a council fact sheet .\nhogfish are a reef species that inhabit rocky bottoms , ledges and reefs throughout florida\u2019s off - shore waters . they are easily identified by their long , hog - like snout , which allows them to feed on bottom - dwelling mollusks and crustaceans . because they tend to root in the sediment in search of small prey , they are not commonly caught on hook and line . hogfish are primarily harvested by spearfishing , and they are considered to be of excellent food quality .\nto meet federal standards adopted to protect fisheries , \u201cthe [ florida hogfish ] commercial annual catch limit would be 3 , 510 pounds whole weight ( 1 , 345 fish ) and the recreational annual catch limit would be 15 , 689 fish . \u201d\nthis fish is commonly found over open bottoms and coral reefs at depths ranging from 10 - 100 feet ( 3 - 30m ) . the hogfish is often encountered in areas where gorgonians are abundant . the hogfish is widely distributed along the edges of the reef , forming small groups . it prefers locations with hard sand and rock bottoms near shallow patch reefs just inshore and offshore from the main reef structure . larger individuals occur in the main reef area while smaller fish reside among the patch reefs .\nthe fish - a hogfish is a wrasse ! wrasse boasts one of the most delicate and moist flesh in the florida waters . a species that has adapted a long snout to dig for mollusks in the sand and retrieve shrimps and crabs from within reefs and stone formations on the ocean floor . with a diet of shellfish , mussels and clams , the natural sweetness of its prey lends that characteristic to the flavor of the hogfish . as most have heard , shrimp contain cholesterol ( the good type ) , the hogfish has the ability to convert the cholesterol into pure fat that it stores as intramuscular fat . this contributes to moisture and oil in the flesh which translates to a silky and delicate mouth feel . definitely different for whole fish presentation . ceviche , steam , saute , pan roast .\nas one of the interesting hogfish facts , the gender of each individual is transformed as it grows older . for the first three years of their life , they exist as females . afterwards , however , they are transformed into males when they have grown around thirty five centimeters in length .\nin the western atlantic ocean , the hogfish occurs from bermuda and north carolina , south through the caribbean sea and northern gulf of mexico , continuing to the north coast of south america . it is very common off florida and the islands of the caribbean in shallow waters . juveniles are often found in seagrass beds in florida bay .\nall hogfish are born female and some change gender to become male in a process called \u201cprotogynous hermaphroditism . \u201d this typically takes place after the dominant male in a group is eliminated and can occur in individuals as early as three years of age or when the fish is about 14 inches ( 35 . 5 cm ) in length .\nhogfish have a fascinating life history ; they are protogynous hermaphrodites , meaning that individuals first function sexually as females and then later , upon reaching a larger size , transform into males ( 4 ) . this change generally occurs at around three years of age and a length of about 35 centimetres ( 4 ) . hogfish form harems ; groups of females dominated by a larger male . the male and the females simultaneously release gametes into the surrounding water where fertilisation occurs . the fertilised eggs develop quickly into larvae , a stage which lasts several weeks until they grow into juveniles . off the coast of florida , this spawning event occurs during february and march ( 4 ) .\nthe common name in the english language for this fish is hogfish . common names in other languages include bodiao - de - pluma ( portuguese ) , doncella de pluma ( spanish ) , jaqueton blanca ( spanish ) , labre capitaine ( french ) , odynczyk ( polish ) , ornefisk ( danish ) , pargo gallo ( spanish ) , and pez perro ( spanish ) .\nlabrus maximum ( walbaum , 1792 ) was the name originally used to describe the hogfish . however , it was changed by later taxonomists to the present day name of lachnolaimus maximus ( walbaum 1792 ) . the genus name , lachnolaimus , is derived from the greek\nlachne , - es\nmeaning more covered with hair than others , and\nlaimos\nis translated as throat .\nthis wrasse is unusually flat and oval shaped compared to other wrasse , with red irises , and colors that change through the stages of its life . they live in small groups of one dominant male and several females , until a female grows to be a certain size and age , and then she changes to a male . the hogfish are named after the way they root around in the sandy sea floor with their pointed snout , looking for crustaceans and mollusks .\nstep back in time and experience the way the florida keys used to be \u2013 fresh seafood , strong drinks , panoramic waterfront views , outdoor dining and plenty of local characters . tucked away in safe harbor , stock island , the hogfish bar and grill is a true \u201clocals\u201d spot that avoids the pretension and hype of more touristy areas . the freshest seafood straight from the boats to your plate . . . panoranic waterfront views and outdoor dining , fresh local seafood . live music on weekends . tucked away in safe harbor marina , stock island .\nthe fishery - ask any fish monger about procuring gulf species and he\u2019ll mention st . petersburg , florida ( \u201cst . pete\u201d for short ) . vast varieties of finfish ranging from tuna and swordfish to groupers and snappers are distributed through this historically - rich region of the florida coastline . expect to also see a robust selection of keys - caught species like yellowtail snapper , caribbean red snapper and hogfish to come through st . pete . it\u2019s regionally situated in a perfect location for national distribution and with our q & a in place , it\u2019s always top quality .\nthe hogfish is large with a laterally compressed body that is high and round . this is in contrast to other wrasses , which tend to be smaller and cigar - shaped . the caudal fin is slightly lunate and the first three dorsal fin spines are elongate and thickened , trailing behind the fin . the tips of the dorsal and anal fins are pointed . it uses its elongate , pig - like snout and large protrusible mouth to root around the bottom substrate for prey . it is from this snout and rooting behavior that this fish gets its common name .\nthe hogfish gets its name from its elongate , porcine snout and protruding mouth and front teeth , which are used , in accordance with its bottom feeding tendencies , to forage diurnally along the seafloor ( plowing through the sand with their large snouts ) in search of gastropods ( abalone , conches , whelks etc ) , bivalves ( many marine mollusks ; clams , oysters , mussels , and the like ) and various marine arthropods ( crabs , barnacles , etc ) and even some echinoderms ( sea urchins , sea stars ) . their preferred food includes small shrimp , crabs , and worms .\ncoloration of the hogfish is variable , dependent upon age , sex , and habitat . it is generally from pearl white to mottled in brownish - red with a black spot at the rear base of the soft dorsal fin . males tend to be more intensely colored than females . young individuals and females are primarily pale gray , brown , or reddish brown with a paler underside . the iris is bright red in color . males are gray - brown overall and dusky to dark from the snout through the forehead , up to the dorsal . pectoral fins are yellow . dark bars are located on the outer margins of the soft dorsal , anal , and caudal fins .\nthe long and pig - like snout of this marine creature is what accounts for its unique name . its mouth can be protruded for the purpose of catching food from the bottom of the sea . the wrasses usually possess cigar - shaped bodies . on the other hand , lachnolaimus maximus has a thin body which is laterally compressed as well as rounded . the age , gender and location of these creatures determine the color of their body . therefore , they exist in a wide range of colors as you can see in hogfish pictures . most of them , however , are reddish brown . those which are smaller in size have a uniform grey body while the larger ones are pink like salmon with maroon bars at the top of their snouts .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nde silva , r . , milligan , h . , lutz , m . , batchelor , a . , jopling , b . , kemp , k . , lewis , s . , lintott , p . , sears , j . , wilson , p . & smith , j . and livingston , f .\nis present in the caribbean and north to bermuda and the carolinas and extends southwards to the northern region of the brazilian coast .\nthis species is present in the following countries : anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bermuda ; canada ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; dominica ; dominican republic ; french guiana ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; guyana ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; netherlands antilles ( cura\u00e7ao ) ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; suriname ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s . , ne brazil ( floeter\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; aruba ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; brazil ; canada ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; french guiana ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; guyana ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; suriname ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nhad moderate abundance over shallow west atlantic coral reefs , but is now depleted in many areas due to fishing . large populations are maintained at only a few sites including los roques ( venezuela ) , bermuda and at some sites in the florida keys ( j . h . choat pers . comm . 2008 ) . overall the population has declined over most of its range .\n( 2003 ) report high harvesting rates for florida with declining returns of 272 metric t in 1987 to 154 metric t in 1993 and averaging 93 metric t from 1998 - 2001 . this represents a decline of approximately 60 % over a period of 14 years . the declines are still continuing ( j . h . choat pers . comm . 2008 ) . considering together all catch and census data on the species from throughout its geographic range , it is clear that declines of at least 30 % must have occurred within the last few generations ( y . sadovy pers . comm . 2009 ) .\nthis species is another of the large hypsigenyine labrids that reaches a large size but has very low population densities . at los roques aggregations of approximately 50 large individuals were found on shallow sandy slopes ( j . h . choat pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nis found on coral reefs at 3 - 40 m depth , especially sandy outer reef slopes . juveniles are most common in shallow seagrass , and inshore reef habitats .\nit is a monadric protogynous hermaphrodite ( mcbride and johnson 2007 ) with a very slow rate of sex change ( several months that occurs post spawning ) . it has an extended spawning season from january to may . in florida , females attain sexual maturity at two years 26 . 0 cm ( fl ) , sexual transition at three to five years but recorded in individuals up to 13 years . reproductive aggregations have been observed in los roques ( j . h . choat pers . comm . 2008 ) .\nthere is considerable variation in growth and age structure over the geographic range of this species . the most detailed account ( mcbride and richardson 2007 ) compared growth and age structure of populations from the eastern gulf of mexico and southern florida ( easten gulf of mexico - max . age 23 years ; max . size 82 . 4 cm ( fl ) ;\nvon bertalanffy growth function linf 91 . 7 cm ; k . 014 ; mortality rate 0 . 35 , and south florida - max . age 13 years ; max size 62 . 2 cm ( fl ) ;\nlachnolaimus maximus is harvested as a food source although is of minor commercial importance and is mainly caught using hook and line .\ncorrection of the spelling of venezuela , ( which had been mistakenly spelt venuezula ) .\n( errata version published in 2018 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t11130a124708500 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\natlantic state and federal waters : regularly scheduled season closure effective through april 30 , 2018 , including all state waters south of cape sable in the gulf , around the tip of florida , and up the atlantic coast .\ngulf federal waters north of cape sable : open year - round , 14 - inch minimum size limit , 5 - fish / person recreational bag limit .\natlantic federal waters : open may 1 - oct . 31 annually . 16 - inch minimum size limit , 1 - fish / person recreational bag limit .\nfwc facts : research has shown that many species of fishes , crustaceans and shellfish depend on seagrass meadows for habitat .\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission \u2022 farris bryant building 620 s . meridian st . \u2022 tallahassee , fl 32399 - 1600 \u2022 ( 850 ) 488 - 4676\npursuant to section 120 . 74 , florida statutes , the fish and wildlife conservation commission has published its 2017 agency regulatory plan .\nunder florida law , e - mail addresses are public records . if you do not want your e - mail address released in response to a public records request , do not send electronic mail to this entity . instead , contact this office by phone or in writing .\nlove this place ! a real taste of the old key west flavor , locally owned and it shows . best fish tacos around good strong drinks and an on the water work boat setting\nthe only reason i gave this place a 5 is because they won ' t let me give them a\n10\n. great key west atmosphere . even better food . try the grouper cheeks\u201d\noutstanding bar food and of course the signature sandwich is fantastic . outdoor seating . sitting on the water is excellent . ask for ' asia ' as she brings some south carolina char . . .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ncarpenter , k . e . ( 2002 ) the living marine resources of the western central atlantic . volume 3 : bony fishes . part 2 ( opistognathidae to molidae ) , sea turtles and marine mammals . food and agriculture organization of the united nations , rome .\nlieske , e . and myers , r . ( 2001 ) coral reef fishes : indo - pacific and caribbean . harpercollins publishers , london .\nnhpa / photoshot holdings ltd 29 - 31 saffron hill london ec1n 8sw united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6003 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7421 6006 sales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbrilliant substitute for a true snapper . holds more moisture , in cooking , than american reds . paper white , succulent , sweet , light\nat its june meeting , the federal council voted to seek public comment on the slate of proposals , known as amendment 37 to the agency\u2019s snapper - grouper fishery plan . a 16 - inch minimum size limit is recommended , along with a recreational season limited to july through august .\nour journalism takes a lot of time , effort , and hard work to produce . if you read and enjoy our journalism , please consider subscribing today .\na report by florida fish and wildlife conservation commission staff to the governing board notes , \u201cthere is general support for a size - limit increase and lower bag limit , but commercial harvesters in the keys are largely against a trip limit . \u201d\na second slate of rules would be adopted for south atlantic waters north of the georgia - florida border .\nfor more information on the south atlantic plan , go to urltoken . the public comment period is scheduled to remain open until aug . 1 .\nif the rules are approved , regulations could take effect by mid - 2017 , according to the council .\nmcdonald ' s wants ' nonsense ' cheese lawsuit dismissed . it would create ' utter chaos , ' lawyer says\nhere ' s what the cdc thinks caused the romaine lettuce e . coli outbreak\nsome consumers said the sparkling water tasted funny . the company took it to heart .\nthe iucn is a global union of states , governmental agencies , and non - governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species .\ndentition the strong jaws contain protruding anterior canine teeth that are well adapted for crushing hard - shelled prey items such as mollusks and crabs .\nparasites nerocila benrosei n . sp . ( isopoda : cymothoidae ) , has been recorded as an external parasite of hogfishes from the northern bahamas .\nanguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; brazil ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; cura\u00e7ao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; guyana ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .\nthe species is reported to be used for subsistence consumption in some regions ( coblentz 1997 ) , although it is known to cause ciguatera ( froese and paul 2008 ) . however , it is primarily utilized for the aquarium trade and is obtained solely through captures from the wild . brazil is the biggest trader with the species ranking 10th in its export ( wood 2001 ) , where most of the animals are directed to the international market . nevertheless , information regarding how the fished is utilized , especially in terms of the aquarium trade , is scant and data for the whole distribution is absent . attempts are being made to breed this species in captivity ( unep 2008 ) .\nthese creatures are medium - sized and can attain the maximum length of a hundred centimeters only . a typical individual weighs around nine kilograms . a unique physical trait found in most of the members of this specie is a dark , circular blotch found under the dorsal fin . their pectoral fins are yellowish in color . another prominent feature is their red eyes . diversity in physical characteristics may exist depending on where the creatures live . their physical traits enable them camouflage themselves with their surroundings in order to hide from potential enemies .\nthese fascinating marine creatures can be seen by a common man in aquariums as well as in photos found in science books or on the internet . apart from viewing these photos due to fascination , they can also be seen for studying their characteristics and comparing them with other members of their family . discover the different colors and size of the organism which vary according to the gender , age and habitat . find photos to study these variations and increase your knowledge about this wonderful organism .\nalthough their main family is wrasse , these creatures are also close relatives of the parrotfish .\neven though their pig - like snouts do not let them be considered as attractive creatures , their diverse range of colors still makes them a beautiful addition to aquariums .\nthe reproduction of these fish occurs through the fertilizations of gametes released by both the males and the females in water . after fertilization , the eggs develop into larvae within a short period of time .\nit has different common names in different languages . its french name is labre capitaine while it is known as pargo gallo , boquinete and doncella de pluma in spanish .\nthese organisms are found at the depth of three to thirty meters in seaward reefs as well as patch reefs .\noverhunting has been reported to have occurred in florida where the fish is hunted for both recreations as well as to gain its economical benefits .\nunfortunately , lachnolaimus maximus is another member of the animal kingdom which has been classified as being vulnerable by the iucn . humans have sought the creature for its unique flavor as well as to adorn their aquariums . this has resulted in a dwindling number of their population in the natural habitat . the authorities are , therefore , implementing measures to put an end to overhunting for its protection before it is listed as \u201cendangered species\u201d by the iucn .\ndo you know how , in the floor of an ocean , an octopus . . . read more\nhyenas belong to the order carnivora and family hyaenidae . although it has . . .\nthe northern shrike bird is known as lanius excubitor in the scientific world . . .\na bird of prey is also known as a raptor or a hunter . it belongs to the group of . . .\nthe sloth animal is a mammal with its species belonging to two families . . .\nlionfish is a chordate which belongs to the family scorpaenidae and genus . . .\ngoat is a mammal that belongs to the family bovidae . being a member of the sub - family . . .\nthis is a kind of hummingbird . it is really small in size , only 8 . 9 cm as it can be seen . . .\nlizards are members of the reptilian class in the animal kingdom . they belong to . . .\nbuffalo is a member of the animal kingdom and belongs to class mammalia . most . . .\nmammals are always thought of giving birth to young ones but sometimes it can . . .\nthe birds that are considered as the symbol of love , peace and harmony are one . . .\nthe goat and the sheep are related to each other through the same family . they . . .\nin our race to make this world a better place in terms of . . .\noccurs in the western atlantic from nova scotia south to bermuda , the gulf of mexico and parts of the caribbean . also includes the north coast of south america .\nfound in open bottom or coral reef areas , where gorgonian branching soft corals are abundant .\nlarger individuals present in main reef areas , while smaller fish reside among patch reefs . juveniles often occupy grass beds off south florida .\nprefers depths from about 10 to 100 feet ( 3 - 30 m ) .\ndeep body that is laterally compressed and strongly arched dorsally . its head profile is distinct . has an elongate , pig - like snout and large protruding mouth .\nthe first two or three spines on the dorsal fin are elongated . the tips of the dorsal and anal fins are pointed . the pectoral fins are yellow .\ncoloration varies with age , sex and habitat . adults are generally pearl white to a mottled brownish - red . the front of the head is a darker color from the snout through the forehead and up to the dorsal fin . males tend to be more intensely colored than females .\nthere is a black spot at the rear base of the dorsal fin . the iris of the eye is bright red .\nmaximum length reported for this species is about 36 inches ( 91 cm ) . the maximum weight is 24 lbs . ( 11 kg ) .\nfeeds by rooting around in the bottom sediment with its protruding mouth ( hence its name ) .\nforms schools consisting of groups of females and a dominant male . the male reproduces only with the females in his \u201charem . \u201d spawning takes place in open water near the surface , primarily during cooler months . in south florida and the eastern gulf of mexico , spawning occurs from december to april .\neggs hatch after about 24 hours into larvae that drift in the plankton for several weeks before settling to the bottom as juveniles .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\n\u2026spanish ladyfish , or pudiano ( bodianus rufus ) , is a red and gold wrasse of the family labridae .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nm . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda\nbody elongated in shape with a relatively long snout . forehalf of dorsal fin serrated . upper forebody purple , belly and tail yellow - gold . purple may become reddish and large adults become mottled purplish yellow (\n) . juvenile have a purple head and forebody , as they mature , the purple area becomes restricted to the upper forebody .\nconstantly swim above reefs , down to 70 m . juveniles can be observed in shallow water , where they remove parasites and debris from the body of larger fish .\nhumann , p . , 1989 . reef fish identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nnagelkerken , w . , 1980 . coral reef fishes of aruba , bonaire and cura\u00e7ao . published by the island territory of curacao .\nwould you like fast , reliable , stress - free software development releases ? does your team need help with test automation ? with my broad industry experience and deep technical skills , i can teach your team how to ship software like the best companies in the world .\nwhere to now ? learn more about me . learn more about my consulting services . read my blog . get in touch .\nflorida regulations limit bag numbers to five per harvester , per day , and the minimum size is listed as twelve inch fork ( from the fork of the caudal fin\u2014 excluding streamers \u2013to the snout ' s tip ) . legal gear is spears , gigs , hook and line , seine , and cast net , and reef fish gear requirements apply . greatest success is found with light tackle , and chum with crustacean parts , which must be anchored or weighted near the seafloor . shrimp make ideal bait .\nto prove it we are matching all online pricing on the tours we offer .\nare found . it has the distinction of being the only known member of its genus , and because it is iucn listed as vulnerable , there are strict regulations governing bag , size , and gear limits to protect the species from overfishing .\n\u201ca bit of caution is necessary here ! there is some history in the bahamas of mild to severe ciguatera poisoning from hogs . our m . o . was to only eat hogs no larger than 5 or 6 lbs . temporary or permanent blindness , paralysis , and even death is possible with bigger hogs\u201d\n. ciguatera is also a problem with , for example , \u2018cuda on abaco . those caught on the marls ( west ) side are ok to eat ; those from the east side have to be treated with circumspection\u2026\nthank jet \u2013 melinda\u2019s pics always demonstrate to advantages of being a seasoned diver and a very good photographer . her photos are more than just of \u2018fish\u2019 , they capture the characteristics of the fish . it\u2019s such a pleasure to be able to use them . rh\nhi rh . a bit of caution is necessary here ! there is some history in the bahamas of mild to severe ciguatera poisoning from hogs . our m . o . was to only eat hogs no larger than 5 or 6 lbs . temporary and permanent blindness , paralysis , and even death is possible with bigger hogs\nhi rick , as always you have come up with a pertinent comment that deserves attention in the main post . so i\u2019ll put it there . one day i\u2019ll investigate cig . and post more about it . thanks for calling in . rh\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nthere was an error retrieving images from instagram . an attempt will be remade in a few minutes .\nunfortunately , the common , unscientific , names of fish are very inaccurate . for example , there are a number of different species of fish that go by the name tilapia , tuna or red snapper , respectively\u2014and not all of them are kosher . note that even the fda warns that species substitution is a very serious problem .\nreprinted with permission of the orthodox union . to find out about non - kosher fish , see the non - kosher fish list .\nanchovies ( family engraulidae ) . including : european anchovy ( engraulis encrasciolus ) , north of california anchovy br ( engraulis mordax ) .\nangelfishes and butterfly fishes ( family chaetodontidae ) . including : angelfishes ( holacanthus species , pomacanthus species ) .\natlantic pomfret or ray ' s bream ( brama racudas and kakus ( sphyraena species ) .\nbigeyes ( family priacanthidae ) . including : bigeyes or aweoweos ( priacanthus species ) .\ncarps and minnows ( family cyprinidae ) , including : the carp , leather carp , mirror carp ( cyprinus carpio ) ; crucian carp ( carassius carassius ) ; goldfish ( carassius auratus ) ; tench ( tinca tinca ) ; splittail ( pogonichthys macrolepidotus ) ; squawfishes ( ptychocheilus species ) ; scramento backfish or hardhead ( orthodon microlepidotus ) ; freshwater breams ( abramis species , blicca species ) ; roach ( rutilus rutilus ) .\ncaviar ( must be from a kosher fish ) see : trouts and whitefishes ( salmon ) , lumpsuckers ( non kosher ) , sturgeons ( non kosher ) .\ncobia , cabio , or black bonito ( rachycentron canadum ) cod , cultus , black , blue , or ling . see : greenlings , sablefish\ncodfishes ( family gadidae ) , including : cod ( gadus morhua ) , haddock ( melanogrammus aegiefinus ) ; pacific cod ( gadus macrocephalus ) ; pollock , saithe , or coalfish ( pollachius virens ) ; walleye pollock ( theragra chalcogramma ) ; hakes ( urophycis species ) ; whiting ( meriangiu meriangus ) ; blue whiting or poutassou ( micromesistius poutassou ) ; tomcods or frostfishes ( microgradus species ) ; note . some cods are not - kosher ; see : freshwater cod .\ndamselfishes ( family pomacentridae ) . including : blacksmith ( chromis punctipinnis ) ; garibaldi ( hypsypops rubicunda ) .\ndolphin fishes or mahimahis ( coryphaena species ) not to be confused with the mammal called dolphin or porpoise , which is non kosher .\ndrums and croakers ( family sciaenidae ) , including : seatrouts and carvinas ( cynoscion species ) ; weakfish ( cynoscion nebulosus ) ; white seabass ( cynoscion nobillis ) ; croakers ( micropogon species , bairdiella species , odontoscion species ) ; silver perch ( bairdiella chyrsura ) ; white or king croaker ( genyonemus lineatus ) ; black croaker ( cheilottena saturnum ) ; spotfin croaker ( roncadorstearnsi ) ; yellowfin croaker ( umbrinaroncador ) ; drums ( pogonias species , stellifer species , umbrina species ) ; red drum or channel bass ( sciaenops ocallata ) ; freshwater drum ( aplodinotus grunniens ) ; kingfishes or king whitings ( menticirrhus species ) ; california corbina ( menticirrhus undulatus ) ; spot or lafayette ( leiostomus xanthurus ) ; queenfish ( seriphus politus ) ; cubbyu or ribbon fish ( equetus umbrosus ) .\nflyingfishes and halfbeaks ( family exocoetidae ) ; flyingfishes ( cypselurus species , and others ) ; ballyhoo or balao ( hemiramphus species ) .\ngoatfishes or surmullets ( family mullidae ) . including : goatfishes ( mullus species , pseudupeneus species ) ; wekes or goatfishes ( mulloidichthys species , upeneus species ) ; kumu ( parupeneus species ) ; red mullet ( mullus surmuletus ) .\ngreenlings ( family hexagrammidae ) , including : greenlings ( hexagrammos species ) ; kelp greenling or seatrout ( hexagrammos decagrammus ) ; lingcod , cultus orblue cod ( ophiodonelongatus ) ; atkamackerel ( pleurogrammus monopterygius ) .\ngrunts ( family pomadasyldae ) , including ; grunts ( haemulon species , pomadasys species ) ; margate ( haemulon album ) ; tomtate ( haemulon aurolineattum ) ; cottonwick ( haemulon melanurum ) ; sailors choice ( haemulon parral ) ; porkfish ( anisotremus virginicus ) ; black margate ( anisotremus surinamensis ) ; sargo ( anisotremus davidsoni ) ; pigfish ( orthopristis chrysoptera ) .\njacks and pompanos ( family charangidae ) including : pompanos , palometas , and permits ( trachionotus species ) ; amberjacks and yellowtails ( seriola species ) ; california yellowtail ( seriola dorsalls ) ; scads and cigarfish ( decapterus species , selar species , trachurus species ) ; jack mackerel or horse mackerel ( trachurus symmetricus ) ; jacks and uluas ( caranx species , carangoides species ) ; crevalles ( caranx species ) ; blue runner ( caranx crysos ) ; rainbow runner ( elagatis bipinnulata ) ; moonfishes ( vomer species ) ; lookdown ( selene vomer ) ; leatherback or lae ( scomberoides sanctipetri ) ; but not including : leatherjacket ( oligoplites saurus ) .\nmackerels and tunas ( family scombridae ) , including : mackerels ( scomber species , scomberomorus species , auxis species ) ; spanish mackerels , cero , and sierra ( scomberomorus species ) ; king mackerel or kingfish ( scomberomorus cavalla ) ; bonitos ( sarda species ) ; wahoo ( acanthocybius solanderi ) ; tunas ( thunnus species , euthynnus species ) ; skipjack tunas ( euthynnus or katsuwonus species ) ; albacore ( thunnus alalunga ) but not including : snake mackerels .\nporgies and sea breams ( family sparidae ) . including : porgies ( calamus species , diplodus species , pagrus species ) ; scup ( stenotomus chrysops ) ; pinfish ( lagodon rhomboides ) ; sheepshead ( archosargus probatocephalus )\nsoles ( family soleidae ) , including : sole or true sole ( solea solea ) ; lined sole ( achirus lineatus ) ; hogchoker ( trinectes maculatus ) .\nsquirrelfishes ( family holocentridae ) , including : squirrelfishes ( holocentrus species ) ; menpachii ( myripristis species ) .\nsuckers ( family catostomidae ) . including : buffalo fishes ( ictiobus species ) ; suckers ( catostomus species , moxostoma species ) ; quillbacks or carpsuckers ( carpiodes species )\nsunfishes ( family centrarchidae ) . including : freshwater basses ( micropterus species ) ; largemouth bass ( microterus salmoides ) ; smallmouth bass ( micropterus dolomieui ) ; sunfishes ( lepomis species ) ; bluegill ( lepomis macrochirus ) ; warmouth ( lepomis macrochirus ) ; rock bass or red eye ( ambloplites rupestris ) ; crappies or calico basses ( pomoxis species )\nsurfperches ( famly embiotocidae ) . including : surfperches ( amphistichus species , hyperprosopon species ) ; seaperches ( embiotoca species , hypsurus species , phanerodon species , rhacochilus species ) ; blackperth ( embiotoca jacksoni ) ; pile perch ( rhacochilus vacca ) ; shiner perch ( cymatogaster aggregata ) .\nsurgeonfishes ( family acanthuridae ) . including : surgeonfishes and tangs ( acanthurus species , zebrasoma species ) ; doctorfish ( acanthurus chirugus ) ; unicornfishes or kalas ( naso species ) .\ntemperate basses ( family percichthyidae ) . including : striped bass or rockfish ( morone saxatillis ) ; yellow bass ( morone mississippiensis ) ; white bass ( morojne chrysops ) ; white perch ( morone americana ) ; giant california sea bass ( stereolepis gigas )\n\u00a9 copyright , all rights reserved . if you enjoyed this article , we encourage you to distribute it further , provided that you comply with urltoken ' s copyright policy .\npompano and pomfret are not kosher because they have no scale . i really enjoy these fishes , but is there a way around this ? reply\nif there is no scale then it is not kosher . there isn ' t really any way around this . reply\nwe need a list , like this , for kosher birds . . . according to each tradition . and a list of kosher birds without tradition . i think the time has come to know also this . reply\nwhat about adding lionfish ( pterois ) to your list ? here in florida people are now encouraged to eat them because they are an invasive species now damaging the ecology . lionfish are those beautiful tiger striped fish that many people keep in aquariums . they belong to the scorpaeniformes order . thanks . reply\nin response to orange roughy being a bottom feeder . this is actually quite innacurate . orange roughy is now in extremely short supply all over the world and is becoming an endangered species . orange roughy has both fins and scales . reply\nas has been mentioned here several times , if the fish has fins and scales , then it is kosher . the scales need to be able to be removed without tearing the skin , and it must be viewed whole by the consumer . anything processed , filleted , and pre - packaged without the skin , must be certified kosher . reply\ni ' ve been asking the same question , would like to know why there is no definitive answer . reply\nas has been mentioned several times , not all fish is listed here as there are hundreds of species around the world , many that are not known to the experts . if a fish is not listed here , then one must determine on their own whether or not it is kosher , by checking if the scales can be removed without tearing the skin . reply\norange roughy is fished almost exclusively by bottom trawling . it spends most of it ' s life as a\nbottom feeder\nwhich are not kosher . reply\nbottom feeding is not connected to kosher status . it ' s a question of fins and scales . bottom feeders that have fins and scales are kosher . top - and middle - feeders that have no scales are not kosher . reply\nthe criteria given in the torah for kosher fish are fins and scales . carp fits both of these criteria and are kosher .\ni ' m sorry if i seem ignorant . i am not hebrew just like to teach my child of world cultures . i purchased a bottle of manischewits fishlets . i guess gefilte fish . i was reading the ingredients and it is seems carp is the top ingrediant . i was always under the assumption that bottom feeders were not kosher , like catfish and carp ? can any one explain this to me ? reply\nnope . the rules are that it have fins ( all true fish have these ) and have removable scales . there are also specific prohibitions against fish that look like snakes . none of these are problems for any number of bottom feeders such as carp and flounder . this pretty much means that all kosher fish are also hallal , but not all hallal fish are kosher . last i heard , no christian sects regulate which fish can be eaten . reply\ni love it salted and after soaking and rinsing i take the bones out and flake the fish meat off into lots of saut\u00e9ed onions , bell pepper and cook it down in a thick tomato sauce . i love it for breakfast . fresh cod is also delicious . very meaty .\ni think i ' ll have cod this coming shabbos = = just for the halibut . get it ? halibut ? for the halibut ? c ' mon guys ! well i think it ' s funny . : - d\nsome varieties of cod are kosher and some are not . if you search the list above you will find the list of kosher ones .\nis bronzini kosher ? i don ' t see it on either kosher or non - kosher list .\nwrasses ( the family labridae ) , are the most abundant and conspicuous fishes on tropical reefs around the world . wrasses also comprise an important element of the coldwater fish population on temperate reefs . they are second largest family of marine fishes and the third largest family in the\norder , containing approximately 60 genera and roughly 500 species . wrasses appear in a diverse range of colors , shapes , and sizes , often varying considerably within individual species ( see physical description ) . this morphological diversity is matched by the wide variety of prey consumed . wrasses fill the roles of piscivores , zooplanktivores , molluscivores , herbivores , planktivores , polychaete predators , decapod crab predators , and coral predators , as well as many others ( see food habits ) . many wrasses are organized into harem - based social systems and hermaphroditism is common ( see reproduction : mating systems ) . finally , as suggested by their diverse food habits , wrasses fill many important ecological roles on reefs of tropical and temperate regions around the world ."]}
{"id": 1327, "summary": [{"text": "the barred seabass ( centrarchops chapini ) is a species of cavebass native to the coastal waters of the democratic republic of the congo and angola .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this fish can be found over areas of sand and rock at depths from 20 to 40 m ( 66 to 131 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species grows to 30.7 cm ( 12.1 in ) in total length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is important to local commercial fisheries .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "this species is the only known member of the genus centrarchops . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "barred seabass", "paragraphs": ["rockfish cabezon kelp and rock greenlings lingcod california scorpionfish ( a . k . a . sculpin ) california sheephead ocean whitefish leopard shark soupfin shark and spiny dogfish other federally managed groundfish california grunion sharks ( state - managed ) pacific sanddab and other flatfish petrale sole and starry flounder kelp bass , barred sand bass , spotted sand bass california halibut white seabass surfperch tunas yellowtail rock crab mussels other species\namong the finfish species , the most important resource is the barred seabass ( paralabrax nebulifer ) , which can be captured and marketed throughout the year and is one of the predictable fisheries in punta abreojos ( aggregation areas for breeding and feeding ) . the yellowtail ( seriola lalandi ) , the white seabass ( atractoscion nobilis ) , whitefish ( caulolatilus pr\u00ednceps ) and halibut ( paralichthys californicus and p . woolmani ) are resources that , although they can be caught only certain months of the year , generate significant profits . for all resources included in the database , we can observe an increasing trend in catches from 2007 onwards .\nthe fisheries for kelp bass , barred sand bass , and spotted sand bass ( pdf ) ( paralabrax species ) remains open year - round . the daily bag and possession limit is five fish in any combination of species . the minimum size limit is 14 inches total length or 10 inches alternate length .\nthe recreational fishery for white seabass ( atractoscion nobilis ) remains open year - round . the daily bag and possession limit is three fish except that only one fish may be taken in waters south of point conception between march 15 and june 15 . the minimum size limit is 28 inches total length or 20 inches alternate length .\nalthough catch volumes for these species are considerable , the changes in activities and catches need to be evaluated to create management strategies that benefit the cooperative in the next few years without risking the the health of the fish population . with this objective in mind , we work with the cooperative of punta abreojos to analyze the use patterns of 40 fisheries resources . according to interviews with leaders and members of the cooperative , we categorized these resources in three main groups : cultural resources ( lobster and abalone ) : pioneering fisheries that drove the development of the community ; 2 ) target resources ( barred sandbass , yellowtail , white seabass , whitefish , and halibut ) : important resources because of their catch volumes and because they require a specific fishing method ; 3 ) complementary resources : ( finfish , sharks and rays , invertebrates ) : species caught as by - catch or in smaller quantities .\ngreek , kentron = sting + greek , archos = anus + greek , ops = appearance ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 20 - 40 m ( ref . 3589 ) . tropical ; 4\u00b0s - 14\u00b0s\neastern atlantic : known from the type which was taken at the mouth of the congo river , congo dem . rep . and several specimens reported from 9\u00b020 ' s , 1\u00b004 ' e and 8\u00b025 ' s , 13\u00b015 ' e ( off angola ) .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 30 . 7 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3589 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2683 )\nsmith , c . l . , 1990 . serranidae . p . 695 - 706 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 3589 )\n) : 19 . 9 - 21 . 2 , mean 20 . 7 ( based on 4 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 2500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01995 ( 0 . 00760 - 0 . 05241 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 78 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 \u00b10 . 2 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 16 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncarpenter , k . e . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , de bruyne , g . & de morais , l .\njustification : centrarchops chapini is a coastal species from gabon to angola . centrarchops chapini is rare in museum collections . centrarchops chapini is likely impacted by coastal development , water pollution and destructive fishing practices in parts of its range because of its coastal nature . however , these threats would be localized . there are no species specific conservation actions for centrarchops chapini , but its distribution may overlap marine protected areas . therefore , centrarchops chapini is listed as least concern .\ncentrarchops chapini is a coastal species that is only known from gabon to angola ( heemstra and heemstra 2004 , iwatsuki and russell 2006 ) .\ncentrarchops chapini is rare in museum collections with only three lots , each containing one specimen ( www . fishnet2 . net ) .\ncentrarchops chapini is demersal and found over sand and rock bottoms in coastal waters ( schneider 1990 ) . the maximum recorded total length ( tl ) is 30 cm ( schneider 1990 ) .\nthere are no known major threats to centrarchops chapini , however , due to its coastal nature , it may be impacted by coastal development , water pollution , or destructive fishing practices ( schneider 1990 ) . this species is a component of artisanal fisheries .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures for centrarchops chapini , but its distribution may overlap marine protected areas .\ncarpenter , k . e . , smith - vaniz , w . f . , de bruyne , g . & de morais , l . 2015 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n30 . 7 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3589 ) )\ndemersal ; marine ; depth range 20 - 40 m ( ref . 3589 )\ndepth : 20 - 40m . from 20 to 40 meters . habitat : demersal . found over sand and rock in coastal waters ( ref . 2683 ) .\n. this fish can be found over areas of sand and rock at depths from 20 to 40 m ( 66 to 131 ft ) . this species grows to 30 . 7 cm ( 12 . 1 in ) in\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2013 ) .\ncentrarchops chapini\nin fishbase . april 2013 version .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nkatja schulz added an association between\nvideo\nand\nopistognathus galapagensis allen & robertson , 1991\n.\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\npicture of centrarchops chapini has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial . original source : fishbase permission : some rights reserved\npunta abreojos is one of the most important fishing communities in terms of marine resource use and management in the north pacific in baja california sur ( 1 ) . this community , together with la bocana , bahia asuncion , bahia de tortugas , and the rest that make up the regional federation of cooperative fishing industry societies of baja california ( fedecoop in spanish ) , have improved in the management , production , and conservation of fisheries resources , and improved the socio - economic benefits that the fisheries provide ( 2 ) .\nthe cooperative society of fisheries production in punta abreojos is a success story in fisheries management and sustainable development in the mexican northwest . it has fishing concessions in an exclusive area , which covers 3 , 354 km2 . for 73 years , the lobster ( panulirus interruptus ) and the abalone ( haliotis fulgens and h . corrugata ) have been the most important resources , economically speaking . since the 1980s , the cooperative began to diversify the fisheries , especially finfish ( commercial fish ) , as a strategy to make up for the notable fall in abalone capture and at the same time to protect the lobster fishery .\nsince 2000 , the cooperative in punta abreojos has a rigorous control of the information on fish catches with the help of software specially designed for them . with this software , the visualization and interpretation of the fisheries data has been faster and more efficient for the managers , which can help the commercialization of the products and the administration of the cooperative . through our collaboration with the cooperative , we analyzed a database of fisheries records from 2001 to 2012 , which included day , month , year , ship , resource , capture volume ( kg ) , price per kilogram , and direct profit ( pesos ) for fisherman for catch volume .\nmajor findings cultural resources such as lobster ( panulirus interruptus and p . inflatus ) and abalone ( haliotis fulgens and h . corrugata ) play an important role in the economy of punta abreojos because they are resources with international demand and a high commercial value . they are exported to countries such as singapore , china , japan , usa , and france . catch volumes for these resources have remained stable since strict management measures exist ( concession , catch quotas , minimum catch sizes , international eco - certifications ) . target and complementary resources , 18 species of finfish , eight species of elasmobranchs , and seven species of invertebrates , generate income to fishermen and the cooperative during the no - fishing periods for cultural resources .\ntogether , cultural , objective , and complementary resources make up a fishery dynamic guaranteeing financial profits throughout the entire year . through these resources , the cooperative generates sufficient capital to encourage and take care of their workers , people in the community , and former fishermen members ( pensioners ) , as well as have a contingency fund ( for emergencies ) .\nhaving updated fish databases helps to clearly describe the development of fisheries in a given site . these results represent a base line of direct gains for the fishermen of the cooperative , helping the cooperative of punta abreojos to manage their fishing activities and ensure responsible fishing in the long run . it also helps researchers understand the fishery dynamics in a location from a unique perspective . more importantly , this type of fisheries monitoring in places like punta abreojos , where fishing is the main source of jobs and income , is a tool so that the cooperative can continue to work and enable the economic welfare of the whole community .\n* centro para la biodiversidad marina y la conservaci\u00f3n a . c . , la paz b . c . s . * * university of texas austin marine science institute + instituto polit\u00e9cnico nacional , ciidir unidad oaxaca \u00b1 scripps institution of oceanography , uc san diego\nwe thank the cooperative society of fishing production of punta abreojos ( sociedad cooperativa de producci\u00f3n pesquera punta abreojos s . c . de r . l . ) , as well as the fishermen of punta abreojos , the community team that participates in and supports the gcmp . thank you to the fondo mexicano para la conservaci\u00f3n de la naturaleza a . c . , david & lucile packard foundation , walton family foundation and the helmsley trust foundation .\nj . jos\u00e9 cota - nieto , brad erisman , marcia moreno - baez , gustavo hinojosa - arango , octavio aburto - oropeza ( 2015 ) : fisheries driving development in punta abreojos , mexico . datamares . interactiveresource . urltoken\n1 . ram\u00edrez - rodr\u00edguez m . and ojeda - ru\u00edz m . a . ( 2011 ) . spatial management of small - scale fisheries on the west coast of baja california sur , mexico . marine policy , doi : 10 . 1016 / j . marpol . 2011 . 04 . 03 2 . ponce - d\u00edaz g . , weisman w . and mccay b . ( 2009 ) . co - responsibility and participation in fisheries management in mexico : lessons from baja california sur . fisheries and conservation . vol . 1 , num . 1 3 . cota - nieto j . j . ( 2010 ) . descripci\u00f3n hist\u00f3rica y reciente de las pesquer\u00edas artesanales de punta abreojos b . c . s . , m\u00e9xico . periodo 2000 - 2007 . tesis licenciatura . aicm . uabcs . 67 pp . disponible urltoken\n34\u00b027 n . latitude ( point conception , santa barbara county ) to the u . s . - mexico border\nsee the california saltwater sport fishing regulations booklet for complete regulation information , including regulations for species not covered here .\nspiny lobster ocean salmon giant sea bass ( a . k . a . black sea bass ) red abalone\n( 2 per person ) , also included in the 10 fish rcg complex aggregate limit .\nrockfish are part of a group of fish known as groundfish , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for cabezon ( pdf ) ( scorpaenichthys marmoratus ) is open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . the fishery is open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . cabezon may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the daily bag and possession limit is 3 fish within the 10 fish rcg complex aggregate limit ( includes all species of rockfish , cabezon and greenlings ) , with a minimum size limit of 15 inches total length .\nthe cabezon fishery is managed under both state and federal groundfish management plans . the state manages this fishery in concert with the federally managed groundfish group , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for kelp and rock greenlings ( pdf ) ( hexagrammos spp . ) is open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . these fisheries are open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . greenlings may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the daily bag and possession limit is 10 fish within the 10 fish rcg complex aggregate limit ( includes all species of rockfish , cabezon and greenlings ) , with a minimum size limit of 12 inches total length .\nthe kelp greenling fishery is managed under both state and federal groundfish management plans , while the rock greenling fishery is managed under california\u2019s nearshore fishery management plan . althouga federally managed groundfish species , rock greenlings are often encountered by fishermen targeting federally managed groundfish . thus , the rock greenling fishery s managed in concert with the federally managed groundfish group , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for lingcod ( pdf ) ( ophiodon elongatus ) is open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . the fishery is open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . lingcod may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the daily bag and possession limit is 2 fish , with a minimum size limit of 22 inches total length .\nthe lingcod is part of a group of fish known as groundfish , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for california scorpionfish ( pdf ) ( scorpaena guttata ) is open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . the fishery is open to boat - based anglers from january 1 , 2018 through august 31 , 2018 . california scorpionfish may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the daily bag and possession limit is 5 fish with a minimum size limit of 10 inches total length .\nthe california scorpionfish is part of a group of fish known as groundfish , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for california sheephead ( semicossyphus pulcher ) is open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . the fishery is open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . california sheephead may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the daily bag and possession limit is 5 fish , with a minimum size limit of 12 inches total length .\nthe california sheephead fishery is managed under california\u2019s nearshore fishery management plan . although not a federally managed groundfish species , california sheephead is often encountered by fishermen targeting federally managed groundfish . thus , california sheephead is managed in concert with the federally managed groundfish group , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for ocean whitefish ( caulolatilus princeps ) is open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . the fishery is open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . ocean whitefish may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the daily bag and possession limit is 10 fish , with no minimum size limit .\nthe ocean whitefish fishery is managed by the state of california . although not a federally managed groundfish species , ocean whitefish are often encountered by fishermen targeting federally managed groundfish . thus , the ocean whitefish fishery is managed in concert with the federally managed groundfish group , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fishery for leopard shark ( pdf ) ( triakis semifasciata ) is open year - round to shore - based anglers and divers . the fishery inside san diego bay , mission bay , newport bay and alamitos bay is open year - round to boat - based anglers . outside of the above - mentioned embayments , the fishery is open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . leopard sharks may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep ( except in the cowcod conservation areas - see below ) . the daily bag and possession limit is 3 fish with a minimum size limit of 36 inches total length .\nthe leopard shark is part of a group of fish known as groundfish , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fisheries for soupfin shark ( pdf ) ( galeorhinus zyopterus ) and spiny dogfish ( squalus acanthias ) are open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . these fisheries are open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . these species may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . the bag and possession limit for soupfin shark is one fish with no minimum size limit . the daily bag and possession limit for spiny dogfish is 10 fish within the 20 - fish general bag limit , and there is no minimum size limit .\nsoupfin shark and spiny dogfish are part of a group of recommends that consumers not eat the viscera ( internal organs ( guts ) , also known as\ncrab butter\n) of crabs caught north of the mendocino - humboldt county urltoken known as groundfish , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fisheries for all other federally managed groundfish species are open year - round to divers and shore - based anglers . these fisheries are open to boat - based anglers from march 1 , 2018 through december 31 , 2018 . these species may only be taken or possessed in waters less than 360 feet ( 60 fathoms ) deep . refer to the california ocean sport fishing regulations for size limits , bag limits and other regulations pertaining to these species .\nthe groundfish group includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nopen year - round , except that white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) may not be taken or possessed at any time . the bag limits for sixgill shark ( hexanchus griseus ) and sevengill shark ( pdf ) ( notorynchus cepedianus ) allow take of one fish per day with no size limit . the bag limits for shortfin mako shark ( isurus oxyrinchus ) , thresher shark ( alopias vulpinus ) , and blue shark ( prionace glauca ) allow take of two fish per day with no size limit .\nthe recreational fishery is open year - round to all anglers and divers for the following species : pacific sanddab ( pdf ) ( citharichthys sordidus ) , butter sole ( isopsetta isolepis ) , curlfin sole ( pleuronichthys decurrens ) , flathead sole ( hippoglossoides elassodon ) , rex sole ( pdf ) ( glyptocephalus zachirus ) , rock sole ( lepidopsetta bilineata ) , and sand sole ( psettichthys melanostictus ) . refer to the california ocean sport fishing regulations for size limits , bag limits and other regulations pertaining to these species .\npacific sanddab and other flatfish are part of a group of fish known as groundfish , which includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) . view a summary of groundfish regulations .\nthe recreational fisheries for petrale sole ( eopsetta jordani ) and starry flounder ( platichthys stellatus ) are open year - round to all anglers and divers . there are no depth restrictions or bag limits for petrale sole or starry flounder . refer to the california ocean sport fishing regulations for complete sport fishing regulations information .\nwhich includes over 90 species that live on or near the bottom of the ocean ( with a few exceptions ) .\nthe recreational fishery for california halibut ( paralichthys californicus ) remains open year - round . the daily bag and possession limit is five fish south of point sur , monterey county . the minimum size limit is 22 inches total length .\nthe recreational fishery for surfperch ( pdf ) ( family embiotocidae ) is open year - round . the daily bag and possession limit is 20 fish in combination of all species ( except shiner perch ) , with not more than 10 fish of any one species . shiner perch ( cymatogaster aggregata ) have a separate bag and possession limit of 20 fish . redtail surfperch ( amphistichus rhodoterus ) have a minimum size limit of 10\u00bd inches total length .\nthe recreational fishery for california grunion ( leuresthes tenuis ) is open from june 1 , 2018 through march 31 , 2019 . grunion may only be taken by hand , and no holes may be dug in the beach to entrap them . information about grunion , including a grunion run schedule , can be found on the amazing grunion web page .\nthe recreational fishery for tunas is open year - round . refer to the california saltwater sport fishing regulations booklet for bag limits , possession limits , fillet procedures on vessels , and other regulations pertaining to these species .\nthe fishery for yellowtail ( seriola lalandi ) remains open year - round . the daily bag and possession limit is ten fish . the minimum size limit is 24 inches fork length , except that up to five fish less than 24 inches fork length may be taken or possessed .\nthe recreational fishery for all rock crab species , including rock crab ( cancer antennarius ) , yellow crab ( cancer anthonyi ) and red crab ( cancer productus ) is open statewide , year - round . the daily bag limit is 35 crab , and the minimum size limit is 4 inches . review crab measurement methods ( pdf ) and the current saltwater sport fishing regulations booklet for further rock crab fishing information .\nnote : the california department of public health has issued its annual quarantine on the collection of mussels intended for human consumption . please call the california department of public health ' s toll - free shellfish information line at ( 800 ) 553 - 4133 for the latest information .\nthe recreational season for california sea mussel ( pdf ) ( mytilus californianus ) and bay mussel ( mytilus trossulus ) remains open year - round . currently mussels should only be collected for non - consumptive uses ( for example , fish bait ) . the daily bag and possession limit is 10 pounds ( in the shell ) of california sea mussels and bay mussels in combination .\nnote that the california department of public health monitors and annually quarantines mussels to prevent human cases of paralytic shellfish poisoning and domoic acid poisoning ; however , warnings advising consumers not to eat recreationally taken shellfish may be issued at any time . the annual quarantine is usually in effect from may through october , and applies only to sport - harvested mussels intended for human consumption . for updated information on warnings , advisories , and quarantines concerning naturally - occurring shellfish toxins , call the california department of public health ' s shellfish biotoxin information line at ( 510 ) 412 - 4643 or toll - free at ( 800 ) 553 - 4133 . you can also review cdfw ' s shellfish health advisories web page .\nsee the california ocean sport fishing regulations booklet for complete regulations , including regulations for species not covered here .\nthe recreational fishery for spiny lobster ( pdf ) ( panulirus interruptus ) is closed as of march 22 , 2018 . the fishery is expected to reopen on september 29 , 2018 .\nthe recreational fishery for ocean salmon ( pdf ) is closed as of july 3 , 2018 . the season will remain closed for the rest of the year . ocean salmon seasons for 2019 will be adopted at the pacific fishery management council meeting in march and / or april , 2019 . for more ocean salmon fishery information , please visit the ocean salmon seasons web page .\nthe recreational fishery for giant sea bass ( pdf ) ( stereolepis gigas ) is closed year - round .\nthe recreational fishery for red abalone ( pdf ) ( haliotis rufescens ) is closed year - round south of the mouth of san francisco bay . for more information , visit the invertebrate management project pages .\nboat - based anglers are fishermen angling from boats or vessels of any size or any other type of floating object , including kayaks and float tubes .\nshore - based anglers are fishermen that fish from beaches , banks , piers , jetties , breakwaters , docks and other manmade objects connected to the shore . no vessel or watercraft ( motorized or non - motorized ) may be used to assist in taking or possessing federally - managed groundfish species , greenlings of the genus hexagrammos , ocean whitefish , or california sheephead while angling from shore .\ndivers are scuba or free divers with or without spearfishing gear , entering the water either from the shore or from a boat or other floating object . except for spearfishing gear , all other types of fishing gear are prohibited aboard a vessel or non - motorized watercraft while diving or spearfishing for the purpose of retaining federally managed groundfish species , greenlings of the genus hexagrammos , ocean whitefish , and california sheephead during a seasonal closure for boat - based anglers .\nthe recreational fisheries for pacific halibut and federally managed groundfish species , greenlings of the genus hexagrammos , ocean whitefish , and california sheephead may close early if the annual harvest guideline for any one specie or species group is met or is expected to be met prior to the end of the year . check this website regularly or call the recreational groundfish fishing regulations hotline ( ( 831 ) 649 - 2801 ) for the latest information .\nfederally managed groundfish species , greenlings of the genus hexagrammos , ocean whitefish , and california sheephead may be possessed aboard vessels that are transiting waters deeper than the groundfish management area depth limit only when all fishing gear is stowed .\nin addition to the fishing regulations presented here ( and in california code of regulations and california fish and game code ) , marine protected area ( mpa ) regulations may further restrict or prohibit sport fishing within mpas . mpa regulations , maps , and coordinates are available on the cdfw website , in the current ocean sport fishing regulations booklet , and at your local cdfw office . you can also pick up an mpa guide or brochure at a location near you . information about california mpas is also available on the cdfw mpa mobile website .\npoint conception to the u . s . - mexico border note : map shows state and federal marine protected areas .\nthis tool lets you describe a concept and get back a list of words and phrases related to that concept . your description can be anything at all : a single word , a few words , or even a whole sentence . type in your description and hit enter ( or select a word that shows up in the autocomplete preview ) to see the related words .\n. if you ' re really fond of the old system , or if you have javascript disabled in your browser , you can still access version 1 . 0\nor click on the link that says\ntry your query on the old system\nthat appears at the very bottom of the results page .\n, which in turn uses several linguistic resources described in the\ndata sources\nsection on that page .\nfor some types of searches only the first result or the first few results are likely to be useful . we urge you to click on a word to check its definition before using it in your oscars acceptance speech or honors thesis .\nif you get back nothing but junk , try restating your query so that it ' s just two or three simple words . some queries are very difficult for our system . that ' s because not every dictionary indexed by onelook is used by the reverse dictionary , and our search algorithm still needs a lot of work . we ' re continually adding more references and improving the precision of the system .\n) into any onelook search box , followed by your concept . if you put a\nbefore the colon , your results will be filtered by that pattern . ( this is particularly useful for crossword puzzle help , as shown in the examples above . )"]}
{"id": 1369, "summary": [{"text": "the bolivian red howler ( alouatta sara ) is a species of howler monkey , a type of new world monkey , endemic to bolivia .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it can be found in rain forests , including riverine and seasonally flooded forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "bolivian red howler", "paragraphs": ["the bolivian red howler monkey ( alouatta sara ) is a species of howler monkey endemic to bolivia .\nphoto : \u201cbolivian red howler - mono aullador ( alouatta sara ) . photo rmariaca . \u201d\na young / baby of a bolivian red howler monkey is called a ' infant ' . a bolivian red howler monkey group is called a ' troop , barrel , tribe or cartload ' .\nthe bolivian red howler , bolivian red howling monkey is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nbolivian red howler - mono aullador ( alouatta sara ) . photo rmariaca . - chalalan ecolodge , madidi national park\nspecies : a . macconnelli ( guyanan red howler ) , a . belzebul ( red - handed howler ) , a . pigra ( black howler ) , a . caraya ( black - and - gold howler ) , a . coibensis ( coiba island howler ) , a . palliata ( mantled howler ) , a . guariba ( red - and - black howler ) , a . nigerrima ( amazon black howler ) , a . sara ( bolivian red howler ) , a . seniculus ( red howler )\nbolivian red howler - mono aullador ( alouatta sara ) . photo rmariaca . - chalalan ecolodge , madidi national park - tripadvisor\nan adult male bolivian red howler monkey ( alouatta sara ) roaring ( copyright la senda verde animal refuge , bolivia , used with permission ) .\nthe guyanan red howler monkey ( alouatta macconnelli ) is a species of howler monkey native to guyana , trinidad , french guiana and brazil .\nbolivian titi monkeys may play a part in drawing tourists to forested areas of bolivia .\nthe red - handed howler monkey ( alouatta belzebul ) is a species of howler monkey endemic to brazil . this monkey is usually entirely black , however , in some regions females can have red feet and tail tip .\nbolivian titi monkeys inhabit riparian zones and gallery forests near swampy grasslands and other open areas .\nbecause they are frugivores , bolivian titi monkeys may play a small role in seed dispersal .\nred howler monkeys feed mostly on leaves , although they also enjoy eating nuts , seeds , fruit and flowers .\nthe hindgut contains bacteria that digest leaves and makes up a third of the venezuelan red howler\u2019s total body volume .\nwhile the coiba island howler is usually considered a separate species , some sources suggest that it ' s a subspecies of the mantled howler . similarly , some sources consider the ursine howler a subspecies of the venezuelan red howler and tag its scientific name as\nthe venezuelan red howler monkey ( alouatta seniculus ) is a south american species of howler monkey found in colombia , venezuela , trinidad , guyana , french guiana , brazil , ecuador , peru and bolivia . the venezuelan red howler monkey lives in groups of 3 to 9 individuals .\nall these factors together have resulted in a significant decline in their population . the maranh\u00e3o red - handed howler and guatemalan black howler have now been enlisted as endangered species by the iucn , while the mexican howler (\na 3d animation of the vocal tract morphology of an adult male black - and - gold howler monkey ( alouatta caraya ) , an adult male bolivian red howler monkey ( alouatta sara ) , and an adult male black - headed spider monkey ( ateles fusciceps ) . the hyoid bone is shown in red and the thyroid cartilage shown in green .\nthe amazon black howler monkey ( alouatta nigerrima ) is a species of howler monkey endemic to brazil .\nlike other species of howler monkeys , red howler monkey diets are highly folivorous . their day ranges are similarly short , and their home ranges similarly small compared to other atelidae genera .\nred howler monkeys live in relatively large social groups , consisting of approximately 10 individuals , with only one or perhaps two of the individuals being males .\ncrockett , c . m . and rudran , r . 1987 . red howler monkey birth data . ii : interannual , habitat , and sex comparisons .\nhave the widest geographical distribution of all the new world primates . red howler monkeys range throughout the northern half of south america , from colombia to bolivia .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - colombian red howler monkey ( alouatta seniculus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - colombian red howler monkey ( alouatta seniculus )\ntitle =\narkive species - colombian red howler monkey ( alouatta seniculus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhas also been observed . bolivian titis are have a cryptic coloration , helping them to blend in with their surroundings and avoid predation .\na skull , mandible and hyoid bone of a red howler monkey , showing the enormous size of the hyoid relative to body size . credit : copyright jacob dunn .\nthe coiba island howler monkey ( alouatta coibensis ) is a species of howler monkey endemic to panama . although the coiba island howler is generally recognized as a separate species , mitochondrial dna testing is inconclusive as to whether it is actually a subspecies of the mantled howler .\nlike other new world monkeys , the venezuelan red howler ' s dental formula ( maxilla and mandible ) is two incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars .\ncanelo , male red howler who was rescued from animal trafficking lives within send verde animal refuge and eco lodge , bolivia . he howls to identify this is his territory . 2012\nthe brown howler monkey ( alouatta guariba ) also known as brown howling monkey is a species of howler monkey that lives in argentina and brazil . the brown howler monkey lives in groups of 2 to 11 individuals .\nred howler monkeys are heavily hunted and their territories have been reduced by human encroachment . a subspecies , the trinidad howling monkey ( alouatta seniculus insulanus ) is listed as vulnerable by the iucn .\nalthough populations are declining , bolivian titi monkeys are listed by the iucn as a species of least concern . they have a relatively wide range and a slowly declining population . bolivian titi monkeys have proven fairly adaptable , and they have a low number of natural predators . their main threat is attributed to habitat loss due to agriculture . bolivian titi monkeys are one of three primate species that survive within and around the borders of cities and rural human establishments in this region .\nthe guatemalan black howler is the largest of the 15 recognized howler species , measuring around 20 - 25 inches in length and weighing up to 25 lbs .\nthe guatemalan black howler monkey ( alouatta pigra ) is a species of howler monkey from central america . it is found in belize , guatemala and mexico .\n\u2014\u2014 .\nreproductive success increases with degree of kinship in cooperative coalitions of female red howler monkeys ( alouatta seniculus ) .\nbehavioral ecology and sociobiology 48 ( 2000 ) : 253 - 267 .\nminezawa . m . , harada , m . , jordan , o . c . and valdivia borda , c . j . ( 1986 ) .\ncytogenetics of the bolivian endemic red howler monkeys ( alouatta seniculus sara ) : accessory chromosomes and y - autosome translocation related numerical variations\n. kyoto university overseas research reports of new world monkeys 5 : 7\u201316 .\n) - - the subspecies of the mantled howler and brown howler - - have been declared critically endangered , with only a few individuals left in the wild .\nblack howler monkey from belize zoo ( photos , video and audio included ) .\n( a and b ) group chorus of ( a ) unimale venezuelan red howler monkeys , alouatta seniculus ( copyright carolyn m . crockett ) , and ( b ) multimale - multifemale black and gold howler monkeys , alouatta caraya ( black , males ; gold , females ; copyright mariana ra\u00f1o ) .\nthe oldest bolivian titi in captivity reached 24 . 8 years of age . little information is available regarding the lifespan of this species in the wild . other members of the genus\nthe home range of bolivian titis averages 0 . 005 to 0 . 14 km ^ 2 , while their day range averages between 0 . 5 and 1 . 5 km .\nclutton - brock t . h . , albon s . d . the roaring of red deer and the evolution of honest advertisement .\na young / baby of a mantled howler monkey is called a ' infant ' . a mantled howler monkey group is called a ' troop , barrel , tribe or cartload ' .\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nreby d . , mccomb k . anatomical constraints generate honesty : acoustic cues to age and weight in the roars of red deer stags .\nthe black howler monkeys life span is up to 20 years , however , more commonly 15 years in the wild . the black howler monkey is also found in the rainforests of guyana .\nthe golden - mantled howling monkey , mantled howler monkey is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nthe red howler monkey is found in the countries of bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , french guiana , guyana , peru , suriname , and venezuela . this species lives in secondary , gallery , swamp , and savanna forest habitats .\nwhen a troop of howler monkeys yell , they can be heard for up to three miles .\nsuch that howler monkeys could spend the majority of their adult lives in association with unrelated monkeys .\nare primarily folivorous . leaves are low in nutrients and sugars in comparison with other food choices , and red howler monkeys have two large sections in their hindgut which contain the bacteria needed to digest the cellulose in leaves . this change in anatomy results in a large gut that occupies one - third of their total body volume . in addition , their extremely deep lower jaw bones aid red howlers in chewing .\nhowler monkeys are also known to occasionally raid birds ' nests and chicken coops and consume the eggs .\na 3 - d laser surface scanning of a howler monkey hyoid bone . credit : copyright jacob dunn\nthe jawbone of the red howler monkey is large , especially the body of the mandible . the position of the foramen magnum is very posterior to make way for the expanded jaw and enlarged hyoid bone . howler monkeys also have an inflated bulla , which is the bony encasement of the middle ear . this makes them an exception among other new world monkeys .\npope , t . r .\nthe reproductive consequences of male cooperation in the red howler monkey : paternity exclusion in multi - male and single - male troops using genetic markers .\nbehavioral ecology and sociobiology 27 ( 1990 ) : 439 - 485 .\nmittermeier , r . a . , rylands , a . b . ( primate red list authority ) & hoffmann , m . ( global mammal assessment team )\nalong with collecting data on the average testes size across howler species , the researchers also used 3 - d laser scans to analyse the size of over 250 hyoids - finding a ten - fold variation from the smallest to the largest howler throat bone . the team also conducted in - depth acoustic analyses of a number of howler roars .\n( d ) schematic representation of the ct model . red , hyoid ; green , larynx ; pink , tongue ; dark gray , air sacs ; brown , palate .\nthe bright blue and red colors on a mandrill ' s face get brighter when they are excited . they also have pouches in their cheeks where they store food for snacks .\ndark red - maroon head , back , and limbs , with lighter , more golden sides . crown hair as runs forward to meet the forehead hair in a concave v .\nthis species is threatened by habitat loss due to agricultural development for soy and cattle ranching in the brazilian cerrado , soy in the bolivian chiquitano , and small - scale farms and cattle ranching in argentina . some subsistence hunting occurs across its range .\nbolivian titi monkeys may live in family groups of 2 to 7 members . although males exhibit some degree of leadership in these groups , no dominance hierarchy has been observed between sexes or among individuals . adult titi pairs remain close to each other throughout life and coordinate their activities so as to not spend a great amount of time physically apart . members of a mated pair often entwine their tails during sleep . bolivian titis generally sleep close to their group members in the vines of small branches .\n, along with other howler species , are hunted for food and are subject to commercial export ( nowak , 1991 ) .\nthey have lifespans of 15 to 20 years . howler species are dimorphic and can also be dichromatic ( i . e .\nin captivity , bolivian titi monkeys breed throughout the year . in the wild , a breeding season is predicted , perhaps in the spring preceding the rainy season in bolivia . in captivity , female titi monkeys give birth approximately one year after finding a mate . after a gestation period of about 18 weeks , females give birth to a single offspring , though twins are uncommon . although female bolivian titi monkeys reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age , the mean age of first birth is 4 years .\nbolivian titi monkeys are primarily frugivorous , and it is estimated that their diet consists of over 70 % fruit . they also eat leaves , seeds , and insects . much of the day is spent resting in order to digest their mostly herbivorous diet .\nthe chest and belly of bolivian titi monkeys is completely orange to brown - orange while the dorsal side and extremities range from grey to orange agouti in color . the tail may include black or grey coloring , and they have white tufts on their ears .\nred howler monkeys range throughout northwestern south america , including bolivia , brazil , colombia , ecuador , french guiana , guyana , peru , suriname , and venezuela , as well as the island of trinidad . they inhabit the canopy of tropical rainforests and tropical deciduous forests , and they especially like teak and cecropia trees .\nthe dental formula of bolivian titis , as with other titi monkeys , is 2 . 1 . 3 . 3 / 2 . 1 . 3 . 3 . compared to other platyrrhines , the canines of titi monkeys are relatively short and their molars are fairly simple .\nmale bolivian titi monkeys play a dominant role in the care of their young . although females nurse their offspring , males are the principal carriers and protectors of their young . during the first week of life , mother bolivian titi monkeys carry their infants only 20 % of the time , and after the first month , maternal contact is scarce . infants experience more stress and elevated heart rates when separated from their father than from their mother , with few exceptions . bollivian titi monkeys experience a stronger bond with their mate than with their offspring .\nfemale atelins typically mate with multiple partners , although the degree to which single males monopolize access to females and exclude other males from mating varies greatly . in multimale troops of red howler monkeys , the alpha male can account for 100 % of all fertilizations , resulting in the genetic equivalent of a single - male troop . in woolly monkeys\nthe red howler monkey consumes new leaves and fruit as the main part of the diet . flowers and insects are also sometimes eaten . this species , along with other members of its genus , have large salivary glands that help to break down the tannins in the leaves before they reach the gut ( milton , 1987 ) . this is a\n( c ) computed tomography surface models , showing the hyoid ( red ) and thyroid cartilage ( green ) . the left side of the mandible has been made transparent to make the hyoid bone fully visible .\nthe mantled howler monkey is native to colombia , costa rica , ecuador , honduras , guatemala , mexico , nicaragua and panama . the mantled howler monkey is among the most commonly seen and heard primates in many central american national parks , including manuel antonio , corcovado and soberania .\nmilton k . columbia university press ; 1980 . the foraging strategy of howler monkeys : a study of primate economics ; p . 165 .\nlike most new world monkeys , bolivian titis are diurnal , with daily activity lasting an average of 11 . 5 hours . titis wake early in the morning around sunrise and remain active until sunset . they generally divide the day into two main feeding times with a rest during midday .\npolygamous . alpha males have higher mating success than other males , and in multimale troops , the alpha male may account for 100 % of the fertilizations . births occur throughout the year , and birth intervals average just under two years . male red howler monkeys that takeover a troop have been reported to kill infants sired by the males they have ousted .\nreby d . , mccomb k . , cargnelutti b . , darwin c . , fitch w . t . , clutton - brock t . red deer stags use formants as assessment cues during intrasexual agonistic interactions .\nred howler monkeys have a muscular , prehensile tail that enables them to grasp branches or even swing from them . as the name suggests , they have reddish , silky fur all over except for their face and the underside of their tail . their arms and legs are long , and their hands are extremely strong and dexterous . males are larger than females .\nthe mantled howler monkey , ( alouatta palliata ) , or sometimes the golden - mantled howling monkey , is a species of howler monkey , a type of new world monkey , from central and south america . mantled howlers take their \u2018mantled\u2019 name from the long guard hairs on their sides .\nmore information : current biology , dunn et al . :\nevolutionary trade - off between vocal tract and testes dimensions in howler monkeys\nurltoken\na final point concerns species that appeared as consistent outliers in both df and f0 regressions . among primates , these species included the howler monkeys (\nhowler monkeys and spider monkeys ( atelidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nhas no special conservation status . however , red howlers have become rarer in some areas , most likely due to the destruction of their habitat . fortunately , they are still adundant in brazil ( nowak , 1991 ) .\nthe black howler monkey ( alouatta caraya ) is a species of howler monkey , from argentina , bolivia , brazil and paraguay . it is the southernmost member of the alouatta genus . the black howler monkey lives in groups of 3 to 19 individuals ( usually 7 to 9 ) . there are usually 1 \u2013 3 males for every 7 \u2013 9 females in a group . when mating , males and females within a single group pair off .\na ) . mri - based measurements indicated that howler monkey vocal folds are extremely long for an animal of their size ( 4 . 08 cm in\nhowler monkeys are by far the most folivorous , but the proportion of leaves in their diets varies greatly by habitat . sympatric species exhibit considerable overlap in diet , feeding on many of the same fruit , leaf , and flower species , sometimes from the same trees or lianas . there are interesting parallels in the proportion of fruits versus leaves in the annual diets of sympatric spider monkeys and howler monkeys , on the one hand , and those of sympatric muriquis and howler monkeys , on the other hand . in each pair , the howler monkeys are substantially more folivorous than either spider monkeys or muriquis .\nnamed for their vocalizations , the black howler monkey may be heard most often around sunrise . this \u2018dawn chorus\u2019 sounds much more like roaring than howling and it announces the howlers position as a means to avoiding conflict with other groups . the black howler monkeys call can be heard up to 5 kilometres away .\nin black howler monkeys , only the male members are actually black in color . the females , on the other hand , are pale yellowish - brown .\nhowler monkeys and spider monkeys ( atelidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nbody coat varies in color from yellow , to red , to black , with black hands and feet . cheek hairs stand out , and that hair on the top of the head forms a cowl that ends in a triangular crest over the brows .\nbut not all male howler monkeys have been equally endowed . new research on howler species has revealed an evolutionary\ntrade - off\nbetween investments in the size of the male hyoid - the bulbous , hollow throat bone that allows the howlers ' guttural roar to resonate - and in the size of reproductive organs , namely the testes .\nin what can be dubbed as an unusual behavior for a non - primate species , the mantled howler uses sticks as tools to drive away the intruders from its territory .\nthe bigger a male howler ' s vocal organ , and the deeper and more imposing roar they possess , the smaller their testes and the less sperm they can produce .\nhowler monkeys are arboreal , although they have been observed on the ground for brief periods in order to eat , play , drink , and travel ( strier 2004 ) .\nbolivian titis are small , new world monkeys , averaging about 320 mm in length . males are only slightly larger than females , weighing on average 991 g while females weigh 909 g . titis have long tails that are not prehensile . they have very little prognathism and long skulls . titi monkeys have long hind limbs with an intermembral index of 75 .\nmajor extant atelid genera , from left to right : ateles ( spider monkey ) , alouatta ( howler monkey ) , brachyteles ( muriqui ) , lagothrix ( woolly monkey ) .\ncharles darwin was fascinated by the\nwonderfully powerful\nvocal organs of the howler monkey , despite describing their chorus as a\ndreadful concert\nin the descent of man .\ndunn , t . 2008 . small mammals : the brown howler monkey . the loudest animal in the new world . smithsonian national zoological park . retrieved june 9 , 2008 .\nveiga , l . , r . wallace , s . ferrari . 2008 .\ncallicebus donacophilus\n( on - line ) . in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . accessed april 25 , 2011 at urltoken .\nhowler monkeys generally move quadrupedally on the tops of branches , usually grasping a branch with at least two hands or one hand and the tail at all times . their strong prehensile tails are able to support their entire body weight . fully grown adult howler monkeys do not often rely on their tails for full body support , whereas juveniles do so more frequently .\nhowler monkeys comprise the genus alouatta and belong to the atelidae family with the spider monkeys ( genus ateles ) , woolly monkeys ( lagothrix ) , yellow - tailed woolly monkeys ( oreonax ) , and the woolly spider monkeys ( brachyteles ) . howler monkeys are placed alone in the alouattinae subfamily , while the other members of the family belong to the atelinae subfamily .\nmost howler species live in groups of six to 15 animals , with one to three adult males and multiple females . mantled howler monkeys are an exception , commonly living in groups of 15 to 20 individuals with more than three adult males . unlike most new world monkeys , in which one sex remains in natal groups , juveniles of both sexes emigrate from their natal groups ,\nred howlers have an amusing reaction to rainy days during the tropical wet season . in response to heavy rains , they howl , either at the onset , or often at the sound of approaching rain , and sit hunched over until the rain ends ( clutton - brock , 1977 ) !\nbolivian titi monkeys are arboreal and quadrupedal , primarily traveling through the lower levels of the forest . they are rarely seen on the ground . locomotion generally consists of short leaps , for which their long hind limbs are well - adapted , and they also walk and climb . because their tails are not prehensile , the tail does not come into contact with the surface on which they are walking .\nnational primate research center ( nprc ) . 2008 . howler monkey alouatta sp . . primate info net , national primate research center , university of wisconsin - madison . retrieved june 9 , 2008 .\nleaves comprise over 60 % of mantled howler monkey diets . they exhibit preferences for young leaves over mature leaves , and eat fruits and flowers whenever they can . consistent with a heavy dietary reliance on leaves , which are low in energy , mantled howler monkeys spend nearly two - thirds of their days resting , and day ranges are rarely longer than 0 . 6 mi ( 1 km ) .\nappears to breed throughout the year . however , in two habitats in venezuela , the birth frequency is reduced during the early wet season , may through july . the estrous cycle ranges from 16 - 20 days , with the female being receptive for 2 - 4 days . red howler females give birth for the first time around 5 years of age , while males usually do not father an offspring until approximately 7 years . therefore , a female reaches sexual maturity a couple of years before a male .\nthe howler monkeys are the only folivores ( herbivore specialized in eating leaves ) among the new world monkeys . other than leaves , they also feed on fruits , flowers , and even buds at times .\n( a ) log - log plot of body weight versus f0 for a range mammals , highlighting the low - frequency vocalizations of howler monkeys ( adapted from [ 28 ] with permission from aaas ) .\nhowler monkeys are about the size of a small dog , weighing around seven kilos , yet they are among the loudest terrestrial animals on the planet , and can roar at a similar acoustic frequency to tigers .\nhowler monkeys have an enlarged hyoid bone , contributing to the long distance calls , and have an elongated gut that is associated with the slow digestion of the plant matter ( strier 2004 ) . like other members of the family , howler monkeys have 36 teeth , following the dental formula of i 2 / 2 , c 1 / 1 , p 3 / 3 , m 3 / 3 ( strier 2004 ) .\n) . these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that large hyoids may have evolved to enable lower \u03b4f than expected for body size , thereby increasing the acoustic impression of body size conveyed by howler monkey roars .\nwhile seldom aggressive , howler monkeys do not take well to captivity and are of surly disposition . however , the black howler ( alouatta caraya ) is a relatively common pet monkey in contemporary argentina due to its gentle nature , in comparison to the capuchin monkey ' s aggressive tendencies , in spite of its lesser intelligence , as well as the liabilities meant by the size of its droppings and the males ' loud vocalisations .\n, although some howler monkey species are found in drier forests , or wooded savannah . they mainly eat fruit and leaves , although the smaller species , in particular , may also eat some small insects . they have the\nunlike other new world monkeys , both male and female howler monkeys have trichromatic color vision ; that is , they are capable of seeing three colors and all combinations of those colors ( jacobs et al . 1996 ) .\nthe hyoid of alouatta is pneumatized , one of the few cases of postcranial pneumaticity outside the saurischia . the volume of the hyoid of male howler monkeys is negatively correlated with the dimensions of their testes . [ 4 ]\nall species live in multimale , multifemale groups , although one - male , multifemale groups of alouatta are also common . in the three well - known atelin genera ( ateles , brachyteles , and lagothrix ) , males are philopatric , while females disperse from their natal groups to join other groups of males . in alouatta , both males and females disperse from their natal groups , usually to establish new troops . female red howler monkeys ( alouatta seniculus ) may be retained in their natal troops , while males sometimes disperse in pairs to establish new troops together .\nare small to moderate in size , ranging from 34 to 72 cm in head - body length , with the howler monkeys being the largest members of the group , and the spider monkeys being the smallest . they have long\nthe tail of the howler monkeys , which might be twice the length of their body at times , is sturdy enough to bear their weight , and therefore , they use it to hang upside down on the trees while feeding .\n) belong to the atelidae family of new world monkeys , which also has spider monkeys , woolly monkeys , and woolly spider monkeys to its credit . as of today , as many as 15 species of howler monkeys have been identified .\nthe howler species is not just the loudest , but also one of the laziest members of the animal kingdom ; second only to the sloth . on an average , these arboreal monkeys spend around 80 percent of their time resting on treetops .\nthe mantled howler monkey is protected from international trade under appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) . they are most at risk from rainforest fragmentation which has caused forced relocation of groups to less habitable regions .\nin biology , trade - offs are said to exist when one trait cannot increase without a decrease in another . however , dunn says that it ' s not yet clear exactly how the evolutionary trade - off in male howler monkeys works .\nthe vocal folds of a howler monkey are three times longer than a human ' s , yet they are ten times smaller than us , with a hyoid bone uniquely adapted to resonate sound and exaggerate their size ,\nsaid dunn .\nhill ( 1962 ) and stanyon et al . ( 1995 ) listed nine subspecies of the red howler monkey , alouatta seniculus : a . s . seniculus , a . s . arctoidea , a . s . stramineus , a . s . macconnelli , a . s . insulanus , a . s . amazonica , a . s . juara , a . s . puruensis , and a . s . sara . alouatta seniculus sara is recognized as a full species following minezawa et al . ( 1985 ; see also stanyon et al . 1995 ; groves 2001 , 2005 ) . other names alouatta seniculus sara\nthere are ten species of howler monkeys ( nprc ) , ranging from southern mexico to northern argentina ( strier 2004 ) . other members of atelidae , but in another subfamily , are the spider monkeys , woolly spider monkeys , and woolly monkeys .\n( a ) phylogeny of the howler monkey ( alouatta ) species studied , with ateles fusciceps as an outgroup . numbers at the nodes indicate the estimated dates for splitting events ( ma ) , where known ( data from [ 21 ] ) .\nkelaita m . , dias p . a . d . , aguilar - cucurachi mdel . s . , canales - espinosa d . , cort\u00e9s - ortiz l . impact of intrasexual selection on sexual dimorphism and testes size in the mexican howler monkeys\nhowler monkeys occur sympatrically with one , and sometimes two of the other genera . alouatta is the only genus in this family that occurs sympatrically with brachyteles . in some regions in the amazon , alouatta , ateles , and lagothrix are found together .\nare at first quite helpless and are carried around at the mother ' s belly . young red howlers begin using their prehensile tails before they are one month old . an infant uses its tail to secure itself to its mother , for in this stage of its life the mother pays little or no attention to her offspring , and fails to give the baby any assistance !\nwhile some members of the atelidae family are popular as pets , howler monkeys , while seldom aggressive , do not take well to captivity and are of surly disposition . however , the black howler ( alouatta caraya ) is a relatively common pet monkey in contemporary argentina due to its gentle nature , in comparison to the capuchin monkey ' s aggressive tendencies ( in spite of its lesser intelligence as well as the liabilities in the way of the size of its droppings and the males ' loud vocalization ) .\nthe mantled howlers appearance is similar to other howler monkeys except for colouration . the mantled howler monkey is primarily black except for a fringe of gold to buff hair on each side that gives it its common name . when the males reach maturity , the scrotum turns white . females are 18 to 25 inches in body length and males are 20 to 27 inches . its prehensile tail is 21 to 26 inches long . adult females generally weigh between 6 and 17 pounds while males typically weigh 10 to 22 pounds .\nthe results of our acoustic analyses show that howler monkeys produce roars at a similar frequency as tigers , which is far lower than we would have predicted from their body size , yet exactly what would be predicted from measuring their giant vocal folds .\nthere is no evidence of paternal or allo - parental care among the atelins . however , male howler monkeys will sometimes carry infants or position themselves between infants and extra - troop males , which may threaten infants in their efforts to take over female troops .\nlike many new world monkeys and all atelids ( family atelidae ) , howler monkeys have prehensile tails . the first 2 fingers of each hand are set apart and are opposable to the other three . members of alouatta have completely black faces ( strier 2004 ) .\nhowler monkeys can grow to attain a length of 22 - 36 inches , excluding the tail which can be as long as the body , and may weigh anywhere between 10 - 20 lbs . these monkeys live in groups of 10 - 20 individuals which are known as ' troops ' . male howlers lead the troops and resort to howling to defend their territory against other groups . the practice of howling is usually at its peak at dawn and dusk . howler monkeys have an average lifespan of 15 - 20 years in the wild .\nthreats to howler monkeys include being hunted for food and export . as with many other species in south america , although they are not officially threatened with extinction , their habitat is being steadily destroyed and there are perhaps only 100 , 000 surviving in the wild now .\nmantled howler monkeys live in cohesive , multimale , multifemale groups with 4\u201321 individuals . both males and females establish dominance hierarchies . glander found that young females become top ranking when they immigrate into troops , but achieve their highest reproductive success as older , mid - ranking troop\n) ; in the right panel primates are shown in blue and carnivores in red . dashed lines depict ordinary least squares ( ols ) regressions ; dotted lines depict bisector regressions ( equations at lower left ) . primate and combined bisector regressions were based on phylogenetic brownian motion ( bm ) models ; carnivore bisector regressions were based on non - phylogenetic ( np ) models . statistics for regression analyses are given in\na monkey measuring no more than 30 - 35 inches , that can howl so loudly that it can be heard for miles . that ' s the howler monkey for you . several such interesting facts , make it one of the most popular members of the animal kingdom .\nresearchers found that the trade - off corresponds to the mating systems of different howler species . males with large hyoids and deeper roars but more diminutive testes live in small social groups with often only one male dominating a number of females - a\nharem\nsocial model .\n( b ) log - log plot of vocal fold length versus f0 for a range mammals ( adapted from [ 29 ] with permission from elsevier ) , showing that the low - frequency vocalizations of howler monkeys are to be expected , given their remarkable vocal fold length .\nblack howler monkeys commonly sleep or rest up to 80 % of the day , making it one of the least active monkeys in the new world . their habitat is forest where they eat mostly leaves , however , it will also eat the occasional fruit , such as figs .\nhowler monkeys have a lifespan of 15 to 20 years . they are native to south and central american forests , and even extend into mexico in north america . they have the widest distribution in the atelidae family , ranging from southern mexico to northern argentina ( strier 2004 ) .\naccording to the guinness book of world records , the howler monkey is the loudest land animal in the world with a howl that can be heard as far as 3 miles away . the species is able to make the loud noise because of its large throat and specialized vocal cords .\nyoulatos d . , couette s . , halenar l . b . morphology of howler monkeys : a review and quantitative analysis . in : kowalewski m . m . , garber p . a . , cort\u00e9s - ortiz l . , urbani b . , youlatos d . , editors .\nwhich helps them make their loud vocalizations . group males generally call at dawn and dusk , as well as interspersed times throughout the day . the main vocals consist of loud , deep guttural growls or\nhowls\n. howler monkeys are widely considered to be the loudest land animal . according to\nwhile many monkey species are not in danger , there are some that are very close to extinction . for example there are only 150 tonkin snub - nosed monkeys in existence . another monkey on the list is the tana river red colobus . there are fewer than 1 , 000 of these monkeys left in the world . both are listed on the 25 most endangered primates list published by the international union for conservation of nature species survival commission primate specialist group .\n, and live in social groups with anything up to twenty five adults , depending on species . where groups are relatively small , as is common amongst the howler monkeys , a single male monopolises a ' harem ' of females , but larger groups will contain several males , with a clear hierarchy of dominance .\nare slightly sexually dimorphic . females have a body length of 46 - 57 centimeters ; males , which are larger , have a body length of 49 - 72 cm . both sexes have a long , prehensile tail of approximately 49 - 75 cm . the coat color of males and females is a deep reddish - brown , although the shade varies slightly with age . red howlers have a large neck with tremendous lower jaw and hyroid bones , giving them a forbidding expression .\nkitchen d . m . , teixeira da cunha r . g . , holzmann i . , de oliviera d . function of loud calls in howler monkeys . in : kowalewski m . m . , garber p . a . , cort\u00e9s - ortiz l . , urbani b . , youlatos d . , editors .\n) ; in the right panel all primates are shown in blue and all carnivores in red . dashed lines depict ordinary least squares ( ols ) regressions ; dotted lines depict bisector regressions ( equations at lower left ) . primate bisector regressions were based on phylogenetic brownian motion models ; carnivore bisector regressions were based on non - phylogenetic ( np ) models ; combined bisector regressions were based on phylogenetic brownian motion + pagel\u2019s lambda ( bm + \u03bb ) models . statistics for regression analyses are given in\nhowler monkeys ( genus alouatta ) are stoutly built and range in size from 56 to 92 centimeters ( 22 to 36 inches ) , excluding their tail , which can be equally as long , ranging from 51 to 89 centimeters ( 20 to 35 inches ) ( strier 2004 ) . females are much smaller than males ( strier 2004 ) .\n, and he is responsible for leading them to new food sites and defending them . the females of the group are in charge of the offspring . venezuelan red howlers are most active in the morning , when the group is on the move to find another feeding spot . these howlers are famous for their \u201cdawn chorus\u201d . these roaring and howling calls are performed mostly by the males in the group . the roars can be heard up to 5 km away in the forest , and make their presence known in the area .\nstreier , k . b . 2004 . howler monkeys and spider monkeys . pages 155 - 170 in b . grzimek , s . f . craig , d . a . thoney , n . schlager , and m . hutchins . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , volume 14 ( mammals iii ) . detroit , mi : thomson / gale . isbn 0787657891 .\nthe mating behavior of red howlers is another interesting aspect of their social interactions . males and females often form consortships , an unusually close spatial relationship , before any sexual exchange has begun . once these associations are established , sexual solicitations begin . although seductive behaviors can be performed by both sexes , the female most often takes on the aggressive role . when attempting to attract a male , the female approaches him and moves her tonque rhythmically . the male may respond the same way , but if he does not , the female may simply try to entice another male .\nthis vocal system means that howlers give the acoustic impression of animals with much larger bodies , and can indeed roar louder and deeper than creatures ten times their size . the unnerving sound of a howler chorus ringing out across forests of central and south america has long fascinated humans - from ancient mayans to modern primatologists - and can carry as far as five kilometres through dense rainforest .\nin their phylogenetic analysis using the cytochrome b gene , nascimento et al . ( 2005 ) showed that populations of alouatta caraya from santa cruz , bolivia ( chaco ) are differentiated from those in various localities in the state of mato grosso and ( one specimen ) goi\u00e1s further north . this indicates the possibility of two taxa of the black howler monkey , rather than just one .\nexhibit many interesting behaviors . they are most famous for their\ndawn chorus\n, a deafening roar that can be heard up to 5 kilometers away ! these resonating howls , performed primarily by the males of a group , are answered by all other howler troops within ear shot . this way , one troop can constantly inform another of its precise location , thus avoiding an energetically costly squabble over resources .\nhowler monkeys , by far , are the most folivorous ( leaf - eating ) of the atelidae ( strier 2004 ) . howlers eat mainly top canopy leaves , together with fruit , buds , flowers , and nuts . they need to be careful not to eat too much of certain species of mature leaf in one sitting , as some of the leaves they eat contain toxins that can poison the monkey ( glander 1977 ) .\nthe slow - moving howler monkeys move quadrapedally and do not brachiate , usually holding on to a branch with at least two hands or one hand and the tail at all times . their prehensile tails are strong enough to support the monkey ' s entire body weight , although they seldom do so . they very seldom leave the trees . they rest about 80 percent of the time and are considered the least active of all monkeys .\neven though these monkeys make a lot of noise , it is very difficult to catch a glimpse of them in the wild as they seldom leave the trees , and prefer to spend most of their day idle . on an average , howler monkeys only travel for a distance of 400 meters a day . if you are lucky enough , you might come across a few howlers on the dense tree tops of the rainforests ; the chances are pretty rare though .\nhowler monkey is the common name for the tropical , arboreal new world monkeys comprising the genus alouatta of the primate family atelidae , characterized by prehensile , thickly furred tails , completely black faces , a stout build , relatively large size , and loud howling calls . their loud roars can be heard by humans even three miles away through the dense jungle , and they have been called the loudest animals in the new world ( dunn 2008 ) . aloutata is the only genus in the subfamily alouattinae .\nblack howler monkeys generally prefer walking and climbing to running or leaping . the prehensile tail is very strong and acts as a fifth limb , allowing the monkeys greater versatility when climbing and allowing them greater safety in the occasional fall from a high branch . because their limb structure makes terrestrial movement awkward , they spend most of their time in the trees and only come down for water during dry spells . otherwise the monkeys drink by wetting their hand on a moist leaf and then licking the water of their hand .\nwe compiled data on group size and composition from the literature for each of the howler monkey species studied ( see the supplemental experimental procedures and table s3 ) . given that local environmental factors , such as variations in climate and vegetation , may affect group size and composition within species , we calculated mean values per study site and then took the average across study sites . we also ran analyses using the mean values for all groups ( rather than sites ) , and the results did not change ( table s4 ) .\nall genera possess prehensile tails , which permit them to feed for long periods of time in suspended postures . secured by their tails , they can access foods close to the ground or from plants and branches that are too small or flimsy to support their body weights . their tails also free up their hands , which they can use to sort foods and bring them to their mouths . the atelins also travel by suspensory locomotion , using their arms and tails to swing through the canopy . suspensory locomotion permits them to travel long distances rapidly , and may contribute to their ability to monitor dispersed patches of preferred fruits . howler monkeys are quadrupedal , traveling much shorter distances more slowly than the atelins .\nhowler monkeys are new world monkeys . new world monkeys are one of three major informal groups of the biological order primates , the other two groups being prosimians in addition to monkeys and apes of the old world . together , the new world monkeys and the old world monkeys and apes are considered to be\nhigher primates ,\nor simians ( infraorder similformes ) , while the prosimians ( such as lemurs ) are considered to be the\nlower primates .\nthe term monkey , thus , refers to any simian that is not an ape or any primate that is neither an ape or a prosimian . in reality , monkeys are not a single coherent group and , therefore , do not have any particular traits that they all share . the new world monkeys are found in mexico , central america , and south america , and the old world monkeys are located in africa , central to southern asia , japan , and india .\nsize for this species is between 3 to 16 individuals ( crockett and eisenberg , 1987 ) . both males and females\nmode of locomotion ( fleagle , 1988 ) . this species uses its tail to suspend from branches while feeding ( fleagle , 1988 ) .\nthis call is amplified by the hyoid bone which acts as a resonator , and the calls travel for long distances ( kinzey , 1997 ) . the calls serve to communicate group location , distance , and composition , and the calls are directed at solitary individuals and / or other members of the group ( kinzey , 1997 ) . these calls are most often heard at dawn ( kinzey , 1997 ) .\ncrockett , c . m . and eisenberg , j . f . 1987 . howlers : variation in group size and demography , in"]}
{"id": 1378, "summary": [{"text": "the common house gecko ( hemidactylus frenatus ) ( not to be confused with the mediterranean species hemidactylus turcicus known as mediterranean house gecko ) , is a reptile native of southeast asia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is also known as the pacific house gecko , the asian house gecko , house lizard , or moon lizard . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "common house gecko", "paragraphs": ["hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) ; adult . siem reap , cambodia . june 2011 .\nhemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) ; juvenile on human digit . australia . october 2004 .\n) have been reported from florida . the mediterranean gecko is the only house gecko species known outside of florida , hawaii or texas . ( a single specimen of the common house gecko ,\nwww2 : \u201ccommon house gecko\u201d 23 october 2014 . hosted on wikipedia : urltoken ( accessed on 2 oct 2014 ) .\nonly introduced gecko in australia . the asian house gecko is australia ' s most successful invasive reptile .\nhemidactylus brookii , commonly known as brooke ' s house gecko , is a widespread species of gecko .\nbarquero , m . d . 2017 . hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) diet . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 645 .\ngarc\u00eda - alvarado , f . 2016 . geographic distribution : hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 423 .\nhouse geckoes are believed to be common within their native range and are not at risk of extinction in the wild .\naustralia ' s most successful reptile invader . . . the asian house gecko .\nurltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , \u00a9 random house , inc . 2018\nmckelvy , alexander d . and storm koshiba . 2014 . hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) bicephaly . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 499 - 500\npriyadashana , tharaka sudesh and ishara harshajith wijewardana . 2016 . hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) predation . herpetological review 47 ( 2 ) : 298 - 299\ntexas invasive species institute , 2014 .\ntexas invasive species institution\n( on - line ) . common house gecko . accessed december 14 , 2016 at urltoken .\nwww3 : \u201chemidactylus frenatus & mdash ; overview common house gecko\u201d 23 october 2014 . hosted on eol : encyclopaedia of life : urltoken ( accessed on 4 sept 2014 ) .\nheyborne , w . h . and a . mahan 2017 . hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) tail bifurcation . herpetological review 48 ( 2 ) : 437 - 438\nimpossibly fast , the house gecko is a very small and common gecko . it is also very easy to keep , and a good choice for beginners . house geckos are normally yellowish - brown in colour , and have a very granular appearance to their skin .\nthey are very common all over the country and can be found in most buildings .\nthe common house gecko has only small , if any , tubercles on the back , whereas the indo - pacific gecko may have small tubercles restricted to its dorsum or dorso - lateral rows , and the amerafrican house gecko and mediterranean gecko have enlarged tubercles on the back . in the amerafrican house gecko , the toepads of the fourth toe do not extend to the base of the toe , but in the mediterranean gecko , these pads reach to the base of the toe . the common house gecko has rows of enlarged spines encircling the tail , however in the indo - pacific gecko , spines are only found scattered along the edges of the tail . only the last two species are known from hawaii , but all four species of house geckos ( genus\nwe found no significant invasion of the asian house gecko into bushland ,\nsays vanderduys .\ngoldberg , stephen r . & fred kraus 2016 . reproduction in the common house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus ( squamata : gekkonidae ) from hawaii herpetological bulletin ( 136 ) - get paper here\nmata - silva , vicente , larry david wilson and jerry d . johnson . 2013 . hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) predation . herpetological review 44 ( 3 ) : 508 - 509\nsightings were common along the entire queensland coastline and northern nsw , and more than half the 4000 people surveyed reported geckos in their house since 2005 .\nthe house gecko is not a protected species in texas and can be legally collected with a hunting license .\nhead over to in the wild for statistics and more information about the house gecko in their natural habitats .\naccording to vanderduys , the asian house gecko arrived in australia as stowaways on ships from south east asia .\nhemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) ; adult , from east timor . specimen from near lor\u00e9 1 village ( usnm [ cmd 488 ] , svl 42mm , tl 89mm ) with a cryptic dorsal pattern .\ndepartment of agriculture and fisheries : biosecurity queensland . asian house gecko . australia : state of queensland . 2016 .\n47 . jadin r , altamirano ma , y\u00e1nez - mu\u00f1oz mh , smith e . first record of the common house gecko ( hemidactylus frenatus ) in ecuador . appl herpetol . 2009 ; 6 : 193 - 195 .\nde la vega - p\u00e9rez , an\u00edbal h . , rafael a . lara - resendiz and pierre charruau . 2014 . geographic distribution : hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 463\ncommon house geckos should have substrate ( bedding ) that retains moisture , such as reptile bark or shredded coconut fiber bedding . sand and reptile carpeting are not ideal for house geckos as they do not aid in creating a humid environment .\nmay be confused with the indo - pacific gecko , hemidactylus garnotii , although the mediterranean gecko has bumpy skin while the indo - pacific gecko has smooth skin .\nkabes , laura e . , melissa a . stepek , clark r . mahrdt and jorge h . valdez - villavicencio . 2015 . geographic distribution : hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 569\nthis version of how to care for a house gecko was reviewed by pippa elliott , mrcvs on may 31 , 2017 .\nyamamoto , yurie ; ota , hidetoshi . , 2006 . long - term functional sperm storage by a female common house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus , from the ryukyu archipelago , japan . current herpetology . 25 ( 1 ) : 39 - 40 .\n48 . torres - carvajal o , tapia w . first record of the common house gecko hemidactylus frenatus schlegel , 1836 and distribution extension of phyllodactylus reissii peters , 1862 in the galapagos . check list . 2011 ; 7 : 470 - 472 .\nmata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson , larry david wilson , arturo rocha and jes\u00fas garc\u00eda - grajales . 2013 . geographic distribution : hemidactylus frenatus ( common house gecko ) . herpetological review 44 ( 4 ) : 625 - 626\nreynolds r . 2012 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) . distribution . caribbean herpetology 28 : 1 - get paper here\ntorres - carvajal o 2015 . on the origin of south american populations of the common house gecko ( gekkonidae : hemidactylus frenatus ) . neobiota 27 : 69 - 79 . doi : 10 . 3897 / neobiota . 27 . 5437 - get paper here\na 20 - gallon tall terrarium is sufficient for a couple of common house geckos but bigger is better when it comes to their housing . keep in mind that house geckos need vertical space for climbing so you should use a tall tank rather than a long tank .\nthe one with the yellow rings on its tail is a tokay gecko and it eats cockroaches , bigger than the normal house gecko which is green and has no rings on the tail . both are welcome in my house though i haven\u2019t seen a tokay for a long time . i leave snacks out for the house gecko , small pieces of boiled egg white and bits of soft cream cracker .\nneogi , amit kumer & md . nur islam 2017 . giant crab spider : predation of common house gecko hemidactylus frenatus schlegel , 1836 by giant crab spider heteropoda venatoria linnaeus , 1767 zoo\u2019s print 32 ( 8 ) : 22 - 24 - get paper here\none single house gecko does not need much space to be happy and healthy . a deeper tank , with high walls , is ideal for a gecko . use a glass tank with a screen lid so the gecko gets enough ventilation in his tank .\ni found a small mediterranean house gecko today among my clothing in my bedroom . very small , it ' s too cold outside\n12 . bustard hr . activity cycle of the tropical house gecko hemidactylus frenatus . copeia . 1970 ; 1970 : 173 - 176 .\nalways give your gecko de - chlorinated water , as distilled water can cause medical issues for your gecko due to its lack of nutrients and minerals . avoid giving your gecko untreated tap water , as it can be unhealthy for your gecko .\nwhile it\u2019s true they\u2019re very gentle , they\u2019re also very fragile and can break easy , kind of like a toy . unlike some other particular breed of gecko , the house gecko is also relatively quick so if it escapes out of your hands and starts running through the house , you\u2019re going to have a fun afternoon on your hands running through the house trying to chase it down . however , unlike some pets which can be self - sufficient such as a cat that can go out on its own and hunt when you stop feeding it , the house gecko relies solely on you to feed it . the common life span of a house gecko tends to be around 5 years or a little less depending on how well they\u2019re taken care of .\nfound this one very helpful , giving me a good understanding of how to care for , keep , and feed a house gecko .\nlyakurwa , j . v . 2017 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) cannibalism . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 646 .\nlights attract insects and the asian house gecko is insectivorous . . . so they eat the insects that come in to the light .\nthe common house gecko is native to much of southern asia and has established breeding populations in eastern africa , new guinea , mexico , madagascar , australia , and other tropical areas . it is found in a variety of habitats and gets its name because it is common near human habitations . like other geckoes , house geckoes have specialized toe pads that enable them to cling and move effortlessly along walls and ceilings . they are frequently seen at night near light bulbs hunting for insects .\nit\u2019s said for a beginning pet owner that the house gecko is one of the best pets you can own because of their simplicity to take care of and just how easy they are to house and clean up after .\nit ' s quite common in thailand to try to make the tokay drowsy before catching it . they tie some shredded tobacco leaves or\ntkaczenko , gwendola k . ; adeline c . fischer and robbie weterings . 2014 . prey preference of the common house geckos hemidactylus frenatus and hemidactylus platyurus . herpetology notes 7 : 483 - 488 - get paper here\ngympie region householders are climbing the walls over a cute but pesky little invader that also likes to climb the walls - the asian house gecko .\n18 . keim ld . spatial distribution of the introduced asian house gecko across suburban / forest edges . brisbane : university of queensland ; 2002 .\nhouse geckos are quite territorial . when confronting other members of the same species ,\nuse these social - bookmarking links to share asian house geckos are benign invaders .\nkurita , takaki 2013 . current status of the introduced common house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus ( squamata : gekkonidae ) , on amamioshima island of the ryukyu archipelago , japan . current herpetology feb 2013 , vol . 32 , no . 1 : 50 - 60 . - get paper here\npatel , h . , v . naik & s . k . tank , 2016 . the common house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus schlegel in dumeril & bibron 1836 ( reptilia : gekkonidae ) in gujarat , india . ircf reptiles & amphibians , 23 ( 3 ) : 178 - 182\ni ' m 10 and my mum and i want a house gecko , so this really helped us out . thank you very much .\n2 . csurhes s , markula a . pest animal risk assesment of the asian house gecko . queensland : queensland primary industries and fisheries ; 2009 .\njadin , robert c . ; altamirano , marco a . ; y\u00e1nez - mu\u00f1oz , mario h . ; smith , eric n . 2009 . first record of the common house gecko ( hemidactylus frenatus ) in ecuador . applied herpetology 6 ( 2 ) : 193 - 195 - get paper here\nis one of the largest geckos , growing up to 35 cm long , and is strong and aggressive , feeding on small reptiles , birds , and mammals as well as insects ; its common name refers to its call of \u2018to - kay\u2019 . there are more than 400 species of geckos , distributed widely in warm latitudes . one species , the common house gekko (\nthey are more popular as small lizards that wander on the walls of ones house .\nhunsaker dh , 1966 . notes on the population expansion of the house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus . philippine journal of science , 95 : 121 - 122 .\n31 . barquero md , hilje b . house wren preys on introduced gecko in costa rica . wilson bull . 2005 ; 117 : 204 - 205 .\nkusuma , kukuh indra and hamidy , amir 2017 . hemidactylus frenatus ( house gecko ) predation herpetological review 48 ( 1 ) : 192 - get paper here\nvyas , raju 2005 . first record of asian house gecko hemidactylus frenatus ( schlegel ) from gujarat state , western india . cobra 60 : 13 - 17\nno , because insects are part of the gecko ' s diet . if a gecko doesn ' t eat insects , it could starve .\nthe asian house gecko is a native of south - eastern asia that was first recorded in darwin in the 1960s , and to brisbane in the early 1980s .\n6 . hunsaker d . notes on the population expansion of the house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus . philipp j sci . 1966 ; 95 : 121 - 122 .\nbreuil m , questel k , rodrigues c . 2012 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) . distribution . caribbean herpetology 26 : 1 - get paper here\nvecchi , mauricio brand\u00e4o and jeffrey michael harding . 2016 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) predation . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 136 - 137\ncook , robert a . 1990 . range extension of the darwin house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus . herpetofauna ( sydney ) 20 ( 1 ) : 23 - 27\nnorval , gerrut and jean - jay mao . 2014 . hemidactylus frenatus ( asian house gecko ) prey . herpetological review 45 ( 2 ) : 328 - 329\nhow do you get geco out of your house . . what do they not like .\n43 . church g , chun - sim l . the distribution of three species of house gecko in bandung . herpetologica . 1978 ; 17 : 199 - 201 .\n, the species is thought to be a long - term resident . formerly considered a house gecko , it has been displaced to natural habitats by the more recently arrived\nold people believe that having a gecko inside the house is lucky . they believe that geckos are relations that have died and been reborn to look after their children .\nyou should dust your gecko\u2019s food with a calcium supplement before giving it to him . a growing gecko should be dusted more often than an adult gecko . you can ask your veterinarian for exact instructions on how much supplement you should dust on your gecko\u2019s food to avoid over - supplementing the food .\nhahahah ! ! ! i was searching the web , trying to find info on common geckos \u2013 because there\u2019s one in my house and i found it in my bed the other day\u2026 and then i found your post ! hahah i laughed so hard . kinda makes me feel like chasing him outa the house now hahah\u2026 funny as hell ! !\nmost growing house geckos do not enjoy being picked up and held . handling your gecko may also prevent him from getting used to his new environment . house geckos are fragile and if you pull on their tail , they may lose their tail or become injured .\nwhen you think about the common house gecko , you probably think about that little lizard you see on the geico commercial all the time but what kind of breed that is , is debatable and they\u2019ve dropped some clever hints but always cut him off before he has time to tell us . however , the house gecko is basically the most common household pet out there when it comes to owning a gecko and they\u2019re relatively easy to maintain as well . people all over the world love owning these things as pets because not only are they small and tiny in nature but they\u2019re relatively inexpensive as well , which some lizards just aren\u2019t worth the trouble of owning and some breeds are worth more trouble than what they\u2019ll end up costing you .\n(\nasian house gecko\n, 2016 ;\nhemidactylus frenatus . the iucn red list of threatened species\n, 2010 ; cole , 2014 ; wilson , 2016 )\nmyers , george s . 1945 . a natural habitat of the house gecko ( hemidactylus mabouia ) in brazil . copeia 1945 ( 2 ) : 120 - get paper here\nhouse geckos are largely insectivores , but adults will consume spiders and other invertebrates , and occasionally juvenile geckos as well . they are strongly territorial and can be quite vocal at night , making a series of crisp , rapid chirps . they may make a squeaking noise when captured . common house geckos are believed to have arrived in hawaii during or just after world war ii . since then it has become the most common lizard around house lights at night . females lay hard - shelled , non - adhesive eggs in pairs under bark , in tree holes , palm fronds or other protected above - ground sites .\nfor centuries , those first geckos comprising four different species , thrived on the islands . the mourning gecko , the stump - toed gecko , and the indo - pacific gecko were gregarious and lived close to humans , in urban areas . the tree gecko lived a solitary existence in forests and meandering valleys near streams .\ngecko in the century dictionary , the century co . , new york , 1911\nwilson , s . 2016 .\nqueensland museum\n( on - line ) . asian house gecko . accessed december 14 , 2016 at file : / / / c : / users / fluff / downloads / fact - sheet - asian - house - geckos . pdf .\n, also known as the common ( or asian ) house gecko , is native to southeast asia , but is found worldwide due to human introduction . although the species originated from countries such as india , malaysia , and thailand , they have now expanded to other regions such as africa , australia , and the americas . in the united states ,\nhemidactylus frenatus is a gecko which measures 7 . 5 - 15 cm long with males larger than females . overall the scalation is uniform , with distinctive enlarged scales along the back and arranged in bands on the tail . the coloration of common house gecko may be gray or light brown to beige with greenish iridescence and a white underside . it has vertical pupils and dorsum and venter light in coloration and sometimes appear semi - transparent .\nalso , it\u2019s extremely easy to maintain them in captivity and it\u2019s one of the easiest pets to own period . some people say that it\u2019s a lot easier than owning a dog because while it might be man\u2019s best friend , there are a lot of things you have to worry about and common household pets like the dog can be very expensive if you\u2019re on a shoestring budget . the house gecko is meant for an observational type of pet that you can watch every now and then and while some gecko are easily handled , it\u2019s really not recommended that you handle a house gecko because of how fragile they are .\n35 . barton dp . pentastomid parasites of the introduced asian house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus ( gekkonidae ) , in australia . comp parasitol . 2007 ; 74 : 254 - 259 .\nsince these geckos are small , they do not need much room . for a single house gecko , a 18\nx 18\nx 18\nhabitat should be used as a minimum size . bigger is always better . for multiple house geckos , increase the size accordingly . they will need a lot of branches and plants to climb and hide . they need even more spaces to hide if you house multiple house geckos . use a mulch , bark or playsand as the substrate .\nhouse geckos have specialized toe pads that enable them to cling and move effortlessly along walls and ceilings .\nnewbery , brock and jones , darryl . 2008 . presence of asian house gecko hemidactylus frenatus across an urban gradient in brisbane : influence of habitat and potential for impact on native gecko species . pest or guest : the zoology of overabundance , pp 59 - 65 .\nsometime during or after world war ii a fifth gecko species arrived , the house gecko . this aggressive little lizard , although just as useful and adorable as its relatives has driven most other geckos away from humans into the wilderness during the last 30 years or so .\nobi zc ; anyaegbunam lc ; igboanugo na , 2013 . the house gecko ( hemidactylus frenatus ) and parasitaemia . international journal of fauna and biological studies , 1 : 13 - 15 .\n(\nasian house gecko\n, 2016 ;\nhemidactylus frenatus . the iucn red list of threatened species\n, 2010 ; das , 2006 ; texas invasive species institute , 2014 )\nzanchi - silva , d . and d . m . borges - nojosa 2017 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) predation . herpetological review 48 ( 2 ) : 438 - 439\nbefore acquiring a pet house gecko , be sure to research its specific care requirements . talk to your veterinarian about the proper diet and how to maintain a healthy weight for your pet .\ncertain thais also believe that if a big house gecko falls and lands on your body , it would hold on . the only thing that could make the tokay let go is thunder .\nonce considered to be a benign invader limited to urban areas , recent studies have shown that , as in other parts of their colonised range , asian house geckos have displaced native geckos from the house gecko niche and have spread into , and become established in considerable densities in , bushland habitat .\nuse a 5\u201310 gallon ( 18 . 9\u201337 . 9 l ) tank for your gecko\nyou should gut load the insects , feeding them a nutritious diet about 24 hours before offering them to your gecko . then , give the gut loaded insects to your gecko . do not give your gecko wild caught insects , as they can carry diseases .\nkilling is evil . that makes you evil , not the gecko . stop it .\ncosta - campos , carlos e . and mayara f . m . furtado . 2013 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) cannibalism . herpetological review 44 ( 4 ) : 673 - 674\nharfmann short , k . & petren , k . 2008 . isolation and characterization of 12 polymorphic microsatellite markers in the tropical house gecko ( hemidactylus mabouia ) . molecular ecology resources 8 : 1319\u20131321\nmeshaka , w . e . et al . 2006 . hemidactylus ( house gecko ) assemblage dynamics on south florida buildings . journal of kansas herpetology 17 : 8 - 9 - get paper here\nand other small insects . the insects will need to be dusted with a multi - vitamin / calcium supplement . give your house gecko ' s new and clean water each and every day .\nwhile common house geckos can live in less inhabited areas , they are commonly found around human habitation , including the walls and ceilings of houses , which is how they got their name . they are good at keeping insect populations in check so many people welcome their cohabitation on their homes .\ncommon house geckos are nocturnal so they do not need special uvb lighting like many reptiles . however , many experts feel providing uv lighting is still beneficial to the overall health of nocturnal animals , therefore , it is still recommended to use a uva / uvb light bulb during the daytime .\non hawaii , this species has displaced native mourning geckos and stump - toed geckos throughout the islands . it is also known to feed on small mourning geckos and other species . the common house gecko has only been known from florida since 1993 , and is confined to a few small urban locations , so it is unlikely to have much impact on natural environments at this time .\nwhen i see gecko in my room , i kill \u2019em . i feel its evil\u2026i remembered killing a white colour gecko , then it change to black colour\u2026why is that pls ?\nbuckner , sandra d . ; franz , richard 1994 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) . bahamas : great bahama bank . herpetological review 25 ( 4 ) : 164 - get paper here\nda rocha - santos , gilson , eder barbier and dayane fernandes da silva . 2013 . hemidactylus mabouia ( african house gecko ) predation by callithrax penicillata . herpetological review 44 ( 4 ) : 674\nkoski , diogo andrade , aline p . valadares koski , leonardo mercon and yuri fanchini messas . 2013 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) predation . herpetological review 44 ( 3 ) : 509\nthe research , reported in the australian journal of zoology , found the asian house gecko ( hemidactylus frenatus ) poses no threat to australian flora and fauna , and prefers hanging around where people live .\ncommon house geckos are widely distributed through southern asia , and are naturalized on islands and seaports throughout much of the world\u2019s warmer oceans . in florida , they are known from a few warehouse areas near ft . myers , homestead , and key west and stock island on the lower florida keys . in florida , it seems confined to the walls of buildings . on hawaii , they are found on all the larger islands as well as lanai and kahoolawe . they are the most common gecko on all the major hawaiian islands , not just in urban areas but forested areas as well .\nhas been observed stalking , biting , or even eating other native and introduced gecko species .\nprovide a 5\u201310 gallon ( 18 . 9\u201337 . 9 l ) tank for your gecko .\nyou will see that your gecko will like the moss and geckos can sleep on it .\ni too have gecko phobia like your friend ivan . i am really scared of them .\ncsurhes , steve and anna markula . , 2009 . pest animal risk assessment : asian house gecko hemidactylus frenatus . biosecurity queensland , queensland primary industries and fisheries , department of employment , economic development and innovation\nlei j ; booth dt , 2014 . temperature , field activity and post - feeding metabolic response in the asian house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus . journal of thermal biology , 45 : 175 - 180 .\nif you want more than one gecko , do not house more than one male per tank as they will fight each other , and make sure you have all females unless you want to breed them .\nhouse geckos should be fed a variety of small prey items . crickets can make up the main part of their diet with the addition of fruit flies and other small flies , silkworms , the occasional mealworm , and other insects . gut load prey prior to feeding them to your geckos , dust them with a calcium supplement two to three times a week , and a dusting of a multivitamin once a week . feed your common house geckos in the evening since they are nocturnal . juveniles should be fed daily but adults can be fed every other day . feed as much prey as your house gecko will eagerly consume .\nthis is an arboreal lizard found in the moist tropics of asia . there are many different species of gecko that are grouped into the common name of\nhouse gecko\n, but fortunately the care remains the same . these geckos thrive under a wide range of conditions , but prefer semi tropical habitats with high humidity . due to their versatility , these geckos are often considered a parasitic species in places such as florida , california , and hawaii , where they have established invasive colonies .\nsince the asian house gecko arrived in brisbane in the early 1980s , the cold - blooded creatures have spread to nooks and crannies in houses throughout the city and along the coastline of queensland and northern nsw .\nbugoni , leandro , and pedro welff - neto . 2008 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko . ) human - induced introduction . herpetological review 39 ( 2 ) : 226 - 227 - get paper here\ngoldberg , stephen r . , bursey , charles r . and reeves , will k . 2017 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) endoparasites herpetological review 48 ( 1 ) : 192 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , rainer ; bauer , aaron m . ; king , david 1993 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) . usa : florida . herpetological review 24 ( 2 ) : 66 - get paper here\ncheng , hsien - yu . 1988 . gonad condition and fat stores of the house gecko , hemidactylus frenatus , in taiwan during winter . journal of taiwan museum . 41 ( 1 ) : 93 - 97\nif you need to care for a young house gecko , feed it 5 to 6 meals a week . choose high - protein meals like crickets or mealworms , and make sure they are no longer that the width of the gecko\u2019s head so it can eat them . for extra nutrition , dust the insects in a calcium supplement before giving them to the gecko . it is also important that you wait until the gecko is an adult before you handle it , or you risk injuring it .\nhouse geckos need room to climb in their tall cage so you should provide branches , driftwood , and silk or live plants . they also need hiding spots such as reptile caves or small clay plant pots placed on their sides . be sure to provide enough hides to give multiple geckos space to hide from each other if you are housing more than one gecko in a cage . provide a small shallow water dish with fresh water daily even though common house geckos may prefer to drink from water droplets on leaves like chameleons .\none should take care to reduce the number of insects in the house so that survival outside the homes become easier .\nis peat moss okay as substrate for 3 mediterranean house geckos ? they have been living in it for a month .\nbatuwita , sudesh ; & rohan pethiyagoda 2012 . rediscovery of the sri lankan \u2018house gecko\u2019 hemidactylus pieresii kelaart ( reptilia : gekkonidae ) with a redescription of hemidactylus depressus gray . zootaxa 3359 : 17\u201330 - get paper here\nlive plants and artificial plants provide lots of climbing spots for your gecko . live plants also help to increase the humidity of the tank , an ideal environment for your gecko to thrive in .\nthis helped me in raising my gecko , he is now really healthy and strong .\nin punjab , it is believed that contact with the urine of a gecko will cause leprosy .\ngecko .\na dictionary of zoology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\ngecko .\noxford dictionary of rhymes . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nhere in the states we have a gecko as the trusted spokesperson for a car insurance company .\nhaha , i love this post ! we have geckos here , but no that many . i have yet to find one in the house , so they\u2019re still fun to me\u2026 i don\u2019t imagine they\u2019d be so fun scampering about my house .\nmorrison , madeleine , munscher , eric , munscher , jessica , abeln , nicole and hauge , j . brian 2016 . geographic distribution : hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 628\nwhile existing asian house gecko populations don ' t pose a threat to native flora and fauna ( except the insects ) , vanderduys warns future arrivals from overseas with different genetic stock or containing pathogens are a serious issue .\nwhen you\u2019re purchasing housing or looking at different enclosures , you\u2019re going to want to make sure you pick the most appropriate and right sized enclosure for the particular combination that you\u2019re setting up . for instance , if you only have one single gecko or you\u2019re housing a pair of them , then you might want to look into a tank that can accommodate 20 gallons . this will not only be able to one house gecko adequately but a house gecko and a mate if you\u2019d like ( but be warned , if you do this , you will more than likely have a lot of baby gecko running around not too far down the road ) .\nurltoken gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the modern language association ( mla ) , the chicago manual of style , and the american psychological association ( apa ) .\nmcallister ct ; upton sj ; boyer dm , 1990 . eimeria dixoni sp . n . ( apicomplexa : eimeriidae ) from an introduced population of common house geckos , hemidactylus frenatus ( sauria : gekkonidae ) , in dallas county , texas . journal of the helminthological society of washington , 57 ( 1 ) : 1 - 4 .\nbrown , t . w . , mayron , d . f . & clayson , s . m . 2017 . hemidactylus frenatus ( asian house gecko ) diet . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 645 - 646 .\nits diet consists of insects ( meshaka et al . , 2004 ; punzo , 2005 ) and spiders , and an adult was observed feeding on a juvenile tropical house gecko ( hemidactylus mabouia ) on key west , florida associations .\niturriaga , manuel ; and rub\u00e9n marrero 2013 . feeding ecology of the tropical house gecko hemidactylus mabouia ( sauria : gekkonidae ) during the dry season in havana , cuba . herpetology notes 6 : 11 - 17 - get paper here\nwe have over 11 , 000 gecko records and only 13 of those were asian house geckos , all from the one spot , so it seems to me that there ' s not a significant invading threat in australia .\na baby gecko , or young gecko , will need to be fed five to six times a week . your gecko should have a diet that is high in protein , consisting of crickets , mealworms , waxworms , silkworms , and roaches . the insects should be no longer than the width of your gecko\u2019s head to ensure he can stomach them . if any uneaten insects survive , somehow , and are roaming around in the tank , remove them , as they can end up chewing on your gecko\u2019s skin and eyes .\ni was an exchange student in thailand and at school my class mates told me that you see ghosts when you stand under an umbrella if it\u2019s not raining . is that a common superstition ? what does it mean ?\nnow as it pertains to food and what you can feed your house gecko pet , this is one of the easiest things about the house gecko because their eating habits are very simple . much like any other pet , they\u2019re going to eat every single day and they eat very simple and cost effective foods . however , once they grow up and reach full adulthood , it\u2019s not uncommon for them to skip a day so eating once every other day really isn\u2019t that uncommon .\nno gecko is more widespread or less interesting than this one . it ' s superlative in its way .\nto move in the manner of a gecko ; to attach to a vertical or upside - down surface .\ni\u2019m dating a sudanese girl now who is deadly afraid of gecko\u2019s too . she would love this article .\nthey commonly eat the most clich\u00e9 items just like all the other reptiles out there but the most common items on the menu for a house gecko are crickets , mealworms and wax worms . ideally , what you feed them will be your own personal preference but you shouldn\u2019t get used to feeding them wax worms because not only do they provide absolutely no benefit such as vitamins , but they\u2019re very high in fat , so they should be given sparingly . you don\u2019t have to provide them with a vitamin supplement as some sources will tell you but it definitely won\u2019t hurt if you use crickets . the easiest way to trick them into taking vitamins is to sprinkle some calcium powder on crickets and to make them eat the crickets . crickets are easy to find and they\u2019re cheap in a bundle , and not only that but they provide all the vitamins that a house gecko needs to survive , so this is the most common choice .\nbiology : like most other invasive species , the mediterranean gecko breeds rapidly . females are capable of laying multiple clutches of two eggs each throughout the summer . these eggs are laid in cracks and crevices in trees or man - made structures including buildings . like rodents , the mediterranean gecko has been aided by human development . it is very common to see the geckos on the sides of buildings under lights catching insects on a summer night .\nthey are now common along the east coast north of coffs harbour , but mr couper believes the reptiles could also establish themselves as far south as sydney , where it could survive on the warmth of household hot water systems .\nmeshaka , walter e . , jr ; butterfield , brian p . ; hauge , j . brian 1994 . hemidactylus mabouia ( tropical house gecko ) . usa : florida . herpetological review 25 ( 4 ) : 165 - get paper here\nproper lighting : the house geckos require uv light as this is good for their health so loads of uv light should be helpful .\nthe best time to catch a big gecko is when they come out to hunt for insects at night . just keep the end of the stick close to the gecko ' s face so it can smell the tobacco .\ndiniz , suzana 2011 . predation and feeding on the tropical house gecko hemidactylus mabouia ( squamata : gekkonidae ) by the giant orb - weaver spider nephilengys cruentata ( araneae : nephilidae ) . herpetology notes 4 : 357 - 358 - get paper here\ngeneric gecko ; close - up of the underside of a gecko ' s foot as it walks on a glass pane . ' van der waals ' force interactions between the finely divided setae ( hairs ) on the toes and the glass , enable the gecko to stay in place and walk on smooth glass and other such surfaces .\nwow , i just came across this post from my wife two years later . i can answer the question now . monks came to bless the house and a couple weeks later they started building again . and two years later they are still not finished building the house !\n\u201c gecko \u201d in le tr\u00e9sor de la langue fran\u00e7aise informatis\u00e9 ( the digitized treasury of the french language ) .\ngecko .\nthe columbia encyclopedia , 6th ed . . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\ngecko .\nthe oxford pocket dictionary of current english . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\ngecko .\nthe concise oxford dictionary of english etymology . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\npascatore , linda . 2008 .\nbirds and plants of kauai : the gecko\n. accessed 6 february 2011\nthese tiny geckos are more common than tokays . they ' re light brown but can change colors to various shades . their skin is thin and pretty smooth . house geckos grow up to about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) long . they also make quite a loud and unique clicking sound . the suction - like feet enable them to climb and run on ceilings and walls .\nin general , you should only handle your gecko if you need to remove him to clean the tank . wash your hands before and after handling your gecko , as you may have bacteria on your hands that can cause illness .\nthe success of the asian house gecko , like most invasive species , has come at a cost to its native cousins , which are being beaten to food and habitat by the foreigners . geckos have also transferred disease - carrying mites to the native species .\nhouse geckos are fast moving so catching them may be difficult . be careful when handling them as their tails detach easily as a defense mechanism .\na number of superstitious thais believe that big house geckos are reincarnations of their grandparents , who have come to protect them . if a tokay makes sound during the day , it ' s a warning that bad luck may come to one of the family members who lives in the house .\nyour house gecko will shed his skin in patches every four to six weeks . he may turn a dull color and the skin over his eyelids may pop as he sheds his skin . though the shedding can look uncomfortable , do not try to peel off the skin from him as this can be painful and dangerous for your gecko . if the tank conditions are humid enough , your gecko should be able to shed his skin on his own and he may even eat his own shedded skin .\nhistory : it is uncertain how the mediterranean gecko first made its way to the united states . it was first reported in key west , florida 1915 . it is thought that this gecko was probably a stowaway on a ship from the mediterranean area . mediterranean geckos are quite common in the pet trade , which has no doubt led to its spread across the united states . currently , this species has high numbers in florida , and has established breeding populations all along southern states .\nwhile the gecko ' s impact has not been studied closely , it has been identified as a\ngeneralist predator\n, possibly causing declines in urban populations of some native insects and spiders and competing with native gecko species for food .\ngecko .\na dictionary of zoology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\ngecko .\noxford dictionary of rhymes . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\noh my ! ! we also have here in thailand . in my house . i always hear gecko every night and sometimes i see the shadow behind the window in my toilet . before i didnt know how it looks thats why i search and i found this .\nhave you ever looked into how they actually climb on walls . . . oh and they get rid of most house hold pests at least in hawai\u2019i\nsome of you may already know that most thais are superstitious . if a gecko makes a sound when you ' re about to leave the house , we believe it means bad luck . when this happens , some thais may change their plans and stay at home instead .\ncommon house geckoes are very popular among pet owners because they are small , inexpensive , and relatively easy to keep in captivity . they vary in color from yellowish tan with darker spots or blotches to pale grayish - white ; they sometimes appear paler at night . these geckoes reach an adult length of 3 to 5 inches ( including the tail ) and can live for 5 to 10 years in captivity .\ni rescued my gecko from the church bathroom , & followed the checklist at petco . we love our new pet !\nhad a tiny baby stowaway gecko from our beach vacation . this article helped me to give him basic care tonight until\ntoday at 5 . 28 am one gecko was beaten me on my left arm and some blood out from my arm .\nthat was a hilarious read . made me feel better about the gecko that just flew out from behind my baby\u2019s shelf !\none of them , the nocturnal tokay gecko is one of the largest gecko species in the world growing up to 14 inches . it greedily feeds on mice and small birds , as well as other lizards , representing another danger for the older geckos .\ni have a small gecko in my house and it continuously squeaks . : - o the sound it makes is tchak tchak tchak\u2026i read on net that mostly male geckos make noise . . don\u2019t know how true is that . i was considering it to be a talkative female . .\nnewbery , brock and darryl n . jones 2007 . presence of asian house gecko hemidactylus frenatus across an urban gradient in brisbane : influence of habitat and potential for impact on native gecko species . in daniel lunney , peggy eby , pat hutchings and shelley burgin ( eds . ) , pest or guest : the royal zoological society of new south wales , mosman , nsw , australia , pp 59 - 65 .\ni found this small gecko sleeping in the broad leaves of a small palm along the edge of anjajavy ' s garden pond .\nwow \u2013 i was laughing out loud reading this . i always thought of geckos as cute and cuddly too , you know , the geico gecko type of gecko . now i have a new phobia ! thanks for the laughs ( not the phobia ) \ud83d\ude42\nthe common house gecko is found in tropical , subtropical , and warm - temperate regions and prefers warm , humid areas . it is a nocturnal species that likes to hide in shelters during the day time . they can be found in a wide range of habitats , such as rain forests , savannas , and deserts . it was originally a terrestrial tree - living species , but in more populated human areas , it occurs on buildings , especially near artificial lighting . the species is commonly seen close to electric lights after nightfall . in more natural environments ,\nsince they are carnivorous you need to provide live insects for food , although when you fist capture or buy them they might not eat for two or three days ( due to stress ) . either crickets and mealworms purchased at a pet store or live bugs caught around the house . choose crickets that are smaller than your gecko ' s head . too large of a cricket can actually bite and wound a gecko .\na nearby monitoring site located a kilometre from the town recorded no asian house geckos , even though the species were abundant in pormpuraaw for at least 30 years .\nhughes , daniel f . , walter e . meshaka , jr . and gerard van buurt . 2015 . the superior colonizing gecko hemidactylus mabouia on cura\u00e7ao : conservation implications for the native gecko phyllodactylus martini . journal of herpetology 49 ( 1 ) : 60 - 63\nbecause house geckos are nocturnal , they will need a place to sleep and hide at night . you can buy hiding structures , often made of cork , from your local pet store . buy two hiding structures and place one on the cool side of the tank and one on the warm side . this will give your gecko the option of cooling down or warming up . try to have at least two hides per gecko .\nmy gecko won ' t eat flies , so i googled and found this site . i will now feed him crickets .\ngecko .\nthe columbia encyclopedia , 6th ed . . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\ngecko .\nthe oxford pocket dictionary of current english . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\ngecko .\nthe concise oxford dictionary of english etymology . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nnative origin : as the name suggests , the mediterranean gecko is an old - world species native to southern europe and northern africa .\nnice research ! ! the best is the 12 . 01am till 6 . 00am gecko cries ! ! ! cheers ! sawasdee krap !\nthe gympie region is notorious for destructive floods , but it doesn ' t take rapidly rising water levels to cause serious problems at lyn sumner ' s curra house .\na study by the museum ' s reptile collection manager , andrew amey , found asian house geckos had even adapted their breeding cycles to suit australia ' s climate .\ncase tj ; bolger dt ; petren k , 1994 . invasions and competitive displacement among house geckos in the tropical pacific . ecology , 75 : 464 - 477 .\ni have those little devils in my house now . never , had seen them before . how do you get rid of them . ? thanks for any help .\nhouse geckoes are established in numerous tropical regions outside their native range , including hawaii and florida . they prey on native insects , but it is not clear whether they have caused significant declines or extinctions in any species . in hawaii , house geckoes have displaced native geckoes from preferred foraging locations on buildings , and to a lesser extent in the native gecko\u2019s natural forested habitat . house geckoes are thought to have become so widely distributed by hitchhiking rides on ships and other transports , or as eggs in the soil of nursery plants ; however , owners should be careful not to contribute to the problem by releasing their pets into the wild ."]}
{"id": 1399, "summary": [{"text": "stagmomantis amazonica , common name amazon mantis , is a species of praying mantis in the genus stagmomantis .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "they are native to the south america . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "stagmomantis amazonica", "paragraphs": ["stagmomantis amazonica - urdu meaning and translation of stagmomantis amazonica , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of stagmomantis amazonica and more .\nstagmomantis amazonica , common name amazon mantis , is a species of praying mantis in the genus stagmomantis .\n[ 1 ] tree of life web project . stagmomantis . version 22 november 2005\na synoptic review of the genus stagmomantis ( mantodea : mantidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nehrmann , r . 2002 . mantodea : gottesanbeterinnen der welt . natur und tier , m\u00fcnster .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of mathematics and natural sciences , national university , la jolla , california 92037 , usa . ; email : mmaxwell @ nu . edu .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthe mantis comes to us when we need peace , quiet and calm in our lives .\nwe are always eager to help . contact us either by email or live help by clicking bottom right\nlive help"]}
{"id": 1423, "summary": [{"text": "the northern cricket frog ( acris crepitans ) is a species of small hylid frog native to the united states and northeastern mexico .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "despite being members of the tree frog family , they are not arboreal .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it has three recognized subspecies . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "northern cricket frog", "paragraphs": ["the shaded region represents the range of the northern cricket frog in north carolina .\nif you have a different species of frog already and want to get a northern cricket frog , give the new frog his own enclosure .\nnorthern cricket frog - chattahoochee river national recreation area ( u . s . national park service )\nmccallum ml , trauth se . a forty - three year museum study of northern cricket frog (\nthe northern cricket frog is not a protected species in texas and can be legally collected with a hunting license .\ncricket frog acris crepitans this is the subspecies known as blanchard ' s cricket frog acris crepitans blanchardi travis co . , texas 26 september 2012\nmake sure it is legal to catch and keep northern cricket frogs in your area .\nnatural history : the northern cricket frog is sometimes divided into two subspecies of which the canadian frogs are called blanchard\u2019s cricket frog . they eat small insects . individuals rarely live more than one or two years .\nfrog fact : although populations remain stable in north carolina , northern cricket frogs have experienced severe declines in northern portions of their range , especially in the midwestern united states and southern canada .\ncricket frog acris crepitans this is the subspecies known as blanchard ' s cricket frog acris crepitans blanchardi dripping springs , hays co . , texas 20 september 2012\ncricket frog acris crepitans this is the subspecies known as blanchard ' s cricket frog acris crepitans blanchardi blanco river , blanco co . , texas 13 august 2013\n[ 1096 ] mccallum et al . ( 2011 ) , growth , reproduction , and life span in blanchard\u2019s cricket frog ( acris blanchardi ) with notes on the growth of the northern cricket frog ( acris crepitans )\nthe shaded region represents the range of the southern cricket frog in north carolina .\nthe southern cricket frog consumes pest insects and some which may potentially harm crops .\ncricket frog acris crepitans this is the subspecies known as blanchard ' s cricket frog acris crepitans blanchardi blanco river , near blanco , blanco co . , texas 7 may 2013\nthe northern cricket frog is a historic resident of new york state and represents an important amphibian component of wetland ecosystems . conservation of the northern cricket frog and its habitat is important to preserving new york ' s biodiversity and unique character . the recovery plan for nys populations of the northern cricket fog ( acris crepitans ) ( pdf ) ( 1 . 1 mb ) aims to improve the frog ' s geographic diversity and ultimately increase its population .\nhammerson , g . a . , and livo , l . j . ( 1999 ) . ' ' conservation status of the northern cricket frog (\ncricket frog acris crepitans this is the subspecies known as blanchard ' s cricket frog acris crepitans blanchardi onion creek , near dripping springs , hays co . , texas 13 august 2013\na . c . paludicola , coastal cricket frog . range : southwest louisiana to southeast texas .\na cricket frog can jump up to 5 feet - - or 50 times its body length .\na . food . cricket frog tadpoles feed on periphyton and phytoplankton ( johnson , 1991 ) .\na collage showing cricket frog variation from a single pond on a single day in clarke co .\nthis version of how to care for northern cricket frogs was reviewed by pippa elliott , mrcvs on may 30 , 2017 .\nthere are three subspecies : a . c . crepitans , northern cricket frog . range : southeast new york to florida and eastern texas ; this subspecies is extinct on long island .\ncall : northern cricket frogs call from april through august , and their call sounds like pebbles being clicked together , or \u201c gick - gick - gick . \u201d southern cricket frogs call from february to october , and their call is similar to , but slightly more metallic than , that of northern cricket frogs .\ni initially had this labeled as northern cricket frog ( a . crepitans ) but the taxonomy of these species have been going through some changes and i have been informed that all the cricket frogs in texas are apparently considered a . blanchardi .\nnumbers ( percentages ) of cricket frog specimens by gonadal sex and region and by gonadal sex and time period .\nnorthern cricket frogs make good pets , as they do not grow very large and are easy to catch . but , like any pet , they require a specific diet and environment to thrive in captivity . if you are considering getting a northern cricket frog as a pet , make sure you are prepared to properly care for it .\nnorthern cricket frog populations in the south differ from those in the north in several respects . evidence suggests that northern cricket frogs in texas and louisiana are active year - round and probably experience two breeding peaks ( pyburn , 1961a ; bayless , 1966 ) ; southern cricket frogs ( acris gryllus ) are also prolonged breeders ( forester and daniel , 1986 ) . additionally , sex ratios of northern cricket frogs in the south approximate 1 : 1 , and breeding population sizes are larger ( jameson , 1950a ; blair , 1961a ) .\ngray , r . h . , and brown , l . e . ( 2005 ) . ' ' decline of northern cricket frogs (\nburger , smith and smith , 1949 ( coastal cricket frog ) ; the coastal cricket frog tends to have larger toe pads , smooth skin , and a distinctively pinkish color , while blanchard ' s cricket frog is the wartiest , with a tendency towards more uniform coloration and less contrasting patterns ( conant and collins , 1998 ) . the call of\nnorthern cricket frogs and most other frog species feed almost entirely on living , moving prey that they have to catch to eat . if the prey is dead or not moving , they may overlook it entirely .\nyou can use a water dish or simply place water at the bottom of the slope you created with the soil . this will recreate the natural habitat of the northern cricket frog . use clean , filtered water .\nthe southern cricket frog feeds on insects , spiders , and other arthropods . it is active throughout the year in warm weather .\nyou could even keep some earthworms in the moist soil in the frog\u2019s enclosure to allow the frog to eat those . [ 12 ]\nburkett ( 1984 ) states that northern cricket frogs have an average life expectancy of about 4 mo and a complete population turnover in 16 mo . gray ( 1983 ) found marked animals that survived two winters . using skeletochronology , s . perrill ( personal communication ) has found 3 - yr - old northern cricket frogs .\nacris blanchardi is typically the most abundant frog throughout its range although populations are declining across the northern and western portions of their range ( see trends and threats ) .\ni ' m looking into catching a cricket frog and i needed some tips and basic rules on caring for one . this was very\nthe northern cricket frog ( acris crepitans ) is a small treefrog of the family hylidae widespread throughout eastern north america . in canada , its occurrence has only been confirmed at two localities : point pelee and pelee island in extreme southwestern ontario .\nirwin , j . t . , j . p . costanzo , and r . e . lee , jr . 1999 . terrestrial hibernation in the northern cricket frog , acris crepitans . canadian journal of zoology 77 : 1240 - 1246 .\nv . post - metamorphic migrations . juvenile northern cricket frogs can disperse from breeding wetlands out perhaps 100 m to other aquatic sites ( gray and brown , 2002 ) .\ngeographic distribution of chytrid fungus ( batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ) and ranavirus spp . in amphibians in northern . .\nremove the frog from the tank to clean it . keep your frog in a safe container with a vented lid while you clean the tank .\ngray ( 1995 , 2000 a , b ) documented morphological abnormalities and frequencies of abnormalities from northern cricket frog populations in illinois ( see also beasley et al . , this volume , part one ; l . b . , personal observations ) .\nhammerson , g . a . and livo , l . j . 1999 . conservation status of the northern cricket frog ( acris crepitans ) in colorado and adjacent areas at the northwestern extent of the range . herpetological review : 78 - 80 .\nthis is the subspecies known as blanchard ' s cricket frog acris crepitans blanchardi martin dies state park , jasper co . , texas 16 may 2013\nyear round ( february to october in western panhandle ) ; eggs are laid in clusters ( 7 - 10 eggs ) on the substrate or attached to submerged vegetation . call is like two marbles clicking together - - gick - gick - gick - gick - gick - - similar to the call of the northern cricket frog . to hear frog calls , visit the usgs frog call lookup and select the species you want to hear from the common name drop - down list ( be sure to listen to the southern cricket frog - - calls of both cricket frogs are grouped together on the same page ) .\nhammerson , g . a . , and l . j . livo . 1999 . conservation status of the northern cricket frog ( acris crepitans ) in colorado and adjacent areas at the northwestern extent of the range . herpetological review 30 : 78 - 80 .\nnorthern cricket frogs in canada breed in june and july . the frogs attach their eggs to vegetation below the water surface . tadpoles metamorphose in 5 to 10 weeks . the juvenile frogs reach sexual maturity shortly after transformation from tadpoles . northern cricket frogs hibernate under rocks or logs , or in depressions , holes and cracks in the shoreline , but away from water .\nnorthern cricket frogs are non - climbing frogs , so they do not need branches in their enclosure to climb on , and the enclosure does not need much height . [ 4 ]\nuse these plants to create a canopy in the enclosure . in the wild , northern cricket frogs live in areas with canopies created by vegetation , along the banks of different water sources .\nif you choose to keep different species in the same tank , make sure the other species you choose require the same environment as the northern cricket frog . you will want to choose a species that does not need too much height , and enjoys a damp environment .\ngeographic distribution of chytrid fungus ( batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ) and ranavirus spp . in amphibians in northern peninsular and panhandle florida\ngreenwell et al . ( 1996 ) found a massive amount of kidney parasitism in juvenile northern cricket frogs from illinois ( see also beasley et al . , this volume , part one ) .\nhabitat : in the past , northern cricket frogs have been found in natural marshes , deep drainage ditches and abandoned quarries . in canada it is limited to the warmest parts of the carolinian zone .\nevery frog will have different feeding behaviors . just watch your frog during each feeding session and evaluate his needs . start with 2 or 3 insects first , then see how fast they eat them . deciding how much and how often to feed your frog will take some time and evaluation of your frog\u2019s feeding habits . [ 14 ]\nif you have a male and female cricket frog in the same enclosure , they may breed . their breeding is aquatic , meaning it will happen in the water .\nii . clutch size . up to 400 eggs are deposited singly or in small clumps of 2\u20137 eggs . a detailed description of northern cricket frog eggs is given in livezey ( 1950 ) . the vitelli average 1 . 13 mm in diameter and are surrounded by two gelatinous envelopes .\n( a ) numbers of cricket frog specimens from illinois deposited in museum collections relative to numbers of other anurans in museums collected in the state from 1852 to 2001 . ( b ) numbers of cricket frog specimens from northeastern illinois deposited in museum collections relative to numbers of other anurans in museums collected in that region from 1852 to 2001 .\ndistributions : the canadian distribution of the northern cricket frog is now limited to pelee island . it has not been heard on the mainland since 1972 and was last reported from pelee island in 1987 . it is more widely distributed in the eastern and central united states as far as southern texas .\nthe northern cricket frog is a small , semi - aquatic frog with a\nwarty\nappearance and a pointed snout . the frogs are brown or grey , with a v - shaped mark between the eyes , faint markings on the back , and a broad dark stripe on the long back legs . the back feet have webbed toes . the breeding call of the male frog sounds like pebbles being rapidly clicked together . adults measure 16 to 38 mm in length .\nsince you will likely be putting live insects into the enclosure for your frog to eat , it may take a little while for your frog to find and eat the prey .\nrange and habitat : northern cricket frogs are most common in the piedmont and mountainous regions of the southeast and are generally replaced by the southern cricket frog ( a . gryllus ) in the coastal plain . although found in almost any moist habitat , cricket frogs are most common along edges of permanent ponds , lakes , and slow - moving streams . they prefer open , shallow water with plenty of vegetation . they do not climb well and are not found high in trees .\ni . seasonal migrations . dispersal of northern cricket frogs from one population to another tends to occur after rains . gray ( 1983 ) observed northern cricket frogs moving up to 1 . 3 km between farm ponds in central illinois . frogs that dispersed from one location and were later recaptured at another represented 1\u20137 % of the original population . however , many more frogs likely dispersed and either reached other sites or died in transit .\ncommon , but populations bear monitoring due to serious declines in other states . older references may refer to this animal as blanchard\u2019s cricket frog , but that subspecies is no longer recognized .\ngray , r . h . 2001 . cricket frog , acris crepitans , malformations in illinois : past and present . herpetological natural history 8 ( 1 ) : 75 - 77 .\nbreeding interval : generally , southern cricket frogs breed around 2 to 3 times a year .\nis a member of the tree frog family , it lives mostly on the ground or in freshwater areas with sunlight . examples of prime habitat include shallow ponds with vegetation , meadows , creeks , marshes and coastal plain bogs . the southern cricket frog can also be found in roadside pools and ditches . in these areas , they can become quite abundant . its main choices of habitation changes , however , when the southern cricket frog ' s range overlaps with that of\nthree subspecies of northern cricket frogs are recognized : blanchard ' s ( a . c . blanchardi ) , eastern ( a . c . crepitans ) , and coastal ( a . c . paludicola ) . blanchard ' s cricket frogs are represented in the west and midwest ; eastern cricket frogs are found in east texas , the gulf coast and southern forest regions , and the piedmont north to new york ; coastal cricket frogs are found in the gulf coast region of western louisiana and eastern texas .\na . c . blanchardii , blanchard ' s cricket frog . range : michigan and ohio to northeast and most of texas , scattered records in minnesota and colorado ( harding 1997 ) .\ngray , r . h . , l . e . brown , and l . blackburn . 2005 . acris crepitan , northern cricket frog . pages 441 - 443 in m . j . lannoo , editor . amphibian declines : the conservation status of united states species . university of california press , berkeley , california .\nthe northern cricket frog is protected by the ontario endangered species act and the fish and wildlife conservation act . under these acts , it is prohibited to kill , harm , harass , or collect this species , or to disturb its habitat . this species occurs at lighthouse point and fish point , which are designated as provincial nature reserves\nthe calls of this species resemble the sound of small pebbles being rapidly struck together . this provides music day and night to missouri\u2019s outdoors . also , like other frogs , northern cricket frogs prey on numerous insects that humans consider pests .\nwhitford , p . c . 1991 . blanchard ' s cricket frog survey of southeastern minnesota 1990 - 1991 . report submitted to the nongame wildlife program , minnesota department of natural resources . unpaged .\nnatural history museums are valuable resources for estimations of species distributions and health status over time ( shaffer et al . 1998 ) . we examined specimen records from 16 museums to determine where and when cricket frogs were collected in illinois . to determine whether cricket frogs were not available because collecting was not conducted , we compared cricket frog records with those of all anuran collections from the state . our rationale was that scientists collecting anurans and placing them in museums as voucher specimens would not consistently preclude cricket frogs .\nto protect itself from predators , the southern cricket frog is able to jump long distances of up to 8 feet and has the ability to camouflage itself either in the vegetation or water . the predators of\nberendzen , p . b . , t . gamble , and a . m . simons . 2003 . the genetic status of northern cricket frogs in minnesota . final report to the minnesota department of natural resoureces , nongame research program . 43 pp .\nthese frogs are diurnal and active all year . they can be seen basking in the sunlight . when threatened , they will jump quickly away or into the water . a poorer jumper than the southern cricket frog\ndeviations of observed from expected values of cricket frog sex ( a ) by time period and ( b ) by region . expected values were determined from the overall data set using the chi - square test .\ntoth , aniko ,\na tale of two species - - species distribution models for two cryptic cricket frog ( acris ) species in syntopy\n( 2012 ) . undergraduate honors theses . paper 522 . urltoken\nbe careful when attempting to catch cricket frogs , as they can be fast and they may get injured .\nhabitats and habits : northern cricket frogs are found primarily in the piedmont . southern cricket frogs are found primarily in the coastal plain . cricket frogs are active day and night and can be found in the shoreline vegetation of ponds and marshes , and along the banks of streams and rivers . the eggs of both species are laid singly or in small clumps , and the tadpole stage lasts about six to 13 weeks . the tadpoles of both species have distinct black tail tips .\nconservation concerns : never widespread in canada , northern cricket frogs are now considered endangered by both the federal and ontario governments . the cause of their decline during the 1970\u2019s is unknown , however habitat degradation and pesticide contamination are known to be problems within their range .\neastern and middle united states , michigan to northeastern mexico , entering the short grass plains of eastern colorado and northern mexico along rivers ( stebbins 1966 ) .\nthe impact of blanchard ' s cricket frog on the ecology of varsity lake , boulder , colorado , is unknown but probably minimal given the anthropogenic nature of the lake and the rapid extirpation of this population of frogs .\nit may be confused with the striped chorus frog which has a whitish stripe along upper lip and length - wise brownish stripe on sides and back , toes slightly webbed . northern spring peeper has smooth skin and x - shaped marking on back ( harding 1997 ) .\nif your frog doesn\u2019t seem interested in the live food at first , he may just not be hungry . leave the food in the enclosure and the frog will eat it eventually , when he wants it . [ 13 ]\nthe cricket frog ranges throughout the central plains states from western texas north to south dakota and from the florida panhandle north to southeastern new york , except for the coastal plain from virginia to florida and the northern appalachians . in the east , populations reach their northern limit in the hudson highlands - shawangunk region of new york . as late as the 1920 ' s , it also occurred commonly on long island and staten island . recently , a population of these frogs was discovered on the east side of the hudson river in dutchess county .\ndifferes from the southern cricket frog by having a more robust build , more webbing between the toes , a less sharply defined dark stripe on the back of the thigh and a pair of proment , subanal , white tubercles .\nis an insectivore which consumes a variety of insects , some of which are harmful to crops . the southern cricket frog , in turn , is preyed upon by a plethora of different fish , salamanders , turtles , and snakes .\nthe blanchard ' s cricket frog is protected under the federal species at risk act ( sara ) . more information about sara , including how it protects individual species , is available in the species at risk act : a guide .\nsullivan kb , spence km . effects of sublethal concentrations of atrazine and nitrate on metamorphosis of the african clawed frog .\nthe blanchard ' s cricket frog ( acris blanchardi ) is a common resident of much of the texas . the frog shown here was resting on a small lily pad in a pond at uncertain , harrison co . , texas , in july , 2004 . it was photographed with a canon eos 10d and ef 180mm f / 3 . 5 macro and flash .\ndickerson , mary c . ( 1906 ) . the frog book . new york : doubleday , page , and company .\nthere are some easy to spot symptoms of sickness or injury that you should be mindful of when caring for your frog .\npalmer bd , palmer sk . vitellogenin induction by xenobiotic estrogens in the red - eared slider turtle and african clawed frog .\nvan gorp , c . d . 1996 . survey for blanchard ' s cricket frog ( acris crepitans blanchardi ) in southwestern minnesota . final report submitted to the natural heritage and nongame research program , minnesota department of natural resources . 20 pp .\nconservation status : both cricket frogs are common in our region but a . crepitans is declining in areas of the midwest .\njohnson , b . k . and christiansen , j . l . 1976 . the food and food habits of blanchard ' s cricket frog , acris crepitans blanchardi ( amphibia , anura , hylidae ) , in iowa . herpetologica : 63 - 74 .\nalthough widespread in the eastern and central united states , in canada , this frog species has been found only at point pelee and pelee island , in extreme southwestern ontario . the point pelee population is now believed to have been extirpated . on pelee island , northern cricket frogs have been declining to a point where they are now thought to possibly persist only in fish point provincial nature reserve , located at the southern tip of the island .\nhay , r . ( 1998 ) . ' ' blanchard ' s cricket frogs in wisconsin : a status report . ' '\nback is grayish , tan , green to brown ; skin is warty . back is marked with patches of yellow , green , or black , often forming a\ny\nshaped line . head is usually marked with a dark triangle . the hidden surface of the thigh of the florida subspecies is marked with two dark , lengthwise stripes . individuals found in the extreme western panhandle are a different subspecies and have only one dark stripe on the thigh - - stripe edges are not as ragged like stripes of northern cricket frogs . snout is also more pointed than that of northern cricket frogs . digits are tipped with tiny toepads\na 3rd grey tree frog pic shared with us . tomorrow we will be promoting # toadtuesday , maybe we should think about a\u2026 urltoken\nyou want to make sure your frog feels at home in its enclosure . this means maintaining the vegetation , soil , and water .\nlives in the temperate climate of the southeastern portion of the united states . the range of this species , also known as the southern cricket frog , extends from the southeastern corner of virginia and spans through north and south carolina , georgia , alabama , and mississippi .\nvan gorp , c . d . and t . j . vandewalle . 1995 . survey for blanchard ' s cricket frog ( acris crepitans blanchardi ) in southeastern minnesota . report submitted to the minnesota county biological survey , minnesota department of natural resources . 24 pp .\nnumber by county of cricket frogs ( n = 814 ) collected in illinois from 1852 to 1996 and examined for gonadal sex determination .\nh . aestivation / avoiding dessication . during a period of severe drought in texas , w . f . blair ( 1957 ) reported that northern cricket frogs avoided desiccation by taking refuge in deep cracks in the bed of a dry pond . similar behavior has been observed in indiana ( l . b . , personal observations ) .\nregardless of how you incorporate the water , make sure there is enough of it to allow the frog to keep himself wet as needed .\na survey to locate habitats that still contain cricket frogs and to identify biological and / or ecological factors affecting this species was recently conducted . several locations in orange county had populations of cricket frogs in the late 1980 ' s which became extirpated in the early 1990 ' s .\nby the 1940 ' s , most historically known populations in new york state had been extirpated . this diminutive frog is now only locally present in a few scattered populations which still occur in the hudson highlands and shawangunk area . the decline of the cricket frog apparently began in the 1800 ' s with the clearing , drainage and alteration of thousands of acres of wetland habitat . aerial spraying of ddt and other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in the 1950 ' s and 1960 ' s is thought to have contributed to the decline of most remaining populations . other factors that may have contributed to the cricket frog ' s decline are contamination of ponds by road salt and the introduction of predatory fish , which feed on their eggs .\ndistributions of total numbers of illinois cricket frogs in museum collections for the five time periods . each circle represents one museum specimen from that county .\nis found to be smaller and more slender . the snout is markedly more pointed , the legs are longer and more proportional to the size of the body , and there is less webbing between the toes . the first toe is partially free of webbing and 3 joints of the fourth toe are completely free . warts appear on the skin , especially around the anal area , but are not as prominent as seen in the northern cricket frog . in addition to the stripe running down the back of\nnorthern cricket frogs can be associated with green frogs ( rana clamitans ; jung , 1993 ; l . e . b . , personal observations ) , northern leopard frogs ( r . pipiens ) , wood frogs ( r . sylvatica ) , american bullfrogs ( r . catesbeiana ) , fowler\u2019s toads ( b . fowleri ) , american toads ( b . americanus ) , eastern gray treefrogs ( hyla versicolor ) , western chorus frogs ( pseudacris triseriata ) , spring peepers ( p . crucifer ; l . b . personal observations ) , and a great many other anuran species .\nlannoo , m . j . 1998 . amphibian conservation and wetland management in the upper midwest : a catch - 22 for the cricket frog ? pages 330 - 339 in m . j . lanno , editor . status and conservation of midwestern amphibians . university of iowa press , iowa city , iowa .\nwithin its range , the cricket frog inhabits sunny , shallow ponds with abundant vegetation in the water or on the shores . slow moving , algae - filled water courses with sunny banks are the preferred habitat . deep water is generally avoided . males are typically found calling from floating mats of vegetation and organic debris .\nnorthern cricket frogs inhabit the margins of water bodies , such as lakes , ponds , rivers , streams , and , sometimes , temporary ponds and rain pools . on pelee island , they have been found in shoreline marshes , pools , lagoons , drainage canals used for agriculture , ditches and flooded fields . they are usually found on muddy shores or in aquatic vegetation in shallow waters .\nthis frog was named for its breeding call , which sounds very much like the chirp or trill of a cricket ,\ngick , gick , gick . . . ,\nrepeated for 20 or more beats . the sound has been likened to two pebbles being clicked together , slowly at first , then picking up in speed .\nits voice is cricket - like ; rhythmic , repetitive clicking \u2013 gick , gick , gick , gick , etc . it begins slowly but then picks up speed .\nthe northern cricket frog ' s color is quite variable : gray , tan , greenish tan , or brown . the back may have a irregular green , yellow , orange , or brown stripe . there is always a dark triangle between the eyes , a series of light and dark bars on the upper jaw , and an irregular black or brown stripe along the inside of each thigh . the belly is white . the feet are strongly webbed , but the adhesive pads on fingers and toes are poorly developed . the call is a metallic \u201cgick , gick , gick . \u201d\n) is widely distributed north of the ohio river and , in the southern u . s . , west of the mississippi river . several populations in western mississippi and one population in northern kentucky appear on the southeastern side of this tentative boundary .\nthe best thing to help your frog recover is to seek advice from a vet , and to keep it safe and out of harm\u2019s way while it recovers . [ 23 ]\ndavidson , c . 1996 . frog and toad calls of the rocky mountains . vanishing voices . library of natural sounds , cornell laboratory of ornithology , ithaca . audio cd recording .\noccurs , at least formerly , in northeastern colorado along the south platte river ( conant and collins , 1998 ; hammerson , 1999 ) . a record from 1905 suggests a disjunct population of blanchard ' s cricket frog may have inhabited a historical marshy habitat near douglas , cochise county , arizona , but is now extinct ( degenhardt et al . , 1996 ) .\nnorthern cricket frogs are nonclimbing hylids that include a wide variety of invertebrates in their diet ( dundee and rossman , 1989 ; degenhardt et al . , 1996 ; johnson , 2000 ; minton , 2001 ) . their preferred habitats are quiet , relatively permanent waters , especially those with muddy vegetated banks in open country , but they can adapt to other situations ( johnson , 2000 ; hulse et al . , 2001 ; minton , 2001 ) .\none of the smaller frog species in texas , adult acris crepitans grow to 1 . 25 - 3 . 5 cm ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 in ) in length .\ncrepitan is derived from the latin word crepit which means\nrattle\nand ans which means\na handle\nthis refers to the\nhand rattle\nlike call of the frog .\nyour frog will need high humidity in its enclosure . the misting will help with this , but make sure to keep the enclosure relatively warm to aid in keeping the humidity level stable .\n, the frog species most often collected in illinois . years of collection ranged from 1852 to 2001 . a trend of increasing numbers of frogs collected started in the late 1930s ; there was a marked reduction during world war ii , and then the rate of collecting markedly increased through the mid - 1950s . numbers of individual anurans collected declined sharply in the late 1950s , increased during the mid - 1960s , and declined during the 1970s and 1980s . the numbers of frogs collected in illinois have since increased . cricket frog numbers were largely proportional to those of other anurans (\nconfusing species : other treefrogs within its range are the spring peeper , the western chorus frog and the gray treefrog . the spring peeper is distinguished by a dark x on the back . the western chorus frog has three dark continuous or broken lines down the back . the grey treefrog has a light spot with a dark border under each eye and bright orange / yellow inner thighs .\nmake sure to change out the water in the enclosure and clean the interior when it appears dirty . like any other pet , this frog will require fresh water and a comfortable living environment .\njung , r . e . 1992 . blanchard ' s cricket frogs ( acris crepitans blanchardi ) in southwest wisconsin . abstract , 6th annual meeting of the society for conservation biology : 140 .\nmost frogs do well in a 20 gallon tank , so check your local pet store for a tank this size or larger . this will allow the frog enough space to thrive . [ 2 ]\nmake sure you have a lid on your enclosure . use a soft screen lid . this will allow air to flow into the tank , while keeping the frog inside and safe . [ 3 ]\nyou may need to feed your frog more or less than this , depending on their appetite and how fast they eat what you give them . this may take some guessing and testing at first .\nfemales can lay up to 400 eggs at a time in small groups of between 2 - 7 eggs . monitor how many eggs your female frog lays should you breed your frogs . [ 26 ]\nreeder al , foley g , nichols d , wikoff b , faeh s , eisold j , et al . forms and prevalence of intersexuality and effects of environmental contaminants on sexuality in cricket frogs (\nwhen you purchase insects from the pet store , they will come in a container that you can keep them in until you are ready to feed your frog . or , you can make your own container to use and reuse to house your frog\u2019s food . just use a thumbtack to poke air holes in a small plastic container , to allow air in but not allow bugs out . [ 16 ]\nuse a spray bottle to wet the enclosure a few times a day . this frog lives in naturally damp and moist environments , so a spray bottle can help maintain this level of moisture . [ 17 ]\nin missouri , northern cricket frogs are active from late march to early november . breeding is from late april to mid - july in shallows of ponds and backwaters with an abundance of aquatic plants . warm temperatures stimulate males to chorus ; both calling and noncalling males can be successful breeders . a female may lay up to 400 eggs , either singly or in small packets of up to 7 , which are attached to submerged vegetation . eggs hatch in a few days , and tadpoles begin metamorphosis 5\u201310 weeks later .\nthe eggs of the southern cricket frog are fertilized externally while in a freshwater habitat . the sperm enters the egg and soon a gelatinous cover envelopes the egg to protect it . it then develops into a gill - breathing larva , also known as a tadpole , which then metamorphoses into the mature , lung - breathing adult . from beginning to end , 90 - 100 days ( on average ) are needed to complete the metamorphosis .\nreeder , a . l . , ruiz , m . o . , pessier , a . , brown , l . e . , levengood , j . m . , phillips , c . a . , wheeler , m . b . , warner , r . e . , and beasley , v . r . ( 2005 ) . ' ' intersexuality and the cricket frog decline : historic and geographic trends . ' '\nburkett , r . d . 1984 . an ecological study of the cricket frog , acris crepitans . pages 89 - 102 in r . a . seigel , l . e . hunt , j . l . knight , l . malaret , and n . l . zuschlag , editors . vertebrate ecology and systematics : a tribute to henry s . fitch . museum of natural history , university of kansas , lawrence , kansas .\nyou can use artificial or plastic plants . you can buy these at most pet stores in the aquarium section . you can also get small hollowed out logs or rocks for your frog to hide inside of . [ 9 ]\nis an insectivore , feeding on a wide variety of insects with a major part of their diet being mosquitoes . when in the tadpole stage , however , this species is a herbivore . as adults , to catch their prey , they sit and wait in ambush for insects . when a prey item comes near , they lunge forward and shoot out their tongue . the southern cricket frog has also been observed chasing after their prey on the ground .\ncurrently , the populations of this species are increasing and stable . make sure you do a search to find out the population levels of this frog in your area , and determine if it is safe and allowed to catch them .\ncleaning a frog\u2019s tank is a lot like cleaning a fish tank , but you might have to do it more often because frogs tend to shed pretty often . a water filter will help keep the water clean between actual tank cleanings .\ncommonly seen along the edges of ponds , streams , and rivers , especially on open areas of mud flats and gravel bars . recent surveys indicate that this species is gone or nearly gone from wisconsin , northern illinois , and indiana , but the cause of this decline has not been determined . missouri populations need to be monitored .\nif you end up with two frogs that breed , the eggs will be laid in the water . be mindful to check for eggs before cleaning the water should you have a male and female frog in the same enclosure . [ 25 ]\na . crepitans is a small ( 0 . 75 to 1 . 5 inches ) , slim - waisted frog with slender webbed toes and a triangle mark on the head . dorsal coloration can be gray , light brown with dark bands on legs . there is a white bar from eye to base of foreleg . the skin is bumpy . males have a single vocal pouch . a . crepitans is a non - climbing member of tree frog family ( barket 1964 , stebbins 1966 ) .\nthe endangered and nongame species program would like for individuals to report their sightings of northern cricket frogs . record the date , time , location , and condition of the animal and submit the information by submitting a sighting report form . the information will be entered into the state\u2019s natural heritage program , commonly referred to as biotics . biologists map the sighting and the resulting maps \u201callow state , county , municipal , and private agencies to identify important wildlife habitats and protect them in a variety of ways . this information is used to regulate land - use within the state and assists in preserving endangered and\nthe scouring of coastal marshes during severe storms , and predation by birds , reptiles , bullfrogs and fish , are some of the natural factors contributing to the species\u2019 decline . however , loss of wetlands to development is the major factor affecting populations of northern cricket frogs . damage to habitat includes drainage of marshes and the dredging of drainage canals that are used by the frogs as breeding sites . habitat degradation is an important factor as well . these frogs are intolerant of pollution , and the runoff of pesticides and fertilizers is believed to be a major contributor to the decline and disappearance of the species .\nuse organic soil without any chemicals or fertilizers in it . you want to make sure it is as close to the frog\u2019s natural habitat as possible . you can also use pine bark that is easily found at any garden supply store . [ 7 ]\nyou can catch insects on your own , or go to a pet store to purchase insects for it to eat . since this frog is particularly small , you will want to make sure you buy or catch very small insects for it to eat .\nthis small frog is widespread , but declining rapidly , in the u . s . in canada , it is known only from extreme southwest ontario . there have been no confirmed records in canada since the early 1970s despite frequent searches . however , there have been unconfirmed reports of the species as recently as the mid - 1990s . consequently , it is slightly possible that the species still exists in canada . threats to this frog include destruction and alteration of its habitat and effects of pesticides , herbicides and other contaminants .\nhay , r . 1998 . blanchard ' s cricket frogs in wisconsin : a status report . pages 79 - 82 in m . j . lannoo , editor . status and conservation of midwestern amphibians . university of iowa press , iowa city , iowa .\ngamble , t . , berendzen , p . b . , shaffer , h . b . , starkey , d . e . , and simons , a . m . ( 2008 ) . ' ' species limits and phylogeography of north american cricket frogs (\nunder the species at risk act ( s . c . 2002 , c . 29 ) ( sara ) the federal competent ministers are responsible for the preparation of recovery strategies for listed extirpated , endangered , and threatened species . the minister of the environment and the minister responsible for the parks canada agency are the competent ministers for the recovery of the blanchard\u2019s cricket frog . environment canada led the development of this strategy , working in cooperation with parks canada agency under sara . it has also been prepared in cooperation with the ontario ministry of natural resources .\ndescription : the green frog is a large , true frog with large , distinct tympanum and prominent dorsolateral ridges . it may be green , bronze or brown , or a combination but is typically green on the upper lip . the belly is white with darker lines or spots . there may be some irregular spotting on the back . it is distinguished from other frogs in that the dorsolateral ridges run only partway down the back and do not reach the groin . the hind legs have dark bars . males have a bright yellow throat . maximum adult size is 10 cm .\nmossman mj , hartman lm , hay r , sauer jr , dhuey bj . 1998 . monitoring long - term trends in wisconsin frog and toad populations . in : status and conservation of midwestern amphibians ( lannoo mj , ed ) . iowa city , ia : university of iowa press , 169\u2013198 .\n) were examined to compare cricket frog gonadal sex in three regions of the state during five time periods . the three regions are distinguished by human population density and physiographic characteristics . the northeast region includes 11 counties with high human population densities in and surrounding the chicago metropolitan area . the central band of 66 counties , which was formerly largely prairie , is dominated by low topographic relief , fertile soils , intensive maize and soy agriculture , and low human population density . the southernmost region includes 25 counties with mixed crops , pastures , and wooded hills as well as low human population density . the five time periods studied included\n, the southern cricket frog , the dark stripe on the rear of the thigh is more ragged , lacking clean borders or blending with dorsal coloration , and there is extensive webbing between the digits on the hind feet ( conant and collins , 1998 ; powell et al . , 1998 ) . like many small frogs there is a dark triangle between the eyes ( stebbins , 1985 ; conant and collins , 1998 ) . dorsal coloration and dark marking vary considerably , with various combinations of black , orange or yellow , on a background of brown or green ( conant and collins , 1998 ) . of the three described subspecies ( frost , 2000 ) ,\nthis small frog can be found in several colors . generally they range from black , brown , or reddish brown to bright green or gray . along with these patterns of coloration is a stripe of contrasting color beginning anteriorly at the top of the snout and running along the back towards the posterior and ends at the urostyle . between the eyes of\nhistorically this species was found on long island , staten island , and in the lower hudson river valley . by 1930 , long island populations had disappeared , as had those on staten island by the mid 1970s ( gibbs et al . 2007 ) . cricket frogs have become extirpated from no fewer than 20 historically occupied sites since about 1900 , representing a significant range contraction within the state .\nblanchard ' s cricket frogs inhabit shallow wetlands , lakes , streams , or rivers , and are rarely found in large lakes , wide rivers , or polluted sites ( gray et al . 2005 ) . they typically occupy areas along the water ' s edge , and prefer open areas with muddy shorelines and abundant emergent vegetation ( oldfield and moriarty 1994 ; gray et al . 2005 ) .\nit appears to be significantly threatened only in the northwestern portion of its range . the reasons for the declines remain speculative but vegetation succession , climatic fluctuations , predation by native and exotic species , competition from other frog species , and water pollution caused by pesticides and / or other chemicals associated with agriculture are possibly significant ( harding 1997 , lannoo 1998 , hammerson 1999 , hammerson and livo 1999 ) .\nhas declined dramatically in the northern and western part of its range ( baker 1997 ; gray and brown 2005 ; hammerson and livo 1999 ; hay 1998 ; lannoo 1998 ; lehtinen and skinner 2006 ) . this phenomenon \ufb01rst came to light in the 1970s , and has continued to the present ( hay 1998 ; lehtinen , 2002 ; vogt , 1981 ) . possible causes for decline include climate change ( hay 1998 ; irwin 2005 ) , habitat alteration ( lannoo 1998 ) , pollution ( reeder et al . 2005 ) , and habitat fragmentation ( hay 1998 ) .\n) . from 1930 to 1945 , the percentage of intersex individuals was notably increased , and from 1946 to 1959 it was greater than during any other time frame examined . also , during 1946\u20131959 , the proportion of females was reduced . during the most recent period , the proportion of intersexes was lowest of any period except for 1852\u20131929 . in the 1990s , however , few cricket frogs were available from areas that previously had the most elevated intersex rates .\nis a\ngick - gick - gick - gick\nin succession , like pebbles being clicked together ( vogt , 1981 ; stebbins , 1985 ; davidson , 1996 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; johnson , 2000 ) . recordings of the calls of a . crepitans are available on cds from elliott ( 1994a , b ) , davidson ( 1996 ) , library of natural sounds ( 1996 ) , and bogert ( 1998 ) . the tadpoles are dark olive green with small dark spots , greenish yellow venters ( bellies ) , spotted tails with slight striping on the musculature ( ashton and ashton , 1988 ) , and in many northern populations , the tail tip is black ( johnson , 2000 ) .\n, there is also a darker longitudinal stripe that can be seen on the rear of the thigh . there is slight sexual dimorphism seen with the southern cricket frogs . the females are generally the slightly larger sex with a length of 16 - 33 mm and the males achieve a length of 15 - 29 mm . the males have darker throats , whereas the females ' throats are white . males also have a single subgular sac . when young , the frogs are entirely aquatic tadpoles . upon reaching adulthood , the recently changed frogs are roughly 14 mm .\nadults average only 1 inch ( 2 . 5 cm ) in length ; the male is usually smaller than the female . cricket frogs exhibit a myriad of patterns and combinations of black , yellow , orange or red on a base of brown or green . distinguishing characteristics are small size , dorsal warts , a blunt snout , a dark triangular - shaped spot between the eyes , and a ragged , longitudinal stripe on the thigh . the webbing on the hind foot is extensive , reaching the tip of the first toe and the next to last joint of the longest toe ."]}
{"id": 1444, "summary": [{"text": "the tennessee darter ( etheostoma tennesseense ) is a species of darter endemic to the eastern united states , where it occurs in the tennessee river drainage from western virginia to western tennessee .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it also occurs in the upper bluestone river drainage in western virginia .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it inhabits current-swept rocky pools and adjacent riffles of creeks and small to medium rivers .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "this species can reach a length of 6 cm ( 2.4 in ) . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "tennessee darter", "paragraphs": ["etnier d . 1993\nthe fishes of tennessee\nuniversity of tennessee press .\nin order to facilitate compute intensive research at the university of tennessee , knoxville and its collaborating institutions , nics has deployed a supercomputer named darter . darter is named after a freshwater indigenous fish native to east tennessee .\nnorth america : found only in the upper tennessee river drainage in virginia , north carolina , tennessee and georgia , usa .\nrange includes the upper tennessee river drainage , western virginia , western north carolina , and eastern tennessee ( page and burr 2011 ) .\n) in the upper tennessee river drainage . journal of the tennessee academy of science 83 ( 3 - 4 ) : 52 - 56 .\nnorth america : found only in cumberland and tennessee river drainages in virginia , north carolina , kentucky , tennessee , georgia and alabama , usa .\nthis darter is disjunctly distributed in tributaries of the upper tennessee river in georgia , north carolina ( menhinick 1991 ) , tennessee ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) , and virginia ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) . elevational range in tennessee is about 260 - 550 meters ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nas of june 30 , 2016 , darter is no longer an allocatable resource .\netnier , d . a . , and w . c . starnes . 1993 . the fishes of tennessee . university of tennessee press , knoxville , tn .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1982a . snail darter recovery plan .\nreasons : discontinuous distribution in tributaries of upper tennessee river in georgia , north carolina , tennessee , and virginia ; distribution fragmented by many impoundments , but locally common and currently stable .\nrange includes the middle and lower cumberland river drainage , kentucky and tennessee ( mostly below caney fork but occurs in obey river system and barren fork collins river ) ; middle duck river system , including upper buffalo river , tennessee ; shoal creek system ( tennessee river drainage , tennessee and alabama ) ; and tributaries to the mississippi river in western tennessee ( reelfoot lake , bear creek ) and southern illinois ( cache river ) ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nthe tennessee aquarium offers a wide variety of special events each month . . . . learn more\nnumerous individuals and environmental groups filed suit to stop construction of the tellico dam , arguing that damming the little tennessee river would destroy the snail darter\u2019s natural habitat . the court case , tennessee valley authority v . hill , went to the supreme court of the united states . the supreme court decided to uphold the mandate of the endangered species act to protect the snail darter and its habitat . after further political maneuvering , however , the tellico dam was completed , and the snail darter\u2019s natural habitat was destroyed .\nfindlaw . \u201ctennessee valley authority v . hill . \u201d urltoken ( accessed may 2 , 2008 ) .\nglobal range : ( 5000 - 200 , 000 square km ( about 2000 - 80 , 000 square miles ) ) this darter is disjunctly distributed in tributaries of the upper tennessee river in georgia , north carolina ( menhinick 1991 ) , tennessee ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) , and virginia ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) . elevational range in tennessee is about 260 - 550 meters ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nin september 1979 , congress passed an amendment that exempted the tellico dam project from the endangered species act . the tva closed the gates of tellico dam in november 1979 , flooding the native habitat of the snail darter . in an effort to save the snail darter , the tva had relocated many snail darters to the nearby hiwassee river prior to damming the little tennessee river . scientists also discovered snail darters in other areas of the tennessee river valley watershed after the completion of tellico dam . in 1984 , the fish and wildlife service delisted the tellico dam area as a critical habitat for the snail darter because the species died off in that area . because of the newly discovered snail darter populations , the fws changed the classification of the snail darter from endangered to threatened in 1985 .\nin the mid - 1970s , a well - publicized legal battle pitted environmental groups and an endangered species of fish against a $ 100 million federal construction project . the tennessee valley authority ( tva ) was constructing tellico dam on the little tennessee river when a new freshwater fish species , the snail darter , was discovered upstream . the u . s . fish and wildlife service listed the snail darter as an endangered species under the endangered species act of 1973 .\nthe snail darter is a small fish , about 2 in ( 10 cm ) in length that was discovered in the little tennessee river in 1973 . in 1975 , the fws listed the snail darter as an endangered species under the esa . when the snail darter was listed on the endangered species list , the secretary of the u . s . department of the interior , which oversees the fws , stated that the snail darter resided only in a small portion of the little tennessee river . furthermore , the secretary stated that the construction of the nearby tellico dam would destroy the critical habitat of the snail darter . the secretary then stated that \u201call federal agencies must take such action as is necessary to insure that actions authorized , funded , or carried out by them do not result in the destruction or modification of this critical habitat area . \u201d\nrange includes the upper holston river system ( tennessee river drainage ) , eastern tennessee and western virginia ; mcclure river and russell fork ( big sandy river drainage ) , western virginia and extreme southeastern kentucky ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nadditional surveys may be needed in tennessee : emory river , upper duck river , roaring river , obey river system .\ndarter is a cray xc30 system with an aries interconnect and a lustre storage system , that provide both high scalability and sustained performance . the darter supercomputer has a peak performance of 240 . 9 tflops ( 10 12 floating point operations per second ) .\nplater , now a distinguished law professor at boston college , was the lead attorney in the fight to save the little tennessee river , the last undammed river in the tennessee river basin . the river was , at the time , the only known habitat of the endangered snail darter , a minnow - sized member of the perch family . in addition , the little tennessee was part of the sacred homeland of the cherokee and , later , numerous families farming the rich bottomlands along the river . moreover , the little tennessee river was , in plater ' s description , the best trout stream east of montana .\nthe tennessee aquarium is home to a richly diverse living collection of the world\u2019s most fascinating animals . . . . learn more\nforest history society . \u201c1979 : snail darter exemption case . \u201d november 1 , 2004 . urltoken ( accessed may 2 , 2008 ) .\nthe wounded darters inhabits the upper tennessee river drainage , western virginia , western north carolina , and eastern tennessee . its instream habitat is among boulders or coarse rubble and cobble , often with overhanging ledges , in medium to large slow - moving rivers . like other members of the\nupper tennessee drainage of eastern tennessee , northern georgia , and alabama , including little tennessee river , watts bar reservoir below fort loudon dam , south chickamauga creek , lower portion of big sewee creek in meigs county , lower sequatchie river in marion county , little river in blount county , lower french broad river in sevier county , and lower paint rock river in madison county , alabama ( page and burr 1991 ; etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nmembers of the perch family , redline darters are distinguished from other species of darters by their horizontal bars and orange and white spots , giving them an almost plaid appearance . redline darters bury their eggs in the substrate . rainbow darters and redline darters are the most abundant darter species in the tennessee river drainage in alabama .\nthe secretary\u2019s findings troubled the tennessee valley authority , the agency responsible for the construction of tellico dam . the tva began the tellico dam project in 1967 . many homes and farms were relocated because tellico reservoir would flood 16 , 500 acres of land . the snail darter had not been discovered when the tellico dam project began . tellico dam was 70 % to 80 % complete ( a cost of tens of millions of dollars ) by the time the snail darter was listed as an endangered species .\nthe biggest threat to the tangerine darter is habitat degradation . this is due to point and nonpoint pollution , erosion and sedimentation . on the pigeon river in east tennessee , tangerine darter populations declined and recovered . in 1908 , champion international built a paper mill on the little pigeon river and decimated many of the native fish . in the 1980s the mill cleaned up its refuse and the river is steadily getting better . tangerine darters have been successfully reintroduced back into the pigeon river downstream of the paper mill .\nin may 1976 , the u . s . district court for the eastern district of tennessee denied relief for the snail darter advocates and dismissed their complaint . the court determined that the completion of tellico dam would probably jeopardize the continued existence of the snail darter . the court concluded , however , that \u201cat some point in time , a federal project becomes so near completion and so incapable of modification that a court of equity should not apply a statute enacted long after inception of the project to produce an unreasonable result . \u201d\nthey are a fairly common species ; however , their range is limited to clear , cool streams of the southern appalachian mountains . the tangerine darter is found throughout mountainous regions of the upper tennessee river drainage . it resides in smaller rivers and is most common in the emory , hiwassee , little , little pigeon , and tellico rivers . it is found in eastern tennessee , northern georgia , and western north carolina , and virginia . in georgia and north carolina , it is listed as a historic species in need of management .\ndespite this , the free - flowing little tennessee was marked for extinction by the construction of tellico dam . building the dam was the tennessee valley authority ( tva ) , the mammoth federal agency that , out of the depths of the depression in the 1930 ' s , literally brought light and power to the tennessee and cumberland basins . as plater eloquently describes in his book , tellico dam made neither environmental nor economic sense , but that did not deter either tva or congress from pouring millions of dollars into the project .\nrange includes the holston and nolichucky river systems , upper tennessee river drainage , eastern tennessee , western virginia ( extremely rare , south fork holston river above the head of south holston reservoir ) , and western north carolina ( rediscovered after reported extirpation ) ; the species occurs in the nolichucky river in tennessee and north carolina , two nolichucky tributaries in north carolina , and south fork holston river in tennessee and virginia ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) . the largest and most viable populations are in the nolichucky river , tennessee ( about 125 river km ) ; range extends both above and below davy crockett reservoir . in north carolina ( 1991 - 1993 ) , this darter was found at 11 of 57 sites sampled in the nolichucky river and upstream in the lowest 8 km of the cane river , the lowest 18 . 6 km of the north toe river , and in one tributary of the last ( rohde and arndt 1994 ) . this species occupies not more than 5 km of the south fork holston river in virginia . see etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) for a historical account of the known distribution .\nremember the snail darter ? the little fish that brought the construction of a multimillion dollar federal hydroelectric project to a screeching halt in the 1970 ' s ? even if you ' re not old enough to remember the carter administration , you ' ve probably heard of the snail darter . but you probably don ' t know the whole story . for that , you will need to turn to a terrific book , the snail darter and the dam : how pork barrel politics endangered a little fish and killed a river , by zygmunt j . b plater ( yale university press 2013 ) .\nwounded darter propagation protocols , as expected , were found to be essentially identical to those we have developed and refined since 1995 for a close relative , the boulder darter . a total of 494 wounded darter juveniles survived for release to the cheoah river in fall 2008 and spring 2009 ; and ultimately , 388 juveniles survived for a fall 2009 release to the cheoah river . 2010 and 2011 propagation efforts produced 284 and 308 juvenile wounded darters respectively for release . efforts to produce this fish have been put on hold as we evaluate the habitat suitability in cheoh . to date no wild reproducing populations have been found from our stocking efforts .\nstanding up to tva was a small but determined group of farmers , anglers , scientists , law students , and activists , represented by plater . over a few years , this group , with assistance from a few national conservation organizations including , i am proud to say , my organization , american rivers , learned to navigate the corridors of power in washington to press their fight to save the little tennessee river and the snail darter . eventually , the case went all the way to the u . s . supreme court which , in a landmark decision in tva v . hill , held that by enacting the endangered species act , congress intended endangered species to be given the highest priority , even above completion of a nearly - finished multimillion dollar dam . thus , it appeared that the snail darter had won and the little tennessee river was saved .\nthe tangerine darter is an insectivorous fish . juveniles feed primarily on mayflies and midges , and adults feed on mayflies and caddisflies . tangerine darters get their food by searching through the aquatic vegetation and eating the aquatic insects off of the plants . adults are also big enough to roll small gravel in search of prey . although the tangerine darter is not a game species , it is sometimes caught by fly fishermen using mayfly and caddisfly patterns .\nrange includes the tennessee river system from western virginia to hardin creek ( hardin county ) , western tennessee ( absent in upper holston river system [ north , south , and middle forks ] ; upper bluestone river system ( new - ohio river drainage ) , western virginia ( page and burr 2011 ) . menhinick ( 1991 ) mapped\nquestionable stream records\nin north carolina and stated that this species ( as a member of the\nthe snail darter was intentionally introduced to create an additional population of this endangered fish when its only known habitat was threatened by construction of a dam . seven hundred and ten snail darters were introduced into the hiwassee river from june 1975 to february 1976 ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1982a ; etnier and starnes 1993 ) . in october 1975 , 61 were introduced into the nolichucky river . introductions into the nolichucky river were halted when the sharphead darter etheostoma acuticeps was discovered there , for fear the introduction would jeopardize this rare species ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1982a ; etnier and starnes 1993 ) . the holston river was stocked with 533 snail darters from the hiwassee and little tennessee rivers during the period 1978 to 1979 . the elk river was stocked in july 1980 with 425 snail darters from the little tennessee river ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1982a ) .\nsection 11 of the esa contains a citizen suit clause that allows any citizen to sue \u201cto enjoin any person , including the united states and any other governmental instrumentality or agency\u2026 who is alleged to be in violation of any provision of this act . \u201d in 1976 , hank hill , a student at the university of tennessee , and others filed suit in federal court seeking an injunction to stop the construction of a dam that would destroy the habitat of the snail darter .\nthe tangerine darter spawns in shallow sandy gravel riffles that have consistent flowing water . the tangerine is a late spring to summer spawner . the breeding season , which is triggered by water temperature , begins in may and runs through july . spawning occurs at about three to four years of age , although sexual maturity comes much earlier for tangerine darters , with males reaching sexual maturity at one year of age and females two years of age . the life span of the tangerine darter is about four years .\nthis species has a widespread but spotty distribution in the tennessee , cumberland , and duck river systems of kentucky and tennessee ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) ; it has been extirpated in georgia ( known from one specimen collected several decades ago ) and alabama ( known from a pre - 1845 collection ; boschung and mayden 2004 ) , and it is rare in virginia , where it is known from one specimen collected in 1964 ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) and confirmed as still present in the clinch river in 2004 ( pat rakes , conservation fisheries , inc . ) . in recent years , ashy darters have been found in big south fork and rockcastle river of the cumberland river system in kentucky and tennessee and buffalo , little , emory , elk , and clinch rivers of the tennessee river system . the most substantial populations exist in big south fork ( cumberland river system ) and buffalo river of the ( tennessee river system ) ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . populations in the emory and elk rivers are represented by few recent specimens ; very small populations may exist there ( see powers et al . 2004 ) . various populations were probably extirpated before they could be discovered ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nrange includes the tennessee river system from western virginia to hardin creek ( hardin county ) , western tennessee ( absent in upper holston river system [ north , south , and middle forks ] ; upper bluestone river system ( new - ohio river drainage ) , western virginia ( page and burr 2011 ) . menhinick ( 1991 ) mapped\nquestionable stream records\nin north carolina and stated that this species ( as a member of the e . simoterum complex ) is\nprobably extirpated\nfrom north carolina .\nas global climate change continues , we will see more frequent and more severe droughts , reduced river flows , and greater conflict over leaving sufficient water in rivers to sustain fish and wildlife and the rivers themselves . whenever there is conflict over a river , and how its water should be used , the ghost of the snail darter looms again . it is convenient for those who favor damming and diverting water from our rivers to paint a picture in which the choice is for either people or fish , particularly if it is just a\nstupid little fish\nlike the snail darter or the delta smelt . as these conflicts deepen , it will be increasingly important to remember that the fight over the snail darter was more than just a fight to save a tiny fish . it was a fight to save a river , one that was itself endangered and crucial to the lives , livelihoods , and heritage of the people who loved it . thus , the true lesson of the snail darter is that when we fight to save a river , we fight to save part of ourselves .\nrange includes the ohio river basin , from the tennessee and cumberland drainages , tennessee , western virginia , kentucky , and alabama , to the vermillion river , eastern illinois , and tippecanoe river , indiana , east to the kanawha and monongahela rivers , west virginia , and upper allegheny river , pennsylvania and western new york ( lee et al . 1980 , mettee et al . 1996 , page and burr 2011 ) . however , the species is absent from most rivers within this range ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nthe snail darter case changed the face of environmental law in the united states , especially in regard to the endangered species act . the decision of the supreme court demonstrated the importance of the esa and other environmental laws . the court rejected the view that environmental laws should be enforced only when convenient . the court sided with the esa over a $ 100 million federal project . despite this victory in court , however , the snail darter case illustrated the political nature of environmental law when congress voted to exempt the tellico dam project from the esa .\nthe snail darter was listed as a federally endangered species in 1975 ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1982a ) . after several more populations were discovered in the early 1980s , the species ' status was changed to threatened in 1984 ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nthe tangerine darter inhabits clear and cool creeks or small rivers . in these rivers it likes areas that have large boulders , bedrock and a gravel substrate . it also likes to swim in the deeper riffles of these rivers . in winter , the tangerine moves to deeper pools .\nthe decline of this species is due primarily to elimination and fragmentation of habitat by inundation ( reservoir construction ) and degradation of habitat by nonpoint - source siltation resulting from land clearing and agricultural development ( boschung and mayden 2004 , powers et al . 2004 ) . powers et al . ( 2004 ) cited genetic distinctness and recommended that each major unit of the distribution ( duck river , upper tennessee river , and cumberland river ) be considered imperiled . jelks et al . ( 2008 ) categorized four segments of this species separately : duck river populations = vulnerable , lower tennessee river populations = endangered , upper cumberland populations = vulnerable , and upper tennessee river populations = endangered . urbanization is a threat to habitat in the lower reaches of the little river ( powers et al . 2004 ) . potential threats include pollution , siltation , and inundation of habitat .\nin the nearly four decades since the little tennessee river was lost , the real story of the river and its value to the farmers who lived along it , the cherokee who held it sacred , and the anglers who traveled for miles to cast a fly in its clear , trout - rich waters , has been largely forgotten . in its place , the fight to save the snail darter has been lampooned as the archetype of environmental extremism , putting the needs of a tiny fish over those of people . as plater ' s book reveals , that story is wrong but still resonates today .\nin the lawsuit to enjoin the tellico dam project , now called tennessee valley authority v . hill , the tva argued that the esa\u2019s protection of endangered species and their critical habitats did not extend to government projects that were authorized , funded , and underway at the time congress passed the esa . essentially , the tva argued that congress did not intend for the esa to interfere with projects that congress had approved . the tva also pointed to the fact that in 1975 congress appropriated an additional $ 29 million for the tellico dam project after the tva informed congress that the project could threaten the snail darter .\nin january 1977 , the u . s . court of appeals for the sixth circuit reversed the lower courts decision . the court of appeals remanded , or sent back , the case to the lower court \u201cwith instructions that a permanent injunction issue halt [ ed ] all activities incident to the tellico project which may destroy or modify the critical habitat of the snail darter . \u201d the court of appeals directed that the injunction \u201cremain in effect until congress , by appropriate legislation , exempts tellico from compliance with the act or the snail darter has been deleted from the list of endangered species or its critical habitat materially redefined . \u201d the court of appeals noted that the near completion of the tellico dam project and congressional appropriation of money to the project were irrelevant .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total adult population size is unknown but apparently quite large ( likely greater than 100 , 000 ) . this darter is common throughout much of its range ( page et al . 1992 ) ; locally abundant ( page and burr 2011 ) . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable .\ncomments : this species is represented by at least a few dozen distinct occurrences ( subpopulations ) , evidenced by more than 100 collection sites . on a state - wide scale , jenkins and burkhead ( 1994 ) mapped 27 collection sites in virginia , etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) mapped 52 collection sites in tennessee , and menhinick ( 1991 ) mapped 32 collection sites in north carolina .\nhabitat includes rocky pools and adjacent riffles of headwaters and creeks ( page and burr 2011 ) . this darter prefers small quiet streams with large flat rocks or bedrock bottoms ; small populations occur in small gravelly streams and in larger streams along quiet margins and beneath undercut banks ( braasch and mayden 1985 ) . spawning occurs in cavities under rocks ; females attach eggs to undersides of stones ( braasch and mayden 1985 ) .\nthis specuies would benefit from improvements in water quality , including reduction in siltation . populations apparently may respond quickly to improvements in water quality ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . the south fork holston river population may benefit by transplanting fishes from the nolichucky river , though fish competitors ( redline darter , sculpins ) in the former stream may limit or prevent the success of such a transplant ( burkhead and jenkins 1991 ) . conservation status can change quickly , so regular monitoring of populations is needed .\nof course , as yogi berra reportedly said ,\nit ain ' t over ' til it ' s over .\nreacting to the supreme court ' s decision , congress created a cabinet - level body , the endangered species committee ( commonly referred to as the\ngod committee\n) to decide whether tellico dam and future projects should be granted an exemption from the endangered species act . when the committee met to consider an exemption for tellico dam , it quickly determined that the project was an economic loser , quite apart from its environmental cost , and denied the exemption . finally , tva ' s political patrons in congress , led by senator howard baker ( r - tn ) , slipped through a rider on an appropriations bill allowing tellico dam to be completed . the little tennessee river was lost and , although the snail darter was transplanted to other streams and found in a few others , the clean , free - flowing river in which it evolved was destroyed .\nthis species is sensitive to habitat alterations ( braswell 1991 ) . it has disappeared from much of its former range due to the prevalence of impoundments on most rivers in the upper tennessee river drainage ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . it is moderately threatened by residential development in north carolina ( h . legrand pers . comm . 1997 ) . some populations have been lost in virginia due to pollution or impoundments ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 , s . roble pers . comm . 1997 ) .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . stauffer ( 1978 ; in lee et al . 1980 ) ) mapped 80 + collection sites . total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species is\nregionally abundant\nin the allegheny system of north - western pennsylvania and the cumberland basin in tennessee and kentucky . overall , it is locally common ( page and burr 2011 ) . trend over the past three generations is unknown but probably relatively stable or slowly declining .\nthis species is represented by at least a few dozen distinct occurrences ( subpopulations ) , evidenced by more than 100 collection sites . on a state - wide scale , jenkins and burkhead ( 1994 ) mapped 27 collection sites in virginia , etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) mapped 52 collection sites in tennessee , and menhinick ( 1991 ) mapped 32 collection sites in north carolina . total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100 , 000 . populations have been characterized as\nrelatively small\n( thompson , in lee et al . 1980 ) and locally fairly common ( page and burr 1991 , etnier and starnes 1993 ) . in virginia , this darter is generally uncommon , and apparently rare in the south fork holston river ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) . this species formerly was thought to be rare , based on seining surveys , but snorkeling efforts have revealed it to be relatively common ( greenberg 1991 , etnier and starnes 1993 , jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) . some populations probably have been extirpated by impoundments , but the degree of long - term decline is not precisely known . warren et al . ( 2000 ) categorized this species as\ncurrently stable .\ncomments : total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100 , 000 . populations have been characterized as\nrelatively small\n( thompson , in lee et al . 1980 ) and locally fairly common ( page and burr 1991 , etnier and starnes 1993 ) . in virginia , this darter is generally uncommon , and apparently rare in the south fork holston river ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) . this species formerly was thought to be rare , based on seining surveys , but snorkeling efforts have revealed it to be relatively common ( greenberg 1991 , etnier and starnes 1993 , jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) .\nthis darter typically occurs in warm , typically clear or slightly turbid , creeks and small to medium rivers with moderate gradient ; adults generally are in moderately swift runs and riffles with substrate of coarse gravel , rubble , or boulders ; this species is much less commonly found in areas of large slab rock and in shallow runs over gravel ; it has low tolerance of silt ( kuehne and barbour 1983 , burkhead and jenkins 1991 , page and burr 2011 ) . eggs are laid in sand or fine gravel beside large rocks at heads of riffles , and in riffles ( lee et al . 1980 , page 1983 ) .\nas california is enduring the worst drought in its history , some politicians are blaming it all on federal and state environmental laws that protect fish and wildlife and the rivers they depend on for survival . and , as predictably as water flows downstream , these politicians are looking for oddly - named and seemingly insignificant creatures to cast as villains . thus , in a february 5 , 2014 speech on the floor of the u . s . house of representatives , congressman devin nunes ( r - ca ) referred to the threatened delta smelt as\nthe stupid little fish\nwhose protection is causing central valley farms to dry up and wither away . call it snail darter politics .\ntangerine darters spawn by first the male mounting the female ; the female then scatters her eggs over the gravel , while the male disperses milt and fertilizes the eggs . while doing this both the male and female make a quivering motion . females choose the most brightly colored males ( bright orange black line with some blue where orange meets the black ) . males also become territorial during mating season and will defend their spawning riffles . females lay between 120 and 1 , 100 eggs . the tangerine darter does not care for its eggs . juvenile tangerine darters are found in calmer water and grow to between 2 and 3 inches ( 5 . 1 and 7 . 6 cm ) in their first year of growth .\npopulations have been greatly reduced or eliminated through siltation and inundation and cold tailwaters resulting from impoundment ( burkhead and jenkins 1991 ) . one large toxic spill in the upper nolichucky river could severely damage the population there and affect the conservation status of the species ( burkhead and jenkins 1991 ) . this species is regarded as\nsecure\nin north carolina ( rohde and arndt 1994 ) . this species apparently increased in abundance or recolonized the upper nolichucky river in tennessee after water quality improved there ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . some previous pollution problems in the south fork holston river system\nhave been relieved , but other potential pollution problems exist\n( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) .\nthe tva appealed the court of appeals ruling to the supreme court of the united states . the supreme court issued its opinion in june 1978 , affirming the ruling of the court of appeals . the supreme court found that the esa prohibited the construction of tellico dam , because the project would threaten the snail darter and its critical habitat . the court noted that the language of the esa is plain and does not make any exception for projects underway at the time congress passed the esa . if congress had intended to exempt such projects from the requirements of the esa , they could have simply added language to that effect to the esa . the court refused to read exemption into the esa in the absence of such language .\nestablished in hiwassee river and range expanding ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1982a ) . one darter observed in nolichucky river in 1980 . single individual possibly from small reproducing population or escapee from fish hatchery upstream ; none found since . elk river populations apparantly extirpated due to failed introduction ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . snail darters found in lower french broad and lower holston rivers in 1988 and 1989 presumably represent progeny of holston river transplants ( etnier and starnes 1993 ) . in 2005 , ashton and layzer ( 2008 ) found robust populations in french broad and hiwassee rivers , and low abundances in holston , little , and sequatchie rivers and big sewee and south chichamauga creeks . ashton and layzer ( 2008 ) suggested that these low population sizes may be due to a lack of reproducing populations in these streams , with individuals migrating into these streams from larger , reproducing populations in french broad and hiwassee rivers .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\npowers , s . l . and mayden , r . l . 2007 . systematics , evolution and biogeography of the etheostoma simoterum species complex ( percidae : subgenus ulocentra ) . bulletin of the alabama museum of natural history 25 : 1 - 23 .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of the fairly large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , apparently stable trend , and lack of major threats .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this fish is common ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nhabitat includes current - swept rocky pools and adjacent riffles of creeks and small to medium rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research actions .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\ncray linux environment cle 5 . 2 up01 ( based on sles 11 . 3 )\nmaximum aggregated bandwidth of 30 . 0 gb / sec with lustre ( 10gb / sec per ssu )\nall darters lack swim bladders , which give most fish the ability to control their buoyancy . darters rest on the bottoms of streams and will jump or dart upwards when they need to gain buoyancy for swimming or eating . they are very strong swimmers and maneuver with or against strong current with ease .\nnative fishes are affected by runoff from agriculture and roadways . to reduce the chances of contaminants entering their habitat , always recycle your oil and leave stream banks planted to reduce erosion .\nyour gifts support educational programs as well as conservation and research efforts in the region .\nsee how you can help support our many education , conservation and research programs .\njennifer hammock chose to hide data on\netheostoma tennesseense powers & mayden , 2007\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ntap here to turn on desktop notifications to get the news sent straight to you .\nfirst - person essays , features , interviews and q & as ; about life today .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\njustification : listed as vulnerable because extent of occurrence is less than 20 , 000 sq km , area of occupancy is less than 200 sq km , and the species occurs in not more than 5 locations ; the small number of locations makes the species highly vulnerable to catastrophic events ( such as a large pollutant spill ) that could rapidly cause the species to become critically endangered .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations and locations , and large population size , and because the species probably is not declining fast enough to qualify for any of the threatened categories .\nno major threats are known . locally , threats include siltation , pollution , and impoundment ( burkhead and jenkins 1991 ) .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research action .\njustification : small extent of occurrence , but listed as least concern inview of the fairly large number of subpopulations , apparently large population size , and relatively stable or slowly declining trend .\nthis species is represented by a fairly large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 . this species is regarded as common ( page and burr 2011 ) . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable or slowly declining .\nno major threats are known in much of the range , but aquatic habitats in the big sandy drainage\nhave been much abused ,\nresulting in a localized distribution of this species in that area ( jenkins and burkhead 1994 ) .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the fairly large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , apparently stable trend , and lack of major threats .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations and locations , and population size are still relatively large , distribution is not severely fragmented , and the species probably is not declining fast enough to qualify for any of the threatened categories under criterion a .\nhabitat includes fast rocky riffles of small to medium rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\npage ( 1983 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) ; etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of percina tanasi are found here .\ninhabits clean gravel or sandy shoals in large creeks and rivers ( boschung and mayden 2004 ; ashton and layzer 2008 ) . prefers areas lacking aquatic macrophytes and with low degrees of turbidity or siltation ( ashton and layzer 2008 ) .\ndiet primarily consists of snails , but also consumes trichopteran , dipteran , and ephemeropteran larvae ( boschung and mayden 2004 ) .\nboschung , h . t . , and r . l . mayden . 2004 . fishes of alabama . smithsonian books , washington , dc .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 et seq . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc .\npage , l . m . 1983 . handbook of darters . t . f . h . , inc . , neptune city , nj .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . the peterson guide series , vol . 42 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\npam fuller , and matt neilson , 2018 , percina tanasi etnier , 1976 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 8 / 16 / 2011 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ninhabit clear , fairly deep , rocky pools ( usually below riffles ) of creeks and small rivers . large males often found in rocky riffles ( ref . 5723 ) . juveniles feed on mayfly and dipteran larvae , while the adults consume caddisfly larvae ( ref . 10294 ) . eggs are found buried in the substrate ( ref . 7043 ) .\n18 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )\nnon - migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations . juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : adults feed heavily on immature insects associated with riverweed and on insect larvae living among gravel and rubble . young and juveniles feed on small crustaceans , diptera larvae , and baetid mayflies at stream margin .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : most active 0600 - 2030 h , peak at 1300 h ( page 1983 ) .\nspawns may to june or july ( page 1983 , page 1983 ) . very small young have been taken in early july ( lee et al . 1980 ) . age range of breeding females is 2 - 4 years ( bart and page 1992 ) . life span is a little more than 4 years ( howell 1971 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 11 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nlisted as least concern in view of the large extent of occurrence , large number of subpopulations , large population size , and lack of major threats . trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable , or the species may be declining but not fast enough to qualify for any of the threatened categories under criterion a ( reduction in population size ) .\ncomments : warren et al . ( 2000 ) categorized this species as\ncurrently stable .\ncomments : some populations probably have been extirpated by impoundments , but the degree of long - term decline is not precisely known .\ndistribution has been fragmented by many reservoirs , but the species\ncontinues to be reasonably widespread and abundant\n( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\ncomments : distribution has been fragmented by many reservoirs , but the species\ncontinues to be reasonably widespread and abundant\n( etnier and starnes 1993 ) .\nbiological research needs : life history aspects have been investigated ( howell 1971 ) .\ncomments : some occurrences are in protected areas , such as the great smoky mountains national park . this species has been collected from copper creek in western virginia , which has been designated critical habitat for the yellowfin madtom .\nneeds : doesn ' t seem necessary to single out a particular population for vigorous protection at this time .\ntangerine darters are typically 4 . 3 to 7 . 1 inches ( 11 to 18 cm ) in length ,\nspecies . the males are usually a bright orangish - red color , more elaborately colored than the females , which are yellow .\nchadwick d . 2010 .\nsilent stream .\nnational geographic vol 217 issue 4 116 - 128 .\ngreenberg l . 1993 .\na descriptive and experimental study of microhabitat use by young of the year benthic stream fishes\necology of freshwater fish ."]}
{"id": 1449, "summary": [{"text": "the pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) is a species of neotropical cuckoo in the subfamily neomorphinae of the cuculidae family .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is native to central and south america where it occurs in lowland tropical forest . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "pheasant cuckoo", "paragraphs": ["hunterstyle hand carved cuckoo clock with very carefullyl handcrafted dear , rabbit and pheasant .\npheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) is a species of bird in the cuculidae family .\nrombach and haas 1 day black forest pheasant top cuckoo clock 1207 - all about time , inc .\nclick the button below to add the rombach and haas 1 day black forest pheasant top cuckoo clock 1207 to your wish list .\nthe pheasant coucal is the only australian cuckoo to build its own nest . it also lives and nests on the ground , unlike other cuckoos .\nthe pheasant cuckoo ranges from southern mexico to argentina , throughout forested regions of central america and the middle and southern amazon basin . in panama , the pheasant cuckoo can be found along the pacific slope and canal area . uncommon and local , its true distribution is not well known due to its highly secretive behaviors .\nrange : the pheasant cuckoo is found from s mexico to panama , colombia , venezuela , the guianas , ecuador , brazil and amazonian peru , and then , in bolivia , paraguay and n argentina .\nthe pheasant cuckoo is a terrestrial species , but it flies well and quickly , and even silently during the territorial displays . nothing is known about migrations but this species is probably resident in its range .\nthis phase lasts 2 - 15 seconds or longer , according to the type of prey . then , the pheasant cuckoo starts a new sequence \u201cbob - rush - peck\u201d . it may forage for several hours every day .\nthe pheasant cuckoo female lays a dull white or pale buff egg with some rufous spots in the nest of the chosen host while this one is absent . the host species will provide parental care to egg and chick until the young bird becomes independent . the young cuckoo probably ejects host\u2019s eggs and / or chicks from the nest .\nwhen the cuckoo nestling hatches , it instinctively pushes the other eggs and nestlings out of the nest .\ncommon cuckoo is not the only brood parasite in the family . some tropical american species , such as striped cuckoo and pheasant cuckoo , also lay eggs in the nests of other birds . and so do yellow - billed and black - billed cuckoos \u2014 sometimes . while yellow - billed cuckoo normally raises its own young , it lays eggs in the nests of other birds surprisingly often . other yellow - billed or black - billed cuckoos are the most frequent hosts , but it has been known to target at least 10 other species , from robins to cardinals .\nthe pheasant cuckoo is rare and difficult to see as it does not move much and remains inconspicuous . it favors terra firme forests and is known to range at elevations of up to 1000 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in\nhabitat : the pheasant cuckoo frequents the understorey of the tropical lowland evergreen forest , but it also can be found in river - edge forest and tropical deciduous forest . this species can be seen from sea - level up to 1600 metres of elevation .\nthe pheasant coucal feeds on the ground on large insects , frogs , lizards , eggs and young of birds and , sometimes , small mammals .\nprotection / threats / status : the pheasant cuckoo has wide range , but the species is affected by changes and fragmentation of its habitat . however , it also benefits from new suitable habitat due to degradation of some areas . with its secretive and solitary behaviour , this species appears uncommon , rare or local . the global population was placed in the band 50 , 000 / 499 , 999 individuals in 2008 . it is suspected to be increasing . but currently , the pheasant cuckoo is evaluated as least concern .\nthe pheasant coucal is a large , long - tailed , pheasant - like cuckoo which occurs in northern and eastern australia , as well as southern new guinea and timor - leste . unlike most species of cuckoos , the pheasant coucal builds its own nest , a shallow platform of sticks and grass , into which it lays between two and five white eggs . the young coucals are fed by both sexes , but the male parent does most of the feeding , providing the nestlings with small vertebrates , such as frogs , and grasshoppers and other insects .\n) in appearance and mannerisms , apparently frightening the potential host and allowing the cuckoo to approach the nest unmolested .\nthe female has a rich bubbling chuckle , but the male ' s call is the very familiar\ncuckoo\n.\npheasant cuckoo foraging behavior , with notes on habits and possible social organization in panama pdf from researchgate by kathryn e . sieving - journal of field ornithology , 1990 department of ecology , ethology and evolution university of illinois shelford vivarium 606 east healey st . champaign , illinois 61820 usa\nthe cuckoo call on half and full hours , the music plays on the full hour whereas the hand painted figurerines dancing .\nwhen perched , usually in the open at the top of a tree , the cuckoo drops its wings below the level of its tail , as in the photograph . the best places to see cuckoo are grassland , reed beds , and edges of woodland .\nthis is the first record of pheasant cuckoo from bci in decades ! it is one of the large - bodied wet forest birds that famously disappeared a few decades after lago gatun ( in which bci is situated ) was created . presumably this same bird was present for 2 years after its initial discovery .\nin flight , the cuckoo can be easily mistaken for a sparrowhawk or kestrel , because it has swept - back wings and long tail . however , sparrowhawks do not have pointed wings like the cuckoo , and the kestrel is streaked and not barred on the underparts .\nthe cuckoo is a brood parasite , it lays its eggs in other birds ' nests and leaves the host birds to incubate and rear its young . dunnocks , robins and meadow pipits are frequent host birds . each female cuckoo specialises in using a particular host species and will lay eggs with similar markings to the host bird ' s eggs , and the young cuckoo will imitate the begging calls of the host ' s chicks .\nmimicry , in which the cuckoo egg resembles that of the host , thus minimizing rejection by the host ; removal of one or more host eggs by the adult cuckoo , reducing both the competition from host nestlings and the danger of recognition by the host that an egg has been added to the nest ; and nest - mate ejection , in which the young cuckoo heaves from the nest the host\u2019s eggs and nestlings . some species of\npheasant coucals have benefited from land clearing where weedy thickets have grown up , especially of blackberry or lantana . however have been adversely affected by widening urban development and where overgrazing by livestock has occurred .\npheasant cuckoo rattling sounds during foraging . these sounds apparently are produced by vibration of the wing and tail feathers , and vocalization . these sounds accompany body , wing and tail movements that apparently function in flushing potential prey . then the typical song : two introductory whistles of successive higher pitch followed by a trill ( whee whee wheerr - rr ) .\ngenerally , if you hear a cuckoo singing you will probably not see it until it stops singing , which is when it flies away from its song post .\n\u2026two very distinct families , the cuckoo s ( cuculidae ) and the hoatzin ( opisthocomidae ) . family cuculidae is the much larger group , containing about 140 species of cuckoo s , roadrunners , coucals , couas , malkohas , guiras , and anis ; cuculids are found in the tropical and temperate zones of all the continents\na large ' pheasant - like ' , ground - dwelling cuckoo , the pheasant coucal has a long tail and short rounded wings . in its breeding plumage , it has a black head , neck and underbody with the upperparts and wings reddish - brown with black and cream barring and the black tail is barred orange . out of breeding , the head and back return to a reddish chestnut colour and the underparts are cinnamon brown , with all streaked boldly white . the eye is red . sexes are similar in plumage , but females are larger than males . young birds look like paler , non - breeding adults with orange spots on the head , neck and upper body . when disturbed , coucals run rather than fly , or fly clumsily , plunging into cover . unlike most other cuckoos , the pheasant coucal is not a nest parasite .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nreproduction of this species : the breeding season may vary according to the range , but the male sings from march to august in mexico and from april to july in panama . the pheasant cuckoo is a brood parasite , and its hosts are typically passerines which make covered , domed nests . this type of nest is that of tyrannid flycatchers of genera tolmomyias , myiozetetes , rhynchocyclus , fluvicola and thamnophilus .\ncuckoos belong to the family cuculidae , well known for parasitic behaviour where they lay their eggs in other nests and leave the chick rearing to other birds . not all of them practice this parasitic behaviour . in australia the pheasant coucal and the brush cuckoos build their own nests . the channel - bill cuckoo and the koel mostly use black and white birds to rear their young . it is not uncommon to see a channel - billed cuckoo following crows or a common koel with peewees . the smaller cuckoos are known to use host nests from wrens , thornbills , warblers and honeyeaters .\npheasant cuckoos also have some other interesting behaviors . males are territorial , and in response to singing males , they will raise their head and crest , puff out their breast feathers , partially extend their wings and arch their tail coverts . even more interesting , the pheasant cuckoo has a unique , stylized foraging behavior . it descends to the ground , walks in the leaf litter and produces rattling sounds by vibrating its wings , body and tail feathers , as well as bill clapping . it bobs its body then lunges forward , taking several short steps , picking at insects among the leaf litter . it feeds on arthropods and small vertebrates such as lizards . it is also known to eat small nestling birds .\nthis charming and inexpensive cuckoo clock is one of our most popular models . the leaves and birds are hand carved from solid linden wood . when the clock strikes the hour or half - hour the door opens , a cuckoo appears and calls along with the clock ' s gong strike . at the same time , the two birds below move to feed the baby chicks in the nest .\nbehaviour in the wild : the pheasant cuckoo feeds on large insects such as grasshoppers , cicadas and beetles , but it also takes small lizards and nestling birds . the foraging behaviour of this species involves sounds and feather movements , probably used to flush the preys hidden in the vegetal cover and the leaf litter . a low rattle is produced by wing and tail feather vibration and bill - clapping . other fluttering noises are also heard during the distinct phases of the foraging behaviour .\ncalls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the pheasant cuckoo utters melancholy whistles \u201cse - s\u00e9e - werrrrrr\u201d with quavering note at the end . sometimes , the terminal trill is lacking in the song . it also gives series of \u201csah , she - si - see\u201d notes rising in pitch . it often sings from elevated perch , usually outside the thick vegetal cover . other calls such as rattles , clucking and growling can be produced too , especially while searching for preys on the ground .\n. the pheasant cuckoo is overall gray with a pale belly . the throat and breast are brownish with dark specks . it has a pale superciliary line from the base of the culmen to the nape , and a rufous crest . the tail is long , broad , and graduated . it has extremely long and ornate rump feathers and uppertail coverts . it forages on the ground where it extends the wings and tail to flush insects before it chases and catches them . it is very similar to the\n, any of numerous birds of the family cuculidae ( order cuculiformes ) . the name usually designates some 60 arboreal members of the subfamilies cuculinae and phaenicophaeinae . in western europe \u201ccuckoo , \u201d without modifiers , refers to the most\n. . . bornean ground - cuckoo carpococcyx radiatus a widespread endemic , occurring in low densities ( long & collar 2002 ; mann 2008 ; payne 2005 ) . this species was heard at pj in 2005 . . . .\nthe family cuculidae is worldwide , found in temperate and tropical regions but is most diverse in the old world tropics . cuculids tend to be shy inhabitants of thick vegetation , more often heard than seen . many species are named for the sounds they make\u2014e . g . , brain - fever bird ( a hawk cuckoo , cuculus varius ) , koel ( eudynamys scolopacea ) , and cuckoo itself , the latter two names being imitations of the bird\u2019s song .\nthe pheasant cuckoo can be aggressive in territorial behaviour . a male responds to other singing male with strutting displays . head and crest are raised , the breast feathers are puffed out , and primaries and alula are partially extended to display the white spots while the uppertail - coverts are raised and argued . they make frequent pauses on logs and trees , while briefly gaining height over one another . after several minutes , the first male comes to the ground while the second male flies away from the area . other types of threat displays may occur .\nsince the early 1980s , the numbers of cuckoos has been in decline and this may be because the populations of some key host species , such as dunnock and meadow pipit , have also declined . consequently , the cuckoo is now red list species .\nthe pheasant coucal prefers dense understorey vegetation , particularly grasses , rushes , bracken and sedges , in open forests and woodlands , and around wetlands . often found in sugar cane plantations near wetlands , on farmlands with thick grasses and weed - infested thickets , such as lantana . often seen in parks , gardens and along roads or railway lines .\ncaterpillars and other insects such as beetles and ants form the major part of the cuckoo ' s diet . many of the caterpillars are the hairy or brightly coloured poisonous ones , but their digestive system is specially adapted to cope with the hairs and toxins .\npheasant cuckoos inhabit lowland tropical forest , and can be found in dense thickets , secondary growth forest and borders up to 1200 meters . rarely seen , they are vocal and are often heard . their call is similar to that of striped cuckoo , two clear notes followed by a quavering third note or sequence of two or three quick short notes . they call ventriloquially from branches in the lower and middle levels of the forest , in dense cover , and are often difficult to detect . in panama , they call most frequently from mid - april to july , during the onset of the wet season .\nthis clock is hand made in the black forest in germany . the mechanical brass movement is driven by two weights and time escapes with the tick of a traditional pendulum . the cuckoo call sound is made by two wooden whistles with bellows inside the clock case .\n, found in all of the cuculinae and three species of phaenicophaeinae . it consists of laying the eggs singly in the nests of certain other bird species to be incubated by the foster parents , who rear the young cuckoo . among the 47 species of cuculines , various\n. . . bornean ground - cuckoo carpococcyx radiatus borneo - endemic we heard this elusive species calling once on 15 march in the traditional forest at pinang jatus . glpf is a new locality for this species ( long & collar 2002 ; mann 2008 ) . . . .\nthe european cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) is a brood parasite ; i . e . , it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds , which act as foster parents for the young cuckoos . the most frequent foster parents are various species of small songbirds . although the\u2026\nthe pheasant coucal is found in northern and eastern australia , as well as new guinea and east timor . it is found from the pilbara , western australia , to south - eastern new south wales . in new south wales it is mainly found east of the great dividing range from the queensland border to the southern hunter region , with some around sydney and further south to illawarra .\nwhen i was a boy , i used to hear cuckoos calling at summertime , but that is nearly 30 years ago and now they are essentially never heard . that said , on 8 th july 2006 , a cuckoo was heard calling at least 3 times , which was a real delight .\npheasant coucals form lasting pairs and , unlike other australian cuckoos , build their own nests and raise their young themselves . the nest is usually hidden in thick grass or sugar cane or in weedy thickets and is a platform of sticks , grass or rushes , lined with leaves and grasses . the male usually incubates the eggs and feeds the young , with the female helping with feeding . more than one clutch can be laid in one season .\n. . . the total number of records is low but still considerably higher than in any previous study . both species are rarely seen and , islandwide , the total number of recent ( 1992\u20132002 ) localities number only nine and thirteen for bornean groundcuckoo and bornean peacock - pheasant , respectively ( collar et al . , 2001 ; long & collar , 2002 ; s . van balen , pers . comm ; gmf , unpubl . . . .\ncontributing editor kenn kaufman provides tips for identifying birds in every issue of birdwatching . in june 2014 , he tells what to look for to identify yellow - billed cuckoo \u2014 and to tell it from similar - looking black - billed and mangrove cuckoos . he also offers this interesting description of the yellow - billed\u2019s unusual breeding habits :\n. . . habitat : lumadan : mature rubber , new plantations , swamp , and dipterocarp forest . lumbidan : circumstantial evidence from specimens indicates peatswamp forest ( hooked - billed bulbul and grey - breasted babbler ) and lowland , riverine forest ( bornean ground cuckoo ) ( long and collar 2002 banks ( 1982 , pers . comm . ) . . .\n. . . low obtained a few birds along the menggalong river as well . among birds collected in 1899 was bornean ground cuckoo ( long and collar 2002 ) . it is home to two of the most habitat - specific bird species in the state , hook - billed bulbul and white - throated babbler ( sheldon 1987 , holmes andwall 1989 ) . . . .\n. . . comm . ) . most of the bornean ground - cuckoo vocalizations we heard are described in detail by long & collar ( 2002 ) , although we do not always share their interpretation of the function of the calls . the vocalization of bornean peacock - peasant has been described as a harsh loud double ' cack - cack ' ( r . s\u00f6zer , pers . . . .\n. . . reports from ksnp have found that amongst hunters and bird - trappers the sumatran ground cuckoo was not well known ( holden 1997 ) , possibly because this species is rare and therefore difficult to find or because it has an unpleasant taste and is therefore not targeted ( long and collar 2002 ) . however , the other terrestrial bird species recorded in this study may be more vulnerable to poaching . . . .\nyoung yellow - billed cuckoos develop with amazing speed . the eggs hatch after only 9 - 11 days of incubation , and the young may be ready to leave the nest 8 days later , even though not full - grown then . ( for comparison , a robin\u2019s incubation period is 12 - 14 days , and the young usually fledge in about 13 days . ) obviously , rapid development is an advantage for a brood parasite , since the cuckoo\u2019s egg is laid later than those of the host , and the young bird must catch up to be fed by the foster parents . \u2014 kenn kaufman\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\npartners in flight estimate the total population to number 50 , 000 - 499 , 999 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\ncamp site sepriato2 , cusco , coordinates - 11 . 49 , - 72 . 47\nbird not seen but heared clearly for about 1 hour . for sure it was perched inside the bushes , about 50 m from my position .\nthe area presents very dense rainforest , with old trees , and some human intervention .\nthis bird sang two songs at about 10 : 15 and at about 10 : 25 , evidently from the ground . at 10 : 28 , i played two songs from xc83089 and within 10 seconds he flew in , landed on a branch about 5 m from the ground , and sang . after the five songs in this recording , he flew over our heads , landed in the forest farther away , and sang about eight more songs . between the third and fourth songs , i spliced - in some time from another part of the recording to replace talking by some people .\nsame bird as dropha06 . within 3 m of the ground in humid forest . reference : cxlviiia 51 - 66 ( dropha7 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nwithin 3 m of the ground in humid forest . reference : cxlviiia 39 - 47 ( dropha6 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) . filtered version on moore et al . ( 2013 ) urltoken\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 167 side b track 21 seq . b )\nrecording not modified . cloud forest el jaguar . bird singing at 10 m from the ground .\nsinging from 2 - 3m above the ground in reasonably open understory adjacent to the road .\nclose bird in primary forest at the edge of the lost world complex after playback of xc126037 .\nextended cut . playback had been used , but bird did not seem to respond to it . habitat is advanced secondary forest , in a more open area with a watercourse .\nsame bird and session as xc123210 . natural song . habitat is advanced secondary forest , in a more open area with a watercourse .\nnatural song . signal improves through recording . habitat is advanced secondary forest , in a more open area with a watercourse .\nnatural vocalization ; songs from a bird perched mid - way up tall trees in dense gallery forest . after the first few song strophes it switches song types for the rest of the cut .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\ns mexico ( guerrero and veracruz to yucat\u00e1n and chiapas ) to panama , colombia , venezuela , the guianas , ecuador , brazil and amazonian peru , then on to bolivia , paraguay and n argentina .\n33\u201341 cm ; male 78\u2013100 g , female 86\u00b78\u201398\u00b71 g . adult small - headed , thin - necked , dark brown above with scaly feathers , short rufous crest , white . . .\nmelancholy whistles , \u201cse - s\u00e9e - werrrrrr\u201d , final note quavering ; also a four - note . . .\ntropical lowland evergreen forest , flooded tropical evergreen forest , tropical deciduous forest , . . .\nbreeds apr\u2013jun in oaxaca . brood - parasitic : hosts are birds laying in open or covered nests , include tyrant - flycatchers ( eye - ringed . . .\nnot globally threatened . widespread , but uncommon to rare and local ; secretive and solitary behaviour make it difficult to assess numbers and relative abundance , but species . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\npresumed territorial threat display from a male . i was between two ( apparent ) males engaged in the same behavior .\ni spent a lot of time looking for this magnificent bird , but at the end i had great moments with him .\nthis wonderful bird show up for our group during our quick visit to chapada dos guimar\u00e3es .\ndave jackson , herve jacob , yo\u00ebl jimenez , jacob . wijpkema , mauricio rueda , leonardo r . deconto , michael retter , josep del hoyo .\noctavio rios , diego calderon - colombia birding , edson endrigo , gleboff31 , ken havard , arthur grosset , mauricio rueda , richardgreenhalgh031 , ciro albano , manakin nature tours , dave irving , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\npeter boesman , leonardo r . deconto , josep del hoyo , mauricio rueda , ciro albano .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dromococcyx phasianellus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ndeep , hollow ' oop - oop - oop - oop ' ; also a metallic tapping call .\nmedium to large ( 45 cm to 60 cm e . g . raven )\n, but is distinguished by a larger size , mostly gray head and neck , and black spots on the breast .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .\nmaterial published in urltoken belongs to the author ( s ) and is protected by copyright laws . contributor ( s )\ncontribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :\ncorbidi is a peruvian non - profit organization , whose goal is to develop foundations that support biodiversity conservation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe adult has dark sooty brown upperparts . scapulars and wing - coverts have pale - edged feathers involving scaled effect . the flight feathers are dark greyish - brown . rump and uppertail - coverts are dark greyish - olive , with small white tips to uppertail - coverts . the long , graduated tail is dark greyish - brown with narrow white terminal band . the underparts are white , but the breast is mostly whitish - buff with dark brown streaks and spots . axillaries and underwing - coverts are white , but the flight feathers and the tail are greyish - brown .\non the head , there is a short , rufous crest on the sooty brown crown . we can see a white eye stripe , indistinct on lores but conspicuous in postocular area . ear - coverts are dark brown , whereas the malar stripe is whitish . the bill is blackish above and greyish below . the eyes are yellowish , surrounded by bare , yellow - green eyering . lores are bluish - green to greenish - grey . long legs and feet are greyish - brown . the feet are zygodactyl with two toes backwards and two toes forwards . both sexes are similar .\nthe juvenile resembles adult but sides of head and upper breast are washed buff , and streaks and spots are absent . crown and crest are dull greyish - brown . wings , tail and uppertail - coverts show reduced white tips . the eyes are dark brown .\nthe first phase or \u201cbob\u201d shows the bird on the ground . its body , wings and tail are bobbing up and down . the tail is fanned and brushes gently the leaf litter . after a short pause , the second phase or \u201crush\u201d shows the bird running forwards in several short , quick steps . the head is outstretched and low . the wings , and especially primaries and alula , are extended out and downwards below the body - level , and flick forwards intermittently . bill - clapping can be heard and the fluttery rattle noise is increasing throughout the \u201crush\u201d . the bird stops abruptly after 1 - 2 seconds , ceasing both noise and movement . the third phase or \u201cpeck\u201d shows the foraging bird pecking in the leaf litter , capturing some preys and searching for invertebrates on the ground while walking .\nlittle is known about the courtship displays of this species , but we can suggest that they are fairly similar to the previous displays , in order to enhance the long , white - tipped wing and tail feathers while the crest is raised . but usually , the pair - bonds are not very strong between the mates .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 961 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthe adult birds usually have blue - grey head , breast and upperparts , and horizontal barring on the underparts and white spots and tips on the tail . however , the female also exists as a rare rufous\nhepatic\nmorph , so instead of being grey it is red - brown . the eyes and legs are yellow and the slightly curved bill is horn - coloured .\njuveniles are similar to the rufous female , but with a white patch on the nape .\nthe female will also sometimes eat the eggs and nestlings of the host bird ( see nesting ) .\nthey are a summer migrant , arriving around april and returning to central and southern africa from mid - july to august . the juveniles follow in august and september .\nby joining the biggest community of bird lovers in australia , you can help us make a positive impact on the future of our native birdlife . the members of birdlife australia , along with our supporters and partners , have been powerful advocates for native birds and the conservation of their habitats since 1901 .\nwe are also the meeting ground for everyone with an interest in birds from the curious backyard observer to the dedicated research scientist . it doesn\u2019t matter what your interest in birds is or how much you know about them , your membership will offer you the opportunity to increase your awareness and enjoyment .\nbirdlife australia would be delighted to welcome you as a new member and we look forward to sharing our news and achievements with you throughout the coming year .\nalthough birds are usually quite easy to see , often they are more difficult to identify . you may have had the briefest glimpse or heard a snatch of its song , or perhaps it was a bird you have never seen before . the best place to look for it is here . you will discover the remarkable variety of birds that occur across australia . with stunning images of featured species and some recordings of their songs and calls , you are sure to find that mystery bird , or learn more about species you already know .\nselect a bird group . . . birds of prey bush birds parrots sea birds water birds\nyou can participate and share in activities and projects with local experts all over australia .\nvisit us in sydney olympic park where you can learn about , see and engage with australian birds up close and personal .\nvisit birdlife australia\u2019s stunning conservation reserves and sanctuaries overflowing with native birdlife and other incredible flora and fauna .\nour bird observatories in western australia may be a little off the track , but that\u2019s what makes them such magical places to see birds .\nwant to know all about our native birds ? explore , learn , discover and enjoy australia\u2019s most comprehensive bird resource .\ndiscover and identify the urban birds in your backyard . get involved by helping us gather and share information about your local birdlife .\nfind places to watch birds in their native habitat . search our listing to find the next opportunity to see your favourite birds nearby and interstate .\nwe hold regular events and activities throughout the year and some have been taking place for decades . there are many ways for keen bird lovers to get involved .\njoin our community of dedicated volunteers that help monitor and collect important data on australia\u2019s birds . we always need more citizen scientists .\nthere are many ways you can help us help our native birds . join as a member , volunteer , make a donation or a bequest . your support makes a real difference .\nfrom urgent conservation activities to ongoing data recording , explore our vital projects that make a real difference to australia\u2019s birds .\nour policies , submissions and campaigns make us the leading voice for australia\u2019s birds by influencing decision makers and stakeholders .\nresearch , monitoring and evaluation underpin all our efforts . we have a long history of expertise in the science of bird conservation .\nour education programs share knowledge and experience in a friendly hands - on environment with staff and volunteers that know and love australia ' s birds and their habitats .\nbirdlife australia has a long and proud history of excellence in publishing . our members ' magazine , journals , newsletters , and reports are all world - class .\nthe h . l . white library is the most comprehensive ornithological library in australia , containing thousands of books , journals , and media about birds and related topics .\nthe atlas is one of birdlife australia ' s greatest resources , allowing us to track changes in birds across the country . since 1998 a dedicated band of . . . more >\nbirdlife australia\u2019s beach - nesting birds project works with community volunteers across australia to help raise awareness among beach users about . . . more >\nthe shorebirds 2020 program aims to reinvigorate and coordinate national shorebird population monitoring in australia . to report on the population . . . more >\nsince european settlement one - third of australia\u2019s woodlands and 80 % of temperate woodlands have been cleared . the woodland birds for biodiversity . . . more >\ncuculids range in length from about 16 cm ( 6 . 5 inches ) in the glossy cuckoos (\n) to about 90 cm ( 36 inches ) in the larger ground cuckoos . most are coloured in drab grays and browns , but a few have striking patches of rufous ( reddish ) or white , and the glossy cuckoos are largely or partially shining\non their backs and wings . with the exception of a few strongly migratory species , most cuckoos are short - winged . all have long ( sometimes extremely long ) , graduated tails , usually with the individual feathers tipped with white . the legs vary from medium to rather long ( in the terrestrial forms ) and the feet are\n; i . e . , the outer toe is reversed , pointing backward . the bill is rather stout and somewhat downcurved .\n( lizard cuckoos ) . the 13 old world phaenicophaeine species are divided among nine genera .\nthe phaenicophaeine cuckoos build flimsy stick nests in low vegetation . both parents share in incubation and feeding the young .\n\u2026two very distinct families , the cuckoos ( cuculidae ) and the hoatzin ( opisthocomidae ) . family cuculidae is the much larger group , containing about 140 species of cuckoos , roadrunners , coucals , couas , malkohas , guiras , and anis ; cuculids are found in the tropical and temperate zones of all the continents\u2026\nin certain parasitic species of cuckoos , the females are divided into groups , or gentes , each of which lays eggs with a colour and pattern unlike those of the other groups . the females of each group usually select a particular species as the host , and , more often than not , the eggs\u2026\n\u2026group of songbirds parasitized by cuckoos that has developed the most divergent egg - colour patterns ; the group of estrildine finches parasitized by whydahs that has developed particular gape patterns ; and among the cleaner wrasses the species labroides dimidiatus mimicked by the blenny aspidontus that develops into many different local races . \u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nlocal breeding populations of yellow - billed cuckoos can vary from year to year . they may concentrate where populations of tent caterpillars , cicadas , or other large insects have exploded . there\u2019s some evidence that the cuckoos may lay more eggs during such times of abundance and may be more likely to leave the \u201cextra\u201d eggs in the nests of other birds .\nkenn kaufman is naturalist , artist , conservationist , speaker , and author of many books , including the kaufman field guide series and the beloved memoir kingbird highway . in august 2013 he was elected a fellow of the american ornithologists\u2019 union . his column \u201cid tips , \u201d featuring the photographs of brian e . small , appears in every issue of birdwatching . the article above is an excerpt of a column that ran in our june 2014 issue . subscribe .\nlearn how the birds of cozumel were affected by hurricanes emily and wilma in 2005 .\na bird born to run , the greater roadrunner can outrace a human , kill a rattlesnake , and thrive in the harsh landscapes of the desert southwest . roadrunners reach two feet from sturdy bill to white tail tip , with a bushy blue - black crest and mottled plumage that blends well with dusty shrubs . as they run , they hold their lean frames nearly parallel to the ground and rudder with their long tails . they have recently extended their range eastward into missouri and louisiana .\nthe best way to find greater roadrunners is to travel along quiet roads in open country , particularly arid grasslands and low deserts . seeing one is usually a surprise , as the bird darts out of shrub cover or across a road\u2014so keep your eyes peeled . roadsides often teem with roadrunner prey lizards and snakes basking in the open or mice and birds drawn to seed - bearing plants . on the edges of its range , the greater roadrunner can be quite scarce and very hard to find . listen for their dovelike , low - pitched , cooing , which they usually give from an elevated perch .\nfor a generation of americans , the familiar \u201cbeep , beep\u201d of warner brothers\u2019 cartoon roadrunner was the background sound of saturday mornings . despite the cartoon character\u2019s perennial victories over wile e . coyote , real - life coyotes present a real danger . the mammals can reach a top speed of 43 miles an hour\u2014more than twice as fast as roadrunners .\nroadrunners have evolved a range of adaptations to deal with the extremes of desert living . like seabirds , they secrete a solution of highly concentrated salt through a gland just in front of each eye , which uses less water than excreting it via their kidneys and urinary tract . moisture - rich prey including mammals and reptiles supply them otherwise - scarce water in their diet . both chicks and adults flutter the unfeathered area beneath the chin ( gular fluttering ) to dissipate heat .\ngreater roadrunners eat poisonous prey , including venomous lizards and scorpions , with no ill effect , although they\u2019re careful to swallow horned lizards head - first with the horns pointed away from vital organs . roadrunners can also kill and eat rattlesnakes , often in tandem with another roadrunner : as one distracts the snake by jumping and flapping , the other sneaks up and pins its head , then bashes the snake against a rock . if it\u2019s is too long to swallow all at once , a roadrunner will walk around with a length of snake still protruding from its bill , swallowing it a little at a time as the snake digests .\nbased on banding records , the oldest roadrunner was at least 7 years old .\nroadrunners hold a special place in native american and mexican legends and belief systems . the birds were revered for their courage , strength , speed , and endurance . the roadrunner\u2019s distinctive x - shaped footprint\u2014with two toes pointing forward and two backward\u2014are used as sacred symbols by pueblo tribes to ward off evil . the x shape disguises the direction the bird is heading , and is thought to prevent evil spirits from following .\nto use all the features on this shop , javascript must be enabled in your browser .\nby visiting this website , you agree to our use of cookies . so we can improve the service to you . accept and close\nreplace their habitat \u2013 plant a shrub or a bush not just a tree ! trees need to connect to enable safe passage for the birds . any open area makes them vulnerable to be attacked by natural predators , like kookaburras , hawks , falcons , snakes , owls and the introduced predators such as cats , dogs , foxes or indian mynas .\nbe a responsible companion animal guardian . keep your cat inside or in a cat enclosure . always supervise your dog \u2013 especially during spring and summer and den your dog at night .\nyou can help by keeping your rubbish in a bin where black and white birds can\u2019t get at it . firstly because they forage in it inadvertently getting it caught around their feet , body or beaks , and secondly they use it as nesting material . basically they will use string , twine , wire , wool , netting , basically any material they can find to build a nest . when the chicks grow up in the nest , their feet and legs often get entwined in this string . many of these birds become attached to the nest and the tree branch . they are tethered to the nest like on a lead and when they fledge ( try to leave the nest to fly ) they are either totally unable to leave or injured and deformed rendering them unable to forage , perch and therefore live a healthy life ."]}
{"id": 1458, "summary": [{"text": "the andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) is one of the rarest flamingos in the world .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it lives in the andes mountains of south america .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "until 2014 it was classified in genus phoenicopterus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is closely related to james 's flamingo , and the two make up the genus phoenicoparrus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the chilean flamingo , andean flamingo and james 's flamingo are all sympatric , and all live in colonies ( including shared nesting areas ) . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "andean flamingo", "paragraphs": ["and andean flamingo ) , andean flamingos live in the most diverse set of habitats .\nthere are six species of flamingo , according to the integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) : greater flamingo , lesser flamingo , chilean flamingo , andean flamingo , james ' ( or puna ) flamingo and american ( or caribbean ) flamingo .\nthis entry was posted in archive , south america , waterbirds and tagged andean flamingo , chilean flamingo , puna flamingo . bookmark the permalink .\nestimated population of the andean flamingo is 33 , 927 birds with a decreasing trend .\narchived 2014 discussion : andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) : downlist all to least concern ?\ndescription : the andean flamingo is the third south american flamingo with the james ' s flamingo and the chilean flamingo . the species is listed as vulnerable due to human disturbances , egg - collecting and habitat loss . this flamingo is closely related to the james ' s flamingo . both are very rare .\nclose - up of an andean flamingo feeding in the shallow waters of salar de atacama in chile .\ndespite the long history of impacts and steady population decline , the andean flamingo has been declared endangered as recent as september 2010 . the andean flamingo is now protected under the endangered species act of 1973 .\n6 responses to archived 2014 discussion : andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) : downlist all to least concern ?\nalkaline wetlands constitute the andean flamingo\u2019s prime foraging habitat . ( photo : marcio cabral de mora \u2013 flickr )\nthis response was prepared by members of the gcfa , an international initiative coordinating flamingo and wetland research and conservation activities throughout the andean and puna flamingo distribution range .\nthe andean flamingo ( phoenicopterus andinus ) is one of the three flamingos occurring in the high andes of south america . it is the largest and easiest to identify in all age stages . it is also the rarest of the flamingos of living in the high andean . in fact , the andean flamingo is regarded as the world\u2019s rarest flamingo .\narchived 2014 discussion : andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) : downlist all to least concern ? | birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums\nyoung andean flamingos are grey in colour before they develop the pink adult plumage .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus )\ntitle =\narkive species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nrange : the andean flamingo is found in restricted range in the high andes , from s peru , through bolivia to n chile and nw argentina .\n( andean flamingo ) is found in the chilean andes of south america , which includes southern peru , north - central chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina .\nthe initial decline in the andean flamingo\u2019s population appears to have started as early as the mid 20th century . egg harvesting to sell as food was intensive then , with thousands taken annually from the breeding colonies in chile . these breeding colonies included other species of flamingos , but it was only the andean flamingo that appeared to have been the most affected , if indeed the egg extraction was one of the causes that led to the andean flamingo\u2019s population decline . egg collection for local consumption still continues at lower scale .\nthe lesser flamingo is the most numerous of all flamingo species , with an estimated population of 1 . 5 to 2 . 5 million individuals .\ndo you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the andean flamingo , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .\nandean flamingos are found in southern peru , north - central chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina .\nthe second most numerous flamingo species is the greater flamingo . exact numbers of these birds are difficult to assess because of their extensive range and migration patterns .\nin the 2014 breeding season in argentina , a nesting colony of 180 puna flamingo nests in laguna grande , catamarca , was abandoned because of human disturbance caused by unregulated tourism activities , and a colony of 600 andean flamingo nests in laguna blanca , catamarca , was abandoned because of human disturbance caused by people taking flamingo eggs for local consumption .\nwhile the andean flamingo is most commonly found in the andean wetlands , high in the mountainous regions near chile , argentina , peru . while they may be localized to these areas , the andean flamingos are highly migratory , and can travel up to seven hundred miles in a single day . while it is migratory , it can usually be found in an area containing high quantities of plankton and invertebrate life .\nthe size of volcano flamingo flocks can reach thousands of birds . total population estimates are 34 , 000 for the andean flamingo , 100 , 000 for the james\u2019s flamingo , and 200 , 000 for the chilean flamingo . in a world where remnant populations of charismatic species often teeter at hundreds to a few thousand in the wild , these estimates may at first seem encouraging . however , the international union for conservation of nature classifies volcano flamingos as \u201cnear threatened\u201d ( andean and chilean ) and \u201cvulnerable\u201d ( james\u2019s ) on its red list .\nthe james ' flamingo has the most restricted range of all flamingo species . they are found in southern peru , northeastern chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina .\nfor the first time , biologists from four south american countries have done a simultaneous census of the high - altitude lakes where two little - known flamingo species live year - round . their reports confirm fears of a precipitous decline in one species , the andean flamingo , over the last 25 years .\nthe high andean flamingos undertake continuous migrations between the south american wetlands of argentina , bolivia , chile and peru to forage and to search for breeding sites . the populations of these flamingos have been subject to a drastic reduction and fragmentation of their habitats . according to the iucn , the global conservation status of the andean flamingo ( phoenicopterus andinus ) is \u201cvulnerable\u201d and that of james\u2019s flamingo ( phoenicopterus jamesi ) is \u201cnearly threatened\u201d .\nwe would like to comment on the proposal by birdlife international to downlist the three flamingo species of southern south america , the andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) , to the category of least concern according to iucn criteria . we appreciate that this assessment is based on the recognition that data now available are rigorous , accurate , and reliable , and we also appreciate the opportunity to comment on this proposal .\nthe flamingo ' s characteristic pink colouring is caused by the beta carotene in their diet .\non bonaire , flamingoes are legally protected . never harass , frighten or harm a flamingo .\nthree flamingo species live in the wetlands of southern south america : the chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) is the most widespread throughout the southern cone , while the andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) and puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) are found primarily in the wetlands of the high plateau or altiplano in the andes mountains of argentina , bolivia , chile , and peru . however , they can also be found in lowland wetlands that are critical for their survival , especially during winter months .\nanother interesting component in the eating habits of all flamingos is they tend to follow the scavenging methods of whatever flock they are currently flying with . for example , the chilean flamingo tends to hunt in deeper waters than the andean , but if an andean flamingo comes upon a flock of the chileans , they will adopt the exact eating methods of their chilean counterparts , working as a team , and almost inherently knowing how to dive deeper than the species would normally .\nwe believe that the information available and our knowledge of the conservation status of the puna and andean flamingo populations and wetland habitats does not warrant the downlisting of these species to least concern according to iucn criteria . the status of the andean flamingo is of sufficient concern that the usfws has included it as one of the few foreign species listed under the us endangered species act as of september 2010 . furthermore , we believe the status of the puna flamingo should be reevaluated given the population treneds and demographic concerns and threats mentioned above to determine if listing as vulnerable is warranted .\nandean flamingos have been exploited by humans rarely in the past , probably because they tend to live and breed in remote , bleak areas .\ndiet : the andean flamingo feeds mainly on diatoms ( bacillariophyceae ) , algae of genus surinella , and aquatic invertebrates . it feeds by wading with head lowered into the water , in order to filter the water with its highly specialized bill .\ncaptive flamingo populations and opportunities for research in zoos . c . e . king . 142 - 149\nandean flamingos breed in december and january , variation may be related to rainfall patterns . andean flamingos begin breeding once they have become fully colored adults , usually at three to six years old . flamingos breed colonially , with up to thousands of individuals , sometimes in mixed - species groups with\nandean flamingos are found in the lakes and lagoons of the andes mountains . they are highly gregarious birds and form flocks containing thousands of individuals .\nbecause the andean flamingo\u2019s recent addition to the endangered species list , there have been few implemented plans to protect it . the more immediate protection measures include finding ways to solve the problems of mining activities , egg collecting , poaching , and uncontrolled ecotourism .\nthe movements of the greater flamingo population living in carmarque in southern france have been closely monitored since 1977 .\nflamingo specialist group : past , present and future activities . a . r . johnson . 200 - 205\nreproduction : the andean flamingo breeds in huge colonies containing thousands of birds . it may breed in mixed colonies with one or both other south american species . the nest is a mud mound , a truncated cone in shallow water with a bowl at top .\nlisting three foreign bird species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , the chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) , and the st . lucia forest thrush ( cichlherminia lherminieri sanctaeluciae ) - from latin america and the caribbean as endangered throughout their range ; final rule\nthe park contains more than 30 species of mammals , including wild llamas , vicuna , foxes , alpacas , chinchillas , and andean and pampas cats .\nwith their long legs and necks and distinctive pink plumage , flamingos are the epitome of avian elegance . but dr . conway considers the two mountain species to be the most beautiful of the six . the head , neck and breast of the andean flamingo have a wine - red hue , and it is the only flamingo with yellow legs . the james flamingo ' s back is draped with long scarlet plumes in the breeding season , and its breast is streaked with carmine .\nan andean flamingo nest is made mostly of collected mud ovoid\u2019s , where the birds collect the mud in their curved beaks , and stamp it down into roughly circular areas . the flamingo will then build a large \u201cmoat\u201d around the nested area . it is unknown why they do this , but it is speculated that the moat area is for protection against ground dwelling snakes .\nthe andean flamingo has the classic , familiar look of the flamingo , with long legs , a long neck , and a prominent , aquiline beak . this large filter - feeding bird stands 1 meter to 1 . 4 meters tall , and boasts a wingspan of up to 1 . 6 meters . average weight is 4 kilograms . festively coloured in pink and white , the andean flamingo\u2019s plumage is set off by yellow legs , a yellow and black beak , and black primary flight feathers on the wings . their cry is a loud , goose - like honk which is given with the head thrown back and the tail raised .\nandean flamingos have the typical flamingo form with long , thin legs and neck . the average andean flamingo stands 1 to 1 . 4 meters tall with a wingspan of 1 to 1 . 6 meters , and a weight of 1 . 5 to 4 . 1 kg . plumage is light pink , with the head , neck , and upper breast a darker red . the curved bill is yellow and black . they have three - forward pointing toes , lacking their fourth toe . juvenile andean flamingos are grey before they develop their light pink plumage . these are the only species of flamingo with yellow legs and a red spot between the nostrils . they also have very deep bills and stiff lamellae on the lower jaw to help filter fine particles for consumption and keep other larger particles out .\nthe andean flamingo\u2019s movements are poorly known , but they move according to water levels and food availability . during winter , they may perform altitudinal movements , leaving the altiplano and reaching lower areas where the food is abundant . they usually move at night and in flocks .\nliterature cited : marconi , p . m . and a . l . sureda . 2008 . high andean flamingo wetland network : evaluation of degree of implementation of priority sites - preliminary results . pp . 36 - 40 . in : childress , b . , arengo , f . and bechet , a . ( eds . ) 2008 . flamingo , bulletin of the iucn - ssc / wetlands international flamingo specialist group , no . 16 , december 2008 . wildfowl & wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk .\nthe beaks of the andean flamingo are a black and yellow color , yellow closest to the face , descending into black as you get closer to the tip of the beak . the beak is hooked , to aid in hunting at the bottom of shallow waters , and filter feeding .\nthe introduction of fish to some lakes may seriously affect the distribution of the chilean flamingo as well as the greater and caribbean flamingos , since they all feed primarily on invertebrates . other flamingo species are not affected because of different food sources .\nprotection / threats / status : the andean flamingo suffers population decline due to habitat loss , variations of water levels with mining activities , heavy egg - collecting in the mid - 20th century , human disturbances and erosion of nest - sites . currently , this species is listed as vulnerable .\nlauca ' s wetlands are home to more than 100 bird species , including the flamingo , giant coot , white owl , andean geese , and nandus ( a flightless south american bird resembling the emu ) . three species of flamingo throng the shores of lake chungara\u0097at 12 , 000 feet ( 3 , 660 meters ) , one of the world ' s highest lakes . birders from around the world flock to lauca .\nthe lifespan andean flamingos in the wild is unknown . they are believed to live for twenty to thirty years . in captivity some flamingos have lived to 60 years old .\nandean flamingos are highly gregarious , forming large flocks of tens of thousands of birds . the only typical form of aggression is between males when mate guarding . andean flamingos move among ponds and lagoons throughout the year , in search of food . they may tend to occur at lower elevations during the winter . they are active during the day .\nconservation efforts : various nature reserves and flamingo reserves have been established to protect crucial feeding and breeding grounds for this species . egg collecting has been successfully reduced by official action , though it still occurs . the united kingdom houses a self - renewing captive population of these birds should reintroduction ever become necessary . efforts are under way to create more protected areas and to educate locals in the ecological value of the andean flamingo .\nthe andean flamingos are monogamous , and it is speculated that they take mates for lifelong periods . mated pairs have been spotted and tagged together for several years at a time .\nandean flamingos have a loud honking call that is similar to that of a goose they also communicate using a wing salute , stretching up their neck and flipping up their tail .\nthe andean flamingo possesses the typical elegant flamingo body shape , with long legs and a long , curved neck ( 5 ) . the body is pale pink , with bright upperparts and a noticeable patch of black on the wing ( 2 ) . the legs are yellow and the large , curved bill is yellow and black ( 2 ) . young birds are grey in colour before they develop the pink adult plumage ( 2 ) .\nthe andean flamingo is one of the least commonly found flamingos in the world today . it is the only flamingo found to have three toed feet , and legs that are yellow in coloration . their beak is a black and yellow color , and it has the curved features that all pictorial representations seem to have . while they are fairly common in the andes and wet - lands of peru , they are presently vulnerable to extinction .\nthe greater flamingo has the most widespread distribution of all flamingo species . populations are found in northwest india , the middle east , the western mediterranean , and africa . limited numbers of this species can be found over much of northern europe and eastward to siberia .\nlesterhuis , a . j . , clay , r . p . and del castillo , h . ( 2008 ) status and distribution in paraguay of the chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) . pp : 41 - 45 . flamingo 16 : 41 - 45 .\nandean flamingos breed in colonies containing thousands of individuals , during december and january . they produce one chalky white egg that is laid on a mud mound in shallow water . both parents\nandean flamingos breeding at laguna brava , la rioja , argentina . e . h . bucher , j . m . chani , and a . l . echevarria . 119 - 120\nwhat a flamingo eats depends on what type of beak it has . lesser , james ' and andean flamingos have what is called a deep - keeled bill . they eat mostly algae . greater , chilean and american flamingos have shallow - keeled bills , which allow them to eat insects , invertebrates and small fish .\nthey are very shy birds , so they will always walk away when approached . if you see a flamingo and you would like to photograph it , do not approach it . the distance will never become smaller since for every step you take the flamingo will take two . the best way to photograph a flamingo is to use a telephoto lens . if you are in luck and you spot a flamingo close to the road , do not get out of the car . stay in the car and take the picture from there .\na . longevity . experts have not yet determined how long flamingos live . at the philadelphia zoo , one flamingo lived 44 years .\nandean flamingos are considered vulnerable and are difficult to breed in captivity . northern chilean populations were severely decimated by a drought . they are now protected by being listed by the convention on international trade in endangered species , and the convention on migratory species . a separate and self - sustaining population of andean flamingos is being kept at the wildfowl and wetlands trust in the united kingdom .\nlocation : the andean flamingo is confined to the mountains of south america \u2013 mostly in chile , peru , argentina , and bolivia . as noted , it lives only above the 2 , 300 meter mark and below 5 , 000 meters , requiring alkaline lakes or salt lakes with shallow , diatom - rich water for its survival .\n3 . tongue . a flamingo\u2019s large , fleshy tongue is covered with bristlelike projections that help filter water and food particles through the lamellae .\na new threat to the andean flamingo is borax mining , which occurs heavily in its range . though borax is largely harmless to humans , it destroys much of the birds\u2019 reproductive capacity and causes growing flamingos to develop deformed skeletons . bulldozing lake beds destroys food supplies , and mining activity in general disturbs the birds and ruins their habitat .\nthreats : the andean flamingo\u2019s decline began with massive collection of eggs from the world war ii era through the 1980s . the eggs were used as a food supply by the region\u2019s burgeoning population , but greatly impacted the flamingos , sending their population into a sharp decline . there was an average population of 100 , 000 prior to the egg collection era , but this human nest robbing cut the flamingo\u2019s numbers to a third of what they once were . today , the flamingo\u2019s population may be stable or even slightly increasing . sadly , egg collection is not even justified by poverty , since the local people are well - nourished and have an ample supply of llama meat , which is considerably more nutritious than flamingo eggs ; they are a delicacy , not a necessity .\nb . coloration . 1 . feather color varies with species , ranging from pale pink to crimson or vermilion . a . caribbean flamingos have the brightest coloration : crimson or vermilion . b . the chilean flamingo is pale pink . 2 . feather coloration is derived from carotenoid pigments found in a flamingo\u2019s food . 3 . male and female flamingo coloration is the same . 4 . newly - hatched chicks are gray or white . 5 . juveniles are grayish , taking approximately one to two years to obtain full adult coloration . 6 . parents lose their pink coloration while raising young if they are still feeding chicks through the adult\u2019s molting period . 7 . coloration of flamingos\u2019 legs and feet varies according to species from yellow to orange or pink - red . the andean flamingo is the only species that has yellow legs and feet . long legs and a long , curved neck are characteristics of all flamingo species .\nrecently the andean flamingo has been dropping in numbers and so it is now classified as vulnerable . it is hoped that early intervention though is going to help them be able to get their numbers back up soon and be taken off of that list . there are some efforts out there to help with the future for these and other flamingos .\nscientists recognize six kinds of flamingos , and two others are also found in the western hemisphere . the caribbean flamingo is the one seen in the bahamas and the galapagos islands ; the chilean flamingo is widespread from peru to the coasts of argentina and tierra del fuego , and some populations also breed in the high andes lakes . the greater flamingo , which is found from africa and the mediterranean to kazakhstan and india , is the largest of its kind . the smallest and most abundant species is the lesser flamingo , which numbers in the millions in africa ' s rift valley .\nthe andean flamingo is a forager , meaning it will eat anything that it can properly digest . its total diet is not fairly varied , including the diatoms , algae , and small particles . they are also known to eat some underwater plants , mostly the vascular varieties , but they are known to also gorge themselves on the smaller plankton species .\nandean flamingos use filter feeding to capture small particles at the sediment / water interface . they have narrow and deep lower mandibles which allow them to capture small particles , most commonly diatoms ( in the family\nflight : the andean flamingo flies with neck , head and legs outstretched . it needs a short run before to take off , to gain the necessary speed while wings are flapping when the wind is absent . the flight is swift and direct , with rapid wingbeats sometimes interspersed with short glides . when in flock , they often fly in v - formation .\nmining activities pose a current threat to the andean flamingo . mining companies have established themselves adjacent to the flamingos\u2019 nesting sites and feeding sites . flamingos have been reported to abandon their nesting sites even when mining was initiated after the establishment of nesting colonies when the birds were expected to be engaged in a breeding attempt and were less likely to leave the colonies .\nthe andean flamingo is protected by its listing on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) and appendix i of the convention on migratory species ( cms ) ( 4 ) . a self - sustaining captive population of andean flamingos exists at the wildfowl and wetlands trust at slimbridge in the uk ( 5 ) . these birds provide useful research subjects into behavioural aspects of this species . flamingos are an emotive bird and as such can act as important flagship species for the conservation of the world\u2019s highly delicate wetland ecosystems ( 5 ) .\nbreeding : breeding occurs from december through february , in large colonies \u2013 as might be expected from this social bird . only a single egg is laid by each female , and many young flamingos do not survive until adulthood . the egg is placed on a mound of mud , surrounded by shallow water . flamingo chicks are self - sufficient by ten months and ready to breed in three to six years . the andean flamingo lives for around 45 years in the wild if it does not succumb to hunting or predation .\nandean flamingo phoenicoparrus andinus is currently listed as vulnerable under the a criterion , and puna flamingo p . jamesi and chilean flamingo phoenicopterus chilensis are listed as near threatened under the a criterion . p . andinus was suspected to be declining at a rate of 30 - 49 % over 10 years . p . jamesi was suspected to have declined by 20 - 29 % over the past 48 years ( three generations ) , while p . chilensis was suspected to be declining at a rate of 20 - 29 % over 10 years . these negative trends were suspected on the basis of past declines and ongoing threats , primarily egg - harvesting , hunting , disturbance and habitat degradation .\nflamingo science : current status and future needs . k . l . bildstein , g . a . baldassarre , and f . arengo . 206 - 211\nrocha , o . & p . marconi . 2012 . monitoring of 2011 - 2012 breeding colonies and populations of andean flamingos ( phoenicoparrus andinus y p . jamesi ) in argentina and bolivia . unpublished report to cms .\na . size . 1 . the greater flamingo is the tallest flamingo , standing 110 to 130 cm ( 43 - 51 in . ) and weighing up to 3 . 5 kg ( 7 . 7 lb . ) . 2 . the lesser flamingo is the smallest flamingo , standing 80 cm ( 31 . 5 in . ) and weighing only 2 . 5 kg ( 5 . 5 lb . ) . 3 . males reach full size between one - and - a - half and two years . 4 . male flamingos are slightly larger than females , weighing more and having longer wingspans ; however , visual sex determination of flamingos is unreliable . 5 . the wingspan of flamingos ranges from 95 to 100 cm ( 37 - 39 in . ) for the lesser flamingo to 140 to 165 cm ( 55 - 65 in . ) for the greater flamingo . the caribbean flamingo has a wingspan of 150 cm ( 59 in . ) . there are five species of flamingos . two species belong to the genus phoenicopterus . p . ruber is divided into two subspecies , p . r . ruber and p . r . roseus .\nthe flamingo ' s most characteristic habitats are large alkaline or saline lakes or estuarine lagoons that usually lack vegetation . lakes may be far inland or near the sea .\nflamingos are generally non - migratory birds . however , due to changes in the climate and water levels in their breeding areas , flamingo colonies are not always permanent .\ndr . conway described the flamingo survey as ' ' a first step to a collaborative conservation program for the andean altiplano and puna wildlife communities . ' ' other unusual animals found in this barren landscape include burrowing rodents called viscachas and giant coots . he said the flamingo populations should be monitored at least once every two years and that researchers needed to determine why mortality among chicks had been unusually high . ' ' many chicks die even under the best conditions , ' ' he said , adding that the water level in the salars was influenced by mining activities .\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto the andean flamingo\u2019s call resembles goose\u2019s calls , a loud honking sound often given in flight . a feeding flock usually produces a low gabbling . we can also hear deep grunts during displays , postures and movements . they give nasal , raspy calls at colonies . on the other hand , the voice plays an important role in mutual recognition between adults and chicks .\nat 20 , 800 feet ( 6 , 340 meters ) , the peak of the snow - covered , dormant volcano parinacota , in northern chile , commands a view of peru , bolivia , and chile ' s high andean altiplano .\nabundance of benthic macroinvertebrates in caribbean flamingo feeding areas at los olivitos refuge , western venezuela . e . e . est\u00e9 and c . l . casler . 87 - 94\nfurthermore , for both andean and puna flamingos , the vast majority of chicks are being produced at 2 - 4 breeding sites ( laguna colorada in bolivia and salar de tara , salar de atacama , salar de surire in chile ) . during the 2010 breeding season , 80 % of andean flamingo chicks came from laguna colorada in bolivia , a site where productivity has been highly variable in the past 10 years ( rocha et al . 2009 ) . though other satellite breeding areas have been recorded in the past 5 years , these are not used consistently and do not produce the numbers of chicks that are produced at the main sites mentioned above .\na . distribution . 1 . all flamingos are found in tropical and subtropical areas . 2 . populations of chilean flamingos are found in central peru , both coasts of southern south america ( mainly in the winter ) , argentina , uruguay , paraguay , and southern brazil . stragglers have been reported on the falkland islands . 3 . the lesser flamingo is primarily an african species . populations are found in eastern , southwestern , and western africa . also , a sizable population nests in india . stragglers can be found as far north as southern spain . 4 . the james\u2019 flamingo has the most restricted range of all flamingo species . they are found in southern peru , northeastern chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina . 5 . andean flamingos are found in southern peru , north - central chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina . 6 . populations of caribbean flamingo are limited to yucatan , parts of the west indies , bahamas , galapagos islands , and the northernmost tip of south america . 7 . the greater flamingo has the most widespread distribution of all flamingo species . populations are found in northwest india , the middle east , the western mediterranean , and africa . limited numbers of this species can be found over much of northern europe , eastward to siberia .\nhabitat : the andean flamingo frequents salt - lakes at high elevation , usually between 3500 and 4500 metres , but it can be seen lower and higher too . this species is absent from lakes with hardened sediments at the bottom . it breeds on islands and islets with soil of soft clay sediment or sand . these islands are usually along the shores of high - elevation salt - lakes , or in centre .\nzoological society of san diego , 2005 .\nsan diego zoo ' s animal bytes : flamingo\n( on - line ) . accessed october 10 , 2005 at urltoken .\nthe chilean flamingo is scarce or absent in lakes with fish . it is present , usually in large numbers , where there are no fish with which to compete for food .\nthe chilean flamingo is the most numerous of the south american flamingos . estimated total population is not more than 200 , 000 individuals , and the population is in a decline .\nandean flamingos lay just one egg at a time . the egg is a pinkish white color , and is incubated by both parents for 27 - 31 days . the average egg is around seven centimeters long and weighs approximately 113 - 141 grams .\nin a landscape as harsh and vast as the altiplano , long - term , continuous monitoring of anything is difficult . enter the power of technology . we are using remote photography to create a cadre of digital witnesses in places inhospitable to humans . cameras set to synchronously capture images at \u201cflamingo\u201d and \u201cno flamingo\u201d lakes will observe the arrival , persistence , and departure of flamingo flocks . they will enable us to make direct estimates of flamingo numbers and locations . we can then correlate these data with lake characteristics such as algal density and salinity . the information being collected by our digital observers will help us to unlock some of the tightly held secrets of the altiplano\u2019s pink - feathered inhabitants\u2014 and not a moment too soon .\nhe added that the chilean flamingo had more catholic tastes . ' ' it has around 13 teeth to the inch and feeds largely on brine shrimp and other small invertebrates . ' '\ncurrent population estimates for the three species are 38 , 675 for the andean flamingo , 106 , 000 for the puna flamingo , and 282 , 752 for the chilean flamingo ( marconi et al . 2010 ) . the grupo conservaci\u00f3n flamencos altoandinos ( gcfa ) obtained the first reliable estimates for the first two species in 1997 by conducting a simultaneous comprehensive census throughout the distribution range . since then , subsequent censuses indicate population trends appear to have remained stable , although these are measured over a the time interval of the past 13 years , which is less than a generation length according to the iucn definition . prior population estimates were based on extrapolations of rough counts at a limited number of sites and are not considered reliable . population estimates for chilean flamingos continue to be based on extrapolations from limited counts .\n) may take eggs or newly hatched young . large , predatory birds may also sometimes take young flamingos . humans have also been known to hunt flamingos and collect their eggs . andean miners once believed that the fat of flamingos was a cure for tuberculosis .\ntwo adorable flamingo chicks were born this month at the smithsonian ' s national zoo in washington , d . c . the baby birds were the 100th and 101st flamingo chicks to hatch at the zoo ' s bird house . since flamingo chicks have a higher survival rate if they are hand - reared , zookeepers are keeping the babies out of the spotlight for now . when they are older , the birds will join the zoo ' s flock of flamingoes outside , according to smithsonian officials . [ related gallery : world ' s cutest baby wild animals ]\nthe caribbean flamingo is found throughout the caribbean ( cuba , the bahamas , the yucatan , turks and caicos ) , the galapagos islands , and the northern part of coastal south america .\nthe proposed action plan seeks to protect the high andean flamingos and their habitats , fostering research activities towards the improvement of the knowledge of these species , habitat management , and would also promote the cooperation and information exchange among signatories . in addition , the plan would also serve as a consolidation instrument of the conservation endeavors that are already in place to promote high andean wetlands conservation , such as those executed by the grupo de conservaci\u00f3n de flamingos altoandinos ( gcfa ) , and the commitments agreed under the ramsar convention on wetlands .\nandean and james flamingos feed side - by - side on tiny diatoms and nematodes that abound in the shallow lagoons , using their plunger - like tongues to pump the saline water and bottom mud through comb strainers ( or lamellae ) in their beaks . but there is apparently little competition between the two species . dr . conway measured the ' ' teeth ' ' in the beak combs and counted 23 to the inch in andean flamingos and 54 to the inch in james flamingos , suggesting that they filter foods of difference sizes .\nhigh andean flamingos have experienced direct threats from egg collection for market consumption , a practice that was more common during the mid - twentieth century up until the early 1980s . indirect threats coming from human disturbances , particularly unregulated mining activities have resulted in the erosion of nest - sites , water contamination , and a reduction in water availability . in addition to these threats , climate change has been associated with the increasing retreat of mountain glaciers in the andes . this unprecedented retreat would probably affect water supply at andean wetlands in the near future .\nandean flamingos live in highland salt lakes of the andes mountains from 2 , 500 to 4 , 950 m above sea level , but usually occuring between 3500 and 4500 meters elevation . their habitat mainly consists of large alkaline or saline lagoons with soft sediment bottoms . these habitats are often characterized by relatively sparse vegetation . in winter these flamingos may move to lower elevations in search of food . of the three types of flamingos living in the andes ( chilean flamingo ,\nthe way the andean flamingo ingests its food is both interesting and amazing . their bill allows them to take in the larger sea creatures that they commonly eat , while expelling water without swallowing it . their most common food source is known as the diatom , a nutritious form of plankton that frequents the bottom of lakes and rivers . the bill filters out all of the unnecessary or unwanted minerals , such as the rocks that tend to float around in the lakes .\nthe largest of the andean flamingos is native to the wetlands and shallow alkaline lakes of the high andes mountain range , from southern per\u00fa to northwestern argentina and northern chile . in the summer , they live in salt lakes and migrate to the lower wetlands for the winter .\nthe andean flamingo reaches sexual maturity at anywhere from three to six years of age , about the same amount of time it takes them to achieve their full pink coloration . the breeding period is usually in december , to january , when the migration has ended , and the birds have settled to their winter habitat . the breed like a colony and a group may have flamingos from up to four different species . the smallest breeding colonies observed are no smaller than fifty .\n102\u2013110 cm ; 2000\u20132400 g . head , neck and upper breast tinged wine red ; red spot between nostrils ; only flamingo with yellow legs and feet . lacks hind toe . on . . .\nan overview of the greater flamingo ringing program in the camargue ( southern france ) and some aspects of the species\u2019 breeding biology studied using marked individuals . a . r . johnson . 2 - 8\nevidence of seasonal sex ratio manipulation in the greater flamingo . g . bertault , m . raymond , f . rousset , f . c\u00e9zilly , and a . r . johnson . 20 - 25\ndel hoyo , j . , boesman , p . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\na . food preferences and resources . 1 . blue - green and red algae , diatoms , larval and adult forms of small insects , crustaceans , molluscs , and small fishes make up the main diet of flamingos . 2 . a flamingo\u2019s pink or reddish feather , leg , and facial coloration comes from a diet high in alpha and beta carotenoid pigments , including canthaxanthin . the richest sources of carotenoids are found in the algae and various insects that make up the staples of a flamingo\u2019s diet . 3 . the shape of a flamingo\u2019s filtering bill determines its diet . a flamingo will either have a shallow or deep - keeled bill . a . lesser , james\u2019 , and andean flamingos have deep - keeled bills and feed mainly on algae and diatoms . b . greater , caribbean , and chilean flamingos have shallow - keeled bills and feed on insects , aquatic invertebrates , and small fishes . caribbean flamingos eat larval and pupal forms of flies and brine shrimp as their main food . 4 . slight differences in diet and habits prevent competition among flamingos that share close feeding grounds .\nmany of the issues presented in 2011 by the gcfa continue to be valid in january 2014 . we have recent information that continues to document ongoing threats to the 3 flamingo species in southern south america .\nmarconi , p . m . and a . l . sureda . 2010 . simultaneous survey of shorebirds in the network of wetlands of importance for flamingo conservation . final report to birdlife international and canadian wildlife service . marconi , p . , a . l . sureda , f . arengo , m . s . aguilar , n . amado , l . alza , o . rocha , r . torres , f . moschione , m . romano , h . sosa , e . derlindati . 2010 . fourth simultaneous flamingo census in south america : preliminary results . in : lee , r . , arengo , f . , and bechet , a . ( eds ) in press . flamingo , bulletin of the iucn - ssc / wetlands international flamingo specialist group , no . 18 , wildfowl & wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk .\nc . appendages . 1 . legs . a . adult flamingos\u2019 legs are long and spindled . the legs are longer than the flamingo\u2019s body , measuring between 80 and 125 cm ( 31 . 5 - 49 in . ) depending on the species . b . the ankle is located about halfway up the leg . c . the knee is located close to the body and is not externally visible . 2 . feet . a . the chilean , greater , and lesser flamingos have three forward - pointing toes and a hallux , or hind toe . b . andean and james\u2019 flamingos have three toes and no hallux . c . webbing between the toes aids the bird in swimming and stirring up food . d . coloration of the feet and legs is the same . 3 . wings . a . the wingspan of flamingos ranges from 95 to 100 cm ( 37 - 39 in . ) on the lesser flamingo to 140 to 165 cm ( 55 - 65 in . ) on the greater flamingo . the caribbean flamingo has a wingspan of 150 cm ( 59 in . ) . b . there are 12 principal flight feathers located on each wing . these black feathers are visible when the wings are extended . 4 . neck . the neck is long and sinuous . a flamingo has 19 elongated cervical ( neck ) vertebrae allowing for maximum movement and twisting .\nif a flamingo were to stop eating food containing carotenoids , its new feathers would begin growing in with a much paler shade , and its reddish feathers would eventually molt away . molted feathers lose their pinkish hue .\nin 1956 , the caribbean flamingo numbers were estimated at only 21 , 500 . since then , the population has increased to a current estimate of 850 , 000 to 880 , 000 birds and a stable trend .\nmarconi , p . , sureda , a . l . , arengo , f . , aguilar , m . s . , amado , n . , alza , l . , rocha , o . , torres , r . , moschione , f . , romano , m . , sosa , h . and derlindati , e . ( in press ) 4th simultaneous flamingo census in south america : preliminary results . flamingo 18 .\nb . habitat . 1 . the flamingo\u2019s most characteristic habitats are large alkaline or saline lakes or estuarine lagoons that usually lack vegetation . lakes may be far inland or near the sea . 2 . a variety of habitats are used by flamingos : mangrove swamps , tidal flats , and sandy islands in the intertidal zone . 3 . the presence or absence of fish may have a great influence on the use of lakes by some flamingos . a . the chilean flamingo is scarce or absent in lakes with fish . it is present , usually in large numbers , where there are no fish with which to compete for food . b . the introduction of fish to some lakes may seriously affect the distribution of the chilean flamingo as well as the greater and caribbean flamingos , since they all feed primarily on invertebrates . other flamingo species are not affected because of different food sources .\nandean flamingos reach heights between 1 and 1 . 4 m ( 3 . 25 - 4 . 60 ft ) , they have a wingspan between 1 and 1 . 6 m ( 3 . 25 - 5 . 25 ft ) and they weigh up to 4 kgs ( 8 . 8 lbs ) .\namerican flamingos live in the west indies , yucat\u00e1n , in the northern part of south america and along the galapagos islands . chilean , andean and james ' flamingos live in south america , and the greater and lesser flamingos live in africa . greater flamingos can also be found in the middle east and india .\nthe lesser flamingo is primarily an african species . populations are found in eastern , southwestern , and western africa . in addition , a sizable population nests in india . stragglers can be found as far north as southern spain .\nbehaviour : the andean flamingo is a \u201cfilter - feeder\u201d , feeding on food particles from water , by passing food and water over the highly - specialized bill equipped with filtering structure as all flamingos . it feeds mainly on diatoms , algae of genus surinella , taking the food between the sediment at the bottom and the water just above it . it may perform upending in deeper lakes . it walks slowly and stops sometimes . usually , they feed in pairs or small groups , and are several metres apart , patchily scattered over the lake .\ne . flight . 1 . to take off , a flamingo runs several steps , begins flapping its wings , and lifts into the air . when landing , the procedure is reversed : the bird touches down and then runs several paces . 2 . a flamingo flies with its head and neck stretched out in front and its legs trailing behind . 3 . flight speed of a flock of flamingos can reach 50 to 60 kph ( 31 - 37 mph ) . 4 . flamingos have been known to fly 500 to 600 km ( 311 - 373 mi . ) each night between habitats . a flamingo flies with its head and neck stretched out in front and its legs trailing behind .\nconservation organizations such as the flamingo specialist group is actively trying to inform the public on the vulnerability of flamingos . they produce an annual newsletter to tell readers the current status of several species . recently , this group has joined sides with the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) in order to create an action plan for the flamingos . the populations of all species of andean flamingos is monitored though simultaneous multi - national census . also local outreach programs are being implemented in the most sensitive regions used by flamingos during an annual life cycles .\nlong - term survey of chilean flamingo breeding colonies on mar chiquita lake , c\u00f3rdoba , argentina . e . h . bucher , a . l . echevarria , m . d . juri , and j . m . chani . 114 - 118\nthe numbers of the other species , the james flamingo , are close to estimates from the 1970 ' s , but conservationists are concerned that the fragile ecosystems shared by both birds are threatened by increasing human disturbance , particularly from mining and unregulated tourism .\nour goal is to implement a long - term regional conservation strategy that will ensure the functional integrity of the wetlands that are crucial for these birds\u2019 survival . this requires regional , cross - boundary collaboration among a variety of institutions in the flamingo range countries .\nin addition to developing an action plan , signatories are committed to assess its implementation at regular meetings , and report any advancement on the conservation of these species to the secretariat . overall , activities under the mou are oriented towards the effective protection of the high andean flamingos through the conservation of the habitats upon which they depend throughout their entire life - cycle ."]}
{"id": 1460, "summary": [{"text": "cardigan bay was a new zealand harness racing pacer foaled 1 september 1956 .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "affectionately known as \" cardy \" , he was the first standardbred to win us$ 1 million in prize money in north america .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was the ninth horse worldwide to win one million dollars , ( the first eight were thoroughbreds ) .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "cardigan bay won races in new zealand , australia , canada and the united states .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "along with his arch-rival , american champion of the day , bret hanover , he has a legitimate claim of being one of the truly great standardbred racehorses .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "cardigan bay became an overnight sensation in the united states , and appeared with dancer on the ed sullivan show as the \" million dollar horse \" . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "cardigan bay ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["beswick cardigan bay # 2340 -\nthe million dollar pa . . . beswick cardigan bay # 2340 -\nthe million dollar pa . . .\nthe club draws its name not simply from the fact that it is based geographically on cardigan bay , but in recognition of the horse , cardigan bay , the first standardbred to win $ 1million .\nharness champion - cardigan bay archived 2008 - 12 - 03 at the wayback machine .\ncardigan bay and war buoy are credited with the greatest number of consecutive wins - 10 .\ncardigan bay the million dollar pacer archived october 16 , 2008 , at the wayback machine .\ncardigan bay and war buoy are credited with the greatest number of consecutive wins \u2013 10 .\nislayj , vr owner at static caravan . mwnt , cardigan bay , responded to this review\nin the backstretch , cardigan bay was tucked in behind overtrick . in the last 100 yards , he drew alongside of overtrick . with 50 yards to go vernon dancer , driving cardigan bay , went to the whip . the 8\u2010year\u2010old cardigan bay and the 4\u2010year\u2010old overtrick crossed the finish line together .\nthe world ' s first million dollar pacer , cardigan bay , wins the 1963 new zealand cup .\nthe new zealand post office issued a postage stamp in 1970 to recognise cardigan bay ' s achievements .\nalong with phar lap , cardigan bay is one of new zealand\u2019s most famous racehorses . cardigan bay was a standardbred harness racer . in harness racing the horse pulls a two - wheeled cart , or sulky , which seats the driver . cardigan bay lived from 1956 to 1988 , and was the first standardbred horse to win more than us $ 1 million . his fame was commemorated in this 1970 new zealand stamp .\ncardigan bay was foaled at mataura ( near gore ) in the south island of new zealand . as you drive into mataura from gore , there is a sign on the road proclaiming mataura as the birthplace of cardigan bay . he was a first crop foal by a leading sire , hal tryax ( usa ) , his dam colwyn bay was by josedale dictator ( usa ) . cardigan bay was a brother to thule bay and a half - brother to brides bay .\ncardigan bay was a new zealand harness racing horse foaled 1 september 1956 . affectionately known as\ncardy\n, he was the first standardbred to win \u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nin 1964 , overtick and cardigan bay tangled in the dan patch pace and the dan patch encore . cardigan bay prevailed by the shortest of noses in the dan patch , but overtrick got his revenge in the encore .\ncardigan bay was foaled at mataura ( near gore ) in the south island of new zealand . as you drive into mataura from gore , there is a sign on the road proclaiming mataura as the birthplace of cardigan bay .\nthat comment was prophetic . cardigan bay was indeed to become the world\u2019s first pacer to win a million dollars .\ncardigan bay appeared on television on ' ' the ed sullivan show ' ' before being flown to new zealand .\nin 1964 , overtrick and cardigan bay engaged in two races : the dan patch pace and the dan patch encore . cardigan bay prevailed by the shortest of noses in the dan patch , and overtrick won the encore . overtrick also defeated cardigan bay in an earlier race in 1964 , prevailing by a neck in a mile and a half race .\ncardigan bay was born in new zealand in 1956 and apart from his name , there is a loose welsh connection .\nthe new zealand post office issued a postage stamp in 1970 to recognise cardigan bay ' s achievements . [ 17 ]\ncardigan bay was foaled at mataura in the southland region of the south island of new zealand . as you drive into mataura from gore , there is a sign on the road proclaiming mataura as the birthplace of cardigan bay . he was a first crop foal by a leading sire , hal tryax ( usa ) , his dam colwyn bay was by josedale dictator ( usa ) . cardigan bay was a brother to thule bay and a half - brother to brides bay . auckland pacing ( known in . nz as trotting ) cup was won in 1961 not 1962 .\non dec 17 , 1963 , on a blustery night at hutt park , wellington , cardigan bay raced a mile against the clock in 1 : 56 1 / 5 , the fastest ever in new zealand . a week later , stanley dancer called and asked , \u201cwhat kind of a horse is this cardigan bay ? \u201d\nthe next night , a sunday , cardigan bay was a guest on the ed sullivan show , the first and only race horse to appear on that stage . under the agreement with audrey and mervyn dean , cardigan bay was shipped back to new zealand to finish his days in comfort on the land where he was foaled .\npatterson did not quite agree .\nsure , cardigan bay was getting to us , but what would you expect after my horse had cut out such a pace , especially the last half ?\nevery horse is different . cardigan bay was different because he did not believe he was a horse . i had no doubt that he had a calculating mind and the emotions of a champion . most importantly , he had a heart as big as catcher ' s mitt .\nmr feelgood has something cardigan bay and lyell creek ( both geldings ) could not achieve \u2013 the opportunity to become a successful sire .\nthe winner of that one\u2010mile pace in the then track\u2010record time of 1 minute 58 1 / 5 seconds was cardigan bay , the greatest horse , harness or thoroughbred , from australia or new zealand . he was the first horse in harness racing to win $ 1\u2010million in purses .\n' ' the two best horses fought it out . apmat proved his class when he went to yonkers and won the international series . i link caduceus with cardigan bay as the best pacers i ' ve seen . cardigan bay was a better stayer but caduceus more brilliant .\nit ' s two straight for dancer and cardigan bay , harness racing ' s first $ 1 million earning horse . the victory allows cardigan bay to break bret hanover ' s record for career earnings . jesta hill is second , the highest finish in cup history by a mare and dancing david , original winner of the cup , is third .\ncardigan bay became inter - dominion champion in 1963 but not before overcoming what was a horrific training accident in 1962 . so badly was cardigan bay injured that for a while it was touch and go for his life . he was in obvious pain and there were thoughts of putting him out of his misery . cardigan bay was nursed back to full fitness and the rest is history . what a great horse . cardy started from 24 yards and won from dusty miller and waitaki hanover .\ndancer also was harness racing ' s first driver to earn more than $ 1 million in one season , in 1964 , and he drove the first horse to earn more than $ 1 million , cardigan bay . seven times his horses won horse of the year honors , another record .\nhere we see the late stanley dancer in the sulky behind cardigan bay , as they win the pace of the century at yonkers raceway in america .\nhis dam was called colwyn bay and cardigan bay ( or cardy ) and spent six months in quarantine at lord langford\u2019s stables in bodrhyddan hall , north wales , while in transit from america to new zealand in the 1960s .\nthe lonely eminence of cardigan bay and bret hanover had become conspicuous before their first race , but part of the shock of that race was the revelation that bret had so formidable a companion up there . stanley dancer , who bought cardigan bay in new zealand and drove him to victory in that first meeting ( only the fourth defeat in bret ' s career ) , was asked how he would compare his horse with the great american pacers of the past .\ni think bret is the greatest horse we ' ve ever produced in america ,\ndancer said ,\nand cardigan bay had to be good to beat him .\nthe result was a triumph for the southland sire hal tryax ( imp ) , who sired the first and second horses , cardigan bay and robin dundee . colwyn bay , the dam of cardigan bay , recently produced a filly foal , a full sister to the cup winner , and there is also an older filly of the same breeding . colwyn bay was a brilliant pacer herself , but unsoundness cut short her racing career . she is by josedale dictator ( imp ) from pleasure bay , by quite sure ( imp ) from helen ' s bay , by guy parrish ( imp ) from gold patch , by geo m patchen .\nfor every individual man who knew cardigan bay was coming , there are now 1000 who know he is leaving . old cardy could get to people real quick .\ncardigan bay was an inaugural inductee into the new zealand trotting hall of fame with the immortals caduceus , harold logan , highland fling , johnny globe and ordeal .\ncardigan bay was an inaugural inductee into the new zealand trotting hall of fame with the immortals caduceus , harold logan , highland fling , johnny globe and ordeal .\na month after he had reached the million dollar mark , the horse was honored at yonkers on cardigan bay day . the next evening he walked a long red carpet with dancer and made his appearance on the old popular ed sullivan tv show .\nsport horse breeding gb uses cookies . find out more about our use of cookies .\ncameron won three heats of the interdominions with him at melbourne , sydney and forbury park and also reined him to finish second to cardigan bay in the auckland cup .\nfrom there , it was overtrick , a son of solicitor and overbid , showing the way to great credit , adora ' s dream and cardigan bay . cardigan bay , a recent purchase for $ 100 , 000 by an american syndicate , was second at the mile , which over\u2011 trick passed in 2 : 05 4 / 5 .\ncardigan bay would be dominant in the u . s . a . for three years , beating the absolute best pacers in the country on a regular basis . he became the only horse to have defeated the three future hall of fame horses of that era\u2014\ncardigan bay , a pacer from new zealand who in 1968 became the first horse in harness racing history to win $ 1 million in purses , died peacefully in his sleep at the age of 31 last friday on puketutu island off auckland , new zealand .\nby then it had become apparent that the race was to be between overtrick , the favorite , and cardigan bay , the second choice . parked out for five\u2010eighths of a mile , the down under pacer had to go some to catch the american horse .\nfoaled in 1956 in new zealand , the son of hal tryax and colwyn bay , this bay gelding rewrote the record books in his native land and australia . the pacer became the first horse to win the coveted inter - dominion championship and the two - mile new zealand cup in the same year . when news of cardigan bay ' s exploits reached america , the renowned trainer - driver stanley dancer journeyed\ndown under ,\nfinally acquiring the horse in early 1964 . cardigan bay quickly became a headliner in north america , winning thirty - seven races during a four - year span . the high point of his career was the\npace of the century\nin 1966 , when he defeated three - time horse of the year bret hanover before a crowd of over 36 , 000 . cardigan bay became the first million dollar winner on september 14 , 1968 and was retired shortly thereafter . he died in 1988 in new zealand .\ncardigan bay had finished his australasian racing with a score of 43 wins , nine seconds and three thirds from 67 starts worth \u00a3nz36 , 944 15s plus \u00a3a24 , 940 .\nirving rudd is public relations director of the new york city off track betting corporation . he held a similar position at yonkers raceway in the glory days of cardigan bay .\ncardigan bay is possibly the most well - known racehorse ever to come from new zealand . he won 80 races in all . much of his racing was done in the\nhis only blemish came last start at alexandra park when he finished third behind mach shard and spankem in the group one $ 100 , 000 young guns cardigan bay stakes .\nsave watch bay to get e - mail alerts and updates on your ebay feed .\nhorse foaled 1 september 1956 . affectionately known as\ncardy\n, he was the first\njohn patterson , who drove the victor , said the horse started and finished physically sound .\nclwb cardigan bay was formed in april 2005 , to serve as an association of standardbred owners , trainers , drivers and enthusiasts of harness racing in ceredigion and the surrounding area .\nhe was so badly crippled that it was touch and go whether he should be destroyed . no one thought he would race again . an australian trainer named ted greig passionately believed that cardigan bay could be saved , and so the deans entrusted the horse to his care .\n* the biggest stakewinner , galloper or harness horse , ever bred in nz or australia , with a total of $ 329 , 937 , which is computed in nz currency as approximately \u00a3116 , 000 . [ cardigan bay may now be slightly ahead on this total . ]\na chartered cargo plane , which he had all to himself , deposited cardigan bay on american soil on the first day of spring , 1964 . it was prophetic . for the next five years the great nz pacing horse was destined to be the evergreen of harness racing , the hardy perennial which not even advancing old age could keep pruned for long . in the september of his years cardigan bay planted springtime in the hearts of millions of racing fans .\np t wolfenden was driving his second nz cup winner in the last three years - he drove cardigan bay in 1963 when , incidentally , robin dundee was also second to him .\nbred by d todd , mataura , under whom he did his early racing , cardigan bay is a five year - old bay gelding by hal tryax from a capable pacer in colwyn bay who had her racing career cut short by unsoundness . colwyn bay is a half sister by josedale dictator to scotch girl , snow jane ( dam of slick chick ) , toucher , scotch pleasure and dorstan . cardigan bay raced last season in the interest of mr a todd , mataura , and was purchased before the present season by mrs a d dean . he has been trained and driven for all his engagements this term by the pakuranga trainer , p t wolfenden . since he began racing as a three - year - old in the 1959 - 60 season cardigan bay has won 11 races and been placed twice for \u00a35690 15s in stakes .\ncardigan bay even won a major event at addington raceway in christchurch while the grandstand was on fire . a photo of this race is considered one of the great iconic images in the history of horse racing . he also won the inter dominion pacing championship final in adelaide , australia .\ncardigan bay even won a major event at addington raceway in christchurch while the grandstand was on fire . a photo of this race is considered one of the great iconic images in the history of horse racing . he also won the inter dominion pacing championship final in adelaide , australia .\nlisten to a commentary of cardigan bay\u2019s triumphs in 1963 , when he won both the inter - dominion championship at adelaide , australia , and the new zealand cup at addington , christchurch .\na month after he reached the million dollar mark , it was , by formal proclamation ,\ncardigan bay day\nin yonkers , new york . the next evening cardigan bay walked down a long red carpet , which led into the living rooms of 20 million viewers , on the ed sullivan television show . no immigrant had ever\nmade it any bigger any faster\n.\ncardigan bay even won a major event at addington raceway in christchurch while the grandstand was on fire ( one photo of the race is considered one of the great iconic images in the history of horse racing ) . he also won the inter - dominion championship final in adelaide , australia .\nthe stake of the race is \u00a33500 , but it will be possible for cardigan bay to win an additional \u00a3500 . this amount will be paid to the horse finishing in the first four and breaking false step ' s world record of 3 : 21 for a mile and five furlongs .\nwith peter wolfenden back in the sulky , the year 1963 was undoubtedly a most remarkable season for cardigan bay . he won the inter - dominions after four gruelling heats . in the first qualifying heat , which he won , a horse put a foot through his wheel that almost unseated wolfenden . cardigan bay also won the second qualifier easily but in the third he was unable to avoid a three - horse pile - up and somersaulted over the fallen horses . wolfenden was hurled from the sulky onto the track . even the final was not without incident . handicapped from 24 yards back , cardigan bay got up to the field but on the final turn was forced very wide by another pile up yet finished strongly enough to win setting a track record at adelaide , south australia .\ncorrection : september 17 , 2005 , saturday an obituary on sept . 9 about stanley dancer , the harness racing champion , misstated the milestone reached in 1968 by the pacer cardigan bay . he was the first harness horse to win $ 1 million in a career , not in a year .\non the horse ' s death in 1988 , cardigan bay ' s driver stanley dancer , reflected on the gelding ' s last year of racing and said ,\nat the end he was going on heart alone . . . . . what a mighty heart it must have been\n.\nnew zealand bred pacer who was the first harness horse to win $ 1 million in north america .\napril 1966 saw cardigan bay sweep all three legs of the international pacing series , the international pace , good time pace and national championship pace at yonkers raceway . it was the first time a horse had won all three legs . [ 9 ] perhaps his most famous encounter was with the great standardbred horse , bret hanover , in the pace of the century , in 1966 . cardigan bay , with stanley dancer driving , won that race in front of 45 , 000 spectators at yonkers raceway and became only one of two horses ( the other being adios vic ) up to that time to have beaten bret hanover . however , in their next encounter at roosevelt raceway , the\nrevenge pace ,\nbret hanover reversed that result with cardigan bay third before a crowd of 37 , 000 . [ 10 ]\na record crowd of 45 , 788 watched at trainer - driver eric hurley set a swift pace with him . robin dundee ( who was checked ) and cardigan bay settled second - last and last .\nand so it was in early 1962 at perth that cardigan bay , who was more of pet than a competitor for his owners , mervyn and audrey dean , came to grief in a near\u2010fatal accident .\nin 1964 cardigan bay was sold to american interests for 100 , 000 dollars and in winning , in 1964 , two of the three international races proved to be the equal of the top american horses .\nmaking his first appearance in free - for - all company , cardigan bay won his ninth consecutive race when he led practically throughout to win the nz free - for - all at addington on friday .\ncardigan bay was bred was developed by the mataura trainer , d todd . he was raced by d todd ' s brother , mr a todd , of mataura , who sold him to mrs deans . mrs deans related how she had decided to buy a pacer and that she and her husband had followed closely the newspaper comments made on the form and performances of cardigan bay .\nwe were quite certain that cardigan bay would be the horse we would buy - we had never seen him - and when we read there were some northern inquiries for him , we decided there and then to buy him before anyone else did ,\nshe said . the champion cost mrs dean \u00a32500 after contingencies had been met .\non the horse ' s death in 1988 , cardigan bay ' s driver stanley dancer , reflected on the gelding ' s last year of racing and said ,\nat the end he was going on heart alone . . . . . what a mighty heart it must have been\n. [ 16 ]\nin 1970 the new zealand post office issued a postage stamp to recognize the achievements of cardinal bay .\nminnesota vikings green bay packers 11 / 23 / 14 nfl game program . . . anth ony barr\nvictoria\u2019s angelique and fosmar beat cardigan bay into third in the third round at 15 \u00bd furlongs , and was obvious the new zealand champion was no certainty in the 14 - furlong \u00a315 , 000 grand final .\ncardigan bay was out for four months and when he went back to light training his pronounced limp was easily visible . nevertheless , by the time the inter - dominions of 1963 rolled around in february , cardigan bay was ready . on hand at adelaide again was president martin tananbaum of yonkers raceway with a firm invitation to mrs dean to bring the horse to the 1963 international . on the first night of the inter - dominion championships tananbaum met mrs dean and her husband , merv , near cardigan bay ' s stall .\nmr tananbaum ,\nsaid mr dean ,\nspeaking for my wife , anyone can have the horse beginning right now for \u00a325 , 000 sterling ( $ 70 , 000 american currency ) , i mean\ncontinued the husband ,\nstarting tonight all the purse money goes to the man who buys him .\ncardigan bay was stabled at a private track at suburban cannington . while jogging lightly , a steel stay of his jog cart broke loose and caused a wheel to lock . the groom handling him was catapulted from his seat and cardigan bay was frightened he took off and careened twice around the track while horsemen watching nearby tried to flag him down . cardigan by then dashed toward his stall , slipped and fell heavily on the concrete floor . he had fractured a bone in his right hind quarter and suffered nasty cuts around the fetlocks .\nstanley dancer , taking delivery of cardigan bay when he landed in new york on 22 march 1964 , told reporters : \u2018i got him cheap - $ 900 , 000 cheap . this one\u2019s worth a million . \u2019\npicking the highlight of cardigan bay ' s career is like trying to pick the greatest cricket catch of all time - if there were 10 people on a judging panel one would no doubt get 10 different opinions .\nplaced in the name of dean ' s wife audrey , cardigan bay came into wolfenden ' s life when he was 26 and at a time when the track was being remodelled . when the track became available again in the new season , cardigan bay\nbreezed\na half in 59 in work and led wolfenden to declare\ndriving something else and then him is like stepping from a morris minor into a jaguar .\nrealising what a drawcard cardigan bay would be , the wellington tc offered \u00a3600 to break the mile record , and on a cold and blustery night cardy scorched round the four and a half furlong track in 1 : 56 1 / 5 . wolfenden claimed that but for the windy conditions , cardigan bay would had threatened adios butler ' s world record of 1 : 54 3 / 5 set at the red mile on 1960 .\none of southland ' s best known trotting personalities mr a ( ' sandy ' ) todd , of mataura , who raced the first million dollar pacer , cardigan bay , died last week . he was 77 .\nhis performance was all the more meritorious as he paced a little roughly for the first two furlongs and then was challenged for the lead by smokeaway , whom he quickly shook off . when tackled by scottish command in the run home it momentarily appeared as though cardigan bay was going to be hard pressed to win but 30 yards from the post trainer - driver , p t wolfenden put his whip away and cardigan bay won comfortably .\nalong with his arch - rival , american champion of the day , bret hanover , he has a legitimate claim of being one of the truly great standardbred racehorses . [ 2 ] cardigan bay became an overnight sensation in the united states , and appeared with dancer on the ed sullivan show as the\nmillion dollar horse\n.\nafter winning at forbury park in april 1961 cardigan bay was sold to merv and audrey dean of auckland for \u00a32500 . his record at that time was 12 starts for 5 wins and 2 second places . [ 3 ]\nin 1967 cardigan bay won the second ever running of the provincial cup at windsor raceway which at the time was the richest harness race in canada . [ 11 ] he also won the washington park derby in chicago .\nsir henry will probably be remembered best in harness racing for giving aucklander mrs audrey dean ' s champion pacer cardigan bay a luxurious retirement at his island paradise , puketutu , in the manukau harbour . from match 1970 until cardigan bay died aged 31 in march 1988 , sir henry doted over the internationally famous gelding , who attracted thousands of tourists from around the world to see in the flesh the first pacer to win a million dollars .\ni think he must be the most photographed horse in the world ,\nsir henry would often proudly say .\nthere is one great new zealand horse that has achieved it , and that is cardigan bay in the 1960s . he won the very top races in 3 different countries ( nz cup , auckland cup ) , and in australia ( interdominions ) , and then moved to north america at the age of 8 and over the next 4 years he beat the likes of bret hanover and overtrick , and was twice us pacer of the year \u2013 there\u2019s plenty about \u201ccardy\u201d on the internet , just google cardigan bay and refresh you memories of this truly great campaigner !\ncardigan bay ran the mile and a quarter in 2 : 34 . 6 , a 2 : 03 . 2 mile rate . he took 32 . 8sec for his first quarter , reached the first half mile in 63 . 2 , clocked 1 : 35 . 8 for the first six furlongs and paced his first mile in 2 : 06 . 8 . cardigan bay returned 58 . 4 for his final half mile , his last quarter being run in a sizzling 27 . 4sec . he received a rousing reception on his return to the birdcage . cardigan bay ' s success was his second in the race and he was second to lordship 12 months ago .\ngreig constructed special slings and other contrivances that shifted the horse ' s weight from his injured hip . after a month , the slings were removed and cardigan bay , wobbling and limping , was given light walking exercises . toward the end of march , he could apparently walk without pain . his right hip had actually dropped several inches .\ntoday , cardigan bay , 18 years old come aug . 1 if you follow the new zealand breeding calendar , or 19 by united states rules , live in retirement on the 600\u2010acre island of puketutu just outside of auckland .\n. he was the only horse to defeat the three u . s . hall of fame horses of that era :\nnegotiations had already been taking place to have cardigan bay competing in that year ' s yonkers international series , but it seemed his career could be over . placed in a sling and lovingly cared for by perth trainer ted greig , a month later cardigan bay was walking without pain , although with a noticable limp . four months after the disaster he was shipped home , and in september at alexandra park he successfully resumed from 36 yards over 13 furlongs .\nfor a payment of $ 125 , 000 , despite the fact he had only $ us137 , 000 in earnings . cardigan bay was also\ndown on the hip\nfrom a severe injury he suffered earlier in new zealand .\na few weeks later cardigan bay won his last new zealand start , taking out the two - mile pezaro memorial from 60 yards by a length over frontmarker jay ar . on to the inter - dominions around the three - furlong melbourne showgrounds , and on - hand to see cardigan bay thread his way through 11 rivals from 36 yards to win on the first night was tananbaum again , but this time with a special guest - stanley dancer . needing no more prodding , dancer offered us $ 100 , 000 ( about \u00a336 , 000 ) and agreed to return cardigan bay home at his own expense , while tananbaum threw in a $ 30 , 000 specially chartered flight to new york .\nthe judges studied the photo for five minutes before posting cardigan bay as the winner . the time was 1 : 58 1 / 5 , track record . they gave the winning margin as a nose . it was more like nostril .\na son of siring sensation hal tryax ( cardigan bay\u2019s sire ) , tactile won five derby classics in the 1962 - 63 season , the nz and great northern editions , as well as the nsw , victorian and south australian derbies .\nwith the headline : overtrick wins $ 50 , 000 international pace by a neck over cardigan bay ; 7\u201310 shot shows no sign of injury ; 35 , 128 see overtrick take 1\u00bd\u2010mile race in 3 : 03\u2158 at yonkers\u2014country don 3d .\ncardigan bay had not actually travelled well to addington and wolfenden was then against taking him all the way to perth for the inter - dominions , but dean had other ideas and placed him under the guidance of nsw horseman bill wilkins . handicapped on 12 yards with only the brilliant nsw horse james scott behind him in the championship , cardigan bay easily won on the first two nights as did james scott , and a clash in the two - mile third round heat and the final were eagerly anticipated . it was not to be though , as in a training mishap , cardigan bay crashed to the ground back at the stables and landed on a concrete curb , completely displacing his near - hind hip . about the same time , audrey dean went into hospital for an operation and received news of the death of a relative , and wolfenden was kicked in the face by a horse , requiring surgery that put him on the sidelines for several months .\nfrom 48 yards at 12 \u00bd furlongs on the second night in melbourne , cardigan bay was forced over a lot of extra ground and could manage only fourth behind south australia\u2019s minuteman , robin dundee and the new south wales representative little maori .\ncardigan bay ' s fantastic time of 2 : 59 . 8 for the last mile and a half of the allan matson handicap at the addington raceway on wednesday night , november 20 , is not only 3 . 6sec inside the world race record ( unofficial of course ) for the distance held jointly by the american pacers stephan smith ( 1961 ) and royal rick ( 1962 ) - it is also the first time in world harness history that two - minute speed has been sustained by any horse beyond a mile and a quarter - and cardigan bay also ran his last mile in 2 : 00 flat .\nregistered in the name of merv ' s wife audrey , cardigan bay under wolfenden became a champion , his numerous wins including the auckland cups in 1961 and 1963 , the nz cup in 1963 and the inter - dominion grand final in adelaide the same year . cardigan bay went on to further fame and fortune in america , where under stanley dancer , he became , as a 12 - year - old in 1968 , the world ' s first pacer to win a million dollars .\nclub officials would have every reason to be jubilant when cardigan bay ' s name appeared among the acceptors for the allan matson handicap , principal event on the inaugural night of night trotting at addington raceway . his task from 54 yards over a mile and five furlongs should not be beyond him : the main question exercising the minds of trotting enthusiasts is whether anything in front of cardigan bay is capable of making him go fast enough to lower the world record for a mile and five furlongs .\novertrick held the world record for mile at 1 : 57 1 / 5 . he had the no . 8 post while cardigan bay was in no . 7 . overtrick led at the half\u2010mile in 58 seconds , so fast it was scary .\nreta peta , a trotter , is the only horse to have beaten the pacers in the new zealand cup two years running .\nwhen on the following saturday night cardigan bay threaded his way from a 36 - yard handicap through a 12 - horse field to win for fun by four lengths dancer was determined more than ever to acquire cardigan bay for his syndicate , which was headed by irving w berkemeyer who also owned another great gelding - the trotter su mac lad . negotiations began early the following sunday morning , dancer was scheduled to leave for the united states at 3pm . the deal appeared to be at a standstill at the $ 100 , 000 mark until dancer , remembering the many cups and trophies , and other momentos , back in mrs dean ' s living room in auckland , sensed the deep devotion and affection she had for cardigan bay , promised to ship the horse back to her at his own expense when the gelding ' s racing days were ended . a hurried , hand - written agreement was drawn up , signed and witnessed , and dancer was on the plane headed back to america with minutes to spare .\nthe saucer - like two and a half furlong wayville circuit did not suit cardigan bay ' s ambling action and there were incidents aplenty during the rounds of heats , one of which put wolfenden on the deck during the third night . but ironically in the final , cardigan bay had moved around the field from 24 yards and had a clear track starting the last lap when idle raider faltered and wiped out most of the field , and he went on to down dusty miller and waitaki hanover handsomely .\ncardigan bay made his usual swift beginning though and bided his time at the tail of the big field until he commenced his run around the field from the 1200m - or about the point when the crescendo began . he forged to the lead in the backstraight , but he was being stalked by tactile , handy all the way and now tracking cardigan bay into line . tactile drew up , but cardy would not be denied and went on to win by half a length like the champion he was .\nher normal brilliant final spring was not forthcoming , and she and cardigan bay were fifth and sixth as angelique , new zealand\u2019s tactile ( driven by robert cameron ) and smoke cloud ( driven by jack watts for noel simpson ) chased minuteman to the wire .\ntaking delivery of cardigan bay when he landed in new york in march , 1964 , dancer told reporters :\ni got him cheap - $ 900 , 000 cheap . this one ' s worth a million .\njust how prophetic was that comment ?\na detached holiday bungalow with extensive sea views overlooking cardigan bay . comprising of modern furnishings throughout to the highest of specifications . features include full fronted glass patio doors opening onto enclosed decked area with patio furniture . open plan living area with fully . . .\ncardigan bay showed up in the united states with just $ 158 , 212 in his pockets . when he had cooled out for the last time beneath the blue and gold blanket of the stanley dancer stable at freehold raceway on the late afternoon of september 14 , 1968 , he had accumulated earnings of $ 1 , 001 , 353 and so become the first millionaire horse in standardbred history .\nto set the scene further , cardigan bay had joined peter wolfenden as a late 4 - year - old , having won three straight races and five in total for mataura trainer dave todd and his brother sandy . he had won twice at three , but failed to pay a dividend on five occasions - a good sale would have to wait until todd and his driver ken balloch had knocked the edges off . this was achieved in the next season when cardigan bay was racing with a hefty price tag of \u00a32500 .\ncardigan bay ' s nine wins on end equals the winning sequence of rupee , and the hal tryax pacer requires one more win at his next appearance to equal the winning run of war bouy who won 10 races in a row before tasting defeat . just how good cardigan bay might be is difficult to assess . he beat the best pacers in commission on friday pointlessly , and he appears to be a foolproof pacer . he is already being discussed as a racecourse ' certainty ' for the auckland cup next month .\nafter winning four races for don hayes , vanderford joined bourne ' s stable , and won six in succession at the start of his 4 - year - old campaign , notably the methven cup off 48yds , the laing handicap from rustic lad and flying blue , the flying stakes at ashburton from robin dundee and cardigan bay , and the hannon memorial . he was the beaten favourite in the nz cup won by cardigan bay . he was never so good at five , where his only win was at forbury park .\nnow cardigan bay was set for the 1964 melbourne interdominions \u2013 then , perhaps , a possible sale to american interests headed by new jersey horsemen stanley dancer , now keen to try his hand with the new zealand gelding , regardless of his age and hip problem .\nout of luck in the inter - dom final won by minuteman in all - the - way fashion , cardigan bay departed these shores having won 43 races with nine seconds from 67 starts - \u00a336 , 477 in new zealand and \u00a324 , 940 in australia .\n\u201canyone can have this horse right now , beginning at 25 , 000 australian pounds [ $ 70 , 000 in united states currency ] , \u201d he said . \u201ci mean that starting tonight , all the money the horse wins goes to the man that buys him . \u201d\ntoday , an observer can tour nz and literally meet hundreds of horsemen who claim that they could have bought cardigan bay but didn ' t act quickly enough to grasp the opportunity . it was ever thus . in most of his subsequent engagements , while owned by mrs dean , cardigan bay was trained and driven by peter wolfenden , one of the top reinsmen in nz . martin tananbaum , president of yonkers raceway , who pioneered the international pace in 1960 , first held discussions in perth about inviting the gelding to the international pace held annually at yonkers raceway . the inter - dominion grand finals were about three days off and it appeared certain that every attendance and betting record at gloucester park , perth , would be toppled when the exciting cardigan bay raced for the inter - dominion championships .\na bay horse by a nz derby stakes winner in gold chief from the jack potts mare , canister , rupee was bred by his owner , j grice , who trained him throughout his career . he was driven in practically all of his races by d townley .\nfrom 54 yards in the cup , cardigan bay conceded favouritism to the alf bourne - trained and maurice holmes - driven 4 - year - old vanderford , a son of great evander , who had won seven of eight races that spring including the ashburton flying stakes and hannon . holmes had vanderford bowling along in front most of the way , but when cardigan bay received a good cart into the race by oreti over he last lap , he pounced and won easily by a couple of lengths over robin dundee and master alan .\na month later in a warm saturday night bath of spotlights at yonkers raceway he was officially disarmed , relinquishing his racing shoes and equipment amidst pomp and ceremony and the prime minister of nz . it had been , by formal proclamation , ' cardigan bay day ' in yonkers , new york . the next evening cardigan bay walked down a long red carpet , which lead into the living rooms of 20 - million viewers , on the ed sullivan television show . no immigrant had ever ' made it ' any bigger any faster .\nthe result was a triumph for the billy direct horse garrison hanover , as lady nugent , douce and compromise are all by the sire .\nat cannington track , a training oval some six miles outside perth , cardigan bay was put through a light jogging session by a groom attached to the stable of billy wilkins , who was ' standing in ' for peter wolfenden as trainer - driver at the time . as the lad dismounted and held the reins lightly , one of the sulky wheels suddenly crumbled and collapsed , some say due to a flat tyre . the usually easy - going cardigan bay was startled and bolted from the grounds through an open gate dragging the damaged cart behind him . he headed , terror stricken , for his stall . before anyone could could flag the great animal down it was too late . he had crashed his right hip severely against one of the walls tearing his flesh open to the bone and it looked as though a merciful end , at the hands of a veterinarian , was the only future for cardigan bay . as a matter of fact , one story current at the time was that if cardigan bay had been insured , he would have been destroyed there and then .\nfour months after the accident , cardigan bay was shipped back to new zealand . soon he was jogging lightly and by september , in an all\u2010out workout , he paced a scorching final quartermile , in 28 3 / 5 seconds and wasn ' t even breathing hard .\non feb . 20 , 1964 , in melbourne , australia , stanley dancer , who was allowed only to \u201clook\u2014don ' t touch cardigan bay , \u201d watched him in a workout and said , \u201ci will give mrs . dean $ 100 , 000 for him . \u201d\na month after he reached the million dollar mark , it was , by formal proclamation ,\ncardigan bay day\nin yonkers , new york . the next evening cardigan bay walked down a long red carpet , which led into the living rooms of 20 million viewers , on the ed sullivan television show . no immigrant had ever\nmade it any bigger any faster\n. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] dancer immediately retired him , and he was returned to new zealand with great fanfare with thousands at harbour awaiting his arrival .\nhighlight of the chimes lodge history was the arrival of cardigan bay , bred and trained by dave todd , and raced by ' sandy ' until he won his way out of southland classes . cardigan bay was then sold to mrs m b dean , of auckland , and he later went to america where , he became the first $ 1 million stake winner in trotting history . he did more to promote trotting in nz than any standardbred before of since and his name was a house - hold word throughout nz , australia and america .\ntananbaum included an offer , worth $ us30 , 000 , to fly cardigan bay via special charter to america at the expense of yonkers raceway , on the condition that he did not race anywhere else after the melbourne interdominions until the international series at his track in may .\nmerv dean , who died at his home in auckland just before christmas aged 67 after a long illness , will long be remembered as the man who bought the great cardigan bay from the todd brothers of mataura . but there was much more to merv than just that .\nin 1965 cardigan bay won the american pacing classic at hollywood park and the national pacing derby and nassau pace both at roosevelt raceway . at hollywood park he led a race over 1 1 / 16 miles helping to establish a world record for the distance of 2 . 03 2 / 5 by the winner adios vic . cardigan bay finished second after leading through the first mile in 1 . 56 . he also had a win over adios vic in 1 . 57 2 / 5 which was his fastest time in a race . [ 3 ]\nwe wanted to stay in scenic cardigan bay mainly so my kids could see dolphins . we booked this lovely caravan as it was great value and in a quiet location . we arrived in the blazing sun with breathtakingly beautiful views greeting us . the caravan takes . . .\nlast year at windsor , ontario , for example , on march 8 , despite a 22 degree temperature , he broke all kinds of records in winning the provincial cup pace . other windsor track records racked up by cardigan bay were : 1 ) most money bet on a horse , 2 ) most money bet on a single race , 3 ) most money bet on a programme , and 4 ) record crowd .\nagain in 1966 , another young rival , the speediest pacer ever , bret hanover , was the opposition . in their first meeting , ' the pace of the century ' at yonkers raceway , a crowd of 36 , 795 , which bet a season ' s record handle for all tracks of $ 2 , 802 , 745 , saw cardigan bay beat the great bret by a length . bret came back to whip cardigan bay in subsequent races but it is that first meeting in ' the pace of the century ' that fans still talk about .\nthe saga of our cardigan bay began at chimes lodge , a training and breeding farm at mataura . davey todd , a veteran trainer , had a considerable reputation for having a knack with problem horses . with his brother sandy , todd runs chimes lodge . cardigan bay was gelded while a weanling , a common practice with the todd brothers . cardigan bay did not race as a 2 - year - old . he started only eight times as a 3 - year - old , winning twice and finishing second once . he was campaigned lightly again at four , and this was largely because he was laid aside for three months at the height of the season because of a cold . in four outings , he won three times and finished second on the other occasion . one of these races , incidentally , was in saddle on january 11 , 1960 . cardigan bay finished second . this was one of the last races in saddle in the harness sport in nz . at the conclusion of his 4 - year - old season he was sold for $ 5000 to mrs audrey d dean of auckland ."]}
{"id": 1465, "summary": [{"text": "tyto pollens , also known as the andros island barn owl , bahamian barn owl , bahamian great owl , or chickcharney , is an extinct , 1 metre ( 3.3 ft ) tall , burrow-nesting , flightless barn owl that lived in the old-growth pineyards ( caribbean pine forests ) of andros island in the bahamas .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "when the island was colonised by europeans and their slaves in the 16th century , the owls coexisted with them until the forests were felled .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the destruction of the original forests may have led to the extinction of the species . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "tyto pollens", "paragraphs": ["some think that they chickcharney could be a tyto pollens , a species of flightless barn owl that stood around the same height . this species is extinct now , but sightings of chickcharney are still continuing .\nwhere the chickcharnie came from there really once was a creature like the chickcharnie on andros . it was a 2 - foot - tall owl called tyto pollens , a remote cousin of the smaller common barn - owl . tyto pollens was a large owl that could not fly and like most other owls it swivel its head . so that ' s probably where the chickcharnie legen came from . . . but who knows .\nit has been theorized by scholars that chickcharney sightings and legends are rooted in reality . tyto pollens was a remote cousin of the smaller common barn - owl ( tyto alba ) : it was a 1 metre ( 3 . 3 ft ) tall , flightless species of barn owl native to andros , and closely fits eyewitness descriptions . it was rumored to survive until the 16th century , when settlers felled the eastern andros forests . however , since tyto pollens was flightless , it was unlikely to need trees for shelter , and may still exist on the western half of andros , explaining modern sightings .\nthe folklore of the chickcharney almost certainly originates in a type of flightless burrowing owl that used to live on andros . the species , known as tyto pollens , matches the overall description of a chickcharney and cohabited with settlers for many years until the forests were completely decimated by the newcomers . this supposedly sent tyto pollens into extinction sometime in the sixteenth century . but if the awesome coelacanth has taught us cryptid lovers anything , it\u2019s that you should never discount an animal as extinct if people still report sightings .\nthe barn owl ( tyto alba ) is the most widely distributed species of owl , and one of the most widespread of all birds .\ntyto pollens , also known as the andros island barn owl , bahamian barn owl , bahamian great owl , or chickcharney , is an extinct , tall , burrow - nesting , flightless barn owl that lived in the old - growth pineyards ( caribbean pine forests ) of andros island in the bahamas .\nspecimen count 1 record last modified 5 jul 2018 skeletal morphology appendicular element , distal tibiotarsus geological age cenozoic - quaternary - pleistocene - wisconsinan nmnh - paleobiology dept . taxonomy animalia chordata aves strigiformes tytonidae collector olson james grady meister see more items in paleogeneral birds aves caribbean paleobiology place bahamas collection date 11 aug 1978 type citation olson & hilgartner . 1982 . smithsonian contr . paleobiology . ( n . 48 ) : 36 - 37 . usnm number pal283287 published name tyto pollens wetmore\nthe genus tyto includes all barn owls ( family tytonidae ) except for the bay owls ( subfamily phodilinae , genus phodilus ) - that is , the true barn owls , the grass owls and the masked owls collectively making up the subfamily tytoninae .\ntyto pollens , the bahaman barn owl , also known as the\nchickcharny ,\nwas a metre tall barn owl found on andros island of the bahamas . . . it should not be confused with the extinct puerto rican t . puente . it went extinct during historical times , when the old pine forests of the bahamas were cut down . its memory inspired the legend of the\nchickcharny ,\nan exceptionally malicious and aggressive spirit or faerie that had three toes , glowing red eyes , and had the ability to rotate its head in any direction .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nwhat if the whole universe is flat ? all the stars , planets , etc .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nholotype . left femur mcz 2262 . collected by vivienne knowles in 1937 . material examined . hendry cave , royal island , eleuthera , bahamas . \u2014 coracoid : incomplete right ( usnm 615825 ) . carpometacarpus : nearly complete right ( usnm 615826 ) . tarsometatarsus : incomplete left ( usnm 615827 , lacking fragments of midshaft ) . banana hole , new providence , bahamas . \u2014 femur : proximal right ( uf 41807 ) . tibiotarsus : distal half of left ( uf 41804 ) . tarsometatarsus : complete left ( uf 3196 ) , incomplete left ( uf 41808 , lacking proximal end and trochlea for digit iv ) . cueva de bellamar , municipality of matanzas , matanzas province , cuba . \u2014 tarsometatarsus : distal half of left ( dpuh 1252 , holotype of t . riveroi ) , proximal half of right ( czacc unnumbered ) , proximal end of right ( oa 3215 ) . there also exist specimens from andros , bahamas , in the florida museum of natural history ( d . w . steadman , pers . comm . ) .\nchickcharney , chickcharnie or chickcharnee is a mythical creature resembling a bird . . .\nclick on a date / time to view the file as it appeared at that time .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nthe chickcharney is considered to be a 3 foot tall , furry , feathered bird that usually resembles an owl ; it resides on andros island . legend says that if one comes across a chickcharney and treats it nicely , they will be rewarded with good luck ; however , if you mistreat the beast , you will get punished with bad luck .\nthis post marks the first in a new series on folklore . i\u2019ll be exploring how local tales and regional legends fit into our understanding of the paranormal and cryptozoology . this is culture\u2026 at its weirdest and snarkiest .\non the bahaman island of andros creeps a creature so fearsome it can turn your head around . literally if the stories are to be believed . this equatorial beast , known as a chickcharney ( sometimes spelled chickcharnie or chickcharnee ) , is about three - feet tall and most closely resembles an owl\u2014if owls were the size of dodo birds and super vindictive .\nokay , not vindictive , per se . instead , chickcharnies prove to be rather mercurial creatures . legend has it if you meet one and you\u2019re polite , it will be glad to grant you good fortune . if you\u2019re rude , however , and poke fun at the chickcharney , then you\u2019ll be doomed to bad luck . or as mentioned above , the chickcharney will turn your head all the way around . or possibly both . perhaps the bigger question here is why exactly someone who meets a giant mythic bird in the woods decides , \u201chey , let\u2019s taunt this avian ! \u201d and starts pelting insults instead of , you know , running or at least feigning friendliness . but there are those \u2018messing with bigfoot\u2019 commercials , so apparently , mocking cryptids is a very real pastime for some .\nmaybe you aren\u2019t buying the changeful chickcharney angle . i mean , really , are there any famous stories about such things ? you betcha . none other than neville chamberlain , former british prime minister , fell victim to the creature\u2019s vendetta . at the turn of the twentieth century , chamberlain was commissioned to take over his father\u2019s bahaman plantation and decided to do what every big city transplant does when he reaches the country : chop down all vegetation in sight . understandably , the chickcharnies , who are said to live at the top of any two trees that meet , were pretty angry at chamberlain . to exact their revenge , the creatures doomed the plantation , which within a few years was declared a total failure and a major financial loss for the family . as a real kicker , some argue that chamberlain\u2019s inability to quell hitler from attacking england during world war ii was also due to his disrespect of the chickcharnies . that\u2019s right . infuriate a chickcharney , and nazis might come after you . this is nothing to scoff at , people .\nin addition to their three toes on each foot and three fingers on each hand , chickcharnies are described to have a prehensile tail , something from which honestly , every creature , including humans , could benefit . this dexterous tail helps chickcharnies hang from whatever they feel like and consequently freak out people loitering in the woods . they\u2019re also said to rotate their own heads all the way around , lending credence to the idea that they\u2019re just an extinct ( or super rare ) kind of owl . this could mean that chickcharnies are apt to swivel the heads of passersby simply because they don\u2019t know any better . it\u2019s just a chickcharney way of saying hello .\nduring the mid - twentieth century , chickcharnies practically became pop culture superstars with articles about the cryptid species appearing in time magazine and sports illustrated . though their popularity has waned somewhat in recent years , the chickcharney is still alive and well , at least in folklore . because i want good luck , i\u2019m aiming to be nothing but polite here and want to extend all the best wishes in the world to this super cool cryptid . you never know if a chickcharney learned how to use wireless .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nthis site uses akismet to reduce spam . learn how your comment data is processed .\nryan daniel buell , alleged scammer , thief , drug addict . can he once again gain some sort of any true status inside the para world or society ? erik knapp believes so . | paranormal herald world news today on\nfrank alexander wetmore ( june 18 , 1886 \u2013 december 7 , 1978 ) was an american ornithologist and avian paleontologist .\nandros island is an archipelago within the bahamas , the largest of the 26 inhabited bahamian islands .\nanimals are multicellular , eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom animalia ( also called metazoa ) .\nthe bahamian pineyards are a tropical and subtropical coniferous forest ecoregion in the bahamas and the turks and caicos islands , where they occur on an area of .\nbarn - owls ( family tytonidae ) are one of the two families of owls , the other being the true owls or typical owls , strigidae .\nbirds ( class aves ) are a group of endothermic vertebrates , characterised by feathers , a beak with no teeth , the laying of hard - shelled eggs , a high metabolic rate , a four - chambered heart , and a lightweight but strong skeleton .\nthe caribbean pine , pinus caribaea , is a hard pine , native to central america , cuba , the bahamas , and the turks and caicos islands .\nchickcharney , chickcharnie or chickcharnee is a mythical and cryptozoological creature resembling a bird , specifically an owl , that is said to live in the forests of andros island in the bahama islands .\nchordates are animals possessing a notochord , a hollow dorsal nerve cord , pharyngeal slits , an endostyle , and a post - anal tail for at least some period of their life cycles .\nin biology and ecology , extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms ( taxon ) , normally a species .\nprehistoric birds are various taxa of birds that have became extinct before recorded history , or more precisely , before they could be studied alive by ornithologists .\nbirds are generally believed to have evolved from certain feathered theropod dinosaurs , and there is no real dividing line between birds and dinosaurs , except of course that some of the former survived the cretaceous\u2013paleogene extinction event while the latter did not .\nsince 1500 , over 190 species of birds have become extinct , and this rate of extinction seems to be increasing .\nan old - growth forest ( also termed primary forest , virgin forest , primeval forest , late seral forest , or in britain , ancient woodland ) is a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance and thereby exhibits unique ecological features and might be classified as a climax community .\nthe cuban giant owl or giant cursorial owl ( ornimegalonyx ) is an extinct genus of giant owl that measured in height .\nowls are birds from the order strigiformes , which includes about 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance , a large , broad head , binocular vision , binaural hearing and feathers adapted for silent flight .\nthe stilt - owls ( grallistrix ) are a genus of true owls which contains four species , all of which lived on the hawaiian islands but are now extinct .\nthe bahamas , officially the commonwealth of the bahamas , is an island country of the lucayan archipelago consisting of more than 700 islands , cays , and islets in the atlantic ocean ; north of cuba and hispaniola ( haiti and the dominican republic ) ; northwest of the turks and caicos islands ; southeast of the u . s . state of florida and east of the florida keys .\nbahaman barn owl , bahaman barn - owl , bahaman barn owl , bahaman barn - owl .\nunionpedia is a concept map or semantic network organized like an encyclopedia \u2013 dictionary . it gives a brief definition of each concept and its relationships .\nthis is a giant online mental map that serves as a basis for concept diagrams . it ' s free to use and each article or document can be downloaded . it ' s a tool , resource or reference for study , research , education , learning or teaching , that can be used by teachers , educators , pupils or students ; for the academic world : for school , primary , secondary , high school , middle , technical degree , college , university , undergraduate , master ' s or doctoral degrees ; for papers , reports , projects , ideas , documentation , surveys , summaries , or thesis . here is the definition , explanation , description , or the meaning of each significant on which you need information , and a list of their associated concepts as a glossary . available in english , spanish , portuguese , japanese , chinese , french , german , italian , polish , dutch , russian , arabic , hindi , swedish , ukrainian , hungarian , catalan , czech , hebrew , danish , finnish , indonesian , norwegian , romanian , turkish , vietnamese , thai , greek , bulgarian , croatian , slovak , lithuanian , filipino , latvian , estonian and slovenian . more languages soon .\nall the information was extracted from wikipedia , and it ' s available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license .\ngoogle play , android and the google play logo are trademarks of google inc .\nchickcharney , chickcharnie or chickcharnee is a mythical creature resembling a bird , specifically an owl , that is said to live on andros island of the bahamas .\naccording to some , it is furry , feathered , about 3 feet tall and is considered have three fingers , three toes , and red eyes . in common legend , if a traveler meets a chickcharney and treats it well , he / she will be rewarded with good luck . but , treating a chickcharney badly will result in bad luck and hard times . sightings have continued into modern day .\nin the first part of this series , we covered the mysterious hidden animals of cuba . our next stop on our cryptid journey is the beautiful islands of the bahamas . the bahamas is a sovereign island nation located east of the florida keys and is comprised of around 700 islands , islets , and cays that are all part of a greater chain of islands shared with the turks and caicos islands . all of the islands in the bahamas are low and flat , with the highest elevation belonging to mt . alvernia on cat island , which stands at a height of 63 meters ( 207 feet ) . the bahamas also has some curious cryptozoological oddities .\namong these myriad islands can be found the island of andros . the island is well known for its striking underwater vertical sinkholes and meandering undersea cave systems that form the mysterious and beautiful blue holes , as well as the mysterious , man - eating octopus - like creature known as the lusca , both of which i have discussed here at mysterious universe before .\nthe lusca is variously described as either a giant octopus , a sort of half shark - half octopoid abomination , or a squid - eel combination , and is said to lurk within the extensive underwater cave systems of the blue holes . the lusca is said to attack swimmers and even boats , sucking them down beneath the waves to be eaten within the dark caves . missing swimmers , underwater cave divers , and even flotsam of wrecked boats floating in the water have all been blamed on the lusca . purported victims of lusca attacks who survived their encounters have told of being grabbed by tentacles , and some have even reported welts reminiscent of sucker marks on their bodies after being attacked .\none of the hallmarks of a lusca attack , according to witnesses , is that the water will often bubble or roil beneath the victim just before they are sucked under . this unique detail has caused speculation that rather than a giant octopoid monster , the victims could be succumbing to spontaneous whirlpools that are created when rapid tidal changes draw water through the blue holes . such whirlpools would certainly resemble the phenomenon of boiling water just before an attack , and they would surely be capable of pulling people under . however , such whirlpools certainly would not account for the actual sightings of the the monstrous lusca itself , nor would it account for the mysterious sucker marks on victims . the lusca remains a curious mystery .\nthe island of andros holds mysteries on land as well as in the sea . stories have long circulated among the islanders here of a large mystery bird known locally as the chickcharney , which is only sighted within the ancient pine forests of andros island . the chickcharney is said to have an appearance very much like an owl , and is typically described as being around 3 feet tall and covered with fine feathers that resemble fur . the creature is said to have three fingers , three toes , and large , piercing red eyes situated on a head that allegedly has the ability to turn around nearly 360 degrees . there is also often mention of a prehensile tail that helps the arboreal birds to climb in the trees where they make their homes . chickcharney nests are reportedly composed of the tops of two pine trees tied together .\nchickcharnies feature heavily in the folklore of andros , where they are said to be elfin humanoid creatures that merely resemble birds rather than actual birds . the creatures are known to be very mischievous and on occasion quite aggressive . it is said that if a traveler happens to come across a chickcharney , it would be wise to treat it kindly . those who treat the chickcharney well and show respect are said to be rewarded with good luck , while those who don\u2019t , or even worse those who laugh at the creature , will meet with bad luck and hard times . if the chickcharney is especially offended , it is said that the creature will violently and forcibly twist the persons neck all the way around . andros islanders once were so wary of chickcharnies that they often carried brightly colored flowers or pieces of cloth in order to charm the creatures and dissuade them from attacking or causing trouble .\none legendary story of the wrath of chickcharnies involves a former prime minister of england , neville chamberlain . according to the tale , chamberlain took over his father\u2019s plantation in the bahamas and upon arriving did a large amount of rampant land clearing . unfortunately for him , some of the decimated vegetation had been home to chickcharnies , which immediately sought revenge . the planation was a failure and financial disaster in the end , and locals have long attributed this misfortune to the vindictive chickcharnies wreaking havoc .\nthe bahamian island known as isabela is also home to a rather curious historical oddity . it seems that during his journey to the new world , christopher columbus himself killed a mysterious serpent here . columbus\u2019s diary entry for october 21 , 1492 described how the explorer killed and later skinned a 5 foot long creature described as a \u201cserpent , \u201d that he had seen in a lake on the island . the next day , a similar serpent was reportedly killed in another lake on the island by martin alonso pinzon , who was captain of one of the ships under columbus\u2019s command .\nsadly , both specimens were never properly preserved so it is impossible to know just what kind of animals were killed . further complicating matters is the rather loose definition of the word \u201cserpent\u201d in the vernacular of the era . in columbus\u2019s day , the term \u201cserpent\u201d could be applied not only to large snakes , but to practically anything large and reptilian . crocodilians , lizards , and even mythical dragons were all equally known to be referred to as serpents . this muddies the waters a bit when searching for an answer to the mysterious diary entry because columbus could have killed an actual serpent by our understanding of the word , which is to say a giant snake , or it could have been a large type of lizard , a crocodile or alligator , or who knows what else . considering that the entry offers frustratingly few details , it is impossible to say .\nan expedition led by florida state museum\u2019s assistant curator , bill keegan , in 1987 uncovered the remains of an alligator in the ruins of a village on isleta believed to have been visited by columbus . it was suggested that the serpent described by columbus may have actually been an alligator , which were previously unknown to have ever inhabited the bahamas and so making it a rather interesting find in its own right . if alligators existed at one time n the bahamas , it could mean that they were merely imported from elsewhere , but could also represent an unknown population of the animal\u2019s historical range or even a new species . however , the presence of alligator bones in a village that columbus just happened to have visited is far from concrete evidence to link the alligator remains to the diary entry , and so what exactly was killed on that day long ago remains a mystery .\ncolumbus would later go on to log yet another mysterious sighting in the caribbean when in september 1494 , while sailing along the east coast of the dominican republic , he and his crew apparently sighted what was described as a gigantic turtle the size of a whale , with a long tail and fins on its sides . the enormous creature apparently was keeping its head out of the water . the dominican republic lies on the island of hispaniola , and giant turtles are not the only mysterious creatures that would call this place home . in fact , let\u2019s make hispaniola our next stop on our cryptid caribbean cruise .\nbe sure to check out cryptids of the caribbean part 3 : hispaniola . coming soon !\nbrent swancer is an author and crypto expert living in japan . biology , nature , and cryptozoology still remain brent swancer\u2019s first intellectual loves . he ' s written articles for mu and daily grail and has been a guest on coast to coast am and binnal of america .\ncopyright \u00a9 mysterious universe . mysterious universe is a property of 8th kind pty ltd\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nlusca is a mythical creature of bahamian folklore . half - shark , half - octopus , lusca lurks around in the underwater caves , tunnels and blue holes found all over the caribbean . however , it is believed that she lives mostly in the underwater caves and blue holes around the bahamas islands , especially around andros , the largest island in the bahamas .\nshe is mean spirited and some islanders believe that she likes to drown divers and explorers who are not careful . some even believe that if your boat is over a bluehole she could pull it in down into the dark waters .\nthe tidal currents of the inland blue holes are said to be the breath of lusca . as she breathes in , water pours into the caverns , in some cases forming a whirlpool , and when lusca breathes out , cold , clear water gushes up to the surface .\nbut lusca is not all bad because the tidal flow also brings food for the real creatures that live in the blue holes , such as grouper , lobster and reef sharks and other fish . so , lusca has long been thought of as the guardian of the dark blue holes because she makes sure the fish that live there are fed .\nchickcharnies live in andros , the largest island in the bahamas . they are elfish , birdlike creatures with piercing red eyes . they have three fingers , three toes and a tail , which they use to hang upside down from trees .\nchickcharnies live in the pine forests and build nests by joining two pine trees together at the top .\nchickcharnies are peaceful but mischievous creatures and they like pretty colours . when you go sightseeing in andros carry flowers or wear bright colours to charm them . legend says if you see a chickcharnie and show it respect , you ' ll be blessed with good luck for the rest of your life . be careful not to sneer at it , however , or your head will turn completely around !\nan old legend has it that a man named billy bowleg - the great seminole medicine man - was adopted and trained by the chickcharnies . they took him when he was 14 and kept him for five years . when he returned to this people his reputation as a healer spread throughout the bahamas .\nanansi is a very popular figure in bahamian stories . he is a trickster , and is usually a spider - god , but in some stories he is human and in some stories he is part spider part human .\nanansi is very rebellous and sometimes he likes to cause trouble . he can do almost anything . he can marry the kings daughter , create wmoney out of thin air ; he can trick the devil and even cheat death . even if anansi loses in one story , you know that he will win in the next . he is very intelligent and quick - witted . no matter what happens to him he usually comes out well in the end . . . often because he was able to trick some one .\nmany people believe that the ancient , sunken city of atlantis was in the bimini islands in the bahamas . huge , flat stones lying neatly about 20 feet under the clear waters of north bimini might be all that is left of the lost city of atlantis . they look like a road and are known as bimini road ."]}
{"id": 1472, "summary": [{"text": "the corded purg , scientific name pyrgulopsis nevadensis , is an extinct species of freshwater snail with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family hydrobiidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "pyrgulopsis nevadensis is the type species of the genus pyrgulopsis . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "corded purg", "paragraphs": ["the corded purg is a mollusk indigenous to north america that has gone extinct .\ninformation on the corded purg is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nhow can i put and write and define corded purg in a sentence and how is the word corded purg used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528corded purg\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528corded purg\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528corded purg\u9020\u53e5 , corded purg meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - corded purg ( pyrgulopsis nevadensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - corded purg ( pyrgulopsis nevadensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - corded purg ( pyrgulopsis nevadensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nanagrammer is a game resource site that has been extremely popular with players of popular games like scrabble , lexulous , wordfeud , letterpress , ruzzle , hangman and so forth . we maintain regularly updated dictionaries of almost every game out there . to be successful in these board games you must learn as many valid words as possible , but in order to take your game to the next level you also need to improve your anagramming skills , spelling , counting and probability analysis . make sure to bookmark every unscrambler we provide on this site . explore deeper into our site and you will find many educational tools , flash cards and so much more that will make you a much better player . this page covers all aspects of purg , do not miss the additional links under\nmore about : purg\nindex to vols . 1 - 5 . by w . j . mcgee\n: v . 5 , p . 281 - 370\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe\u2019ve updated our privacy policy to give you more control over your information and support new european data protection laws . you can review the changes here .\nincludes high - quality download in mp3 , flac and more . paying supporters also get unlimited streaming via the free bandcamp app .\ndrums and vocals by dan hargesheimer of part filth and little league / kill verona .\na surprise companion and true sonic shadow to the group ' s april release\nouter heaven .\nthe quirky , smart brooklyn singer - songwriter is offering all their albums for pay what you want for today only .\nrelentless , nervy , snarling , thorny noise - punk , the debut full - length from this wonderfully gnarly richmond , va outfit .\na new track from this tough - as - nails boston hardcore outfit has some words for men who would dehumanize women in the scene .\nclassified as extinct ( ex ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ni ' m a big word nerd . i create wicked tools to kick butt on word games . anagrammer is my name , solving puzzles is my game !\nall trademarks , copyrights and intellectual property rights to the games including scrabble , words , hanging , scramble with friends , etc are owned by their respective owners : hasbro , zynga inc , j . w . spear & mattel , etc . mr . anagrammer is not affiliated or endorsed by any of the above companies . as a huge fan of these words games , i have merely created these cheat tools and word resources for educational purposes and as a supplement for word gamers around the world . please use scrabble cheat word finder responsibly and in a positive way to expand your vocabulary and improve your word game skills .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nliste d ' esp\u00e8ces animales dont la disparition a \u00e9t\u00e9 caus\u00e9e par l ' homme .\nj ' essaie de faire une liste la plus compl\u00e8te possible , mais je ne garantie pas qu ' elle soit compl\u00e8te , ni qu ' elle soit exacte . elle peut servir comme outil de travail , comme r\u00e9f\u00e9rence pour pousser plus loin vos recherches . mais en aucun cas , elle ne peut servir de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence absolue . rappelez - vous aussi que le statut d ' esp\u00e8ce \u00e9teinte n ' est jamais s\u00fbr \u00e0 100 % .\npyrgulopsis is a genus of freshwater snails with a gill and an operculum , aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family hydrobiidae .\ngeneric characters of the genus pyrgulopsis are : the shell is minute , conically turreted , somewhat elongated , imperforate and unicarinate . the apex is acute . the aperture is ovate . the peritreme is continuous .\nthe operculum is ovate , thin , corneous and spiral , with polar point well forward and approximating the columella .\nthe radula is like this : odontophore with teeth are arranged in transverse rows , according to the formula 3 + 1 + 3 . formula for denticles of rhachidian :\nthe distribution of the genus pyrgulopsis includes western and south - western united states .\nsnails of species in the genus pyrgulopsis occur in fresh water and in brackish water .\npyrgulopsis is the largest genus of freshwater gastropods in the north america . in 2010 , 133 species were recognized in this genus .\npyrgulopsis pilsbryana ( j . l . baily & r . i . baily , 1952 ) - bear lake springsnail\neastern north american species of pyrgulopsis are considered to be in separate genus marstonia according to the thompson and hershler ( 2002 ) .\npyrgulopsis agarhecta ( f . g . thompson , 1969 ) - ocmulgee marstonia - marstonia agarhecta f . g . thompson , 1969\npyrgulopsis arga ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - ghost marstonia - marstonia arga - f . g . thompson , 1977\npyrgulopsis castor ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - beaverpond marstonia - marstonia castor f . g . thompson , 1977\npyrgulopsis halcyon ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - halcyon marstonia - marstonia halcyon f . g . thompson , 1977\npyrgulopsis hershleri f . g . thompson , 1995 - coosa pyrg - marstonia hershleri ( f . g . thompson , 1995 )\npyrgulopsis ogmoraphe ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - royal springsnail - marstonia ogmorhaphe ( f . g . thompson , 1977 )\npyrgulopsis pachyta ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - armored marstonia - marstonia pachyta f . g . thompson , 1977\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\na second edition of camden ' s description of scotland containing a supplement of these peers , or lords of parliament , who were mentioned in the first edition , and an account of these since raised to , and further advanced in the degrees of peerage , until the year 1694 .\ncamden , william , 1551 - 1623 . , dalrymple , james , sir , fl . 1714 .\na moun\u2223tain in the midst divideth , running on for\u2223ward from the west sea to the east .\nempire , as who begin to be weary of wars , and to acquaint them\u2223selves with the delightful benefits of peace .\nbesides a number of islands lying round about . in the south part , these countries are more remarkable than the rest .\nwhereof a list shall be subjoyned as they now are , and in the order they stand in the rolls of parlia\u2223ment .\nabout the year 268 . did set out dioeceses for bishops : so the bishops of\nthe third , that is about the year of our redemption 1070 , at which time the dioeceses were confined with\u2223in their bounds and limits .\nsession of this current parliament , the estate of bishops being the third estate of parliament is abolished . by the fifth act of the second session , presbyterian church government was settled , and the no\u2223bility which did consist of the great barons or lords , or the lesser barons or free - holders , is divided in two estates ; so that by the third act of the second session of the same parlia\u2223ment , the three estates are declared to be the lords of parliament , designed the\nand hath royal authority and jurisdiction over all the states and degrees , as well eccle\u2223siastical as lay or temporal .\nthat is , those who were enobled only by the office which they administred . for the word in the ancient english saxon tongue signifi\u2223eth ,\nhath had dukes , marquesses , earls , viscounts , and barons . as for the title of duke , the first that brought it into\nthe third , a\u2223bout the year of salvation 1400 . likeas the honourable titles of marquess and viscount were first brought in by king\nby taking of an oath , and are proclaimed by the pub\u2223lick voice of an herauld . in the year 1621 was instituted the hereditary order of knight baronet , for advancing the plantation of\nwith precedency of all ordina\u2223ry knights , lesser barons or lairds ; of which order there is a great number , but the anci\u2223ent great lairds , chiefs of clans or families , have not generally yielded precedency to them . of a second sort are they , who are termed\nand hath the same very power as absolute . it consisteth of three states , of lords\nto wit , dukes , marques\u2223ses , earls , viscounts , and barons : and com\u2223missioners for cities and burghs . unto whom were adjoyned not long since for every coun\u2223ty or shire also two commissioners . and by the 11th act of the second session of this current parliament , certain shires , and the stewartrie of\nit is appointed and solemnly called by the king at his pleasure , at a certain set time , be\u2223fore it be holden . when these states above\u2223said are assembled , and the causes of their as\u2223sembly delivered by the king , his commissi\u2223oner , or chancellor , the lords\nthen the same all joyntly together nominat eight , of the commissioners for the counties , and as many of the commissioners for the free burghs regal , which make up in all the number of thirty two . and then\ndo admit or reject every bill proposed unto the states , after they have been first imparted unto the king , or his commissioner . being allowed by the whole assembly of the states , they are through\u2223ly weighed & examined , & such of them as pass by the greater number of voices , are exhibited unto the king , or his commissioner , who by touching them with the scepter , pronounceth , that he either ratifieth & approveth them , or disableth and maketh the same void\u00b7 but if any thing dislike the king , it is razed out before .\nto be chosen out of each estate by it self , for preparing all motions and over\u2223tures first made in the house , and that the parliament may alter the said committees at their pleasure , or conclude upon matters pro\u2223poned before them in plain parliament , with\u2223out committees , and that in the committes , some of the officers of state may be present by their majesties or their commissioners ap\u2223pointment , who is freely to propose and de\u2223bate allennerly , but not to vote . by act of par\u2223liament 1617 , the officers of state are re\u2223stricted to the number of eight , including the master of requests , beside the chancel\u2223lor , who by his office is president of the par\u2223liament . since the restauration of king\nthere hath been no master of requests , but frequently two secretaries ; and there hath been also debate amongst the lesser offi\u2223cers of state : and especially between the thesaurer - depute and the others , concerning their precedency ; but at present by order , the thesaurer - deput is ranked after the advo\u2223cat , and before the justice - clerk .\nof the nine , which must be of the ordinar lords . the distinction of half\n7 . there is allowed two persons to be conjoyned in each of the three offices of ordinary clerks of session , and so now six clerks , and as many advocats as the senators shall think good . these sit and minister justice , not according to the rigour of law , but with reason and equity , every day ( save only on the\nin regard the office of the lords of session are for lifetime , they are set down as fol\u2223lows .\nthe president of the session by an act of parliament 1661 . is declared to have prece\u2223dency of the lord register and advocat , and they to have precedency of the lord thesaurer - deput .\namongst his majesties officers and counsellors , where the lesser officers of state are ranked , and after them the lords of session , according to their admission , and before privy counsellors being barons & gentlemen .\n& frequently thereafter . all the space between sessions , being the times of sowing and har\u2223vest , is vacation and intermission of all suites and law matters . they give judgment accor\u2223ding to the parliament , statutes , and munici\u2223pal laws , and where they are defective , they have recourse to the imperial civil law .\nfrom which courts or judges , in re\u2223gard of hard and unequal dealing , or else of alliance and partiality , they appeal some\u2223time to the session . these sheriffs are all for\nalso , to oblige more surely unto them the better sort of gentlemen by their benefits and favours , made in old time , these sheriffs hereditary and and perpetual . but the english kings soon perceiving the inconveniencies thereby ensu\u2223ing , of purpose changed this order , & appoint\u2223ed them from year to year . there be civil courts also in every regalitie , holden by their baillies , to whom the kings have graciously granted royalities : as also in free - burghs , by the magistrates thereof .\nin which before four judges , or commissars ; actions are pleaded concerning wills & testaments , the right of ecclesiastical benefices , tithes , divorces , and such other ecclesiastical causes . in every other several part almost throughout the kingdom , there sitteth but one judge alone in a place about these matters .\nexe\u2223cuted for some time , ) and he doth deput two or three lawers , who have the hearing and deciding of capital actions concerning life and death , or of such as infer loss of limbs , or of all goods . and by the 16\nlord justice - general , the lord justice - clerk , who are both at the kings nomination , and to them are added five of the lords of session , who are supplied from time to time by the king , and are called lords of the justiciary . in this court the defendant is permitted , yea in case of high - treason , to entertain a counsellor or advocat to plead his cause .\nmoreover in criminal matters , there are sometimes by vertue of the kings commission and authority , justices appointed for the de\u2223ciding of this or that particular cause .\nalso the sheriffs in their territories , and magistrats in some burghs , may sit in judge\u2223ment of man - slaughter ( in case the man - slay\u2223er be taken within 24 hours after the deed committed ) and being found guilty by a ju\u2223rie , put him to death . but if that time be once over - past , the cause is referred and put over to the\nor his deputs . the same priviledge also some of the nobility and gentry enjoy against theives taken within their own jurisdictions . there be likewise that have such royalities , as that in criminal causes they may exercise a jurisdiction with\u2223in their own limits , and in some cases recal those that dwell within their own limits and liberties from the kings justice , howbeit with a caution and proviso interposed ,\nwho had given the author good light . he being one of the three principal clerks of session , was in the year 1608 appointed secretary in place of the lord\ndid set it o\u2223pen for us , which had so long time been shut from us .\nmean time before we proceed to the de\u2223scription of particular places , according to the authors project , we must give some short account of the privy council , thesaury and exchequer , being soveraign courts , and omitted by the author . the privy council is constitute by the king ' s commission to decide in matters that concerns the government and publick peace of the nation , wherein the chancellor by his office doth preside , and af\u2223ter him the president of the council , who hath the same precedency as in\nthe persons are chiefly named out of the nobility , with the addition of some barons . in the thesaury and exchequer , the lord high the\u2223saurer doth preceed , but this office is frequent\u2223ly in commission , as it is at present , and then the lord chancellor is , and uses to be one and chief of the commission , as also the lord\nthesaurer deput , and they together with the lords of exchequer nominat by their majesties do order , determine , and dispose of the kings rents , revenues , gifts , and casualities : i have omitted particular lists of them , in regard the commissions to the council , thesaury and exchequer are some times changed , as the king doth think fit ; and that the persons employed in them are emi\u2223nent , of whom occasion will be to make men\u2223tion in some part of this treatise , either as noblemen , sheriffs of , or commissioners from shires , or otherwise .\nunder which one general name alone the writers of the middle time comprised all the rest .\nare always most ready for service and sudden invasions . the first place among these that we meet with ,\nand in old time marchidun , because it was a town in the marches , where stands a castle , that for natural situation , and towred fortifica\u2223tons , was in time past exceeding strong . which being surprised and held by the\nmissed and lamented of his subjects . as for the castle , it was yielded ; and being then for the most part of it lay ' d even with the ground , is now in a manner quite vanished and not to be seen . the territory adjoyn\u2223ing , called of it the sheriffdom of\nwho is present she\u2223riff , and one of the commissioners of the shire to this present parliament . and now hath\nin the year 1603 . to take possession of that crown , at which time he was created lord\naforesaid runneth through the midst of a dale , taking name of it , replenished with sheep , that bear wool of great request . a very goodly river this is , which springing more inwardly eastward , after it hath passed , as it were in a straight channel by\nwhere he is exceeding full of salmons , and so falleth into the sea .\nmerch , which is next , and so named because it is a march countrey , lyeth wholly upon the german sea . in this , first\nthe first of that name built out of the ground , for the propagation of gods glory , but to the great empairing of the crown - land .\nand passing along the ra\u2223ging ocean , landed here in safety , became renowned for her sanctimony , and left her name unto the place . but this\nwhat the meaning should be of these terms let others guess . in the reign of king\ndun\u2223bar ; and when as he proved by good evi\u2223dences and writings brought forth , that his father had been pardoned for that fault by the regents of the kingdom , he was answe\u2223red again , that it was not in the regents power to pardon on offence against the state ; and that it was expresly provided by the laws , that children should undergo punishment for their fathers transgressions , to the end that being thus heirs to their fathers rash\u2223ness , as they are to their goods and lands , they should not at any time in the haughty pride of their own power , plot any treason against prince or countrey . this title of earl of\ndoth presently enjoy that dignity ; this viscount is marked in the rolls of parliament 1621 . hard by ,\nwhich he hath extraordinarly improven & beautifyed by planting & inclosing . by the same riveret , some few miles higher ,\nslain there with his men about the year 815 . but that he should be that warlike\nboth the account of the times , and his own death do manifestly con\u2223troll it . the sheriff ship of this shire , being at the kings disposal , is given to sir\nbaronet , and one of their majesties privy council , and a member of this present parliament for the shire .\nmuch teene and trouble . here by retiring back off the shores on both sides , is room made for a most noble arm of the sea , and the same well furnished with islands , which by reason of many rivers encountring it by the way , and the tides of the surging sea together , spreadeth exceeding broad :\nthere is none descended of him that claims the title . upon this river , after you be past\nflock hither at their times ( for by report , their number is such , that in a clear day they take away the suns light , ) what a sort of fishes they bring ( for as the speech goeth , a hun\u2223dred garrison soldiers that here lay for de\u2223fence of the place , fed upon no other meat but the fresh fish that they brought in , ) what a quantity of sticks and little twigs they get together for the building of their nests , so that by their means the inhabitants are a\u2223bundantly provided of feuel for their fire ; what a mighty gain groweth by their feathen and oyl , the report thereof is so incredible that no man scartcely would believe it , but he that had seen it . the garrison of the\na peer as hath been said . near to this place was the seat of sir\nthe sixth , and one of the lords of session ; his grand uncle mr .\nthe sixth , and one of the lords of session ; and his uncle mr .\nalso a lord of session . upon the sea - side is the town of\na pict , good leave have he for me , i will not con\u2223front them with this my conjecture .\naffordeth . and as it is the seat of the kings , so is it the oracle also , or closet of the laws , and the very palace of justice . for the high courts of parliament are here for the most part holden ,\nfor the enacting and repelling of laws : also the session , and the court of the kings ju\u2223dicators , and of the commissariat , whereof i have spoken already , are here settled and kept .\nthe second after his restauration , did raise there a fair and stately court and pallace , all of hewen stone . in\ndid to their great expense , build a stately hall for the meetings of the parlia\u2223ment , with other rooms adjoyning for the session , and above stairs for the privy coun\u2223cil and exchequer , with a large closs or yard , to the south of st .\nthe second on horse - back in brass . and to the south - west , on a rising ground , is a curious and large hospi\u2223tal , built with the money left by\ngold - smith , which doth entertain above an hundred young boys , children of decay\u2223ed burgesses . this city is well watered with five large fountains on the high and broad street thereof . in this city also , by king\nas what variable changes of reciprocal fortune it hath felt from time to time , the historiographers do relate , and out of them ye are to be informed .\nhad fortified , by reason of many men repair\u2223ing thither , within a short time from a mean village , it grew to be a big town . again , when\ntruely seing both these islands be dissevered from the shore , the same reason of the name will hold in both languages . for\nwhere she did much reside , and began to found that monastry . upon the same\nin the british tongue soundeth as much as a lake . a sheriff it had in times past by inheritance out of the family of the\nthe sixth raised from the dignity of a baron , wherein his ancestors had flourished a long time , to the honour of an earl . in the same shire is situat\ngreat grand child to the first earl , doth pre\u2223sently enjoy the dignity , and is one of the commissioners of the thesaury . near to\nfor deliver\u2223ing him out of a danger , greatly enriched . these were earls of\nthe fifth ( who begat many bastards ) the title & inheritance both came un\u2223to his son now extinct . hard by is\ninto which the access by land is very difficult . the places of greater note here\u2223in are these ;\nby right from their ancest\u2223ors , had the rule of this seneschalsie or stewartrie , for so it is accounted . this vale\nfor that the per\u2223son more remote in the second degree , descend\u2223ing in the first line , is to be preferred before a nearer in a second line , in the succession of an inheritance that cannot be parted .\nby his own vertue , at length recovered the king\u2223dom unto himself , and established it to his posterity . a prince , who as he flourished notably , in regard of the glorious ornaments of his noble acts , so he triumphed as happi\u2223ly with invincible fortitude & courage , over fortune that so often crossed him . sir\nwho besides other offices enjoyed by him , is one of the commissioners of the thesaury ; and by a special commission did represent the lord high thesaurer in the last session of this cur\u2223rent parliament . i cannot pass over in silence his uncle ,\nis one of the titles of the present duke . by the same river , near unto the mouth whereof standeth\nfor fear he should fore - close his way to the kingdom , ran quite through with his sword in the church , & soon obtained his par\u2223don from the pope , for committing that mur\u2223der in a sacred place . near unto the mouth , is\nand is now in the person of the present earl . moreover , in this vale\nof whom i am to write more in place convenient , bare a long time the title of earl .\nfor to fetch in booties , and in which the inhabitants thereabout on both sides with pleasant pastime and delight\u2223ful sight on horse - back with spears hunt salmons , whereof there is abundance . what manner of\nthey go forth in the night by troops out of their own borders , through de\u2223sart by - ways , and many winding crankies . all the day time they refresh their horses , and re\u2223creat their own strength in lurking places ap\u2223pointed before hand , until they be come thither at length , in the dark night where they would be . when they have laid hold of a bootie , back again they return home likewise by night , through blind ways only , and fetching many a compasse about ; the more skillful any leader or guide is , to pass through those wild desarts , crooked turnings , and steep down - falls , in the thickest mists and deepest darkness , he is held in greater reputati\u2223on , as one of an excellent wit : and so crafty\nand wily these are , that seldom or never they for\u2223go their booty , and suffer it to be taken out of their hands , unless it happen otherwhiles that they be caught by their adversaries following con\u2223tinually after , and tracting them directly by their footing , according as quick - senting slugh - hounds do lead them . but say they be taken , so fair spoken they are and eloquent , so many sugared words they have at will , sweetly to plead for them\u25aa that they are able to move the judges and adver\u2223saries both , be they never so austere and severe , if not to mercy , yet to admiration , and some commiseration withal .\nthey take in weels and weer - nets , an incredible num\u2223ber of most sweet and savourie eels , where\u2223by they make no less gain than others do by their little naggs , which for being well limmed , fast knit , and strongly made to en\u2223dure travail , are most in request , and bought from hence . among these , the first place that offereth it self by the river\nbaronet , is heretable she\u2223riff , and a member for that shire to this cur\u2223rent parliament . in times past , it had for lord ,\nwhich i know not , to say truth , where to seek . yet that place requireth that it should be that episcopal seat of\nhis younger brother took him prisoner in battel , and when he had cut out his tongue , and plucked his eyes forth of his head , he cruelly bereaved him both of life and inheritance . but with\u2223in some few years , when\nand is in this tract of high birth , spread into many branches , and of great power . the chief of which linage is the earl of\nhath a town also of mer\u2223chandise , and a well known port by a river of the same name .\nbut now both sheriffship and stewartry being at the kings disposal , are granted to one person ; which rivers hath many little villages scattered along their banks .\nand others of these sirnames , all families of good note . the chief mes\u2223suage of the stewartry of\nbutteth upon the same firth so close , that it restraineth the breadth thereof , which hi\u2223therto lay out and spread at large . the name , if one interpret it , is as much as the\nby which a man may guess how commodious and pleasant it is . this territory is watered with\nand marriage with the kings sister . but soon after , when the said gale came about , and blew contrary , they were judged enemies to the state :\ndoth contravert many of the circumstances thereof . ) howbeit the po\u2223sterity of the lord\nrecovered the anci\u2223ent honour of barons , and honourably enjoy it at this day . this family was dignified with the title of earl of\nshallow withall , that it can bear none other vessels but small barks and boats .\nwas in a broil , whiles he took part with the protestants , he was apprehended and beheaded . but the\nof a castle bearing the same name . inwardly it mounteth up altogether with high rising hills , at the bottom and foot whereof , along the shore , it is well inhabited . the first earl hereof that i can read of , was\nin understanding , that he could not manage his estate , took this title in the right of being guardian .\nhe hath been twice employed by their majesties , as commissio\u2223ner to the general assembly , and is of the privy council .\nthe fifth , book 12 . chap . 5 . anent the genealogy of the\nas is said , who is one of the gentlemen of their majesties bed - chamber . the fourth son lord\nis the most famous town of merchandise in this tract : for pleasant situation , apple - trees , and other like fruit - trees much com\u2223mended , having also a very fair bridge sup\u2223ported with eight arches . near to it is\nkings , and that a wrong genealogy of them is printed , with our acts of parliament . i must be allowed to prevent the further course of that mistake , to digress a little beyond my ordinary in privat families , to give a true and brief account of that ancient , great and noble family of the\nand that he died in the year 1177 , by the former , and 1178 . by the latter , which\nthe manu\u2223script contains many things useful to the history , and is in the hands of the reverend mr .\nhis grand - father , his seal appended , is also entire : he died in the year 1309 . at the battle of\nhath the charter and lands , an ancient baron , nobly de\u2223scended . there is a charter to the same per\u2223son of the same lands , but then designed sir\nand other great branches descended thereof , de\u2223serve a particular treatise . i shall only re\u2223peat ,\nrobertus senescallus comes de strathern , ne\u2223pos noster , ioannes senescallus comes de car\u2223rict , filius suus primogenitus & haeres , & c .\nas also with islands , concerning which , many fables have been forged , and those rife among the com\u2223mon people .\nas touching an island here that floateth and waveth too and fro , i list not to make question thereof . for what should let , but that a lighter body , and spongeous withal in manner of a\nthere be islands full of grass , and covered over with rushes and reeds , that float up and down . but i leave it unto\n) the east side of it , which hath a most pleasant prospect into the said lake . but at the confluence where\nin a green plain . in one of the tops or heads abovesaid , there standeth up a lofty watch - tower , or keep : on the other , which is the lower , there are sundry strong bul\u2223warks : between these two tops on the north side , it hath one only ascent , by which hard\u2223ly one by one can pass up , and that with a labour by degrees or steps , cut out aslope traverse the rock : in stead of ditches on the west side , serveth the river\nand on the east a boggy flat , which at every tide is wholly covered over with waters ; and on the north side , the ve\u2223ry upright steepness of the place , is a most sufficient defence . certain remains of the\ndeparture , for three hundred years , in the midst of their enemies . for in\nthat it was rendred unto them by composition . of this place , the territory\nwas given unto that most noble fami\u2223ly , in regard of the honourable office of the stewart - ship of the kingdom , as who had the charge of the kings revenues . the said\nthe eight , considering that he bestowed upon him in marriage his neice , with fair lands . by the means of this hap\u2223py marriage , were brought into the world\ndivided as well in it self , as it was heretofore from the rest of the world , and to lay a most sure foundation of an everlasting security , for our heirs and the posterity . as for\nwho above her sex , so embraced the studies of the best li\u2223terature , that therein she profited and pro\u2223ceeded with singular commendation , and comparable with the excellent ladies of old time . when\nwhereof he stood en\u2223feoffed , was revoked by parliamentary au\u2223thority , in the year of our lord 1579 . and his uncle by the fathers side ,\npier\u2223cing far into the land out of the west and east seas , are divided asunder , that they meet not one with the other .\nname , which scarcely could be stayed , set out the marches of the empire in this part of the world farther , although with inrodes they other whiles molested and endamnaged them . but after this glorious expedition of\nraised the wall three miles long . but see here the very inscriptions them\u2223selves , as\nimp . caes . tit . \u2014io aelio hadriano anton . aug . pio . p . p . leg . ii . aug . per . m . p . iii . d . cix vis .\nstrengthened this wall another time , and fortified it with seven castles . lastly , the\nthey made a turff wall , rearing it not so much with stone as with turfs , ( as having no cunning artificer for so great a piece of work ) and the same to no use , between two firths or arms of the sea , for ma\u2223ny miles in length : that where the fense of wa\u2223ter was wanting , there by the help of a wall , they might defend there borders from the inva\u2223sion of enemies : of which work , that is to say a very broad and high wall , a man may see to this day , most certain and evident remains .\nobtained a signal victory . ) and almost two miles lower , there is an ancient round building four and twenty cubits high , and thirteen broad , open in the top , framed of rough stone without lime , having the upper part of every stone so tenanted into the nether , as that the whole work still rising narrow by a mutual interlacing and clasping , upholdeth it self . some call this the temple of\na round house of polished stone , erecting a triumphal arch in memorial of a victory : he re - edified also the wall , and strengthened it with seven castles .\ntheir minority , have been at other times com\u2223mitted . whereas some there be , that would have the good and lawful money of\nshire to be described after . the sheriffship of this shire belongs to the earls of\nsuch as the northern nations for the most part are ; who by reason of the rigorous cold of the air , are more rough and fierce , and for their abundance of blood , more bold and ad\u2223venturous . moreover , beside the position of the climat , this is furthered by the na\u2223ture and condition of the soil , which riseth up all throughout , with rough and rugged mountains ; and mountainers , verily all men know and confess to be hardy , stout , and strong . but whereas\nthan this of our ; although ours may also justly challenge unto it self this commendation . among this was the wood\nthat it was thought there , they were brought thi\u2223ther within iron grates and cages . but this term and name\nwe brittain dames have to do with the bravest and best men , and you roman ladies with e\u2223very lewd base companion secretly .\nto which the reader is referred . there is also now in the press , the manuscript of the judicious and learned mr .\nshooteth out far into the east . this land yieldeth plenty of corn and forrage , yea and of pit coals : the sea , besides other fishes , affordeth oysters and and shell - fish in great abundance , and the coasts are well bespread with pretty townlets , replenished with stout and lusty mariners . in the south side hereof by\ncastle , the seat of a noble family , bearing the same sir\u2223name . the laird of\nto succeed her in that dignity . from hence the shore draweth back with a crooked and wiuding tract un\u2223to\nthat it should be the chief and mother of all churches in the picts kingdom .\ndoctors of the civil law , publickly professed here good literature , laid the foundation of an university : which now , for happy increase of learned men , for three colledges and the kings professors in them , is become highly renowned . hard by there loseth it self into the sea\nking , when he is to be crowned in his chair , and to lead the vant - guard in his army ; and if any of them should happen by casualty to kill either gentleman or commoner , to buy it out with a piece of money . not far from\nheifer , should be quit of man\u2223slaughter . when his posterity lost this ti\u2223tle and priviledge , is uncertain ; but it appear\u2223eth , that king\nthe kings eldest son to be most pitifully famished to death , which is the highest extremity of all misery . but his son\nshould be united unto the crown for ever . but the authority of the sheriff of\nwas a lord of the session , and one of the octavians of the thesaury , & secre\u2223tary before k .\nin the year 1648 , whose honour is not now claimed by any . lieutenant general\nhis son being deceased without heirs male , the grand . child is married to mr .\nthe worst emperour , marched with victorious armies in the third year of his warlike expeditions , having wasted and spoiled the nations hitherto . near the out\u2223let of\nthe third ; took to him a wife out of that li\u2223nage : for the women of this race , have for their singular beauty , and well favoured sweet countenance , won the prize from all others , insomuch as they have been the kings most a\u2223miable paramours . baron\nhis great grand - child , who was an extraordi\u2223nar lord of the session , justice general , and chancellor to k .\nhad been quite extinguished , but that the chief of that house left his wife behind him great with child . the precedency of\nnectane king of the picts gave unto god and st . brigid until the day of doom , together with the bounds thereof , which ly from a stone in abertrent , unto a stone near to carfull ,\nthe first took away the earldom as escheated ; after that , he understood out of the records of the kingdom , that it was given unto his mothers grand - father , and the hirs male of his body . this territory , the barons\npresident of the council , ranked before the l . privy seal ; it is report\u2223ed , that being vain of the title of\nthe sixth was the first , who as great or high commissioner , did repre\u2223sent the kings person in the parliament 1604 , as distinguished from several noblemen and gentlemen , appointed commissioners by the king under the quarter seal , to meet at the dyet of parliament , and to continue the same to a furder time , and to see the solem\u2223nities constituting the parliament performed , the first day of its sitting ; which form was constantly observed , till the year 1640 . this earls grand - child\nactions there , and several noble and antient families inhabiting it . i return to the cross of\nmedals have been found , and from that there is a great mercat - road lead\u2223eth towards st .\ndis manibus antonius daimonius cohortis i . legionis xvii . hispanorum heredes . f . c .\nthe country runneth out in length and breadth , all mangled with fishful pools , and in some places with rising mountains , very commo\u2223dious for feeding of cattel ; in which also there range up and down wild kine and red deer : but along the shore it is more un\u2223pleasant in sight , what with rocks , and what with blackish barren mountains . in this part , as\neither through friendship , or by dint of sword , planted their seat amongst them which they still hold . of whom , their leader they are to this very day called dalreudini : for in their language ,\nthe fourth by authority of the states of the king\u2223dom , enacted a law . but the earls them\u2223selves have in some cases their royalties , as being men of very great command and au\u2223thority ,\n( betwixt which and it there is a narrow sea , scarce thirteen miles over ) as if it would conjoyn it self .\nlying over - against it , there is , in my conceit , some affinity . at this day it is called in the\nby so thin a neck ( as being scarce a mile broad , and the same all sandy ) that the mariners find it the nearer way to convey their small vessels over it by land . which i hope a man may sooner believe , than that the\nano\u2223ther lake running into the east sea , but that certain mountains between kept them with a very little partition asunder . the chiefest place of name in this tract is\nare joyned in one these coun\u2223tries and those beyond them , in the year of our lords incarnation 655 . the\nis better known for the dukes thereof , than for any good gifts that the soil yieldeth .\nthat was heir to the crown . but the punishment due for this wicked fact , which himself by the long sufferance of god self not , his son\nsuffered most grievously , being condemned for treason and beheaded , when he had seen his two sons the day before executed in the same manner . the third duke of\nchanced to be wound\u2223ed with a piece of shattered launce , & so di\u2223ed . his son\ntheir bodies be firmly made and well compact , able withal and strong , nimble of foot , high min\u2223ded , inbread and nuzzeled in warlike exer\u2223cises , or robberies rather , and upon a dead\u2223ly feud and hatred , most forward and des\u2223perat to take revenge . they go attired\nthey commit such cruel outrages , what with robbing , spoilling and killing , that their savage cruelty hath forced a law to be enacted , whereby it is lawful , that if any person , out of any one clan or kindred of theirs hath trespassed ought , and done harm , whosoever of that clan or linage chance to be taken , he shall either make amends for the harms , or else suffer death for it ; when as the whole clan commonly beareth feud for any hurt received by any one member thereof , by execution of laws , order of ju\u2223stice , or otherwise . sir\nissueth : and first run\u2223reth amain through the fields , until that spreading broad into a lake full of islands , he restraineth and keepeth in his course . then gathering himself narrow within his banks into a channel , and watering\ndread\u2223ful to see , for the sundry turnings and win\u2223dings in and out therein , for the hideous hor\u2223rour of dark shades , for the burrows and dens of wild bulls with thick manes ( where\u2223of i made mention heretofore ) extended it self in old time far and wide every way in these parts . as for the places herein , they are of no great account , but the earls thereof are very memorable ."]}
{"id": 1487, "summary": [{"text": "the rhinoceros chameleon ( furcifer rhinoceratus ) is a species of chameleon that gets its common name from its horn-like nose which is most prominent in males .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is endemic to dry forests in madagascar . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "rhinoceros chameleon", "paragraphs": ["today i want to write about an amazing looking reptile , the rhinoceros chameleon .\nmale rhinoceros chameleon ( furcifer rhinoceratus ) . ankarafantsika national park , north west madagascar .\nboth the male and female rhinoceros chameleon possess a dorsal crest . this is only present on the front half of the body , and , together with the lower casque , helps distinguish the male rhinoceros chameleon from the closely related furcifer antimena and furcifer labordi . the female rhinoceros chameleon can also be differentiated from these two species by the absence of a white line down the middle of the belly ( 2 ) .\nendangered rhinoceros chameleon ( furcifer rhinoceratus ) resting on a branch in rain forest in ankarafantsika , madagascar . species is threatened ( designated vulnerable ) .\nkauai : there was a single sighting of a veiled chameleon in 2004 . kisc responded but was unable to recover a chameleon .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - rhinoceros chameleon ( furcifer rhinoceratus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - rhinoceros chameleon ( furcifer rhinoceratus )\ntitle =\narkive species - rhinoceros chameleon ( furcifer rhinoceratus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe rhinoceros chameleon , scientifically named furcifer rhinoceratus is one of the most distinctive of the genus furcifer . it\u2019s named for its prominent scaly horn - like nose (\nthe rhinoceros chameleon is endemic to the dry deciduous forest region of western madagascar , although its exact distribution within this region is poorly understood ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .\nlittle information is available on the reproductive behaviour of the rhinoceros chameleon . clutches of 4 to 11 eggs have been reported in captivity , with hatching occurring after 291 days , and the newly hatched rhinoceros chameleons weighing between 0 . 38 and 0 . 44 grams ( 2 ) .\nrhinoceros chameleons are found in forests on the island of madagascar and are considered vulnerable to extinction due to habitat loss .\nthe rhinoceros chameleon inhabits dry deciduous forest ( 4 ) . little information is available on its precise habitat requirements , but it is reported to be commonly seen along roads and paths , as well as inhabiting the forest interior ( 2 ) .\nthis chameleon inhabits dry deciduous forest ( ramanamanjato and rabibisoa 2002 ) . it is not clear to what degree this species can survive in degraded habitats .\ndisclaimer please note , the\nviews , recommendations and answers\noffered on this website are simply our own and our readers opinions . every case must be treated on an individual basis . as always , my chameleon online encourages all chameleon owners to seek professional veterinary care . privacy policy terms & conditions\nlike many madagascan chameleons , the rhinoceros chameleon is threatened by habitat loss in the form of rapid deforestation ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . significant portions of forest habitat have already been cleared , and the remaining areas are often highly fragmented , as well as being critically threatened by logging , uncontrolled burning , and clearing for grazing and agriculture ( 4 ) .\na reptilian smoking gun : first record of invasive jackson\u2019s chameleon ( chamaeleo jacksonii ) predation on native hawaiian species . brenden s . hollandsteven l . montgomery , vincent costello . urltoken\nthe name\nchameleon\nis derived from the greek words chamai ( on the ground , on the earth ) and leon ( lion ) so their name means\nearth lion .\nthe meller ' s chameleon is the largest of the chameleons not native to madagascar . their stout bodies can grow to be up to two feet long and weigh more than a pound .\n) . contrary to popular belief , a chameleon typically does not change colors to match its surroundings . instead , color is usually used to convey emotions , defend territories , and communicate with mates .\nmale cryptic or blue - legged chameleon ( calumma crypticum ) rests on a branch in the wilds of madagascar ( rain forest of ranomafana ) . incredible vibrant colors at night while sleeping . foliage , tree .\nmeller ' s distinguish themselves from their universally bizarre - looking cousins with a single small horn protruding from the front of their snouts . this and their size earn them the common name\ngiant one - horned chameleon .\nthe male rhinoceros chameleon is greyish or brownish in colour , with dark brown or black between the scales , and a white line down the flanks . the lips are also white , and the horn is often a bluish colour . although usually similar in colouration to the male , the female changes dramatically when carrying eggs ( gravid ) . in this state , the female turns an overall neon - purple colour , with black bands on the body , extending onto the tail , which is orange or red ( 2 ) .\nthis species is typically larger than a jackson chameleon . they also have a large casque ( sharkfin - like shield ) on their head , as compared to the three horns of a male jackson . this species is also a pest !\nissg database : ecology of chamaeleo jacksonii . urltoken images : veiled chameleon , another popular pet and illegal animal to posess in hawai\u02bbi . urltoken two widespread introduced reptiles : ( top ) gold day dust gecko ; ( bottom ) brown anole\nprocesses in ecology and evolution , natural and life history , and biodiversity conservation of reptiles and amphibians . research interests include african chameleon systematics and neuroanatomy , reproductive variation in north american lizards and frogs , and ecology of snakes and turtles in artificial habitats .\nin some areas malagasy fear chameleons . they are also the subject of some well - known local proverbs including \u201cmanaova toy ny dian - tana jerena ny aloha , todihina ny afara , \u201d which translates to\nlike the chameleon , one eye on the future , one eye on the past\n;\nratsy karaha kandrondro ,\nmeaning\nugly as a chameleon\n;\nmahatsidia vokon ' anjava kely izy fa mafoaka ,\na warning to walk carefully so as not to step on a brookesia , which would bring great misfortune .\njackson\u02bbs chameleon ( chamaeleo jacksonii ) : males are generally 10 - 12\u201d long with a long , prehensile tail accounting for half of their length , and with three horns protruding from their forehead . females are generally a little shorter and never grow horns . this species is also a pest !\nhave a large casque ( sharkfin - like shield ) on their head ( note that the jackson\u2019s chameleon , c . jacksonii , is a similar and more common alien species in hawaii , although male jackson\u2019s have three horns on their forehead ) . have a fringe running from its mouth under its body .\nother easily noted characteristics of chameleons include bulging eyes that move independently of one another , feet fixed in a grasping position , and the existence of horns or crests on the heads of many species . additionally , arboreal species have prehensile tails used for grasping objects when climbing and moving . finally , some species have long extensile tongues for catching insects or small vertebrates at a distance sometimes greater than the length of the chameleon .\nmonoceras : madagascar ( betsako , mojanga ) ; type locality : betsako bei mojunga , n . w . madagascar\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nfurcifer monoceras is most likely a synonym of f . rhinoceratus ( f . glaw , pers . comm . )\nandersson , lars gabriel 1910 . reptiles and batrachians from the north - west of madagascar collected by v . kaudern , 1906 - 1907 . arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 7 ( 7 ) : 1 - 15 .\nboettger , o . 1913 . reptilien und amphibien von madagascar , den inseln und dem festland ostafrikas . pp . 269 - 375 . in : voeltzkow , a . reise in ostafrika in den jahren 1903 - 1905 . wissenschaftliche ergebnisse . vol . 3 . systematische arbeiten . schweizerbart\u2019 sche verlagsbuchhandlung , n\u00e4gele und sproesser , stuttgart\nboettger , oskar 1893 . katalog der reptilien - sammlung im museum der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft in frankfurt am main . i . teil ( rhynchocephalen , schildkr\u00f6ten , krokodile , eidechsen , cham\u00e4leons ) . gebr\u00fcder knauer , frankfurt a . m . , x + 140 pp . - get paper here\nbrygoo , e . r . & c . a . domergue 1968 . les cam\u00e9l\u00e9os \u00e1 rostre impair et rigide de l ' ouest de madagascar . validit\u00e9 des esp\u00e9ces chamaeleo labordi grandidier , 1872 , et c . antimena grandidier , 1872 . description d ' une esp\u00e9ce nouvelle c . angeli n . sp . et de la femelle de c . rhinoceratus gray , 184 m\u00e9m . mus . nat . hist . nat . , paris a 52 ( 2 ) : 71 - 110\ngardner cj , raxworthy cj , metcalfe k , raselimanana ap , smith rj , davies zg 2015 . comparing methods for prioritising protected areas for investment : a case study using madagascar\u2019s dry forest reptiles . plos one 10 ( 7 ) : e0132803 , doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0132803 - get paper here\nglaw , f . & vences , m . 1994 . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . vences & glaw verlag , k\u00f6ln ( isbn 3 - 929449 - 01 - 3 )\nglaw , f . 2015 . taxonomic checklist of chameleons ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . vertebrate zoology 65 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013246 - get paper here\nglaw , f . & vences , m . 2001 . ein seltenes cham\u00e4leon aus madagaskar . datz 54 ( 7 ) : 16 - 19\ngray , j . e . 1843 . description of two new species of reptiles from the collection made during the voyages of h . m . s . sulphur . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 1 ) 11 : 46 - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1865 . revision of the genera and species of chamaeleonidae , with the description of some new species . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 15 : 340 - 354 - get paper here\nnecas , p . 2012 . cham\u00e4leons der gattung furcifer . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 17 ( 95 ) : 20 - 27 - get paper here\nnecas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )\npawlik , k . 2012 . cham\u00e4leon - urlaub \u2013 eine madagaskar - reise . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 17 ( 96 ) : 103 - 109 - get paper here\npianka , e . r . & vitt , l . j . 2003 . lizards - windows to the evolution of diversity . university of california press , berkeley , 347 pp . [ review in copeia 2004 : 955 ] - get paper here\nrakotoarison , andolalao ; jesse erens , fanomezana m . ratsoavina , miguel vences 2015 . amphibian and reptile records from around the betsiboka delta area in north - western madagascar herpetology notes 8 : 535 - 543 - get paper here\nschmidt , w . ; tamm , k . & wallikewitz , e . 2010 . cham\u00e4leons - drachen unserer zeit . natur und tier verlag , 328 pp . [ review in reptilia 101 : 64 , 2013 ] - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nf . monoceras is considered a junior synonymn of f . rhinoceratus ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nthis species is uncommon . due to heavy human pressures on and the patchy distribution of remaining forest within its range , the population is likely to be both declining and severely fragmented .\nthis species was traded in small levels before the 1994 suspension on exports from madagascar . it is not currently reported illegally in international trade .\nthreats in the region include bush fires , cattle grazing , and deforestation for charcoal collection .\nthis species occurs in parc national ankarafantsika . this site needs to be managed to limit the intrusion of damaging human activities . research is needed to establish the extent of this species ' distribution in the west of its range , from which modern records are lacking , and to clarify the degree to which this species is able to tolerate habitat degradation and modification .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nmany madagascan chameleons have also been heavily collected for the pet trade ( 6 ) . however , there are very few records of successful captive breeding of this species , and it is not reported to have been heavily exported in the past ( 2 ) .\nhowever , very little is known about the ecology or conservation needs of this species , and it may therefore benefit from further research before any specific conservation measures , if necessary , can be put into place .\nauthenticated ( 07 / 03 / 11 ) by dr richard k . b . jenkins , madagasikara voakajy and durrell institute of conservation and ecology , university of kent . urltoken\ndeciduous forest forest consisting mainly of deciduous trees , which shed their leaves at the end of the growing season . dorsal relating to the back or top side of an animal . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . territorial describes an animal , a pair of animals or a colony that occupies and defends an area .\ngray , j . e . ( 1845 ) catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . british museum , london .\nhalliday , t . and adler , k . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians . oxford university press , oxford .\nbrady , l . d . and griffiths , r . a . ( 1999 ) status assessment of chameleons in madagascar . iucn species survival commission , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\njennifer hammock added an association between\nmadagascar dry deciduous forests habitat\nand\nmesitornis variegatus\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nmadagascar dry deciduous forests habitat\nand\nxenopirostris damii\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nmadagascar dry deciduous forests habitat\nand\namaurornis olivieri\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nmadagascar dry deciduous forests habitat\nand\nardea humbloti\n.\njennifer hammock added an association between\nmadagascar dry deciduous forests habitat\nand\nhaliaeetus vociferoides\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nstand out and be remembered with prezi , the secret weapon of great presenters .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . this website uses cookies that provide targeted advertising and which track your use of this website . by clicking \u2018continue\u2019 or by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nany of several horned chameleons of the genera furcifer and chamaeleo ; specifically f . rhinoceratus of madagascar , the male of which has a prominent forward - projecting horn on the nose .\nstay up to date with our latest news and receive new words updates , blog posts , and more .\nin this article we explore how to impress employers with a spot - on cv .\narchaic words have a charm that never fades away , from french sounding to wondrously mysterious ones .\nthese strange looking chameleons grow up to 27 cm long , with the males growing twice as big as the females .\nthe horns that give them their name are bigger in the males and they use them to fight with each other .\nthey spend most of their time in trees where they catch insects using their long tongues .\nat breeding time , the females lay 4 - 11 eggs , which take almost a year to hatch .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\nthe following bibliography has been generated by bringing together all references provided by our content partners . there may be duplication .\n3 . gray , j . e . ( 1845 ) catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . british museum , london .\n5 . halliday , t . and adler , k . ( 2002 ) the new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians . oxford university press , oxford .\n6 . brady , l . d . and griffiths , r . a . ( 1999 ) status assessment of chameleons in madagascar . iucn species survival commission , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\nandersson , lars gabriel . 1910 . reptiles and batrachians from the north - west of madagascar collected by v . kaudern , 1906 - 1907 . arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 7 ( 7 ) : 1 - 15 .\nboettger , o . 1913 . reptilien und amphibien von madagascar , den inseln und dem festland ostafrikas . pp . 269 - 375 . in : voeltzkow , a . reise in ostafrika in den jahren 1903 - 1905 . wissenschaftliche ergebnisse . vol . 3 . systematische arbeiten . schweizerbart\u2019 sche verlagsbuchhandlung , n\u00e4gele und sproesser , stuttgart .\nboettger , oskar . 1893 . katalog der reptilien - sammlung im museum der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft in frankfurt am main . i . teil ( rhynchocephalen , schildkr\u00f6ten , krokodile , eidechsen , cham\u00e4leons ) . gebr\u00fcder knauer , frankfurt a . m . , x + 140 pp .\nglaw , f . & vences , m . 1994 . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . vences & glaw verlag , k\u00f6ln ( isbn 3 - 929449 - 01 - 3 ) .\nglaw , f . & vences , m . 2001 . ein seltenes cham\u00e4leon aus madagaskar . datz 54 ( 7 ) : 16 - 19 .\ngray , j . e . 1843 . description of two new species of reptiles from the collection made during the voyages of h . m . s . sulphur . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 1 ) 11 : 46 .\ngray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp .\ngray , j . e . 1865 . revision of the genera and species of chamaeleonidae , with the description of some new species . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 15 : 340 - 354 .\nnecas , petr . 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada ) .\npianka , e . r . & vitt , l . j . 2003 . lizards - windows to the evolution of diversity . university of california press , berkeley , 347 pp . [ review in copeia 2004 : 955 ] .\nschmidt , w . ; tamm , k . & wallikewitz , e . 2010 . cham\u00e4leons - drachen unserer zeit . natur und tier verlag , m\u00fcnster , 328 pp .\nregulatory status : injurious wildlife ( exhibit 5 , chapter 13 - 124 ) . it is illegal to transport these animals between islands or to commercially export to the mainland . penalties can include a fine of up to $ 200 , 000 and a possible prison sentence . the hawaii department of agriculture has an amnesty program allowing a person to turn in an illegal animal without prosecution\njackson\u2019s chameleons are a popular pet that can escape the cage and establish feral populations in hawai\u02bbi . they are bright emerald green fading to a yellowish color on their undersides . males are generally 10 - 12\u201d long with a long , prehensile tail accounting for half of their length , and with three horns protruding from their forehead . females are generally a little shorter and never grow horns . jackson\u2019s chameleons are solitary creatures which spend most of their time in trees . chameleons move with a distinctive slow rocking motion .\nchameleons\u2019 ability to thrive in a variety of forest environments where they are yet another predator of hawai\u02bbi\u2019s native insects , spiders , and snails , making them a less welcome guest in hawai\u02bbi . chameleons are also a potential prey base for the brown tree snake and other snakes , which increases the likelihood of this alien species establishing populations if ever introduced .\nintroduced from kenya and tanzania to hawai\u02bbi in 1972 , this popular pet was inte ntionally released in k\u0101ne\u02bbohe and now has established free ranging populations on the islands of hawai\u02bbi , maui , and o\u02bbahu . they have not become established on kaua\u02bbi - report any sightings on kaua\u02bbi !\ndiet of the invasive lizard chamaeleo jacksonii ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) at a wet - forest site in hawai\u2018i . fred kraus and david preston : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / softquad software / / dtd hotmetal pro 6 . 0 : : 19990601 : : extensions to html 4 . 0 / / en\nhmpro6 . dtd\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nmadagascar is home to about half the world ' s 150 or so species of chameleons , including both subfamilies , typical chameleons ( chamaeleoninae ) and dwarf chameleons ( brookesiinae ) .\nchameleons are diurnal , solitary , and often aggressive towards members of their own species ( marked by rapid color change and aggressive posturing ) . they are opportunistic hunters that wait for prey to pass within range of their long tongues . chameleons have a bizarre way of moving in which they slowly rock back and forth between each step taken , often in time with the movement of nearby leaves being blown by the wind . most chameleons lay eggs .\nthis portable guide offers a full survey of all madagascar ' s mammals , both endemic and introduced , including many newly identified species . with vivid color photographs , line illustrations , and maps , mammals of madagascar : a complete guide\nhome | photos index | search | about | contact unless otherwise noted , all content and images are the property of rhett butler , content copyright 2004 - 2012 . all rights reserved .\nthis reptile ' s tongue is as long as its body ( up to 55 cm ) . its tip is muscular and sticky . it projects it at an average speed of 21km / hr !\nit only takes a few seconds for its color to change . the color varies according to stress , fear , light , etc . it can ' t imitate a complex design such as a flowery carpet or a checkerboard .\nits eyes pivot independently from each other , allowing it to look in two opposite directions at the same time . it can therefore keep watch and capture its prey with 99 % precision .\nbeing very territorial , it does not tolerate any same sex individuals closer than two meters . facing an adversary , it can inflate its body and open its mouth while hissing and growling . it can inflict painful bites when fighting .\na popular pet , over 15 , 000 individuals were captured annually in nature . since 1999 , this number has been restricted to 2 , 000 , but logging and agricultural exploitation are fragmenting and rarefying its habitat .\nreceive exclusive content , take advantage of our promotions and participate in our contests .\nwhat a great time . would definitely go again . the zoo care takers are amazing at what they do and so friendly . i would recommend if you have never gone it ' s a bucket list . oh and don ' t forget to go and pet the sting rays .\nour whole family attended yesterday . it was absolutely spectacular . we had a fantastic time ! thanks for the memories !\namazing place to take the family ! lots of animals to see , amazing water park and fun rides . great packages available with hotels close by for out of town visitors . highly recommend !\nit ' s the 3rd year in a row that my family and i visit this zoo . even though it was during the busiest day they had this year , we were able to visit everything and fully enjoy the experience . don ' t forget to bring your bathing suit cause they have an amazing wave pool !\namazing place . perfect for the whole family . they constantly improve their environments and animals collection .\na good place for family outing with zoo , water park and rides all at one place . all the attractions are conveniently placed very close to each other . food court is good too and you can also bring in your lunch .\nwe had an excellent time ! we have not been in over 10 years and are so glad we went ! the park is clean . the food was well priced for a theme park . we loved the dinozoo ! we have terrible french speaking abilities but appreciated your courteous and friendly staff , we felt welcome !\ni had an amazing time here with my family ! my kids absolutely loved it . amazing experience : )\nwe love going to the zoo . ( \u2026 ) most of the animals were out and the grandkids were thrilled . i ' d never been to the dinozoo before and i thought it was pretty cool especially with the movement and sounds . the design is great in that it ' s seperated and all goes back to the center .\nfirst time visiting here on our annual summer week in qu\u00e9bec . we went for the 2 day family pass , and had an amazing time . the 2 days allowed us to take our time around the park , and gave plenty of time as well for cooling off at the amazoo . we ' ll definitely come back !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe chameleons ' eyes can rotate and focus separately on 180 - degree arcs , which gives them a full 360 - degree field of vision . their tongue can reach its prey in just 0 . 07 seconds , with acceleration reaching over 41 g ' s of force .\nin order to create a playlist on sporcle , you need to verify the email address you used during registration . go to your\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 961 , 482 royalty - free video clips with 76 , 091 new stock clips added weekly .\nlive in harmony with nature in an ecological symphony , a mutually beneficial dependency\n- m . graham netting\nbush , guy l .\nspeciation : the origins of diversity .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia : evolution . ed . michael hutchins . detroit : gale , 2011 . 73 - 88 .\ncrespi , bernard j .\nthe evolution of maladaptation .\nheredity 84 . 6 ( 2000 ) : 623 - 629 .\ndarwin , charles . on the origin of species by means of natural selection . new york : heritage press , 1963 .\ndonoghue , philip cj , and jonathan b . antcliffe .\nearly life : origins of multicellularity .\nnature 466 . 7302 ( 2010 ) : 41 - 42 .\nfreeman , scott . biological science . 3rd ed . san francisco : pearson benjamin cummings , 2008 .\ngould , stephen jay , and richard c . lewontin .\nthe spandrels of san marco and the panglossian paradigm : a critique of the adaptationist programme .\nproceedings of the royal society of london . series b . biological sciences 205 . 1161 ( 1979 ) : 581 - 598 .\nbirdlife international ( 2014 ) species factsheet : pelecanus crispus . downloaded from urltoken .\nburnie , david . nature guide : birds ( smithsonian nature guides ) . penguin , 2012 .\nschreiber , alexander m .\nasymmetric craniofacial remodeling and lateralized behavior in larval flatfish .\njournal of experimental biology 209 . 4 ( 2006 ) : 610 - 621 .\nabate , ardith l .\nchameleons ( chamaeleonidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 7 : reptiles . detroit : gale , 2004 . 223 - 242 .\nbauer , aaron m . , arnold g . kluge , and gordon schuett .\nlizards .\nthe new encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians . ed . tim halliday and kraig adler . oxford university press , 2002 .\nmitchell , graham , et al .\nthe origin of mean arterial and jugular venous blood pressures in giraffes .\njournal of experimental biology 209 . 13 ( 2006 ) : 2515 - 2524 .\ndu toit , johan , and robin a . pellew .\ngiraffes and okapi .\nthe encyclopedia of mammals . ed . david w . macdonald . oxford university press , 2006 .\nmerrit , richard w . , gregory w . courtney , and joe b . keiper .\ndiptera .\nencyclopedia of insects . ed . vincent h . resh and ring t . card\u00e9 . 2nd ed . academic press , 2009 .\nswallow , j . g . , g . s . wilkinson , and j . h . marden .\naerial performance of stalk - eyed flies that differ in eye span .\njournal of comparative physiology b170 . 7 ( 2000 ) : 481 - 487 .\nfreedman , bill .\nfrigatebirds ( fregatidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 8 : birds i . detroit : gale , 2004 . 193 - 199 .\ngibbs , h . lisle , and james p . gibbs .\nprey robbery by nonbreeding magnificent frigatebirds ( fregata magnificens ) .\nthe wilson bulletin 99 . 1 ( 1987 ) : 101 - 104 .\nnelson , j . bryan , a . w . diamond , and a . w . diamond .\nfrigatebirds .\nthe new encyclopedia of birds . ed . christopher perrins . oxford university press , 2003 .\ndarwin , charles . the voyage of the beagle . new york : p . f . collier , 1909 .\ndequeiroz , kevin . phylogenetic systematics of iguanine lizards : a comparative osteological study . berkeley : university of california press , 1987 .\nkricher , john . gal\u00e1pagos : a natural history . princeton university press , 2006 .\nbarrows , edward m . animal behavior desk reference : a dictionary of animal behavior , ecology , and evolution . crc press , 2011 .\nmills , daniel s . , and jeremy n . marchant - forde , eds . the encyclopedia of applied animal behavior and welfare . cabi , 2010 .\nrubinstein , dan i .\nhorses , zebras , and asses .\nthe encyclopedia of mammals . ed . david w . macdonald . oxford university press , 2006 .\nhalliday , tim r .\nnewts and european salamanders ( salamandridae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 6 : amphibians . detroit : gale , 2004 . 363 - 375 .\nheiss , e . , et al .\nhurt yourself to hurt your enemy : new insights on the function of the bizarre antipredator mechanism in the salamandrid pleurodeles waltl .\njournal of zoology 280 . 2 ( 2010 ) : 156 - 162 .\nbirdlife international ( 2014 ) species factsheet : leptoptilos crumeniferus . downloaded from urltoken .\nbanister , keith e . , and john dawes .\ntarpons , bonefishes , and eels .\nthe encyclopedia of underwater life . ed . andrew campbell and john dawes . oxford university press , 2005 .\ngraham , jeffrey b . , ed . air - breathing fishes : evolution , diversity , and adaptation . san diego : academic press , 1997 .\nharrison , ian j . , and frank pezold .\ngobioidei ( gobies ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 5 : fishes ii . detroit : gale , 2004 . 373 - 389 .\ntakegaki , takeshi .\nthreatened fishes of the world : boleophthalmus pectinirostris ( linnaeus 1758 ) ( gobiidae ) .\nenvironmental biology of fishes 81 . 4 ( 2008 ) : 373 - 374 .\npreston - mafham , rod and ken preston - mafham . the encyclopedia of land invertebrate behaviour . london : blandford press , 1993 .\nlove , milton s . probably more than you want to know about the fishes of the pacific coast . santa barbara , california : really big press , 1991 .\nmartin , robert d .\nlorises and pottos ( lorisidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 14 : mammals iii . detroit : gale , 2004 . 13 - 22 .\nmunds , rachel a . , k . a . i . nekaris , and susan m . ford .\ntaxonomy of the bornean slow loris , with new species nycticebus kayan ( primates , lorisidae ) .\namerican journal of primatology 75 . 1 ( 2013 ) : 46 - 56 .\nnekaris , k . anne - isola , et al .\nmad , bad and dangerous to know : the biochemistry , ecology and evolution of slow loris venom .\njournal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases 19 ( 2013 ) : 21 .\nfreeman , scott .\ngreen plants .\nbiological science . 3rd ed . san francisco : pearson benjamin cummings , 2008 . 626 - 663 .\nduellman , william e . , and miguel lizana .\nbiology of a sit - and - wait predator , the leptodactylid frog ceratophrys cornuta .\nherpetologica ( 1994 ) : 51 - 64 .\ndonaldson , terry j .\ntetraodontiformes ( pufferfishes , triggerfishes , and relatives ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 5 : fishes ii . detroit : gale , 2004 . 467 - 485 .\npope , edward c . , et al .\nthe biology and ecology of the ocean sunfish mola mola : a review of current knowledge and future research perspectives .\nreviews in fish biology and fisheries 20 . 4 ( 2010 ) : 471 - 487 .\ncrane , jocelyn . fiddler crabs of the world : ocypodidae : genus uca . new jersey : princeton university press , 1975 .\nrandall , john ernest , gerald r . allen , and roger c . steene . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press , 1997 .\nromero , aldemaro .\nanguilliformes ( eels and morays ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 4 : fishes i . detroit : gale , 2004 . 255 - 270 .\ndas , indraneil .\npelochelys cantorii gray 1864 \u2013 asian giant softshell turtle .\nconservation biology of freshwater turtles and tortoises : a compilation project of the iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group . chelonian research monographs no . 5 . ed . a . g . j . rhodin , et al . chelonian reearch foundation , 2008 . 011 . 1 - 011 . 6 .\nvillanueva , roger , et al .\nsystematics , distribution and biology of the cirrate octopods of the genus opisthoteuthis ( mollusca , cephalopoda ) in the atlantic ocean , with description of two new species .\nbulletin of marine science 71 . 2 ( 2002 ) : 933 - 985 .\npietsch , theodore w . , and david b . grobecker . frogfishes of the world : systematics , zoogeography , and behavioral ecology . stanford university press , 1987 .\nkemp , alan and ian newton .\nsecretarybird .\nthe new encyclopedia of birds . ed . christopher perrins . oxford university press , 2003\nkemp , alan charles .\nsecretary birds ( sagittariidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 8 : birds i . detroit : gale , 2004 . 343 - 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730 .\nfreeman , scott .\nphylogenies and the history of life .\nbiological science . 3rd ed . san francisco : pearson benjamin cummings , 2008 . 543 - 565 .\njanis , christine m . , and richard barnes .\nelephants and relatives .\nthe encyclopedia of mammals . ed . david w . macdonald . oxford university press , 2006 .\nlambert , w . david .\nthe feeding habits of the shovel - tusked gomphotheres : evidence from tusk wear patterns .\npaleobiology 18 . 2 ( 1992 ) : 132 - 147 .\nrinderknecht , andr\u00e9s , and r . ernesto blanco .\nthe largest fossil rodent .\nproceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 275 . 1637 ( 2008 ) : 923 - 928 .\nbanister , keith e . , and svein a . foss\u00e5 .\nperchlike fishes .\nthe encyclopedia of underwater life . ed . andrew campbell and john dawes . oxford university press , 2005 .\nmooi , randall d . , and g . david johnson .\ntrachinoidei ( weeverfishes and relatives ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 5 : fishes ii . detroit : gale , 2004 . 331 - 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158 .\nbaker , aaron j . , david f . whitacre , and oscar aguirre .\nobservations of king vultures ( sarcoramphus papa ) drinking and bathing .\njournal of raptor research 30 . 4 ( 1996 ) : 246 - 247 .\nhouston , david c .\ncompetition for food between neotropical vultures in forest .\nibis 130 . 3 ( 1988 ) : 402 - 417 .\nkemp , alan , and ian newton .\nnew world vultures .\nthe new encyclopedia of birds . ed . christopher perrins . oxford university press , 2003 .\noliver , william l . r . , ed . pigs , peccaries and hippos : status survey and conservation action plan . gland , switzerland : iucn , 2003 .\nebert , d . a . deep\u2013sea cartilaginous fishes of the indian ocean . volume 1 . sharks . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 8 , vol . 1 . rome : fao , 2013 .\nmceachran , john d .\nrajiformes ( skates and rays ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 4 : fishes i . detroit : gale , 2004 . 173 - 188 .\nwueringer , barbara e . , et al .\nthe function of the sawfish ' s saw .\ncurrent biology 22 . 5 ( 2012 ) : r150 - r151 .\nhancock , james , james a . kushlan , and m . philip kahl . storks , ibises and spoonbills of the world . london : a & c ; black , 2010 .\nberndt , lisa a . , and geoff r . allen .\nbiology and pest status of uraba lugens walker ( lepidoptera : nolidae ) in australia and new zealand .\naustralian journal of entomology 49 . 3 ( 2010 ) : 268 - 277 .\nsmith , william leo .\nscorpaeniformes ii ( scorpionfishes and relatives ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 5 : fishes ii . detroit : gale , 2004 . 163 - 178 .\ngarson , peter jeffery .\nfowls and pheasants ( phasianidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 8 : birds i . detroit : gale , 2004 . 433 - 453 .\nyoung , jessica r . , et al .\na new species of sage - grouse ( phasianidae : centrocercus ) from southwestern colorado .\nthe wilson bulletin 112 . 4 ( 2000 ) : 445 - 453 .\nyoung , jessica r . , et al .\nphenotypic divergence of secondary sexual traits among sage grouse , centrocercus urophasianus , populations .\nanimal behaviour 47 . 6 ( 1994 ) : 1353 - 1362 .\nspringer , joseph and dennis holley .\necology of animals : populations and communities .\nan introduction to zoology . burlington , ma : jones & bartlett publishers , 2012 . 18 - 40 .\nsliwa , alexander .\nfelis margarita , sand cat .\nmammals of africa . ed . kingdon , jonathan , and michael hoffman . vol . v : carnivores , pangolins , equids and rhinoceroses . london : a & c black , 2013 . 199 - 201\nankel - simons , friderun . primate anatomy : an introduction . 3rd ed . london : academic press , 2007 .\nbirdlife international ( 2014 ) species factsheet : tragopan temminckii . downloaded from urltoken .\nislam , k . , and j . a . crawford .\ncomparative displays among four species of tragopans and their derivation and function .\nethology ecology & evolution 10 . 1 ( 1998 ) : 17 - 32 .\ntrueb , linda .\nclawed frogs and surinam toads ( pipidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 6 : amphibians . detroit : gale , 2004 . 99 - 107 .\npurcell , steven w . , yves samyn , and chantal conand . commercially important sea cucumbers of the world . rome : fao , 2012 .\nkerr , alexander m .\nholothuroidea ( sea cucumbers ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 1 : lower metazoans and lesser deuterostomes . detroit : gale , 2004 . 417 - 431 .\nflammang , patrick , j\u00e9r\u00f4me ribesse , and michel jangoux .\nbiomechanics of adhesion in sea cucumber cuvierian tubules ( echinodermata , holothuroidea ) .\nintegrative and comparative biology 42 . 6 ( 2002 ) : 1107 - 1115 .\ndaniel , j . c . the book of indian reptiles and amphibians . bombay natural history society , 2002 .\nmordan , peter b . , and kevin f . fitzgerald .\npulmonata ( lung - bearing snails and slugs ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 2 : protostomes . detroit : gale , 2004 . 411 - 422 .\nhoogmoed , marinus steven , adriano oliveira maciel , and juliano tupan coragem .\ndiscovery of the largest lungless tetrapod , atretochoana eiselti ( taylor , 1968 ) ( amphibia : gymnophiona : typhlonectidae ) , in its natural habitat in brazilian amazonia .\nboletim do museu paraense em\u00edlio goeldi ci\u00eancias naturais 6 . 3 ( 2011 ) : 241 - 262 .\nfisher , diana o . , et al .\nsperm competition drives the evolution of suicidal reproduction in mammals .\nproceedings of the national academy of sciences 110 . 44 ( 2013 ) : 17910 - 17914 .\nmoore , j . janet . an introduction to the invertebrates . 2nd ed . cambridge university press , 2001 .\nosborn , karen j . , et al .\ndescription and relationships of chaetopterus pugaporcinus , an unusual pelagic polychaete ( annelida , chaetopteridae ) .\nthe biological bulletin 212 . 1 ( 2007 ) : 40 - 54 .\npradillon , florence , and fran\u00e7oise gaill .\nhydrothermal vent annelids .\nannelids in modern biology ( 2009 ) : 285 - 300 .\nrouse , greg w . , s . k . goffredi , and r . c . vrijenhoek .\nosedax : bone - eating marine worms with dwarf males .\nscience 305 . 5684 ( 2004 ) : 668 - 671 .\ngerald , melissa s . , et al .\ndo females pay attention to secondary sexual coloration in vervet monkeys ( chlorocebus aethiops ) ?\nnaturwissenschaften 97 . 1 ( 2010 ) : 89 - 96 .\ndawson , terence j . kangaroos : biology of the largest marsupials . ithaca : cornell university press , 1995 .\nyong , ed .\nkangaroos have three vaginas .\nnot exactly rocket science , april 17 , 2012 .\ngoodwin , c . lynn , and bruce pease .\nspecies profiles . life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( pacific northwest ) . pacific geoduck clam .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service biological report 82 : 11 ( 1989 ) .\nmikkelsen , paula m .\nbivalvia ( bivalves ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 2 : protostomes . detroit : gale , 2004 . 451 - 467 .\nbodmer , richard e . , and george b . rabb .\nokapia johnstoni .\nmammalian species 422 ( 1992 ) : 1 - 8 .\ndu toit , johan , and robin a . pellew .\ngiraffes and okapi .\nthe encyclopedia of mammals . ed . david w . macdonald . oxford university press , 2006 .\nlindsey , susan lyndaker , and cynthia l . bennett . the okapi : mysterious animal of congo - zaire . university of texas press , 1999 .\nbirdlife international ( 2014 ) species factsheet : anas platyrhynchos . downloaded from urltoken .\nbrennan , patricia lr , christopher j . clark , and richard o . prum .\nexplosive eversion and functional morphology of the duck penis supports sexual conflict in waterfowl genitalia .\nproceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 277 . 1686 ( 2010 ) : 1309 - 1314 .\nbrennan , patricia lr , et al .\ncoevolution of male and female genital morphology in waterfowl .\nplos one 2 . 5 ( 2007 ) : e418 .\nsower , stacia a . , mickie l . powell , and scott i . kavanaugh .\nmyxiniformes ( hagfishes ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 4 : fishes i . detroit : gale , 2004 . 77 - 81 .\nbanister , keith e . , and john dawes .\nlampreys and hagfishes .\nthe encyclopedia of underwater life . ed . andrew campbell and john dawes . oxford university press , 2005 .\nhoch , j . matthew .\neffects of crowding and wave exposure on penis morphology of the acorn barnacle , semibalanus balanoides .\nmarine biology 157 ( 2010 ) : 2783\u20132789\nneufeld , christopher and a richard palmer .\nprecisely proportioned : intertidal barnacles alter penis form to suit coastal wave action .\nproceedings of the royal society b 275 ( 2008 ) : 1081\u20131087 .\nsteiner , tatiana menchini .\nthecostraca ( cirripedes and relatives ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 2 : protostomes . detroit : gale , 2004 . 273 - 281 .\nirestedt , martin , et al .\nan unexpectedly long history of sexual selection in birds - of - paradise .\nbmc evolutionary biology 9 . 1 ( 2009 ) : 235 .\nnunn , gary b . , and joel cracraft .\nphylogenetic relationships among the major lineages of the birds - of - paradise ( paradisaeidae ) using mitochondrial dna gene sequences .\nmolecular phylogenetics and evolution 5 . 3 ( 1996 ) : 445 - 459 .\ngonz\u00e1lez - garc\u00eda , fernando .\nbehavior of horned guans in chiapas , mexico .\nthe wilson bulletin ( 1994 ) : 357 - 365 .\nnaish , darren .\nbabirusas can get impaled by their own teeth : that most sought - after of objects does exist ! ( babirusas , part viii ) .\ntetrapod zoology , march 8 , 2010 .\nbishopp , f . c . the puss caterpillar and the effects of its sting on man . washington , d . c . : u . s . department of agriculture , 1923 .\ncapinera , john l . , ed . encyclopedia of entomology . vol . 4 . springer , 2008 .\nepstein , marc e . revision and phylogeny of the limacodid - group families , with evolutionary studies on slug caterpillars ( lepidoptera : zygaenoidea ) . smithsonian institution press , 1996 .\natkins , william arthur .\nbovids iii : gazelles , springboks , and saiga antelopes ( antilopinae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 16 : mammals v . detroit : gale , 2004 . 45 - 58 .\nroberts , craig , peter brotherton , anna a . luschekina , marina v . kholodova , and eleanor j . milner - gulland .\ngazelles , dwarf antelopes , and saigas .\nthe encyclopedia of mammals . ed . david w . macdonald . oxford university press , 2006 .\ngoffredi , shana k .\nindigenous ectosymbiotic bacteria associated with diverse hydrothermal vent invertebrates .\nenvironmental microbiology reports 2 . 4 ( 2010 ) : 479 - 488 .\nmacpherson , enrique , william jones , and michel segonzac .\na new squat lobster family of galatheoidea ( crustacea , decapoda : anomura ) from the hydrothermal vents of the pacific - antarctic ridge .\nzoosystema 27 ( 2005 ) : 709 - 723 .\npoore , gary cb , shane t . ahyong , and joanne taylor , eds . the biology of squat lobsters . boca raton : crc press , 2011 .\nroterman , c . n . , et al .\nthe biogeography of the yeti crabs ( kiwaidae ) with notes on the phylogeny of the chirostyloidea ( decapoda : anomura ) .\nproceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 280 . 1764 ( 2013 ) .\npianka , eric r .\nskinks ( scincidae ) .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . ed . michael hutchins , et al . 2nd ed . vol . 7 : reptiles . detroit : gale , 2004 . 327 - 338 .\ngaldikas , birute mf .\norangutan death and scavenging by pigs .\nscience 200 . 4337 ( 1978 ) : 68 - 70 .\nevans , h . c .\nentomogenous fungi in tropical forest ecosystems : an appraisal .\necological entomology 7 . 1 ( 1982 ) : 47 - 60 .\nhughes , david .\npathways to understanding the extended phenotype of parasites in their hosts .\nthe journal of experimental biology 216 . 1 ( 2013 ) : 142 - 147 .\nmains , e . b .\nnorth american entomogenous species of cordyceps .\nmycologia 50 . 2 ( 1958 ) : 169 - 222 .\nroy , helen e . , et al .\nbizarre interactions and endgames : entomopathogenic fungi and their arthropod hosts .\nannual review of entomology 51 ( 2006 ) : 331 - 357 .\ndesjardins , mari\u00e8ve , et al .\nantifreeze protein gene amplification facilitated niche exploitation and speciation in wolffish .\nfebs journal 279 . 12 ( 2012 ) : 2215 - 2230 .\nspecies fact sheets : anarhichas lupus . fao fisheries and aquaculture department , 2014 . downloaded from urltoken .\nzheng , yuchi , et al .\nreproductive behaviour and underwater calls in the emei moustache toad , leptobrachium boringii .\nasian herpetological research 2 . 4 ( 2011 ) : 199 - 215 ."]}
{"id": 1494, "summary": [{"text": "calliostoma granti , common name the multibeaded maurea , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "some authors place this taxon in the subgenus calliostoma ( maurea ) . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "calliostoma granti", "paragraphs": ["- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : calliostoma granti ( a . w . b . powell , 1931 ) - id : 5062000454\n( of calliostoma granti ( powell , 1931 ) ) marshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\n( of calliostoma ( maurea ) granti ( powell , 1931 ) ) marshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\ncalliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma purpureocinctum hedley , 1894 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\n( of calliostoma ( maurea ) granti ( powell , 1931 ) ) maxwell , p . a . ( 2009 ) . cenozoic mollusca . pp 232 - 254 in gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\ncalliostoma formosensis e . a . smith , 1907 : synonym of calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907\ncalliostoma poupineli ( montrouzier in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) : synonym of calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\ncalliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 : synonym of enida japonica a . adams , 1860\ncalliostoma euglyptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) - sculptured topsnail , sculptured top shell\ncalliostoma rubroscalpta lee , y . c . & w . l . wu , 1998\ncalliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith : synonym of cantharidus bisculptus e . a . smith\ncalliostoma limatulum marshall , 1995 : synonym of selastele limatulum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma onustum odhner , 1924 : synonym of selastele onustum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma virescens renier , s . a . in coen , g . s . , 1933\ncalliostoma katoi is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma akoya is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma coppingeri major castellanos , z . j . a . de & f . fernandes , 1976\ncalliostoma pulchrum ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) - beautiful topsnail , beautiful top shell\ncalliostoma swinneni poppe , g . t . , s . tagaro & h . dekker , 2006\ncalliostoma trotini poppe , g . t . , s . tagaro & h . dekker , 2006\ncalliostoma trepidum hedley , 1907 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of cantharidus polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 )\ncalliostoma rubropunctatum ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of laetifautor rubropunctatus ( a . adams , 1851 )\ncalliostoma occidentale ( mighels and c . b . adams , 1842 ) - boreal topsnail , north atlantic top shell\ncalliostoma is a genus of small to medium - sized sea snails with gills and an operculum , marine gastropod molluscs within the family calliostomatidae , the calliostoma top snails ( according to the taxonomy of taxonomy of gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) ) . previously this genus was placed within the family trochidae . calliostoma is the type genus of the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma regalis ( verrill & s . smith , 1880 ) : synonym of calliotropis regalis ( verrill & smith , 1880 )\ncalliostoma poupineli montrouzier , r . p . in souverbie , s . m . & r . p . montrouzier , 1875\ncalliostoma is a large genus of medium - sized sea snails with gills and an operculum , marine gastropod molluscs known as top shells .\ncalliostoma hayamanum kuroda , t . & t . habe in kuroda , t . , t . habe & k . oyama , 1971\nperron , f . e . ( 1975 ) .\ncarnivorous calliostoma ( prosobranchia : trochidae ) from the northeastern pacific\n. veliger 18 : 52\u201354 .\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) .\na revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand\n. the nautilus 108 : 83\u2013127 .\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) .\na revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand\n. the nautilus 108 : 83\u2013127 .\nclench w . & turner r . ( 1960 ) .\nthe genus calliostoma in the western atlantic\n. johnsonia 4 ( 40 ) : 1 - 80 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 .\nremarks . calliostoma delli tends to be broader than high ; one of the figured paratypes ( fig . 14 ) is unusually narrow , compared to most specimens on the type lot .\nclench , w . j . and r . d . turner ( 1960 ) .\nthe genus calliostoma in the western atlantic\n. johnsonia 4 ( 40 ) : 1\u201380 .\nquinn , j . f . jr . ( 1992 ) .\nnew species of calliostoma and notes on some poorly known species from the western atlantic\n. the nautilus 106 : 77\u2013114 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\nmarshall , b . a . 1995 : a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) , the nautilus , 108 ( 4 ) ( p . 90 )\n( of venustas punctulata multigemmata powell , 1952 ) marshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\n( of maurea ( mucrinops ) punctulata ampla powell , 1939 ) marshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\nthe top shells ( which are called calliostoma ) are marine gastropod molluscs . they can be found world - wide . the name of this genus is derived from the greek words kallos ( beautiful ) and stoma ( mouth ) , referring to the pearly aperture .\ncontrary to what is the case in most other top shells , calliostoma deposits its eggs in gelatinous ribbons that are only fertilized after being deposited . the young emerge as small snails ( lebour , 1936 ) without passing through a free - living planktonic stage as a veliger larva .\ncurrently , calliostoma is being treated in worms as a broad genus . it is expected to be broken up and ( some ) subgenera will be elevated to the status of genus . at this moment ( 2013 ) , information is too fragmentary to assign all species in a revised genus .\nholotype for calliostoma atlantoides quinn , 1992 catalog number : usnm 860261 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology preparation : dry locality : st . lucia , caribbean sea , north atlantic ocean depth ( m ) : 417 to 589 vessel : pillsbury r / v\nthe symbols k . a . c . f . m . an . are used to indicate the geographical range of the species . they have been adopted to give an approxomation of the range of each species within new zealand .\npowell , a . w . b . 1979 : new zealand mollusca : marine , land and freshwater shells , collins , auckland ( p . 62 )\nnote : localities are approximate , and represent only some of the known localities for the species .\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsome authors consider it the sole member of the non - accepted subgenus akoya .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndescription . shell large , thin , silky white , nonumbilicate , spire whorls convex . protoconch of one and one - fourth whorls , teleoconch whorls seven , first teleoconch whorl with three spiral cords , noded to produce square cancellations : sculpture chang\u00ading by the second whorl to three prominently projecting spiral cords , the uppermost cord beaded , the other two smooth . mature sculpture of three prominent cords , subsutural cord the least prominent , remaining close to the suture and losing its beading by about the third whorl ; second cord sharply defined and sepa\u00adrated from the subsutural cord by a broad , smooth area ; third cord equally strong and projecting to form the peripheral extent of the whorl . basal keep sharp ; suture laid directly on its lower surface , not forming a channel . basal cording of about three fine cords on the outer edge and two to three bordering the columellar wall ; intermediate area of base smooth except for fine spiral striae . columellar wall thickened , slanted , forming a spur at the base ; outer lip thin . operculum corneous , multispiral . animal and radula as in c . chilena .\ndimensions : height 29 . 6 mm . diameter 30 . 9 min ( holotype , fig . 13 ) : height 24 . 3 mm , diameter 23 . 2 mm ( paratype , fig . 14 ) ; height 29 . 0 mm , diameter 26 . 0 ( paratype . fig . 15 ) .\nmaterial . chile : los vilos ( lacm , type lot , figs . 13 - 15 ) , papudo , zapallar , algarrobo , punta penablanca ( lacm ) , pichilemu , constituci\u00f3n . specimens examined : 114 .\ntype material . thirty - three specimens from the type lo\u00adcality , collected 29 may 1977 , by andrade , shrimp trawler goden wind , holotype , lacm 1980 ; paratypes , lacm 1981 ; paratypes , mnhn 200489 ; paratypes , mzicb 15 . 528 ; paratypes , usnm 784738 .\ntype locality . 400 m off los vilos , chile ( 31\u00b056 ' s : 71\u00b054 ' w ) .\ndistribution . los vilos ( 31\u00b056 ' s ) to constituci\u00f3n , chile ( 35\u00b020 ' s ) . depth range 200 - 450 m .\ndiagnosis . a species of the subgenus otukaia characterized by having three spiral cords prominent at all growth stages . it differs from the similarly sculptured c . blacki ( dell , 1956 ) from new zealand ( see dell , 1956 : 46 , pl . 7 , fig . 6 ) in being lower spired , and in having a weaker subsutural ( first ) cord and a stronger second cord .\netymology . we are pleased to name this species in honor of dr . richard k . dell of the national museum of new zealand , wellington . \u201d\nmclean , j . h . and h . andrade . 1982 . large archibenthal gastropods of central chile : collections from an expedition of the r / v anton bruun and the chilean shrimp industry . los angeles county museum , contributions in sciences , 342 : 1 - 20 . urltoken ; = 2316\nunconfirmed _ type : mclean , j . & andrade , h . 1982 . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) . 342 : 1 - 20 , figs . 1 - 56 .\nholotype : quinn , j . f . 1992 . the nautilus . 106 ( 3 ) : 102 .\nunconfirmed type : mclean , j . & andrade , h . 1982 . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) . 342 : 1 - 20 , figs . 1 - 56 .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1 sample . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 274 - 274 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 12 . 462 - 12 . 462 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 16 . 704 - 16 . 704 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 456 - 35 . 456 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 043 - 3 . 043 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 235 - 1 . 235 silicate ( umol / l ) : 5 . 700 - 5 . 700 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nstocks , k . 2009 . seamounts online : an online information system for seamount biology . version 2009 - 1 . world wide web electronic publication .\nthe distribution of this genus is worldwide , found mainly on hard substrata , although japanese species have been found on sandy bottoms . these snails occur from shallow waters to bathyal depths .\nthe rather thin , acute , coeloconoid ( = approaching conical shape but with concave sides ) shell is imperforate or rarely umbilicate . the whorls are smooth , often polished and spirally ridged or granular . the\nperron , frank e . ; turner r . d . ( 1978 ) .\ndall w . h . 1889 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877 - 78 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879 - 80 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieut . - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xxix . report on the mollusca . part 2 , gastropoda and scaphopoda . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college 18 : 1 - 492 , pls . 10 - 40\nvilvens c . ( 2012 ) new species and new records of seguenzioidea and trochoidea ( gastropoda ) from french polynesia . novapex 13 ( 1 ) : 1 - 23 . [ 10 march 2012 ] page ( s ) : 18\nwilliams , s . t . ; k . m . donald , h . g . spencer and t . nakano ( march 2010 ) .\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163\nnote : many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite , within the wikipedia article ! this article doesn ' t yet , but we ' re working on it ! see more info or our list of citable articles .\nits distribution is world - wide . the name of this genus is derived from the greek words kallos ( beautiful ) and stoma ( mouth ) , referring to the pearly aperture .\naccording to the latest taxonomy of bouchet & rocroi , this genus belongs in the family calliostomatidae in the clade vetigastropoda . earlier malacologists placed this genus within the trochidae .\n, a deep - water gastropod , dredged in the atlantic ocean at a depth of from 100 m to 1170 m .\nmalacolog 4 . 1 . 0 : : a database of western atlantic marine mollusca - malacolog 4 . 1 . 0 : western atlantic mollusk species database at the academy of natural sciences"]}
{"id": 1504, "summary": [{"text": "euchloe aegyptiaca is a butterfly in the pieridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found from libya to egypt and jordan , extending into saudi arabia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on brassicaceae species , including diplotaxis harra . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "euchloe aegyptiaca", "paragraphs": ["euchloe aegyptiaca is a butterfly in the pieridae family . it is found from libya to egypt and jordan , extending into saudi arabia .\neuchloe belemia palaestinensis r\u00f6ber , 1907 ; in seitz , grossschmett . erde 1 : 51\neuchloe ausonia sovinskyi sheljuzhko , 1928 ; lep . rdsch . 2 ( 7 ) : 75\neuchloe ausonides ausonides ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\neuchloe ausonides ogilvia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\neuchloe ausonides insulanus ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\neuchloe creusa creusa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\n= euchloe olympia ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\neuchloe hyantis hyantis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\n= euchloe ausonides ausonides ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\n= euchloe ausonides coloradensis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\n= euchloe creusa creusa ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\n= euchloe hyantis hyantis ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\neuchloe ausonia melanochloros ; [ bmat ] : 11 , pl . 4 , f . 28 - 40\neuchloe tagis ; [ bow ] : pl . 4 , f . 17 ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neuchloe tagis pechi ; [ bmat ] : 12 , pl . 5 , f . 1 - 5\neuchloe tagis atlasica ; [ bmat ] : 12 , pl . 5 , f . 6 - 10\neuchloe tagis reisseri ; [ bmat ] : 13 , pl . 5 , f . 11 - 10\n? euchloe charlonia elisabethae hemming , 1932 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 80 : 287\neuchloe naina ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\n? euchloe belia melisande fruhstorfer , 1908 ; ent . zs . 22 ( 12 ) : 51 ; tl : palestine\neuchloe lessei bernardi , 1957 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 62 : 38 ; tl : ; iran\neuchloe belemia belemia ; winhard , 2000 , butterflies of the world 10 : 6 , pl . 5 , f . 18\neuchloe belemia hesperidum rothschild , 1913 ; novit . zool . 20 ( 1 ) : 111 ; tl : canary is .\neuchloe crameri crameri ; winhard , 2000 , butterflies of the world 10 : 6 , pl . 5 , f . 20\neuchloe tagis tagis ; winhard , 2000 , butterflies of the world 10 : 6 , pl . 5 , f . 19\neuchloe crameri mauretanica r\u00f6ber , 1907 ; in seitz , grossschmett . erde 1 : 53 , pl . 22 , f . d\neuchloe ausonides coloradensis ; [ nacl ] , # 4200a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\neuchloe ausonides palaeoreios ; [ nacl ] , # 4200b ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\neuchloe ausonides insulanus guppy & shepard , 2001 ; butts . b . c . : 160 ; tl : wellington , british columbia\neuchloe hyantis andrewsi ; [ nacl ] , # 4203a ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 172\neuchloe tagis bellezina ; back , 2001 , atalanta 32 ( 1 / 2 ) : pl . iii , f . 3e - f\neuchloe ausonides r . andrewsi martin , 1958 ; bull . south . calif . acad . sci . 35 ( 2 ) : 94\neuchloe lotta ; [ boc ] , 146 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 172\neuchloe belemia ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 4 , f . 11 ; [ afrl ] ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neuchloe tagis calvensis ; back , 2001 , atalanta 32 ( 1 / 2 ) : pl . iii , f . 2 , 3c - d\neuchloe penia ; winhard , 2000 , butterflies of the world 10 : 6 , pl . 5 , f . 22 ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neuchloe belemia palaestinensis ; back , 2001 , atalanta 32 ( 1 / 2 ) : pl . via , f . 7 - 8 ( larva )\neuchloe lucilla butler , 1886 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1886 ( 3 ) : 376 , pl . 35 , f . 4\neuchloe belemia hesperidum ; back , 2001 , atalanta 32 ( 1 / 2 ) : 103 - 106 , pl . v , f . 1 - 2\neuchloe belia naina kozhanchikov , 1923 ; jb . martjanov staatmus . minussinsk , 1 ( 1 ) : 3 ; tl : w . sayan , lake buiba\neuchloe ausonides mayi f . & r . chermock , 1940 ; can . ent . 72 ( 4 ) : 81 ; tl : riding mtns , man .\neuchloe ausonides mayi ; [ nacl ] , # 4200c ; [ boc ] , 142 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\neuchloe tagis atlasica rungs , 1950 ; bull . soc . sci . nat . maroc 28 : 144 ; tl : col de tambrata and ifrane ( morocco )\neuchloe ausonia algirica gen . aest . pseudonymus rothschild , 1917 ; novit . zool . 24 ( 1 ) : 83 ; tl : c . and s . algeria\neuchloe creusa ; [ ebw ] ; [ nacl ] , # 4201 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\neuchloe crameri ; back , 1990 , atalanta 21 ( 3 / 4 ) : pl . iii , f . 13 - 15 ( larva ) ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neuchloe simplonia ; back , 1990 , atalanta 21 ( 3 / 4 ) : pl . iii , f . 7 - 9 ( larva ) ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neuchloe belia naina \u2640 ab . koshantschikoffi bang - haas , 1927 ; horae macrolep . palaearct . 1 : 40 , pl . 5 , f . 15 ; tl : sajan\neuchloe naina jakutia ; dubatolov & kosterin , 1994 , atalanta 25 ( 3 / 4 ) : 514 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\neuchloe hyantis ; [ nacl ] , # 4203 ; [ boc ] , 144 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\neuchloe simplonia jakutia back , 1991 ; atalanta 21 ( 3 / 4 ) : 193 , pl . ii , f . 3 - 4 ; tl : yakutia , suntar mts .\neuchloe naina irina dubatolov & kosterin , 1994 ; atalanta 25 ( 3 / 4 ) : 513 ; tl : se . kazakhstan , dzhungarian alatau , 40 - 50km ene of tekeli\neuchloe ausonides palaeoreios johnson , 1976 ; j . lep . soc . 30 ( 4 ) : 253 ; tl : spearfish canyon , near spearfish , lawrence co . , south dakota\neuchloe ausonia ; [ bru ] , 156 ; [ ebw ] ; back , 1990 , atalanta 21 ( 3 / 4 ) : pl . iii , f . 10 - 12 ( larva ) ; [ otakar kudrna ]\neuchloe olympia ; [ nacl ] , # 4202 ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 17 , f . 21 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 171\neuchloe guaymasensis opler , 1986 ; j . lep . soc . 40 ( 3 ) : 188 , f . 1 - 3 ; tl : mexico , estado de sonora , las avispas microwave relay , 2000 ' , 40 mi n guayamas\neuchloe belemia eversi ; winhard , 2000 , butterflies of the world 10 : 6 , pl . 5 , f . 17 ; back , 2001 , atalanta 32 ( 1 / 2 ) : pl . via , f . 3 - 6 ( larva )\neuchloe tagis piemonti back , 2001 ; atalanta 32 ( 1 / 2 ) : 100 , pl . iii , f . 1 , 3a - b , pl . iv , f . 5 - 17 ; tl : andonno , piemonte , italy , 800m\neuchloe falloui ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 4 , f . 11 ( text only ) ; [ bmat ] : 13 , pl . 5 , f . 20 - 32 ; [ bafr ] , 56 ; [ afrl ]\neuchloe guaymasensis ; holland , 1995 , j . lep . soc . 49 ( 2 ) : 122 , f . 2 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 128 ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 172\neuchloe tagis reisseri back & reissinger , 1989 ; nota lepid . 12 ( 2 ) : 86 - 102 , [ 93 ] ( f . a - d ) , 94 ( f . e , f ) , 95 ( f . 1 - 12 ) ] ; tl : xauen ( morocco )\neuchloe ausonides ; [ nacl ] , # 4200 ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 17 , f . 20 ; back , 1990 , atalanta 21 ( 3 / 4 ) : pl . iii , f . 4 - 6 ( larva ) ; [ boc ] , 142 ; [ opler ] ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\nsize : 30 - 35 mm . distinguished by the irregular green markings of the underside of the hindwing .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n\u00a9 2016 , butterfly conservation society , ghana - african butterfly research institute - icom ltd .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nelphinstonia klots , 1930 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 25 ( 2 ) : 87 ; ts : anthocharis charlonia donzel\npapilio belemia esper , 1800 ; die schmett . , suppl . th 1 ( 8 - 9 ) : 92 , pl . 110 , f . 2 ; tl : s . spain\nlarva on sisymbrium sp . , diplotaxis tennuisiliqua , biscutella didyma , sisymbrium bourgeanum [ bmat ]\npontia simplonia freyer , 1829 ; beitr . eur . schmett . 2 : pl . 75 , f . 2\nnaf , seu , asia minor , amurland , baluchistan - chitral . see [ maps ]\npapilio marchandae geyer , 1832 ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 1 ] : pl . 188 , f . 926 - 928\nlarva on isatis tinctoria , moricandia arvensis , biscutella sp . , sinapis sp . , bunias sp . , iberis sp . [ bmat ]\nausonia graeca ( verity , [ 1908 ] ) ; rhopalocera palaearctica 1 : 175 , pl . 36 , f . 20\nausonia transiens ( verity , [ 1908 ] ) ; rhopalocera palaearctica 1 : 180 , 338 , pl . 37 , f . 12\nw . pamirs , n . afghanistan , pakistan , india . see [ maps ]\nanthocharis daphalis moore , 1865 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1865 ( 2 ) : 491 , pl . 31 , f . 14 ; tl : kunawur\ne . turkey , transcaucasia - iran , afghanistan - s . alai . see [ maps ]\n= anthocharis belia var . daphalis ; grum - grshimailo , 1890 , in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9p . 4 : 229\npulverata alaica ( verity , 1911 ) ; rhopalocera palaearctica 1 : 338 , pl . 67 , f . 33 - 36\naltai , n . mongolia - chukot peninsula , altai , sayan , transbaikalia , amur . see [ maps ]\nanthocharis ausonides lucas , 1852 ; revue mag . zool . ( 2 ) 4 ( 7 ) : 340 ; tl : san francisco , california\n: canada , yukon , ogilve mts . , dempster hwy mile 45 , 500 - 1300m\n= auchloe ausonides transmontana ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\nauchloe ausonides transmontana ; pelham , 2008 , j . res . lepid . 40 : 170\naltai - chukot , ussuri , amur , transbaikalia , na ? . see [ maps ]\n? ab . alexandri ( turati , 1921 ) ; atti soc . ital . sci . nat . 60 : 212 , f . 2\norientalis emiorientalis ( verity , 1911 ) ; rhopalocera palaearctica 1 : 338 , pl . 67 , f . 37 - 38\nanthocharis pechi baker , 1885 ; ent . mon . mag . 21 : 241 ; tl : lambessa\nlarva on iberis odorata , iberis sp . , iberis ciliata ? , i . taurica ? [ bmat ]\nanthocharis insularis staudinger , 1861 ; in staudinger & wocke , cat . lep . ( ed . 1 ) : 2 ; tl : corsica ?\ncanary islands , morocco , algeria , tunisia , tibesti , macedonia , egypt , sudan , iran , baluchistan , punjab . see [ maps ]\nanthocharis charlonia f . atlantica stauder , 1914 ; z . wiss . insektbiol . 10 ( 3 ) : 84 , ( 4 ) : 125 ( f . 2 ) ; tl : el kantara ( algeria )\nanthocharis charlonia var . mesopotamica staudinger , [ 1892 ] ; dt . ent . z . iris 4 ( 2 ) : 228\nanthocharis charlonia var . transcaspica staudinger , [ 1892 ] ; dt . ent . z . iris 4 ( 2 ) : 228 ; tl :\nkrasnovodsk\n,\nachal - tekke\n,\nschahrud\ntranscaspica doveri evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 65\ntranscaspica pila evans , 1932 ; indian butterflies ( edn . 2 ) : 65\npenia ( freyer , 1852 ) ; neuere beitr . schmett . 6 : pl . 574 , f . 4\ns . turkmenia , uzbekistan , tajikistan , n . iran . see [ maps ]\nanthocharis tomyris christoph , 1884 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9pid . 1 : 99 , pl . 6 , f . 1a - b ; tl : askhabad , turkmenia\nn . africa ( desert regions ) , sudan , somalia , arabia . see [ maps ]\nlarva on moricandia arvensis , m . sinaica , reseda muricata , diplotaxis acris , schouwia thebaica , zilla spinosa [ bmat ]\nanthocaris [ sic ] olympia edwards , 1871 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 3 : 266 ; tl : [ kanawha co . , west virginia ]\nlarva on descurainia pinnata holland , 1995 , j . lep . soc . 49 ( 2 ) : 127\nanthocaris [ sic ] hyantis edwards , 1871 ; trans . amer . ent . soc . 3 ( 3 / 4 ) : 205 ; tl : ukiah , mendocino , co . , california\ncolorado , arizona , utah , california , montana , oregon , colorado . see [ maps ]\n: klamath co . , oregon ; modoc co . , california ; lasse , colorado\nlarva on arabis furcata , a . sparsiflora , arabis bolboellii , halimolobos whitedi [ boc ]\nchecklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;\nthe dates of e . j . c . esper ' s die schmetterlinge in abblidungen . . . 1776 - [ 1830 ] ; archives of natural history ( 1981 ) 10 ( 2 ) : 251 - 254\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ \u00b2 ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .\n( fabiano , 1993 ) d ' arag\u00f3n , dans le n . - e . de l ' espagne : '\nlepidopteren ost - sibiriens , insbesondere der amur - landes , gesammelt von den herren g . radde , r . maack und p . wulffius\nthe genera of diurnal lepidoptera , comprising their generic characters , a notice of their habitats and transformations , and a catalogue of the species of each genus ; illustrated with 86 plates by w . c . hewitson\ndie schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . theil i . die tagschmetterlinge . supplement theil 1 . abschnitt 1\nneuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur . ( 81 - 100 )\nconcerning the name anthocaris coloradensis hy . edwards with designation of a new subspecies ( pieridae )\nlist of diurnal lepidoptera collected by capt . a . m . lang in the n . w . himalayas\nsome undescribed rhopalocera from mesopotamia and n . w . persia ; and other notes\nlepidotteri di cirenaica . ( raccolti dal prof . a . ghigi durante l ' escurisione organizzata dal touring club italiano nel mese di aprile 1920 )\nrhopalocera palaearctica iconographie et description des papillons diurnes de la r\u00e9gion pal\u00e9arctique . papilionidae et pieridae\nwinhard , 2000 pieridae i butterflies of the world 10 : 1 - 40 , pl . title , 1 - 48 , back\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy ."]}
{"id": 1506, "summary": [{"text": "the vundu ( heterobranchus longifilis ) is a large species of airbreathing catfish found widely in rivers and other freshwater habitats of sub-saharan africa , as well as the nile .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is also called the solomon fish , tsuni , mazunda , sampa , cur , lenda , or certa . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "vundu", "paragraphs": ["joachim volz with two vundu catfish that he caught one night in april 2001 .\nvundu camp welcomes children aged 10 years and older , but this is flexible .\nimage - vundu - catfish badge . png | cryptid wiki | fandom powered by wikia\nthe vundu catfish of lake kariba zambezi . | the united states catfish association forum and community\nvundu camp is located on the banks of the zambezi river in the mana pools national park .\njeremy wade is the first person to ever be granted access to fish for the vundu under a dam on africa ' s zambezi river . he has a small window , and catches a massive vundu .\nthe male vundu shares his tank with a tiger fish as it is the only species of fish at the aquarium that the vundu will not eat and the two species are commonly found together in the wild . ox heart and hake are the vundu ' s favourite meals fed to him at the nzg .\nthe national zoo ' s 39 year old vundu - unofficially the oldest fish in an aquarium in the world .\nsituated 3km upstream from vundu , making it well located within the boundaries of the park on the banks on the zambezi .\nsituated in the heart of mana pools national park underneath a beautiful forest of riverine trees is our little piece of paradise , vundu camp .\nthe vundu is becoming rare in habitats like lake kariba and should always be released back into their freshwater habitat as their numbers are dwindling .\nvundu camp has a total of eight en - suite tents with flushing toilet and hot water showers which enjoy fantastic views over the zambezi .\nexperience \u2013 the activities , the area , the game and the guiding \u2013 we rate vundu as one of the finest on the subcontinent . mana pools is a really stunning park ; the game in this area is great ; and the guiding at vundu is absolutely top - notch .\nno credit cards or travellers\u2019 cheques are accepted at vundu camp , but cash payments may be made in us dollars , south african rand or gb pounds .\nvundu camp comes with few pretences and without the luxury , or safari chic , that most new safari camps and lodges seem to aspire to . however , in terms of the pure safari experience \u2013 the activities , the area , the game and the guiding \u2013 we rate vundu as one of the finest on the subcontinent . mana pools is a really stunning park ; the game in this area is great ; and the guiding at vundu is absolutely top - notch .\nwe recommend a 3\u20134 night stay at vundu camp . the camp offers a wide range of activities , and most travellers could happily spend 2\u20133 days just walking here .\nwith a magnificent combination of wildlife and wilderness , bushlife safaris has created the perfect portfolio of safari experiences for you . these include the luxurious vundu camp built on the banks of the zambezi river , little vundu \u2013 an intimate camp , the ruwesi canoe trail which is ideal for adventurous travelers and lastly a tented camp set in the wild chitake springs area .\nvundu camp comes with few pretences and without the luxury , or safari chic , that most new safari camps and lodges seem to aspire to . however , in terms of the pure\nno other catfish in these waters have such a large second dorsal or adipose fin , nor such long barbells , which reach almost to the origin of the pelvic fin , as does the vundu .\nvundu camp is a permanent tented camp that is well - known for its breathtaking views of the zambezi river and the constant stream of elephants passing through to eat the pods of the albida trees .\nthe habitat of the vundu is deep lakes and rivers including the nile , benue rivers as well as in the congo system . heterobranchus longifilis is also found in lake kariba zambezi , tanganyika and edward .\nthe habitat of the vundu is deep lakes and rivers including the nile , benue rivers as well as in the congo system . heterobranchus longifilis is also found in lake kariba zambezi , tanganyika and edward .\nthe knowledgeable guides and stunning location within deep , shady riparian forest beside the zambezi river make vundu camp a great spot for birdwatching in zimbabwe . see bee - eater colonies , kingfishers and plenty of raptors .\nthe camp is very active with animals , with elephants coming down to drink and feed on the green grass along the channel in front of camp . little vundu has excellent fishing right off the banks at camp .\nvundu camp has a fabulous location on the banks of the mighty zambezi in zimbabwe ' s mana pools national park with wonderful wildlife viewing on offer and exceptional guiding , an adventurous and unspoiled safari experience awaits you .\ncurrently there are no specimens of this species in scientific collections from lake turkana , but local fishermen have confirmed the presence of the vundu in the northen part of the lake ( seegers et al . , 2004 ) .\nwith considerable caution , we can recommend vundu camp for mature children over 10 \u2013 largely because nick and desiree have their own children , who also spend some time in camp , and so are very understanding of the needs and interests of children on safari .\nmany tourists and locals who fish for small species of fish often come across the large predatory catfish and drown because of the methods used to catch smaller fish . it involves pulling the fish out of the water with a fishing line , using your bare hands . a vundu could easily overpower a person and pull them in the water and drown them , especially in cases where people don ' t want to lose their catch and tie the fishing line around their body , which is a huge mistake , and ultimately backfires . also , longlines equipped with multiple hooks are hazardous as if a large vundu is on the end of the line , one of the hooks in the boat can stick in you and if the vundu then pulls , you can be pulled in the water .\nvundu camp is owned and run by an extremely knowledgeable zimbabwean , nick murray . well - respected within the industry , he is a qualified ' zim - pro ' guide ( meaning he has earned perhaps the most prestigious game - guiding qualification in africa ) .\nmana pools is one of africa\u2019s best parks for walking , and vundu focuses squarely on the very best professional guiding . mana\u2019s environment is very open , giving good visibility ; walkers can often get surprisingly close to relaxed bull elephants , as well as packs of wild dogs .\nwe frequently choose the same zim - pro guides for private trips and mobiles , both in mana pools and elsewhere in zimbabwe . on our last visit in october 2016 nick was out of camp , so we were guided by chester , a freelance guide who has been at vundu since 2013 .\nthe vundu ( heterobranchus longifilis ) is a species of airbreathing catfish found in the african countries of niger , senegal , egypt , burundi , the democratic republic of the congo , tanzania , uganda , zimbabwe and zambia . it is also called the sampa , cur , lenda , or certa .\nanother very interesting species that hails from africa . i ' d love to get over there and fish for these guys , but i ' d have a hard time deciding on tagetting vundu , or the ravenous tigerfish that is found in the same water , or maybe the fish in your second picture there , the monster freshwater fish of africa , the nile perch ! they ' ve also go a way of catching members of the doradid family of fish over there , that i need for find out more about . elephant fish have tiny mouths ! but vundu fishing is indeed supposed to be a blast !\nwe have visited vundu camp many times over the years , and have always found the food to be tasty and filling . our last visit in october 2016 was no exception , and we were particularly impressed with the effort the camp made to cater for guests in camp with gluten and dairy dietary requirements .\nat vundu camp is exceptionally good , and stands out even amongst the universally high standards across zimbabwe . while nick himself does much of the guiding here , he also has a few excellent canoe and zim - pro guides who he uses on a freelance basis . nick is acutely aware of the standards of his fellow guides , and at\nthe vundu ' s dorsal surface is light to dark olive brown , and gets lighter over its mid - body to a light brown colour with an off - white belly and light brown fins . they have ineffective eyesight that is not developed due to their powerful lateral lines and they rely on vibrations and smell when looking for food .\nvundu is a small camp with a long - standing reputation . it sits on the banks of the zambezi river in the heart of zimbabwe\u2019s mana pools national park , shaded by a grove of ebony and tamarind trees . an owner - run property , it focuses on offering a variety of activities in a game - rich area of the park .\nit ' s perhaps worth noting that nick has been involved in a lot of the research and monitoring of the wild dog packs in the park , so vundu is a particularly good place for seeing this endangered species . indeed , throughout 2016 the camp was used as a base by a bbc film crew who were staying here specifically to get footage of wild dog .\nvundu camp has just eight spacious tents which enjoy fantastic views over the river . each tent has a thatched roof , which helps to keep it cool during the hottest months . all tents have an en - suite bathroom with flushing toilet and hot water shower . the camp has a really authentic safari feel , but achieves this without compromising on standards or levels of comfort .\nh . longifilis is an uncommon species which inhabits large rivers . most active at night , it feeds on any available food , including invertebrates and insects when small , then fish and other small vertebrates when large . it scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages . it can live for 12 or more years . the vundu catfish can survive out of water for extensive periods of time .\nyour day at vundu camp begins with an early riser cup of tea or coffee around the fire , before you set off on your first activity . after a few exciting hours spent in the thick wilderness of the national park , you will return to a full english breakfast and a chance to have a siesta or enjoy the sounds of the bush and view of the river from the comfort of your private terrace .\ntoko , imorou ( 1 2 ) ; fiogbe , emile d . , koukpode , bruno , kestemont , patrick ( 2007 ) . rearing of african catfish ( clarias gariepinus ) and vundu catfish ( heterobranchus longifilis ) in traditional fish ponds ( whedos ) : effect of stocking density on growth , production and body composition . issn 0044 - 8486 . coden aqclal . 2007 , vol . 262 , no1 , pp . 65\u201372 .\nvundus are found in egypt , senegal , niger , burundi , democratic republic of congo , tanzania , zambia , uganda and zimbabwe . the vundu ' s preferred habitats of deep lakes and large rivers include the benue and nile rivers as well as the congo system . vundus can also be found in lakes kariba , zambezi , tanganyika and edward . interestingly , vundus are only found below the victoria falls - there have been no recorded catch above the falls .\nvundu camp has eight chalets , canvas under thatch , situated on the banks of the zambezi river in the magnificent mana pools national park . each spacious room provides great views over the river and is en - suite with running shower and flush toilet . the family room consists of two rooms , both en - suite , separated by a lounge area . the main lounge / dining area is built on stilts and gives guests amazing views over the zambezi river whilst relaxing after the day\u2019s activities .\nvundu camp is perfectly placed in the heart of mana pools on the banks of the zambezi in an area renowned for excellent game viewing . the bush around the camp is home to healthy populations of lion and leopard and also wild dog , one of the most sought after animals to spot on safari . the position on the river also makes for wonderful bird watching as well as wallowing hippos and if you ' re lucky , the breath - taking sight of elephants swimming across the river .\naccording to the african angler web site , vundu on lake nasser often forage close to shore at night , so that ' s when you should be out there after them . it ' s a pretty strong fish that puts up a good fight , so use sturdy gear . canned meat is a good bait , since it ' s oily and gives off an alluring odor to the fish . cast your bait 6 to 10 feet from the shoreline in the shallower water . stay away from the deeper water where your bait may get lost in the weeds .\nmana pools has a moderate to sub - tropical climate with three distinct seasons : from november to april is the rainy season . vundu camp is shut over these months . may to july is zimbabwe ' s winter , when the weather is cool and dry , and august to october is summer , when the weather is hot and dry . in terms of game viewing , the dryer months , meaning a higher concentration of game at the permanent water sources , are a superb time to visit . alternatively come for some superb birdwatching at the end of the rains .\nvundu are also accused by locals of snatching babies from the banks of rivers and swallowing them whole while the parents wash clothes . this can be attributed to the catfish ' s barbels which allow it to detect chemical traces of its prey . the scent of the soap used to wash the clothes is detected by the catfish which then lures it in to search for the prey and ultimately it goes for the only thing it can swallow if big enough : a child . soap - baited techniques are used in other parts of africa to catch other species of catfish such as the african sharptooth catfish in which its barbels also allow it to pick up chemical traces of its prey and the soap lures them in .\non land , vundu ' s 4wd game drives and walks can range throughout the national park , although most take place in the camp ' s own private ' concession ' . this is a prime area in the heart of the park , covering an area within about 3\u20134km of the camp . this is classic ' mana ' scenery \u2013 with plenty of forested areas , and some of the pools for which the park is noted . it\u2019s very common for a drive and walk to be combined , with everyone hopping out of the vehicle when an interesting track or animal has been discovered . on our last visit we drove in the morning until we found a pack of wild dog , before walking , then crawling , to within a few metres of the pack . we were then able to sit and watch the pack interact with each other , undisturbed by other vehicles or walkers ; a wonderful experience only achievable thanks to the exceptional experience and skill of our guide .\nin europe , clarias gariepinus was first introduced in the netherlands in 1976 . the first brood stock originated from the wild from 40 african catfish transferred from the central african republic ( hogedoorn and vismans , 1980 ) . commercial farming of this species started in 1985 in recirculation aquaculture systems ( ras ) .\nmuch later catfish strains from israel and the republic south africa were introduced . these strains were crossed for the production of fingerlings and resulted in the currently cultured \u201cdutch strain\u201d african catfish .\non farmers level brood stock selection is mostly done in a very primitive way . to hold and monitor large populations of different african catfish strains strictly separate for long periods is very costly . the results are , if you are successful , visible after a couple of years and the next problem for the commercial farmer is keeping this advantage for him selve !\nanother problem for the farmer producing african catfish fingerlings is to show his customer the benefit of an improved strain . improvements in growth and feed conversion ratio of for example 5 % are great achievements in the mind of a researcher , but for a farmer small differences and most probable not spotted without serious farm recordkeeping .\npractically spoken the market for african catfish fingerlings is first of all price driven . next to this hatcheries focus on availability , size , uniformity and health status of the african catfish .\nmost african catfish farmers ( tropics and europe ) are small to medium sized farmers , not well organised , and simply do not have the means and abilities to do serious research on genetic improvements of their stocks . the little research done on african catfish genetics is done by universities but has never been seriously implemented in practice .\nafrican catfish farming is a relatively new industry . in europe it started in the early eighties and in africa only few farmers were active in an extensive way by that time .\nthe first broodstock came from the wild . in the netherlands for example , wild african catfish was imported from central africa and the first generations the selection was based on growth . my personal opinion is that we were just performing selection of fish which were able to adapt to the intensive way of farming in warm water recirculation systems . soon after the introduction of african catfish from central africa fish was brought in from israel and rsa . in the netherlands the strains were not kept separate and as a result the \u201cdutch african catfish\u201d is a result of 3 strains .\nmeat quality and dress out percentage are very important parameters for the processing industry . variation is noticed between the strains from different locations in africa . in the tropics the aspect of meat quality and dressing percentage are of less importance because the fish is consumed as a whole ; no filets are taken from the fish and heads and intestines are not wasted .\nwithin the family of clariidae ( siluriformes ) intergeneric hybrids were produced through interbreeding between species from the genera heterobranchus and clarias ( ref . ) . a well - known intergeneric hybrid is a crossbred between the heterobranchus longifillis female and clarias gariepinus male , the so called \u201chetero - clarias\u201d . due to rearranging of genetic material from both species in the offspring , the intergeneric hybrids show characteristics of both parental species . a well known hybrid is the cross between a heterobranchus longifillis female and a clarias gariepinus male , called heteroclarias ( see figure 5 ) .\nin our hatchery in the netherlands we are producing this hybrid for a group of farmers linked to a processing plant . this group is very keen in producing and marketing this type of fish . the filet of heteroclarias is white in comparison with the pink / reddish colour of clarias gariepinus filets and contains 30 % more fat than clarias gariepinus filets , which improves the taste . the gonads of hybrids are almost absent and not active . for this reason the dressing percentage is relatively high compared to clarias gariepinus . the heteroclarias fish filet can be used as an alternative for white filets from marine fish species .\na close up of a heterobranchus longifilis fingerling . please note the adipose fin ( as shown in the hybrid )\nas a fingerling producer of heteroclarias we notice big differences in behaviour with the common african catfish . the heteroclarias fingerlings show a wide variation in growth and severe cannibalism is noticed , especially when frequent grading is neglected . next to this the heteroclarias is easily stressed . after an age of 12 weeks , well graded fish show very equal growth and low mortality to the moment of harvesting at 1 . 4 kg .\nin the tropics the heteroclarias is considered superior over the clarias gariepinus in growth in pond culture and is considered as better growing fish .\nfor a fingerling producer hybridisation has a major benifit . the hybrids are infertile and it is not possible for customers to continue breeding with those fish . the pure parent stock is kept on farm and is never shared with other farmers . the pure heterobranchus longifillis strain matures at a age of 2 years , which is very late compared to clarias gariepinus ( 1 year ) .\nthe purpose of good brood stock maintenance is to harvest good quality eggs and sperm . the brood stock should be individually tagged to have tracability for each batch of offspring and to have the possibility for a breeding programme . th broodstock should be given enough time to recover from spawning and with the individual tagging it is possible to do proper record keeping .\nwe prefer recirculation systems in a confined area with temperature control if necessary . in the tropics flow through systems can work too , if flushed with good quality bore hole water .\nin our farm the productivity of the female ( fecundity ) expressed as % of the body weight is between 5 - 15 % . the egg size tends to increase with the size of the female . in larger fish the number of eggs per gram of eggs is lower than in smaller broodstock . on average we count 500 eggs per gram . the average females we are using in our farm have a weight of 6 kg and produce 300 - 600 gram of eggs ( 150 . 000 - 300 . 000 eggs ) .\na female is selected from one of the broodstock tanks . with a small tube it is possible to sample the eggs out of the ovaries to check if the nucleus has migrated to the side and the egg size has a diameter of 1 mm or above . most farmers do not perform this check , they just select by eye .\nin captivity females do not perform final ripening of the eggs without hormonal treatment . the injection of gonadotropin releasing hormone in the form of natural pituitary glands or synthetic products like ovaprim induces the final step of ripening called vitelogenisis . in this final step the eggs are provided with yolk and take up water .\nthe period between injection with hormones and stripping of the eggs depends on the temperature of the water and the type of hormone used . through trial and error the perfect time for stripping can be determined . too early or to late stripping results in bad egg quality and thus poor spawning results .\ntoo early stripping : very dry\u009d egg mass . it is difficult to completely strip the female because the eggs do not flow out . the female often dies because of the stress and internal injuries .\ntoo late stripping : the egg mass is fluid . often the female has released a lot of eggs in the preparation tank already and stripping is very easy .\nseveral hours after stripping we perform final stripping to remove all ripe eggs from the ovaries of the female . this is to prevent that these ripe eggs die inside the ovaries and start to deteriorate . this will harm the fish and can cause death of the broodstock female . the females have to stay in recovery for a couple of days before putting them back to the broodstock tank .\nmale clarias gariepinus do not release sperm after treatment with hormones like many other fish species . the males have ripe sperm all year round . the fish should be at least 1 year old to have ripe gonads . a lot of variation can be seen between males of the same age in ripeness and size of testis . in practice farmers sacrify males in order to dissect the testis out of the abdomen . by making incisions in the testis tissue the sperm can be collected . as a consequence new male broodstock needs to be added to the broodstock population sacrificing the males is a big constraint on genetic programmes .\nsome farmers are using operation on the males . after tranquilizing the fish , a small incision is made in the belly of the fish and with a syringe with needle some sperm is taken out of the testis . finally the incision in the belly is stitched using veterinary stitching materialand the male is able to recover in 1 to 2 weeks . during this time the wound closes completely .\nunlike the sperm of mammals sperm of fish is not active , but will become active as soon as it is in the water . the sperm is active for less than a minute , so it has to find an egg quickly before all the energy has gone . this is the reason that during the proces of sperm collection all materials , hands and the fish should be dry . although these precautions are taken , the sperm can be activated accidently . the sperm concentration of good males is more than a million per ml !\ncryo conservation of sperm has been done on an experimental scale by universities and the method is quite successful . the problem of this method for farmers is that they have to be equipped with a laboratory and should have permanent availability of liquid nitrogen to keep the sperm preserved .\nthe eggs and sperm are collected in a dry glass or porcelain bowl and a dry small glass or porcelain cup respectively . a simple but effective way of fertilization is to bring the eggs and sperm together in the egg collection bowl , mix it gently before adding water .\nin literature adding certain fertilizing solutions during fertilization is reported as being very benificial , because they are thought to extend the life of the sperm in order to improve the fertilisation rate . i prefer not to use any extra fluids because any extra handling can give a problem too .\nartificial propagation of african catfish is a relatively simple procedure and many farmers are very skillful in doing it . millions of larvae are hatched weekly in a country like nigeria but until today there still is a shortage of good quality fingerlings and juveniles . reproduction of african catfish is following a certain procedure , but farming the larvae for 1 or 2 months to juvenile stage comes down to the capabilities of the individual farmer .\nafrican catfish hatcheries in general can be very profitable , provided it has a good culture system and dedicated hatchery staff . because many farmers lack knowledge , proper management ideas and / or a properly build hatchery , the results between farmers can vary from 200 eggs needed for 1 juvenile to 5 eggs needed for 1 juvenile ( an african catfish juvenile being a 2 month old fish of approximately 8 grams ) .\nin europe african catfish hatcheries are strictly equipped with recirculation systems ( climate conditions do not allow to do otherwise ) . in the tropics hatcheries are either recirculation systems only or a combination of recirculation systems , flow through systems , hapa\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s and small ponds .\nin many african countries the juvenile production is by far not meeting the demand . this results in high prices and often inferior quality of african catfish fingerlings / juveniles being sold . many african entrepreneurs are attracted to start a hatchery , but only very few succeed . on the long term i personnaly do not believe in small backyard farmers producing some fingerlings but in medium sized operations using recirculation technology well distributed over the country providing people with fingerlings / juveniles of good quality and support people in growing those fish to table sizes fish . what i can see from my experience is that hatcheries in africa but also in europe are considered as the centres of knowledge for other farmers .\nin our hatchery design for african catfish we divide the hatchery in different sections . each section provides the optimal environment for a certain life stage of the african catfish .\nwe prefer a recirculation system with connected to a water purification unit . the tanks , both fish tanks and tanks of the water purification unit , can be build of materials like glass fibre , polyethylene or concrete . the water purification unit consists of a sedimentation tank , a pump tank , a bio tower and a uv - system . the system should be placed in a confined area were the temperature can be controlled . the tanks should be equipped with good drains for easy and quick selection of the broodstock before reproduction . next to this system a number of preparation - recovery tanks should be placed ( around 300 liters ) .\nthe number of brood stock needed depends on the success rate of the spawning . for example one female can be used for eight spawnings per year ( in theory ) providing 3 , 2 kg of eggs . this equals around 1 . 6 million eggs and with a minimal 10 % survival till juvenile stage this results in a yearly production 160 . 000 african catfish juveniles .\neven in the tropics i prefer to import expensive compound feed from a reliable factory in europe instead of using locally produced and often unreliable feeds . i believe a good starting point is essential for a successful development of the offspring .\nin our hatchery we try to maximise the life span of the broodstock , since replacements are costly . males can be used 1 ( if the male is killed ) to 4 times ( if the operation procedure is used ) , before it is being replaced by new , younger males . old males ( above 4 years ) tend to develop testis with sponge like tissue and it is containing watery sperm with a low concentration of spermcells . females can be used for a long period and stay in a better condition for a longer time , especially when the females are used maximum twice per year . females reach a higher weight and size than males ( max . 15 kg and 1 . 30 meters ) . growing the next generation of broodstock should be done in a separate system .\nthe incubation system should be placed in a room with controlled temperature . the temperature must be kept at 30 \u00b0c . even in the tropics the water temperatures in the night can drop to 24 \u00b0c , which has a negative effect on the growth and health status of the fry .\nthe uv - c unit reduces bacterial blooms ( cloudy water ) and growth of fungus , which is developping after the eggs have hatched . with the hatching of the eggs a lot of egg fluids are released in the water . together with unhatched eggs this is a fertile medium for bacteria and fungi to grow . together with constant addition of fresh water , the uv - c device stops the bloom of these unfavourable organisms . the system should be build in a way that it is easy accessible in order to do proper cleaning and inspection .\nthe fertilised eggs are spread over a sieve . the eggs are surrounded by oxygen rich water , which lowers egg mortality . the eggs hatch in around 24 hours with a water temperature of 29 - 30 \u00b0c . the larvae fall through the mesh of the mosquito net , while all dead eggs and egg shells are easily removed with the netting . during the first two days the larvae absorb the yolk sac and develop their intestines . after this period the larvae are able to swim freely in search for food . the larvae change in colour from transparent green to brown during this period .\neach hatching cycle takes 13 days ( preparation of the system 2 days , 3 days hatching and absorbing yolk sac , 7 days growing the fry , 1 day harvesting and cleaning ) . it is very important that between each cycle the system is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected .\nthe first feed for african catfish fry is life artemia nauplii hatched on site . from experience we know that the survival rates and growth of fry starting with life artemia is higher than with dry larval feeds or encapsulated artemia .\nif dry feed is applied always start with dry feed before feeding artemia nauplii . with glass aquaria you are able to inspect the eating behaviour and the filling of the stomach very well and overfeeding or underfeeding can be avoided . well fed african catfish larvae show full bellies and these fish settle on the bottom of the tank .\nin this system the larvae can grow from 0 , 1 gram to approximately 0 , 5 - 1 , 0 gram . the system consists of a plastic tank connected to a biotower and a sedimentation tank . a pump is providing the flow and an uv - c unit provides clean water .\nin nigeria these systems are very popular , because they are sold preassembled for a reasonable price and the maintenance on these systems is very simple and low in cost . preferably the systems should be placed indoor , were a temperature can be maintained of 28 \u00b0c .\nat 0 , 5 to 1 , 0 grams the now called fingerlings are either sold to customers or moved to the juvenile section of the hatchery .\nin africa african catfish is sold as fingerling at this size . the fish is large enough to withstand transport in 20 liter polyethylene bags filled with 1 / 3rd water and 500 to 1000 pieces of african catfish fingerlings and 2 / 3rd oxygen . next to this the fish are able to breath atmospheric air using their branchial organ and can therefore be stocked in green water ponds which normally have big oxygen level fluctuations during the day .\nthis section is suited for growing fingerlings of 1 , 0 gram to juveniles of approximately 8 grams . farmers like this size because they are more robust than fingerlings and mortality rates ( mostly due to cannibalism ) are much lower . these systems should also be placed indoors . temperature can be kept at 28 \u00b0c constantly .\nthe primary reason for the loss of fish during this period is cannibalism . this loss can be reduced by proper grading for shooters , also during the growth period ( see later section for explanation of grading ) . after this stage , when juveniles are growing to consumption size , loss is less than 10 % .\nfingerlings growing to juveniles should be fed several times a day in regular intervals . african catfish is also active in the dark .\nthe secret of the success of many hatcheries lies for a large part in the mangement of grading . african catfish is a carnivorous fish that displays canibalistic behaviour from the moment the african catfish have absorped the yolk sac and start eating . to minimize the effect of canabilism on overall survival of the fish grading must be performed on precize moments during the growth of fry to juvenile .\ngrading is performed with either large mesh nylon sieves for small fry and fixed or adjustable graders with bars for larger advanced fry and juveniles . grading takes place when transferring the african catfish from one section to the other , but in between the african catfish can be graded at fixed times ( f . e . half way the growth period in that section ) and when shooters are spotted .\nlight to dark olive brown on dorsal surface , getting lighter over the mid - body to a light brown , off - white belly . fins usually light brown . they can attain size\nfishing practice is as for most catfish but , naturally , larger baits and heavier tackle are used . anglers ' bait preferences include ox livers , hearts , kidneys , plucked birds , meat and fish that have been cut down the belly and turned inside out . the smaller specimens will take a spoon and , like their bigger brothers , tend to move down stream using the current and their heavy weight to combat the angler . the further they run the greater the possibility of getting snagged on some underwater obstruction . heavy tackle , to cut short this initial run and keep the battle in open water .\nboth these fish break the existing record of 78lb , these two great fish must have been a pair foraging together see the pic below .\nwe work hard to bring the best catfish fishing forums the internet has to offer ! unlock additional features , and fewer ads while browsing .\nthe camp has a total of eight spacious thatched chalets , one of which is a large and comfortable family room . each chalet opens out onto the banks of the mighty zambezi river , located just 10 metres away , where guests can sit outside and relax on their terrace , watching impala , warthog and elephant meander by .\nin addition to this the family chalet comes with two bedrooms , one twin and one double , which are both en - suite and are separated by a lounge area .\nthe main lounge and dining area is elevated providing guests with picturesque views of the zambezi river , making it the perfect place to unwind after a full day of activities and a chance to share your safari stories with other guests , relax with a good book or enjoy a board game or two . with the lounge and dining area being open air guests can soak up the sounds of the bush and enjoy a gentle breeze passing through .\nexpect to come across elephants and hippo , with sightings of leopards , lions and wild dogs too .\nan al \u2019fresco lunch is served at 1pm where the chef will prepare a fresh feast for you . afternoon tea and cake is served at 3pm where you will then head off to another activity . dinner is served upstairs under the shaded riverine trees where a chandelier is set up , which paired with the bright shining stars , create the perfect out of africa ambience .\ncanoeing down the zambezi river which is a rare opportunity to experience game viewing from a different perspective \u2013 a truly memorable experience . ( children policy is 12 years and above )\nbushlife safaris began in 1999 when nick and des murray made a decision to make mana pools , a unesco world heritage site , their home .\nnick is a hugely experienced and widely renowned professional guide with decades of experience around africa . his most - loved animal is the wild dog , and he is currently studying these intelligent social predators of mana pools , in cooperation with the painted dog conservation group . nick has an uncanny connection with the wild dogs and his walking safaris allow guests to safely observe them at close range .\ntogether with his wife desiree , a licensed professional safari and canoe guide , they make quite the extraordinary guiding team where their passion lies in providing you with a thrilling venture that you will most certainly return for year after year .\nwe met this month with what we thought would be a typical october , but we were quite mistaken . from very cold , bundled - in - your - jacket mornings to blistering hot 48\u00b0c . the rainy season started . . .\nsummer is well and truly here ! with temperatures reaching 40 degrees celsius we are experiencing warm and sunny weather . the wildlife viewing this month has been fantastic with some incredible . . .\naugust is the windy month , blowing last years leaves off the trees , where we change from the cool winter to the warm days of spring . we ' ve experienced a few rough . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nwe offer a choice of game drives in open sided four - wheel drive vehicles , each with roof to shade guests from the sun , nature walks with a professional guide or a morning / afternoon spent canoeing , the opportunity to spend time on the water canoeing down the zambezi is a rare opportunity to experience game viewing from an entirely different view point \u2013 a real highlight as it is a unique activity and not many parks offer the opportunity .\nthe area is teaming with wildlife , with a pair of resident leopards , lion and the distinct sound of their calls most nights , and elephants visiting to feed on the thick vegetation in camp and to have a mud bath in the pan behind camp . mana pools has a healthy population of wild dogs , which are the most endangered of the carnivores in africa .\ntwin beds with mosquito nets , a fan , an outside seating area . each tent has an\nthe main lodge offers wholesome , healthy breakfasts and alfresco lunches , served in an open - air dining room . dinners are exceptional as they are served under a canvas of stars , where after enjoying delicious food prepared by a private chef , guests can relax with a nightcap and listen to the sounds of the wild .\nportfolio in mana pools , which includes ruwesi canoe trails on the zambezi river and chitake mobile tented camp .\nunderlying these operations is the bushlife support unit , which unites operators , guides and conservation groups in mana pools to work with the authorities in stopping the poaching of wildlife and protecting this wonderful national park and world heritage site for future generations .\nenter the three characters from the image on the right . this helps prevent automated ' bots ' from submitting spam to the site . this field is not case - sensitive . if the characters are a bit hard to see , try refreshing the code by clicking the image .\ni find your newsletter and website very informative . thank you ! keep up the good work - it makes a difference ! priscilla macy - global sojourns , usa\ni ' ve really found your site extremely useful . i have recommended it in all the relevant parts of the book as a first stop so readers can get latest up - to - date info , especially at a time when things are changing so fast . paul murray - author : bradt travel guide to zimbabwe\ni ' m just getting acquainted with your site and would like to say thanks for all the great information provided and the effort you ' ve put forth . james lynch - usa\nurltoken is the best source of independent travel information on mana pools and the zambezi river valley . it covers everything you need to know about travelling to the area . scott ramsay - leisure wheels magazine , south africa\nurltoken puts this species in the\nhigh to very high vulnerability\ncategory in terms of survival in the wild . by using catch - and - release , you can help keep the biggest , hardiest specimens alive , so they can keep reproducing .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 discovery communications , llc . the world ' s # 1 nonfiction media company .\nthe river monsters star offers some kind words for the people that helped make the show successful - the fans .\nthanks to some advice from locals , jeremy finally caught the fish that eluded him for years .\njeremy reels in an elusive tapah , a fish he has spent years trying to catch .\njeremy reels in a giant trevally and barracuda , but isn\u2019t convinced they\u2019re the strange fish attacking fishermen near new britain .\njeremy wade doesn\u2019t need the water to reel us in . see what happened when he visited the animal planet office !\njeremy illustrates how you can use a variety of bait and lures to reel in a black bass .\nat around 700 pounds and 200 years of age , this greenland shark is one of jeremy\u2019s largest and oldest catches .\njeremy reveals what he did to reel in the biggest catch of his river monsters career .\nof all the fish jeremy has reeled in , the lau lau stands out as his most meaningful catch .\njeremy wade reveals how he brought this deep - sea dweller to the surface .\ntrying to reel in this fish off the coast of indonesia is a battle that pushes jeremy to his physical and mental limits .\njeremy meets with locals to find out what kind of monster fish could be terrorizing the rivers of western nepal .\njeremy was lucky enough to catch a goonch catfish once before , but not so much the second time around .\nwhen jeremy ' s on the hunt for a monster that killed hundreds , he encounters a school of dolphins that may or may not be the friendliest .\njeremy wade is fishing in the zambezi river , looking for a fish capable of pulling a full - grown man in to the water and drowning him . what he finds is a prehistoric - looking fish with crocodile - like teeth .\nthough it may seem obvious to some , find out why jeremy wade releases fish back into the wild even when they ' re deadly .\ntop fan favorites : jeremy wade experienced a blood - sucking parasite clamped onto his bare skin last season . you , the fans , loved this clip on urltoken - hear how jeremy felt about the experience .\nthe whale shark is the largest fish on the planet today - and jeremy wade swims alongside one of these beautiful behemoths . could the whale shark be descended from the greatest river monster to ever live ?\nwhat happens when you stick your arm inside the jaws of a giant paraiba catfish ? blood . watch jeremy learn this first - hand .\nkarri and her boyfriend michael recall the day a fish flew out of nowhere and left her with broken ribs and punctured lung .\na doctor , who lost his uncle to the depths of the amazon , desperately wanted to identify evidence of the death . so , his best solution ? to catch the killer fish and cut open their stomachs .\njeremy wade catches a piraya , a larger piranha with huge teeth . take it from us , you wouldn ' t want to run in to this fish at night or any other time of day .\nwith the clear waters of the florida keys working against him , jeremy is forced to reel in a large predator with thin , almost invisible fishing line ."]}
{"id": 1507, "summary": [{"text": "isthmohyla calypsa is a species of frog in the family hylidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is known from the southern cordillera de talamanca in costa rica , cerro pando in costa rica and panama , and the pacific slope in southwestern panama .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it appears to have gone extinct in costa rica .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "prior to its description in 1996 , this species was confused with isthmohyla lancasteri , a species now known from lower altitudes only . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "isthmohyla calypsa", "paragraphs": ["isthmohyla calypsa in the wild , photo ( c ) marcos guerra , smithsonian tropical research institute .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - common tree frog ( isthmohyla calypsa )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - common tree frog ( isthmohyla calypsa )\ntitle =\narkive species - common tree frog ( isthmohyla calypsa )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nisthmohyla calypsa \u2014 faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 103 .\nisthmohyla calypsa was previously included in isthmohyla lancasteri , but it has been distinguished from that species based on adult and larval morphology , oviposition site ( leaves for i . calypsa vs . attached to submerged vegetation and debris in small pools of slow - flowing streams for i . lancasteri ) , egg and clutch characteristics ( 10 - 36 yellow eggs per clutch for i . calypsa , vs . 70 - 80 chocolate - brown eggs for i . lancasteri ) and vocalizations ( lips 1996 ) .\nisthmohyla calypsa is a species of frog in the hylidae family . it is found in costa rica and panama . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthis species was previously included in the genus hyla but has recently been moved to the new genus isthmohyla ( faivovich et al . 2005 ) .\nthe specific epithet calypsa derives from the greek nymph calypso , who hid the hero ulysses . it refers both to the frog ' s camouflage and to the species having been hidden within h . lancasteri ( lips 1996 ) .\n7 ) isthmohyla calypsa a treefrog frog covered with spiny tubercles found in a small mountainous area on the border of costa rica and panama where is used to be locally common . at las tablas in costa rica , the species experienced severe chytridiomycosis - related declines between 1993 and 1998 . despite extensive recent survey efforts in costa rica and panama , the species has not been seen recently and is possibly extinct . many other stream breeding species in this genus have also experienced dramatic declines and are now extremely rare frogs .\nhyla calypsa lips , 1996 , copeia , 1996 : 617 . holotype : cre 5299 , by original designation , now in lacm . type locality :\nfinca jaguar ( 1900 m ) , approximately 18 km nne la lucha , coto brus , puntarenas province , costa rica , 8\u00b0 55\u2032 n , 82\u00b0 44\u2032 w\n.\ndiagnosis : isthmohyla calypsa can be distinguished from all other congeners by the following character combination : highly tuberculate and spiny dorsal surfaces of head , body and limbs ; coloration in life bright metallic green with brown blotches ; dorsal thigh surfaces free of transverse bars ; lack of conspicuous markings on anterior and posterior thighs ; lack of tarsal fold ; chin and throat bright white with a few dark brown spots near the margins ; short , truncated snout ; male prepollex with numerous small black spines ; paired vocal slits in males ; call usually a single ascending note ( sometimes two notes ) ( lips 1996 ) ; male size 26 - 36 mm svl and female size 31 - 41 mm svl ( savage 2002 ) .\nin life , the upper surfaces of isthmohyla calypsa are shining metallic green with a few large dark olive green to brown blotches in males . dark mottling is present in females . lips are striped with green and dark brown bars . groin is bright white with some black spots . irregular transverse dark bars are present on dorsal surfaces of limbs . anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh are gray to white , with tiny black spots . the venter is dirty white with numerous black flecks and some large black blotches . iris is cream - colored with irregular brown line around the margin . palms and soles vary from gray - white to pale lemon yellow ; in some individuals , numerous black dots are present on the palms . no other costa rican frog is covered by spines on the upper surfaces of head , body , and limbs ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as critically endangered because of a drastic population decline , estimated to be more than 80 % over the last three generations , inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population , probably due to chytridiomycosis .\nthis species is known from the southern cordillera de talamanca , on cerro pando on the pacific slope in costa rica and atlantic versant in panama , and on the pacific slope in south - western panama , from 1 , 810 - 1 , 920m asl ( savage 2002 ) .\nextensive monitoring has shown that this species has disappeared from its former range . it was formerly locally common in tablas , costa rica , but has disappeared from all known sites since the early 1990s . in 2006 , the costa rican portion of the species range was surveyed , however the species was not found ( joseph vargas pers . comm . 2007 ) . there is no information on the population size or abundance of this species in panama , though this population has probably also declined seriously .\nit is found along torrential stream courses in primary humid lower montane forest throughout the year . males are strongly territorial , with small home ranges . eggs ( clutches of 10 - 36 ) are deposited on leaf surfaces of low vegetation above streams ; hatching tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below ( savage 2002 ) .\nthe observed population decline is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis , since it has taken place within pristine habitats . habitat loss as a result of smallholder livestock farming is also a threat .\nthis species has been recorded in parque internacional la amistad and might occur in parque nacional volc\u00e1n bar\u00fa . further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species . in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis , ex - situ populations might need to be established .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nhumid lower montane rainforest of the southern cordillera de talamanca , on cerro pando on the pacific slope in costa rica and atlantic versant in panama on the pacific slope in southwestern panama ( 1500\u20132100 m elevation ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\ncan be distinguished from all other congeners by the following character combination : highly tuberculate and spiny dorsal surfaces of head , body and limbs ; coloration in life bright metallic green with brown blotches ; dorsal thigh surfaces free of transverse bars ; lack of conspicuous markings on anterior and posterior thighs ; lack of tarsal fold ; chin and throat bright white with a few dark brown spots near the margins ; short , truncated snout ; male prepollex with numerous small black spines ; paired vocal slits in males ; call usually a single ascending note ( sometimes two notes ) ( lips 1996 ) ; male size 26 - 36 mm svl and female size 31 - 41 mm svl ( savage 2002 ) .\nare shining metallic green with a few large dark olive green to brown blotches in males . dark mottling is present in females . lips are striped with green and dark brown bars . groin is bright white with some black spots . irregular transverse dark bars are present on dorsal surfaces of limbs . anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh are gray to white , with tiny black spots . the venter is dirty white with numerous black flecks and some large black blotches . iris is cream - colored with irregular brown line around the margin . palms and soles vary from gray - white to pale lemon yellow ; in some individuals , numerous black dots are present on the palms . no other costa rican frog is covered by spines on the upper surfaces of head , body , and limbs ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .\nlarvae are large , measuring 54 mm in total length at stage 37 . larval body is depressed . mouth ventral , nostrils dorsal , eyes dorsolateral . spiracle lateral and sinistral ; vent tube is dextral . tail is long , with low fins . tail tip is rounded . oral disc is small with tiny beaks and 2 / 3 rows of denticles ; a2 with narrow gap above mouth . beaks have medium - sized serrations . two or three rows of small papillae border the mouth , and many additional papillae are present in ventrolateral folds . series of large submarginal papillae present . larval body is olive brown suffused with orange . tail musculature is the same color as body , but with darker gray splotches at the midline and on anterior half of tail . posterior portion of tail has large black spots , especially in larger tadpoles . tail fin is translucent ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ; lips and savage 1996 ) .\n) , and lack of transverse barring on dorsal and posterior thigh surfaces ( vs . dorsal and posterior thigh surfaces with transverse bars in\n( more robust , rounded tadpole body ; rounded snout ; shorter tail ) . the call of\nalways has one and sometimes two harmonics , and males frequently overlap calls with neighbors ( lips 1996 ) .\noccurs in costa rica and panama , at elevations from 1 , 810 - 1 , 920 m asl . this species is found in humid lower montane rainforests of the southern cordillera de talamanca in costa rica , on the pacific slope of cerro pando in costa rica , the atlantic versant of cerro pando in panama , and on the pacific slope in southwestern panama . it can be found in vegetation over torrential mountain streams ( savage 2002 ) .\nis a nocturnal leaf - breeding treefrog that has a prolonged reproductive period from april to december . throughout the year , individuals are present along torrential stream courses . some males call during the dry season , between january to mid - april , though less frequently . males are very territorial and have great calling - site fidelity , often calling from the same spot over a span of years . home ranges are small , usually about 6 square meters . inter - male spacing averages about 1 . 9 m . calls are alternated with the nearest calling neighbor , and are usually made from vegetation 1 to 2 m directly above the stream . single - note calls are short , lasting from 110 to 330 ms , and consist of 11 - 12 pulses with a rise in frequency ( 997 hz on average ) towards the end of the note . dominant frequency for calls is about 2 . 9 khz , with no harmonics . sometimes two - note calls or three - note calls ( rare ) are produced ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .\nmost females return to the same general area to breed each year . like the males , females also show considerable site fidelity . females , juveniles , and many males all arrive at the breeding stream two weeks before the beginning of the rainy season . juveniles disappear after two days , and females mate only after the first rains . amplexus and oviposition take place near the male ' s calling sites but usually on lower vegetation ; females leave the area after oviposition ( lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .\nfemales lay only one clutch per visit and up to three clutches during breeding season . earlier clutches have more eggs than clutches laid later in the season . clutches consist of 10 to 36 creamy yellow colored eggs . generally eggs are oviposited on the underside of leaf surfaces 130 - 170 cm above the water surface , with only a small percentage of clutches ( 6 % of clutches observed by lips 2001 ) deposited on the upper surfaces of leaves . lips ( 2001 ) also reported that about 22 % of clutches were deposited on vegetation over land rather than directly over water ; however , if the stream had flooded , most of these would have been over water . eggs are large , around 3 . 6 mm in diameter ( range 2 . 8 - 4 . 4 mm ) and are enclosed in jelly capsules of about 5 . 3 mm in diameter . early embryos are chocolate - gray in color and hatch 23 to 56 days after oviposition ( lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .\nafter hatching , tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below . tadpoles are classified as mountain brook ecomorphs ; they lack a specialized oral disc , and inhabit slow - moving portions of the stream and pools along the stream . tadpoles often hide among the rocks and leaves at the bottom of the stream . in the laboratory , tadpoles metamorphosed in around 270 days after oviposition . metamorphs are around 15 mm in standard length . based on recapture data , adults live at least four years ; sexual maturity is reached during the first year of life ( lips 1996 ; lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .\n) , which lay eggs on new frog clutches ; the maggots generally consume the entire parasitized clutch . crickets or other orthopterans also prey on the eggs . of 618 clutches studied between 1991 and 1996 , 65 % did not hatch any tadpoles ; 35 % of those mortalities were due to fly parasitism . clutches laid later in the season suffered significantly higher mortality from fly parasitism ( 9 . 5 % for the earliest clutches , vs . 48 . 5 % for clutches laid in the middle of the season , and 52 . 25 % for those laid at the end of the season ) . desiccation was the most significant cause of mortality for earlier clutches ( lips 2001 ) .\nthis species appears to be extinct in costa rica but may still be present in panama ( stuart et al . 2008 ) . although relatively abundant in the early 1990s ,\nunderwent a drastic population decline from 1992 onwards ( lips 1998 ; lips et al . 2003b ) . in 1993 , a dead specimen was found during a survey of a 400 m transect along the headwaters of the r\u00edo cot\u00f3n in southwestern costa rica , along with six other species of amphibians ( lips 1998 ) ; chytrid was subsequently confirmed in some of the other dead amphibians from that survey ( lips et al . 2003a ) . over the past three generations , about 80 % of the total population has disappeared from pristine habitat , probably due to chytridiomycosis ( stuart et al . 2008 ) . species distribution modeling has predicted that 100 % of the range for\nincreased livestock farming may also present a threat to this species ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .\nhas been recorded from at least one protected area , parque internacional la amistad in costa rica , and it may also occur in parque nacional volc\u00e1n bar\u00fa , in panama ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .\nderives from the greek nymph calypso , who hid the hero ulysses . it refers both to the frog ' s camouflage and to the species having been hidden within\nlips , k . l . , and savage , j . m . ( 1996 ) . ' ' key to the known tadpoles ( amphibia : anura ) of costa rica . ' '\n: - - a stream - breeding treefrog from lower central america . ph . d . dissertation .\nlips , k . r . ( 1998 ) . ' ' decline of a tropical montane amphibian fauna . ' '\nm . a . donnelly , b . i . crother , c . guyer , m . h . wake , and m . e . white , eds . , .\nlips , k . r . , green , d . e . , and papendick , r . ( 2003 ) . ' ' chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern costa rica . ' '\nlips , k . r . , reeve , j . d . , and witters , l . r . ( 2003 ) . ' ' ecological traits predicting amphibian population declines in central america . ' '\nl\u00f6tters , s . , kielgast , j . , bielby , j . , schmidtlein , s . , bosch , j . , veith , m . , walker , s . f . , fisher , m . c . , and r\u00f6dder , d . ( 2010 ) . ' ' the link between rapid enigmatic amphibian decline and the globally emerging chytrid fungus . ' '\nstuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) .\nlynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\namphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )\nfrost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\narkive is working with iucn - international union for conservation of nature , to source images of the world ' s threatened amphibian species . together with conservation international and natureserve , iucn has led a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status for the world ' s known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , newts and caecilians . to date , the project has involved the input of more than 600 herpetologists from around the world .\niucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .\nclassified as critically endangered ( cr a2ace ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nignacio de la riva museo nacional de ciencias naturales c / jose gutierrez abascal 2 madrid 28006 spain tel : + 34 ( 91 ) 4111328 ext . 1202 fax : + 34 ( 91 ) 5645078 iriva @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken / iriva . htm\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecies description based on lips ( 1996 ) and savage ( 2002 ) . a small treefrog ( males to 36 mm , females to 41 mm ) . females generally appear spinier than males .\nthe dorsal surface is metallic green mottled with darker drab green or brown blotches . the dorsum is covered in large spinous bumps .\nthe groin and front and rear surfaces of the thighs are bright white with scattered black spots .\nthe eye is cream - colored , darkening to brown around the outer edges .\nbreeding occurs from april to november ( lips 1996 ) . females may breed more than once in a single one reproductive season ( up to three times , lips 1996 ) .\nclutches of 10 - 36 eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams ( lips 1996 ) . the eggs are yellow upon oviposition but turn darker as they age ( lips 1996 ) . embryos hatch in 23 - 56 days ( lips 1996 ) .\nthe tadpole body is oval - shaped with a rather long tail and shallow tail fins ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the coloration is brownish - orange ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the tail has large grey patches that turn smaller and darker towards the tip ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . tadpoles have a disc - shaped mouth that allows them to cling to rocks in streams ( lips 1996 ) .\nlips ( 2001 ) characterized temporal variation in reproductive activity and the causes of egg - stage mortality in this species . drosophilid fly infestation was a significant source of egg death , particularly late in the breeding season ( lips 2001 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nattributes / relations provided by \u2666 1 oliveira , brunno freire ; s\u00e3o - pedro , vin\u00edcius avelar ; santos - barrera , georgina ; penone , caterina ; c . costa , gabriel . ( 2017 ) amphibio , a global database for amphibian ecological traits . sci . data .\necoregions provided by world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) . wildfinder : online database of species distributions , ver . 01 . 06 wwf wildfinder\nprotected areas provided by le saout , s . , hoffmann , m . , shi , y . , hughes , a . , bernard , c . , brooks , t . m . , bertzky , b . , butchart , s . h . m . , stuart , s . n . , badman , t . & rodrigues , a . s . l . ( 2013 ) protected areas and effective biodiversity conservation . science , 342 , 803\u2013805\nusing this photo for further information about the digital archives of the division of herpetology at the university of kansas biodiversity institute , please contact dr . rafe brown ( rafe [ at ] ku [ dot ] edu ) or another member of the curatorial staff . contact amphibiaweb rafe @ urltoken for more information .\n1111 1111 1111 9333 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\na spanish - language species account can be found at the website of instituto nacional de biodiversidad ( inbio ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nadult : species description based on lips ( 1996 ) and savage ( 2002 ) . a small treefrog ( males to 36 mm , females to 41 mm ) . females generally appear spinier than males . dorsal : the dorsal surface is metallic green mottled with darker drab green or brown blotches . the dorsum is covered in large spinous bumps . ventral : the ventral surface is white with some scattered black blotches or smaller spots . concealed surfaces : the groin and front and rear surfaces of the thighs are bright white with scattered black spots . eye : the eye is cream - colored , darkening to brown around the outer edges .\nbreeding season : breeding occurs from april to november ( lips 1996 ) . females may breed more than once in a single one reproductive season ( up to three times , lips 1996 ) . egg : clutches of 10 - 36 eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams ( lips 1996 ) . the eggs are yellow upon oviposition but turn darker as they age ( lips 1996 ) . embryos hatch in 23 - 56 days ( lips 1996 ) . tadpole : the tadpole body is oval - shaped with a rather long tail and shallow tail fins ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the coloration is brownish - orange ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the tail has large grey patches that turn smaller and darker towards the tip ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . tadpoles have a disc - shaped mouth that allows them to cling to rocks in streams ( lips 1996 ) .\nhabitat : lower montane forest from 1810 to 1920 m . ecology : lips ( 2001 ) characterized temporal variation in reproductive activity and the causes of egg - stage mortality in this species . drosophilid fly infestation was a significant source of egg death , particularly late in the breeding season ( lips 2001 ) . call : a short , single note ( lips 1996 ) . behavior and communication : males guard territories along stream margins ( lips 1996 ) . type locality : finca jaguar ( 1900 m ) , approximately 18 km nne la lucha , coto brus , puntarenas province , costa rica , 8\u00b0 55\u2032 n , 82\u00b0 44\u2032 w\nbatrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a non - hyphal parasitic chytrid fungus that has been associated with population declines in endemic amphibian species in upland montane rain forests in australia and panama . it causes cutaneous mycosis ( fungal infection of the skin ) , or more specifically chytridiomycosis , in wild and captive amphibians . first described in 1998 , the fungus is the only chytrid known to parasitise vertebrates . b . dendrobatidis can remain viable in the environment ( especially aquatic environments ) for weeks on its own , and may persist in latent infections .\nis a zoosporic chytrid fungus that causes chytridiomycosis ( a fungal infection of the skin ) in amphibians and grows solely within keratinised cells . diagnosis is by identification of characteristic intracellular flask - shaped sporangia ( spore containing bodies ) and septate thalli . the fungus grows in the superficial keratinised layers of the epidermis ( known as the stratum corneum and stratum granulosum ) . the normal thickness of the stratum corneum is between 2\u00b5m to 5\u00b5m , but a heavy infection by the chytrid parasite may cause it to thicken to up to 60 \u00b5m . the fungus also infects the mouthparts of tadpoles ( which are keratinised ) but does not infect the epidermis of tadpoles ( which lacks keratin ) .\nthe fungus produces inoperculate , smooth - walled zoosporangia ( zoospore containing bodies ) , which are spherical to subspherical in shape . each zoosporangium ( 10\u00b5m to 40\u00b5m in diameter ) produces a single discharge tube , which penetrates ( and protrudes out of ) the skin . eventually the plug that blocks the release of immature zoospores is shed and the mature zoospores are released . the zoospores ( 0 . 7\u00b5m to 6\u00b5m in diameter ) are elongate to ovoid in shape . each possesses a single posterior flagellum , rendering it motile in water ( mazzoni\npathogenesis of chytridiomycosis : authors of a recent study , voyles et al . ( 2009 ) have found that b . dendrobatidis , causes such severe electrolyte imbalances that the frog\u2019s heart stops . the skin of amphibians maintain proper osmotic balance inside the animal and regulate respiration . the authors found that the skin of infected frogs was less adept at transporting sodium and chloride ions . sodium and potassium concentrations in the blood of infected frogs dropped , more so as the infection intensified and the animals\u2019hearts began to beat irregularly and ultimately stopped .\nsalamanders can act as host reservoirs of chytrid infection in frogs , and vice versa ( davidson et al . 2003 ) .\nchytridiomycosis has now been reported from 38 amphibian species in 12 families , including ranid and hylid frogs , bufonid toads , and plethodontid salamanders . although chytridiomycosis is found in a range of species and habitats ( including african frogs in lowland regions in africa ) it has caused population declines of amphibians species confined to montane rain forests ( weldon et al . 2004 ; daszak et al . 1999 ) . the fungus prefers lower temperatures which may explain the high precedence of the fungus in high elevations in the tropics . in culture conditions optimum growth occurred at 23\u00b0c , with slower growth occuring at 28\u00b0c and ( reversible ) cessation of growth occuring at 29\u00b0c ( longcore , pessier , nichols , 1999 , in daszak et al . 1999 ) .\nbatrachochytrium dendrobatidis is diploid and primarily reproduces asexually ( and clonally ) by producing aquatic uniflagellated zoospores in a zoosporangium ( johnson and speare , 2003 ) .\nits occurrence solely in keratinised tissues suggests that it uses amphibian keratin as a nutrient . batrachochytrium dendrobatidis will grow for at least one generation on cleaned epidermal keratin or on amphibians that have died of the infection . the fungus may also be cultured in vitro on tryptone agar without the addition of keratin or its derivatives ( daszak et al . 1999 ; longcore , pessier and nichols , 1999 , pessier et al . 1999 , in daszak et al . 1999 ) .\nprincipal source : berger et al . 1999 . chytrid fungi and amphibian declines : overview , implications and future directions . berger et al . 1998 . chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of australia and central america . daszak et al . 1999 . emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines\nreview : matthew j . parris assistant professor , department of biology university of memphis usa\nrecommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .\nhas been found to affect at least 93 amphibian species from the orders anura ( frogs and toads ) and caudata ( salamanders ) in all the continents except asia . it is thought to be one of the main causes of the global decline in frog populations since the 1960s , and the dramatic population crashes from the 1970s onwards ( parris and beaudoin , 2004 ) . the chytrid fungus kills frogs within 10 to 18 days ( michigan frog survey , 2003 ) , although it is not known how . it may be physical , affecting respiration by altering the frog\u2019s skin , or the fungus may give off a toxin ( michigan frog survey , 2003 ) . tadpoles are not affected , although the fungus may infect the keratinised mouthparts ( berger\nkey findings of the the global amphibian assessment has revealed that one - third ( 32 % ) of the world\u2019s amphibian species are threatened , representing 1 , 896 species . threats include viral diseases , habitat loss , drought , pollution , and hunting for food . the biggest single threat appears to be b . dendrobatidis . a search on the database using \\\ndiseases \\\nas a keyword in \\\nall \\\nhabitat types , biogeographic realm and countries results in a list of 547 species impacted by diseases ( iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 ) .\nis relevant to all control strategies , particularly in the development of preventative measures . the infective unit of the fungus is the zoospore . infection by the fungus ( and thus spread of the disease ) requires water because the zoospore does not tolerate dehydration .\nremains viable for up to 3 weeks in tap water , up to 4 weeks in deionised water and even longer in lake water . infection by an extremely small inoculum ( 100 zoospores ) is sufficient to cause a fatal infection ( berger\nfor a summary under the following headings : improving diagnostics and knowledge of epidemiology , developing trade and quarantine regulations , raising awareness and control options .\nthe amphibian conservation action plan ( acap ) is designed to provide guidance for implementing amphibian conservation and research initiatives at all scales from global down to local . chapter 4 outlines action steps relating to the detection and control of chytridiomycosis .\ninformations on batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .\naustralian department of the environment and heritage , 2004 . chytridiomycosis ( amphibian chytrid fungus disease ) . australia s natural heritage trust .\nberger , lee , alex d . hyatt , veronica olsen , sandra g . hengstberger donna boyle , gerry marantelli , kaye humphreys , joyce e . longcore . , 2002 . production of polyclonal antibodies to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and their use in an immunoperoxidase test for chytridiomycosis in amphibians . diseases of aquatic organisms vol 48 213 - 220 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]\nberger , l . , hyatt , a . d . , olsen , v . , hengstberger , s . g . , boyle , d . , marantelli , g . , humphreys , k . , longcore , j . e . 2002 . production of polyclonal antibodies to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and their use in an immunoperoxidase test for chytridiomycosis in amphibians , dis aquat organ . 48 ( 3 ) : 213 - 220 . ( abstract )\nberger , l . , speare , r . , and hyatt . , a . d . 1999 . chytrid fungi and amphibian declines : overview , implications and future directions . declines and disappearances of australian frogs . 23 - 34 .\nberger , l . , speare , r . , and kent , a . 1999 . diagnosis of chytridiomycosis in amphibians by histologic examination . summary : this paper outlines techniques for identifying the chytrid fungus . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]\ndaszak , p . , a . strieby , a . a . cunningham , j . e . longcore , c . c . brown and d . porter . , 2004 . experimental evidence that the bullfrog ( rana catesbeiana ) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis , an emerging fungal disease of amphibians . herpetological journal , vol . 14 , pp . 201 - 207 ( 2004 ) summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]\ndeweerdt , sarah . 2001 . coordinating an international monitoring program the declining amphibian populations task force . conservation in practice winter 2001 vol 2 no . 1\ngarthwaite , r . department of conservation . batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , frog chytrid fungus . department of conservation : waikato .\ngascon , c . , collins , j . p . , moore , r . d . , church , d . r . , mckay , j . e . and mendelson , j . r . iii ( eds ) . 2007 . amphibian conservation action plan . iucn / ssc amphibian specialist group . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . 64pp . summary : the amphibian conservation action plan ( acap ) is designed to provide guidance for implementing amphibian conservation and research initiatives at all scales from global down to local . available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 june 2008 ]\njohnson , megan l & richard speare , 2005 . possible modes of dissemination of the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the environment . dis aquat org vol . 65 : 181\ufffd186 , 2005 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]\njohnson , m . l . and speare , r . 2003 . survival of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in water : quarantine and disease control implications , emerging infectious diseases 9 ( 8 ) : 922 \ufffd 925 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]\njohnson , m . l . , berger , l . , philips , l . and speare , r . 2003 . fungicidal effects of chemical disinfectants , uv light , desiccation and heat on the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , diseases of aquatic organisms 57 ( 3 ) : 255 - 260 .\nmazzoni , r . , cunningham , a . a . , daszak , p . , apolo , a . perdomo , p . and speranza . , g . 2003 . emerging pathogen of wild amphibians in frogs ( rana catesbeiana ) farmed for international trade , emerging infectious diseases 9 ( 8 ) : 995 - 998 .\nmichigan frog survey . 2003 . michigan frog survey update . michigan department of natural resources wildlife division natural heritage program .\nparker , j . m . , mikaelian , i . , hahn , n . and diggs , h . e . 2002 . clinical diagnosis and treatment of epidermal chytridiomycosis in african clawed frogs ( xenopus tropicalis ) , comp med . 52 ( 3 ) : 265 \ufffd 268 . ( abstract )\nrollins - smith , l . , reinert , l . k . , miera , v . and conlon , j . m . 2002 . antimicrobial peptide defenses of the tarahumara frog , rana tarahumarae , biochemical and biophysical research communications 297 ( 2 ) : 361 - 367 .\nron , santiago r . , 2005 . predicting the distribution of the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the new world1 . biotropica 37 ( 2 ) , 209 - 221 .\nspeare , r . and core working group of getting the jump on amphibian disease . 2001 . nomination for listing of amphibian chytridiomycosis as a key threatening process under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . in : speare , r . and steering committee of getting the jump on amphibian disease . developing management strategies to control amphibian diseases : decreasing the risk due to communicable diseases . school of public health and tropical medicine , james cook university : townsville . 163 - 187 .\nspeare r , berger l . global distribution of chytridiomycosis in amphibians . summary : this document gives details on the global distribution of the chytrid fungus , and was last updated in april 2004 . available from : urltoken [ accessed 11 november 2000 ] .\nusdi ( united states department of the interior ) u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2003 . re : buck springs range management allotment plan\nvan - ells , t . , stanton , j . , strieby , a . , daszak , p . , hyatt , a . d . and brown , c . 2003 . use of immunohistochemistry to diagnose chytridiomycosis in dyeing poison dart frogs ( dendrobates tinctorius ) , journal of wildlife diseases 39 ( 3 ) : 742 - 745 .\nbell , ben d . , scott carver , nicola j . mitchell , shirley pledger . , 2004 . the recent decline of a new zealand endemic : how and why did populations of archey\ufffds frog leiopelma archeyi crash over 1996\ufffd2001 ? biological conservation 120 ( 2004 ) 189\ufffd199 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]\nberger , l , r speare , hb hines , g marantelli , ad hyatt , kr mcdonald , lf skerratt , v olsen , jm clarke , g gillespie , m mahony , n sheppard , c williams and mj tyler . , 2004 . effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis . australian veterinary journal volume 82 , no 7 , july 2004 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]\nberger , l . , speare , r . , daszak , p . , green , d . e . , cunningham , a . a . , goggin , c . l . , slocombe , r . , ragan , m . a . , hyatt , a . d . , mcdonald , k . r . , hines , h . b . , lips , k . r . , marantelli , g . and parkes , h . 1998 . chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of australia and central america , population biology ( proc natl acad sci u s a . ) 95 ( 15 ) : 9031 \ufffd 9036 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]\nberger , l . , speare , r . , hines , h . b . , marantelli , g . , hyatt , a . d . , mcdonald . , k . r . , skerratt , l . f . , olsen , v . , clarke , j . m . , gillespie , g . , mahony , m . , sheppard , n . williams , c . and tyler . m . j . 2004 . effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis , australian veterinary journal 82 ( 7 ) : 434 - 439 .\nbosch , j . , martinez - solano , i . , and garcia - paris , m . 2000 . chytridiomycosis in spain : first european report of declines of wild amphibians associated with chytridiomycosis . summary : this article gives details about the first caseof chytrid fungus in spain . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]\ncarey , c . , cohen , n . and rollins - smith , l . 1999 . amphibian declines : an immunological perspective . developmental and comparative immunology . 23 ( 6 ) : 459 - 472 . summary : this paper discusses the role of disease in amphibian decline , and the immunological response .\ncommonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation ( csiro ) , 2003 . researching frog fungus .\ndasak , p . , andrew , a cunningham and hyatt , d alex . , 2003 . infectious disease and amphibian population declines . diversity and distributions 9 , 141\ufffd150\ndaszak , p . , berger , l . , cunningham , a . a . , hyatt , a . d . , green , d . e . , speare , r . , 1999 . emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines . emerg infect dis [ serial on the internet ] . november - december 1999 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]\ndavidson , e . w . , parris , m . , collins , j . p . , longcore , j . e . , pessier , p . a . and brunner , j . 2003 . pathogenicity and transmission of chytridiomycosis in tiger salamanders ( ambystoma tigrinum ) ,\nfellers , g . m . , green , d . e . and longcore , j . e . 2001 . oral chytridiomycosis in the mountain yellow - legged frog ( rana muscosa ) , copeia 4 : 945 - 953 .\nhero , jean - marc & clare morrison . , 2004 . frog declines in australia global implications . herpetological journal vol . 14 , pp . 175 - 186 ( 2004 ) summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 . global amphibian assessment . downloaded on 4 may 2006 . summary : the global amphibian assessment ( gaa ) is the first - ever comprehensive assessment of the conservation status of the world s 5 , 918 known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , and caecilians . this website presents results of the assessments , including iucn red list threat category , range map , ecology information , and other data for every amphibian species . available from : urltoken [ accessed 5 november 2006 ] .\njohnson , pieter . t . j . , 2006 . amphibian diversity : decimation by dusease . published online before print february 21 , 2006 , 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0600293103 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ]\nkingsley d . environment news , 23 april 2002 . summary : this article gives details about the first reports of chytrid fungus in archey s frog . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]\nlips , karen . r , forrest brem , roberto brenes , john d . reeve , ross a . alford , jamie voyles , cynthia carey , lauren livo , allan p . pessier , and james p . collins . , 2006 . emerging infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a neotropical amphibian community . published online before print february 15 , 2006 , 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0506889103 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ] available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ]\nlips , k . r . , green , d . e . and papendick , r . 2003 . chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern costa rica , journal of herpetology 37 ( 1 ) : 215 - 218 .\nlips , k . r . , mendelson , j . r . munoz - alonso , a . , canseco - marquez , l . and mulcahy , d . g . 2004 . amphibian population declines in montane southern mexico : resurveys of historical localities , biological - conservation 119 ( 4 ) : 555 - 564 .\nmorehouse , e . a . , james , t . y . , ganley , a . r . d . , vilgalys , r . , berger , l . , murphy , p . j . and longcore , j . e . 2003 . multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone , molecular ecology 12 ( 2 ) : 395 - 403 .\nmuths , e . , corn , p . s . , pessier , a . p . and green , d . e . 2003 . evidence for disease - related amphibian decline in colorado , biological conservation 110 ( 3 ) : 357 - 365 .\nmutschmann , f . , berger , l . , zwart , p . and gaedicke , c . 2000 . chytridiomycosis in amphibians : first report in europe , berl munch tierarztl wochenschr 113 ( 10 ) : 380 \ufffd 383 . ( abstract )\nnorman , r . undated . chytrid fungus disease in new zealand . massey university institute of veterinary , animal and biomedical sciences . summary : article outlining the first case of chytrid fungus in new zealand . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]\nparris , m . j . 2004 . hybrid response to pathogen infection in interspecific crosses between two amphibian species ( anura : ranidae ) . evolutionary ecology research 6 : 457 - 471 . summary : b . dendrobatidis differentially affects genotypes between two species of hybridizing leopard frogs ( rana ) . hybrid genotypes are more susceptible to infection , and suffer greater reductions in growth and development from the fungus .\nparris , m . j . and beaudoin , j . g . 2004 . chytridiomycosis impacts predator - prey interactions in larval amphibian communities , oceologia ( berlin ) 140 ( 4 ) : 626 - 632 . summary : b . dendrobatidis alters the outcome of natural predator - prey dynamics in a larval amphibian - predator system .\nparris , m . j . and d . r . baud . 2004 . interactive effects of a heavy metal and chytridiomycosis on gray treefrog larvae ( hyla chrysoscelis ) . copeia 2004 : 343 - 349 . summary : b . dendrobatidis impacts on hyla larvae may be somewhat ameliorated in a heavy metal ( cu ) aquatic environment . thus , pathogenic effects may be a result of interactions with other aquatic contaminants .\nparris , m . j . and t . o . cornelius . 2004 . fungal pathogen causes competitive and developmental stress in larval amphibian communities . ecology 85 : 3385 - 3395 . summary : this paper documents that b . dendrobatidis induces competitive effects in the larval environment between a toad ( bufo ) and treefrog ( hyla ) species .\nrollins - smith , l . a . , carey , c . , longcore , j . , doersam , j . k . , boutte , a . , bruzgal , j . e . , and conlon , j . m . 2002 . activity of antimicrobial skin peptides from ranid frogs against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , the chytrid fungus associated with global amphibian declines . developmental and comparative immunology . 26 ( 5 ) : 471 - 479 . summary : this paper outlines the role of antimicrobial peptides in deterring chytrid infection .\nspeare r , berger l . chytridiomycosis in amphibians in australia . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 october 2000 ] .\nusgs ( u . s . geological survey ) . 2000 . research project : review and classification of visitor impacts to wildlife research methods . u . s . department of the interior : patuxent wildlife research center . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]\nwaldman , b . , van de wolfshaar , k . e . , klena , j . d . , andjic , v . , bishop , p . , and norman , r . j . de b . 2001 . chytridiomycosis in new zealand frogs . surveillance . 28 ( 3 ) : 9 - 11 . summary : this article gives details about the first case of chytrid fungus in new zealand , including possible means of introduction and spread . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]\nweldon c , du preez lh , hyatt ad , muller r , speare r . , 2004 . origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus . emerg infect dis [ serial on the internet ] . 2004 dec . summary : available from urltoken [ accessed 14 december 2005 ]\nwoodhams , d . c . , alford , r . a . and marantelli , g . 2003 . emerging disease of amphibians cured by elevated body temperature , diseases of aquatic organisms 55 ( 1 ) : 65 - 67 .\nyoung , b . e . , lips , k . r . , reaser , j . k . , ibanez , r . , salas , a . w . , rogelio cedeno , j . , coloma , l . a . , ron , s . , la marca , e . , meyer , j . r . , munoz , a . , bolanos , f . , chaves , g . and romo , d . 2001 . population declines and priorities for amphibian conservation in latin america . conservation biology . 15 ( 5 ) : 1213 - 1223 . summary : a discussion of the factors involved in the population declines of amphibians in latin america .\nthe global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use\nnext september , stri will join the international scientific community to celebrate a group of researchers who dedicated their careers to the study of the fungus and the preservation of panamanian amphibians , with hopes that soon we will also be able celebrate the successful reintroduction of these charismatic animals to their natural environment .\nthe panama - based smithsonian tropical research institute ( stri ) is the only dependency of the smithsonian institution located outside the united states and is dedicated to enriching knowledge about the biological diversity of the tropics ( www . stri . si . edu ) .\nwhat began in 1923 as a small field station on isla barro colorado in the former panama canal zone , today represents one of the world\u2019s leading research institutions . stri\u2019s facilities provide a unique opportunity for long - term ecological studies in the tropics and are intensively used by more than 1400 scientists , including panamanians and visitors who come every year from academic and research institutions in the americas and around the world .\nthe global conservation movement has reached a turning point . we have documented the fast pace of habitat loss , the growing number of endangered and extinct species , and the increasing speed of global climate change . yet while the seriousness of these threats cannot be denied , there are a growing number of examples of improvements in the health of species and ecosystems , along with benefits to human well - being , thanks to our conservation actions . earth optimism is a global initiative that celebrates a change in focus from problem to solution , from a sense of loss to one of hope , in the dialogue about conservation and sustainability .\nas human diseases become alarmingly antibiotic resistant , identification of new pharmaceuticals is critical . the cane toad and other members of the bufonidae family produce substances widely used in traditional folk medicine , but endangered family members , like panama\u2019s golden frog , atelopus zeteki , may disappear before revealing their secrets . smithsonian scientists and colleagues catalog the known chemicals produced by this amphibian family in the journal of ethnopharmacology highlighting this largely - unexplored potential for discovery ."]}
{"id": 1512, "summary": [{"text": "agustinia / \u0251\u02d0\u0261\u0259\u02c8st\u026ani\u0259 / is a genus of sauropod dinosaurs from the early cretaceous period of south america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it contains the single species agustinia ligabuei , a single specimen of which was recovered from the lohan cura formation of neuquen province in argentina , thought to date from the late aptian to albian stages of the early cretaceous period , between 116 and 100 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the name agustinia honors the discoverer of the specimen , agustin martinelli .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "this dinosaur was originally named in a 1998 abstract written by famous argentine paleontologist jose bonaparte .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the original generic name was \" augustia \" , which , as it turned out , was already preoccupied by a beetle ( see also : megapnosaurus , protognathosaurus ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "bonaparte changed the name to agustinia in a full paper published in 1999 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "there is one named species ( a. ligabuei ) , which is named in honor of dr. giancarlo ligabue , a philanthropist who provided financial support to the expedition which recovered the remains . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "agustinia", "paragraphs": ["14 . it was jose f . bonaparte who renamed agustinia from augustia to agustinia . the renaming took place in 1999 .\n1 . agustinia is pronounced as ah - gus - tin - ee - ah .\nagustinia was a herbivore . it lived in the cretaceous period and inhabited south america .\nagustinia was a herbivorous titanosaur dinosaur that lived in the cretaceous period of south america .\n12 . agustinia was actually named as augustia in 1998 . however , when it was found that augustia had already been used for naming another creature , the name was changed to agustinia .\n9 . agustinia lived in the woodlands of the area which is currently known as south america .\nbone histology sheds light on the nature of the\ndermal armor\nof the enigmatic sauropod dinosaur agustinia ligabuei bonaparte , 1999 .\ntime to break away from the theropods temporarily and tackle a sauropod . agustinia was requested by mike keesey , so here it is .\nsize height and weight about 50 feet long and 10 - 20 tons the name the scientific name is agustinia ligabuei the common name is agustinia pronunciation a - gus - tin - e - ah . the names meaning and from which language the meaning of the name is for agustin ( agustinia \u202d ( \u202cnamed after agustin martinelli , \u202d \u202cthe discoverer\u202d ) . the language which the name came from is lithuanian ( says google translate ) the name of the dinosaur was named by jos\u00e9 bonaparte\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1998 . which is named in honor of dr . giancarlo ligabue where , when , and by whom was it discovered the agustinia was founded by agustin martinelli it was discovered in argentina the agustinia was discovered in 1998 the agustinia was a herbivore , and this dinosaur was a prey dinosaur project : agustinia katie ramsdell 11 / 18 / 14 period 6 the agustinias eating habits and was it a predator or prey ? feathers , fur or scales ? the agustinia has scales offspring live birth or egg living which geological period or era the agustinia lived during the aptian to albian of the cretaceous solitary or herd not yet specified not yet specified number of offsprings per litter not yet specified closets living realitives not yet specified cite resources urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken\n15 . agustinia lived from aptian through albian ages of the middle cretaceous period . the fossil was found from argentina\u2019s neuquen province\u2019s lohan cura formation .\napart from their respective features and characteristics description of anabisetia and agustinia is incomplete without they being segregated from each other . what is a better way to differentiate the dinosaurs than classify them on them basis of their character and shape in a scientific way . by comparing anabisetia and agustinia classification , we get information about species of anabisetia and agustinia and also its kingdom , phylum , class in which they are categorized etc . the former dinosaur is a part of a . saldiviai species while the later belongs to agustinia ligabuei species . the former belongs to chordata based on its body structure . it is a member of reptilia class . the clade of the same is dinosauria . it is grouped in ornithischia . it is part in anabisetia . it is classified in saurischia order . the clade of the same is dinosauria . the class of agustinia is reptilia . the genus of the same is agustinia\nbone histology sheds light on the nature of the\ndermal armor\nof the enigmatic sauropod dinosaur agustinia ligabuei bonaparte , 1999 . - pubmed - ncbi\napart from their respective features and characteristics description of alvarezsaurus and agustinia is incomplete without they being segregated from each other . what is a better way to differentiate the dinosaurs than classify them on them basis of their character and shape in a scientific way . by comparing alvarezsaurus and agustinia classification , we get information about species of alvarezsaurus and agustinia and also its kingdom , phylum , class in which they are categorized etc . the former dinosaur is a part of a . calvoi species while the later belongs to agustinia ligabuei species . the former belongs to chordata based on its body structure . the family of the concerned dinosaurus is alvarezsauridae . it is a member of reptilia class . the clade of the same is dinosauria . it is grouped in saurischia . it is part in alvarezsaurus . it is classified in saurischia order . the clade of the same is dinosauria . the class of agustinia is reptilia . the genus of the same is agustinia\nscaling the fibula from rebbachisaurus gives a length of 16 meters while scaling from saltasaurus gives a length of 15 meters , so agustinia was about 15 - 16 meters .\n2 . most interesting of agustinia facts is that this dinosaur was named after its discoverer agustin martinelli . agustin was a student when he discovered the fossil of this dinosaur .\nagustinia is a genus of sauropod dinosaurs from the early cretaceous period of south america . it contains the single species agustinia ligabuei , a single specimen of which was recovered from the lohan cura formation of neuquen province in argentina , thought to date from the late aptian to albian stages of the early cretaceous period , between 116 and 100 million years ago .\n13 . another interesting one of agustinia facts is that though the fossil was discovered by agustin martinelli , paleontologist jose f . bonaparte was the person who was actually responsible for identification of the dinosaur .\na hand - painted , highly detailed model of the amazing dinosaur agustinia , an armoured , long - necked dinosaur from the cretaceous period . part of the procon dinosaurs and the collecta dinosaurs ranges .\n6 . agustinia was a quadrupedal dinosaur and fed on plants . yes , it was an herbivore and did not pose any threat to other animals at least in terms of hunting them down and devouring them .\nagustinia ligabuei is an early cretaceous sauropod dinosaur from the northwest of patagonia that is currently the topic of debate with respect to its phylogenetic position and atypical dermal armor . the presence of four morphotypes of laminar and transversely elongated putative osteoderms was used to consider agustinia as an armored sauropod . regarding the different hypotheses about the identity of the bony structures of agustinia ( e . g . , osteoderms , cervical or dorsal ribs , hypertrophied elements ) , a comparative histological analysis has been carried out . histological evidence is presented herein and reveals that none of the morphotypes of agustinia shows a primary bone tissue formed by structural fiber bundles as in other sauropod dinosaur osteoderms . furthermore , on the basis of their gross morphology and microstructure , the bony structures originally classified as types 1 + 4 and 3 are more comparable respectively with dorsal and cervical ribs than any other kind of dermal or bony element . due to poor preservation , the nature of the type 2 cannot be assessed but is here tentatively assigned to a pelvic girdle element . although a phylogenetic reassessment of agustinia is not the purpose of this paper , our paleohistological analyses have broader implications : by not supporting the dermal armor hypothesis for agustinia , its inclusion in lithostrotia is not justified in the absence of other diagnostic features .\nagustinia ligabuei is an early cretaceous sauropod dinosaur from the northwest of patagonia that is currently the topic of debate with respect to its phylogenetic position and atypical dermal armor . the presence of four morphotypes of laminar and transversely elongated putative osteoderms was used to consider agustinia as an armored sauropod . regarding the different hypotheses about the identity of the bony structures of agustinia ( e . g . , osteoderms , cervical or dorsal ribs , hypertrophied elements ) , a comparative histological analysis has been carried out . histological evidence is presented herein and reveals that none of the morphotypes of agustinia shows a primary bone tissue formed by structural fiber bundles as in other sauropod dinosaur osteoderms . furthermore , on the basis of their gross morphology and microstructure , the bony structures originally classified as types 1 + 4 and 3 are more comparable respectively with dorsal and cervical ribs than any other kind of dermal or bony element . due to poor preservation , the nature of the type 2 cannot be assessed but is here tentatively assigned to a pelvic girdle element . although a phylogenetic reassessment of agustinia is not the purpose of this paper , our paleohistological analyses have broader implications : by not supporting the dermal armor hypothesis for agustinia , its inclusion in lithostrotia is not justified in the absence of other diagnostic features .\nlike with many sauropod dinosaurs , \u202d \u202cagustinia\u202d \u202cis known from incomplete remains . \u202d \u202csome of these remains however revealed a startling revelation in that this sauropod had what appeared to be armour along its back similar in appearance to the plates of stegosaurus , \u202d \u202ca herbivorous but completely different kind of dinosaur . \u202d \u202cthis is in particular reference to the plates that would have been on the back of the neck of agustinia , \u202d \u202calthough these plates were at a right angle to\u202d \u202chow they would have been\u202d \u202carranged\u202d \u202cin stegosaurus which means that from the side they would have looked thin , \u202d \u202cbut from the front you would have seen the full shape . \u202d however , later studies now suggest that this plates are actually fragments of the ribs and hips , and if this is true , then agustinia did not have armoured plates . the phylogenetic position of agustinia has been difficult to establish as the few bones known for the genus display a combination of diplodocid and titanosaurid features . \u202d \u202cto make things even more difficult both of these groups of dinosaurs are known to have roamed south america during the cretaceous . \u202d \u202cagustinia was first named in\u202d \u202c1998\u202d \u202cas augustia , \u202d \u202cbut this was later found to have already been used for another creature , \u202d \u202chence the change to agustinia in\u202d \u202c1999 .\nthe bizarre and remarkable agustinia , an armoured , long - necked dinosaur from the age of reptiles . this hand - painted model is ideal for creative play . a super quality model from the procon dinosaurs and collecta dinosaurs ranges .\n10 . as far as the armor is concerned , some paleontologists who have studied the fossil remains say that what appeared to be armors were actually fragments of hips and ribs . if those paleontologists are correct then , agustinia didn\u2019t have any armored plates .\nagustinia is a sauropod based on - more than three sacral vertebrae ; metatarsals i and v with proximal ends subequal in area to metatarsals ii and iv . it is eusauropod based on - dorsal neural spines broader transversely than anteroposteriorly ; metatarsal iii 25 % or less of tibial length ; minimum shaft width of metatarsal i greater than ii - iv . sauropod systematics are currently unresolved regarding basal forms such as cetiosaurs and euhelopodids , but agustinia shares several characters with diplodocoids and titanosaurids , which would place it in the neosauropoda .\ndue to the fragmentary nature of its remains , agustinia ' s classification is unclear ; it could be either a diplodocoid or a titanosaurian . however , its back plates have recently been redescribed as likely rib or hip bone fragments instead , and its status as a discernible species has been put into question by some .\nin this article titled 15 interesting agustinia facts were are going to learn about an armored titanosaur \u2013 a sauropod that has a pretty unusual name . why it was named so ? what kind of armor did this dinosaur have ? when and where did it live ? this article is going to answer all these questions . it will be a quick and short article as usual because not much information is available on this extinct creature .\ntitanosaurids and diplodocoids both have prespinal and postspinal laminae in the posterior dorsal vertebrae and dorsalized proximal caudal vertebrae ( with laminae ) , but only diplodocoids have posterior dorsal vertebrae with craniocaudally compressed neural spines and only euhelopus and titanosaurids have six sacral vertebrae . diplodocoids and some titanosaurids ( saltasaurus and opisthocoelicaudia , not alamosaurus , malawisaurus or titanosaurus ) have craniocaudally compressed proximal caudal neural spines . only titanosaurids have been discovered with dermal ossifications . bonaparte states the four perpendicular laminae with postspinal laminae longest are more similar to rebbachisaurids than titanosaurids . this makes it apparent that agustinia is either a diplodocoid or advanced titanosaurid , with the evidence about equal for either . both groups were common in early cretaceous south america . a titanosaurid affinity is suggested by six sacral vertebrae and dermal ossifications , while diplodocoid affinity is suggested by craniocaudally compressed posterior dorsal neural spines and the orientation of the laminae . thus , i recommend placing agustinia as neosauropoda incertae sedis , as either a diplodocoid or advanced titanosaurid .\na number of sauropods feature in robert\u2019s south american themed diorama . the picture above shows a close up of an agustinia ( pronounced ah - gus - tin - nee - ah ) , a bizarre , herbivorous dinosaur whose fossils were first discovered around twenty years ago . from the limited number of fossils found , palaeontologists remain uncertain as to the phylogeny of this particular dinosaur . it could be a member of the titanosaurids , or perhaps it was more closely related to diplodocus ( diplodocid dinosaurs ) . until more fossil material is found and studied , the family classification of this particular south american dinosaur remains uncertain .\nname : agustinia \u202d ( \u202cnamed after agustin martinelli , \u202d \u202cthe discoverer\u202d ) . phonetic : a - gus - tin - e - ah . named by : jos\u0165 bonaparte\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202c1999 . classification : chordata , \u202d \u202creptilia , \u202d \u202cdinosauria , \u202d \u202csaurischia , \u202d \u202csauropodomorpha , \u202d \u202cdiplodocoidea / titanosauridae\u202d ? species : a . \u202d \u202cligabuei\u202d ( \u202ctype\u202d ) \u202c . diet : herbivore . size : estimated\u202d \u202c15\u202d \u202cmeters long . known locations : argentina , \u202d \u202cneuquen province\u202d \u202c - \u202d \u202clohan cura formation . time period : aptian to albian of the cretaceous . fossil representation : partial remains including a fibula and tibia\u202d ( \u202cbones of the lower hind leg\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202cvery fragmentary femur\u202d ( \u202cupper hind leg bone\u202d ) \u202c , \u202d \u202cfive metatarsals , \u202d \u202cpartial vertebrae and the associated back armour of plates and spikes .\nwe thank j . bonaparte and a . martinelli for providing helpful information , comments , original field - work photos , and field notes , as well in helping us to reconstruct the taphonomy of holotype materials of\n; the direcci\u00f3n provincial de patrimonio cultural of neuqu\u00e9n and the museo municipal carmen funes of plaza huincul for their collaboration , as well as legal and logistic support ; j . curruinca , s . adrian , sr . firelli , and the municipalidad of pic\u00fan leuf\u00fa for allowing the access at the cerro leon locality and to support part of the field works ; r . a . coria of mcf for the collection access and e . montes for preparing part of the material ; d . codega of usl for making the thin sections ; j . carballido , p . mannion , m . d\u2019emic , and an anonymous reviewer for providing constructive criticism and suggestions that improved the original manuscript . j . blanco kindly provided the\n. a . elbakyan , j . bar , and wikipaleo group provided the literature . this project has been partially funded by jurassic foundation ( grant to f . b ) and agencia nacional de promoci\u00f3n cient\u00edfica y t\u00e9cnica ( pict 2015 - 1021 to i . a . c ) .\ngen . et sp . nov . : a beaked sauropod from the late cretaceous of patagonia . naturwissenschaften 91 : 493\u2013497 . doi :\nbarrett pm , clarke jb , brinkman db , chapman sd , ensom pc ( 2002 ) morphology , histology and identification of the \u2018granicones\u2019 from the purbeck limestone formation ( lower cretaceous : berriasian ) of dorset , southern england . cretac res 23 ( 2 ) : 279\u2013295 . doi :\nbonaparte jf ( 1999 ) an armoured sauropod from the aptian of northern patagonia , argentina . national science museum monographs 15 : 1\u201312\nbonaparte jf , powell j ( 1980 ) a continental assemblage of tetrapods from the upper cretaceous of northwestern argentina ( sauropoda - coelurosauria - carnosauria - aves ) . m\u00e9mories de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 g\u00e9ologique de france 139 : 19\u201328\nbritt bb ( 1997 ) postcranial pneumaticity . in : currie pd , padian k ( eds ) the encyclopedia of dinosaurs . new york academic press , new york , pp . 590\u2013593\nburns me , currie pj ( 2014 ) external and internal structure of ankylosaur ( dinosauria ; ornithischia ) osteoderms and their systematic relevance . j vertebr paleontol 34 : 835\u2013851 . doi :\nburns me , vavrek mj ( 2014 ) probable ankylosaur ossicles from the middle cenomanian dunvegan formation of northwestern alberta , canada . plosone 9 ( 5 ) : e96075 . doi :\ncerda ia ( 2009 ) consideraciones sobre la histog\u00e9nesis de las costillas cervicales en los dinosaurios saur\u00f3podos . ameghiniana 46 : 193\u2013198\n, an upper cretaceous sauropod dinosaur from northwest argentina . acta paleontologica polonica 55 : 389\u2013398 . doi :\ncerda ia , casal ga , martinez rd , ibiricu lm ( 2015a ) histological evidence for a supraspinous ligament in sauropod dinosaurs . royal society open science 2 : 150369 . doi :\ncerda ia , garc\u00eda ra , powell je , lopez o ( 2015b ) morphology , microanatomy , and histology of titanosaur ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) osteoderms from the upper cretaceous of patagonia . j vertebr paleontol 35 ( 1 ) : e905791 . doi :\nchinsamy a , raath ma ( 1992 ) preparation of fossil bone for histological examination . palaeontol afr 29 : 39\u201344 .\nchinsamy - turan a ( 2005 ) the microstructure of dinosaur bone : deciphering biology with fine - scale techniques . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , p . 195 . doi :\ncurry rogers k ( 2005 ) titanosauria , a phylogenetic overview . in : curry rogers k , wilson ja ( eds ) the sauropods : evolution and paleobiology . university of california press , berkley , pp . 50\u2013103\nd\u2019emic md , wilson ja , chatterjee s ( 2009 ) the titanosaur ( dinosauria : sauropoda ) osteoderm record : review and first definitive specimen from india . j vertebr paleontol 29 ( 1 ) : 165\u2013177 . doi :\nfrancillon - vieillot h , bufrenil v , castanet j , geraudie j , meunier fj , sire jy , zylberberg l , de ricql\u00e8s a ( 1990 ) microstructures and mineralization of vertebrate skeletal tissues . in : carter j ( ed ) skeletal biomineralization : patterns , process and evolutionary trends . van nostrand reinhold , new york , pp . 471\u2013530 . doi :\n( dinosauria : sauropoda ) del cret\u00e1cico superior de patagonia . ameghiniana 49 : 289\u2013302 . doi :\nhill rv ( 2006 ) comparative anatomy and histology of xenarthran osteoderms . j morphol 267 ( 12 ) : 1441\u20131460 . doi :\nhorner jr , woodward hn , bailleul ab ( 2016 ) mineralized tissues in dinosaurs interpreted as having formed through metaplasia : a preliminary evaluation . comptes rendus palevol 15 ( 1\u20132 ) : 176\u2013196 . doi :\nklein n , christian a , sander pm ( 2012 ) histology shows that elongated neck ribs in sauropod dinosaurs are ossified tendons . biol lett . doi :\nlacovara kj , ibiricu lm , lamanna mc , poole jc , schroeter er , ullmann pv , voegele kk , boles zm , egerton vm , harris jd , mart\u00ednez rd , novas fe ( 2014 ) a gigantic , exceptionally complete titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur from southern patagonia , argentina . scientific reports 4 ( 6196 ) : 1\u20139 . doi :\nleanza ha , apestegu\u00eda s , novas fe , de la fuente ms ( 2004 ) cretaceous terrestrial beds from the neuqu\u00e9n basin ( argentina ) and their tetrapod assemblages . cretac res 25 : 1\u201396 . doi :\n( macronaria ) and the evolutionary history of basal titanosauriforms . zool j linnean soc 168 ( 1 ) : 98\u2013206 . doi :\nmartinelli ag , garrido ac , forasiepi am , paz er , gurovich y ( 2007 ) notes on fossil remains from the early cretaceous lohan cura formation , neuqu\u00e9n province , argentina . gondwana res 11 ( 4 ) : 537\u2013552 . doi :\nfrom the early late cretaceous bajo barreal formation of chubut province , argentina . j vertebr paleontol 24 : 107\u2013120 . doi :\nmolnar re ( 2011 ) new morphological information about cretaceous sauropod dinosaurs from the eromanga basin , queensland , australia . alcheringa 35 : 329\u2013339 . doi :\nnovas fe ( 2009 ) the age of dinosaurs in south america . indiana university press , bloomington , p . 437 isbn 978 - 0 - 253 - 35289 - 7\norgan cl , adams j ( 2005 ) the histology of ossified tendons in dinosaurs . j vertebr paleontol 25 : 602\u2013613 . doi :\nremes k , ortega f , fierro i , joger u , kosma r et al ( 2009 ) a new basal sauropod dinosaur from the middle jurassic of niger and the early evolution of sauropoda . plos one 4 ( 9 ) : e6924 . doi :\nsaegusa h , ikeda t ( 2014 ) a new titanosauriform sauropod ( dinosauria : saurischia ) from the lower cretaceous of hyogo , japan . zootaxa 3848 ( 1 ) : 1\u201366 . doi :\nsalgado l ( 2003 ) considerations on the bony plates assigned to titanosaurs ( dinosauria , sauropoda ) . ameghiniana 40 : 441\u2013456\nsalgado l , bonaparte jf ( 2007 ) sauropodomorpha . in : gasparini zs , salgado l , coria ra ( eds ) patagonian mesozoic reptiles . indiana university press , pp 188\u2013228 .\nsanz jl , powell je , le loeuff j , mart\u00ednez r , pereda suberbiola x ( 1999 ) sauropod remains from the upper cretaceous of la\u00f1o ( northcentral spain ) . titanosaur phylogenetic relationships . estudios del museo de ciencias naturales de alava 14 ( 1 ) : 235\u2013255\nscheyer tm , sander pm ( 2004 ) histology of ankylosaur osteoderms : implications for systematics and function . j vertebr paleontol 20 : 874\u2013893 . doi :\ntaylor mp ( 2009 ) aspects of the history , anatomy , taxonomy and palaeobiology of sauropod dinosaurs . phd thesis , university of portsmouth , portsmouth , england , pp 285 .\nupchurch p , barrett pm , dodson p ( 2004 ) sauropoda . in : weishampel db , dodson p , osm\u00f3lska h ( eds ) the dinosauria , 2nd edn . university of california press , berkeley , pp . 259\u2013324\n( mammalia , xenarthra , cingulata ) . j morphol 267 ( 11 ) : 1273\u20131283 . doi :\n( archosauria , crocodylia ) with comments on the homology of osteoderms . j morphol 269 ( 4 ) : 398\u2013422 . doi :\nvickaryous mk , sire jy ( 2009 ) the integumentary skeleton of tetrapods : origin , evolution , and development . j anat 214 : 441\u2013464 . doi :\n( gekkonidae ) with comments on their regeneration and inferred function . j morphol 276 : 1345\u20131357 . doi :\nsp . ( sauropoda ) . j vertebr paleontol 34 ( 4 ) : 852\u2013869 . doi :\nwedel mj ( 2003 ) vertebral pneumaticity , air sacs , and the physiology of sauropod dinosaurs . paleobiology 29 : 243\u2013255 . doi :\nwilson ja ( 2002 ) sauropod dinosaur phylogeny : critique and cladistic analysis . zool j linnean soc 136 : 217\u2013276 . doi :\nzhang y ( 1988 ) the middle jurassic dinosaur fauna from dashanpu , zigong , sichuan : sauropod dinosaurs . vol . 1 ,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfurther reading - an armoured sauropod from the aptian of northern patagonia , argentina . - j . f . bonaparte . in proceedings of the second gondwanan dinosaur symposium tokyo : national science museum monographs y . tomida , t . h . rich & p . vickers - rich ( eds ) . - 1999 . - osteology of the late jurassic portuguese sauropod dinosaur lusotitan atalaiensis ( macronaria ) and the evolutionary history of basal titanosauriforms . - zoological journal of the linnean society , 168 , 98\u2013206 . - p . d . manion , p . upchurch , r . n . barnes & o . mateus - 2013 .\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , and its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy\n3 . this dinosaur lived during the early parts of middle - cretaceous period . in terms of years , that\u2019s about 115 to 100 million years ago from current time .\n4 . the dinosaur was a titanosaur which reached the length of 50 feet from snout to tip of the tail .\n5 . you can very well guess from its size that the dinosaur was pretty heavy . paleontologists say that it weighed anywhere between 10 and 20 tons .\n7 . the incomplete type fossil that was unearthed by agustin revealed that the dinosaur had an armor along its back .\n8 . the armor was in form of spines along the vertebrae . paleontologists think that the purpose of the armor was merely display and had nothing to do with defense .\n11 . however , it is assumed that the dinosaur did have armored plates on its neck and back and that the plates were arranged in such a way that they appeared to be thin when looked from side but full size appeared only when looked at from the front .\nfounder and chief editor of facts legend , sankalan believes that information should be free . he is a dreamer and loves reading , writing , traveling and above all , sleeping . sometimes he gets really confused about things happening in life but then again , he manages to get things back on track . he practices tai chi whenever he gets time . slightly unsocial by nature , he still manages to get along with people pretty well . he hates politics and absolutely hates people who like to judge others .\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\n* by using this form you agree with the storage and handling of your data by this website .\neducation is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school . - albert einstein\n\u00a92014 - 2018 - facts legend . all right reserved . a property of ak\u1e63a ventures .\nthis website uses cookies to improve your experience . we ' ll assume you ' re ok with this , but you can opt - out if you wish . accept read more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nis named after agustin martinelli , a young argentine student who discovered it . the\n( lee - gah - boo - ay - ie ) , honors dr . giancarlo ligabue , a philanthropist who provided financial support to the expedition which recovered the remains . this is the second of three dinosaurs to honor ligabue , sandwiched between\nwas discovered in the cull\u00edn grande member of the lohan cura formation ( sandwiched between the older la amarga formation and the younger candeleros formation ) at cerro de los leones , neuquen province , argentina , in 1997 . the\n( mcf - pvph 110 ) originally included an almost complete right shin and calfbone , five metatarsals from the left foot , three partial vertebrae from the back , six from the hip , and ten from the tail , and nine oddly - shaped\narmour\nplates . however , it was later suggested that the plates were perhaps partial rib bones or hip bones , or both , and the hip vertebrae are too damaged to count with accuracy . a thighbone was also found at the site but it was so fragmented it wasn ' t worth collecting .\nin\nproceedings of the second gondwanan dinosaur symposium tokyo : national science museum monographs\n.\n\u2022 upchurch , p . , barrett , p . m . , and dodson , p . ( 2004 )\nsauropoda\nin weishampel , dodson and osm\u00f3lska\ntime stands still for no man , and research is ongoing . if you spot an error , or want to expand , edit or add a dinosaur , please use\n. where applicable , these images link to the artist ' s credit page . please respect their conditions for re - use .\nyup , we use cookies . but it doesn ' t make us bad people .\ntranslation : a quadrupedal herbivore which has long thorns from its neck to tail .\nalong with edmontosaurus , metriacanthosaurus , piatnitzkysaurus , and olorotitan , it is one the latest dinosaurs released in the arcade .\nit appeared on the kyoryu king wallpaper before its actual debut , alongside metriacanthosaurus .\nit is one of the very few dinosaurs to not appear in the tcg .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nsorry , we just need to make sure you ' re not a robot . for best results , please make sure your browser is accepting cookies .\netymology -\nhonoring agustin and ligabue\n, agustin martinelli being discoverer of the specimen and dr . giancarlo ligabue being an active philanthropist who supported the 1997 patagonian expediation .\nnote : a femur was found with the specimen represented by hundreds of small weathered fragments and was not collected .\ndiagnosis - fibula wraps anteromedially around cnemial crest of tibia ; dermal ossifiations with thick proximal / ventral processes , starting as rhomboid transversely oriented midline plates , proceeding to rectangular transversely oriented midline plates with dorsolateral spikes , then to dorsolaterally projecting flattened spines .\nthe last three dorsal neural spines are preserved . they are transversely rectangular in dorsal view and possess four laminae . the supradiapophyseal laminae are shortest , the prespinal lamina is longer and the postspinal lamina is longest .\nthe six sacral neural spines are fused to one another along their pre - and postspinal laminae and similar to the dorsal spines in morphology , being transversely expanded and rectangular , with four laminae each .\nthe first three caudal neural spines are represented , along with what probably represents the neural spines of caudals 6 - 13 . these start out transversely expanded in caudals 1 - 3 , then changes to longitudinally elongate . the lateral laminae are prominent until the eighth caudal , then become rugosities . the prespinal laminae are much more prominent than the postspinal laminae in the proximal caudals .\nboth lower limb elements are crushed lateromedially , while the metatarsals are deformed . the tibia has a pronounced , thin crest on the proximoposterior corner and a poorly developed cnemial crest . the fibula wraps anteromedially around the cnemial crest , which is an autapomorphy , and is placed anterior to the tibia in it ' s distal half .\nthe metatarsals are very robust and decrease in thickness towards metatarsal v . the first two metatarsals are subequal in length and shorter than iii and iv , which are also subequal . there may be an incipient laterodistal process on metatarsal i , but the deformation makes this uncertain . both ii and iii have distal condyles for a phalanx , while i lacks them . metatarsal iii is transversely wider ( 78 % ) compared to i and ii than all sauropods except vulcanodon and shunosaurus ( should have < 65 % ) according to sereno and wilson ( 1998 , omeisaurus + neosauropoda , character # 73 ) .\nthe first type is roughly rhomboid and probably had a median position . it resembles a stegosaurus plate that ' s been rotated so that the faces of the plate face anterodorsally and posteroventrally . the anterodorsal face is convex , while the posteroventral face is concave . at the base of the posteroventral face is a thick process with a sagittal ridge and concave posterolateral areas adjacent to the ridge . it was probably positioned on the midline of the dorsal area and is 200 mm on it ' s sagittal axis .\nthe second type also had a median position , but is rather different otherwise . it is a large rectangular plate , with the faces pointing roughly anteriorly and posteriorly . there are two large spikes projecting dorsolaterally . the spikes are anteroposteriorly flattened and conical . between the spikes and plate body is a ridge , the area between the ridges is concave . there are also two thick processes ventrolaterally that probably contacted the dorsolateral edges of the dorsal or sacral neural spines . this ossification is 640 mm wide , 260 mm between ridges .\nthe third type is a split version of type 2 , so it was paired . it has a dorsoventrally broad and bifurcated medial section , with a thick ventral process . there are several ridges on the proximal section , between which muscles probably attached . again , there are two spikes ( one on each type 3 ) . the spikes are dorsolaterally projected and most are blunt , with subparellel edges , while one is conical and pointed . these are 460 m long .\nthe fourth type is very similar to the third type , but with less expanded proximal ends and smaller proximoventral processes . they are also longer than type three , being 760 mm .\nbonaparte , j . , 1998 . an armoured sauropod from the aptian of northern patagonia , argentina , in tomida , y . , rich , t . h . & vickers - rich , p . , eds . , 1998 . second symposium gondwana dinosaurs , 12 - 13 july 1998 , abstracts with program , national science museum , tokyo : 10 .\nbonaparte , j . f . , 1999 . an armoured sauropod from the aptian of northern patagonia , argentina , in tomida , y . , rich , t . h . & vickers - rich , p . , eds . , 1999 . proceedings of the second gondwanan dinosaur symposium , national science museum monographs # 15 , tokyo : 1 - 12 .\nthe figures of the neural spines , dermal ossifications , tibia , fibula and metatarsals are available as usual . as for next time , dan bensen wants some dromaeosaurids , as did mike keesey , so i guess i ' ll be writing about some of them . and for those of you who wrote to me previously about species you wanted\ndetails on . . .\nsegments about , your e - mails were destroyed with my old hard drive , so you might want to send me those messages again .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : j . f . bonaparte . 1999 . an armoured sauropod from the aptian of northern patagonia , argentina . y . tomida , t . h . rich , and p . vickers - rich ( eds . ) , proceedings of the second gondwanan dinosaur symposium , national science museum monographs 15 : 1 - 12\nsee also bonaparte 1999 , calvo and porfiri 2010 , curry rogers 2005 , d ' emic 2012 , d ' emic et al . 2009 , grellet - tinner et al . 2012 , l\u00fc et al . 2007 , malkani 2008 , mannion and otero 2012 , salgado 2003 , salgado and coria 2005 , upchurch et al . 2004 and wilson 2002\ntype specimen : mcf - pvph 110 . its type locality is cerro de los leones , level 3 , which is in an albian floodplain mudstone / sandstone in the lohan cura formation of argentina .\ndinosaur and prehistoric animal themed arts , learning dinosaur board games , dinosaur crafts for kids , and science kits , including replica fossils and fossil excavation kits . a range of educational and fun dinosaur themed crafts , dino board games , dino puzzles and science kits all tested and approved by the qualified teachers and dinosaur experts at everything dinosaur . dinosaur crafts and learning dinosaur games can be used to help young children learn through creative , imaginative play . learn more about earth sciences with these dinosaur crafts for kids . the science kits and dino puzzles can help young students gain an appreciation of prehistoric animals and the work of palaeontologists and museum staff as they excavate their own fossils and dinosaurs and play dinosaur educational games . for further information and advice : email everything dinosaur\njust what young dinosaur fans and budding palaeontologists need \u2013 a range of top quality dinosaur clothing featuring lots of dinosaurs and favourite prehistoric animals . whatever the weather , everything dinosaur has it covered with this range of dinosaur and prehistoric animal themed clothing . customers who purchased dinosaur clothing also checked out our inexpensive dinosaur toys just part of the amazing range of products available to buy online from everything dinosaur .\ndinosaur toys for boys and girls to buy online . a super range of dinosaur models and prehistoric animal models to collect . accurate , museum quality replicas including many hand - painted scale models . a series of highly accurate , prehistoric animal models from top manufacturers including schleich dinosaurs , and the carnegie dinosaur collection . a dinosaur model is great for encouraging creative , imaginative play , start your prehistoric animal collection with this range of museum quality replicas from everything dinosaur . dinosaur toys for boys and girls to buy online . for further information on other items within the extensive everything dinosaur range involving dinosaur toys and for advice regarding prehistoric animal models contact : everything dinosaur\ndinosaur stuffed animals , ice age soft toys and dinosaur soft toys to purchase online . a range of soft and cuddly and very cute prehistoric animal soft toys , including all the favourite dinosaurs . a dinosaur stuffed animal , whether it is a soft toy t . rex , triceratops or a diplodocus , they make an ideal gift for a young dinosaur fan . cuddly dinosaur and prehistoric animal soft toys and dinosaur bedtime buddies to help keep young children warm and snug on a cold night . all soft toys including dinosaur soft toys are approved by the teachers and experts at everything dinosaur .\ngreat model and excellent detail . received properly packaged and very prompt . thanks \u2013 expectations met !\nby filling in this form you agree to our privacy and cookies policy and and our trading terms and conditions .\nyour personal data is safe with us . our privacy and cookies policy . our trading terms and conditions\nby continuing to use the site , you agree to the use of cookies . more information accept\nthe cookie settings on this website are set to\nallow cookies\nto give you the best browsing experience possible . if you continue to use this website without changing your cookie settings or you click\naccept\nbelow then you are consenting to this .\noops . a firewall is blocking access to prezi content . check out this article to learn more or contact your system administrator .\nneither you , nor the coeditors you shared it with will be able to recover it again .\nreset share links resets both viewing and editing links ( coeditors shown below are not affected ) .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nclick on a date / time to view the file as it appeared at that time .\nthis file contains additional information , probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it . if the file has been modified from its original state , some details may not fully reflect the modified file .\nerror loading page . try refreshing the page . if that doesn ' t work , there may be a network issue , and you can use our self test page to see what ' s preventing the page from loading . learn more about possible network issues or contact support for more help .\nmore titles may be available to you . sign in to see the full collection .\ndinosaur find - 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to articles , troubleshooting tips , and more on overdrive help .\nyour session has expired . please sign in again so you can continue to borrow titles and access your loans , wish list , and holds pages .\nif you ' re still having trouble , follow these steps to sign in .\nadd a library card to your account to borrow titles , place holds , and add titles to your wish list .\nthe library card you previously added can ' t be used to complete this action . please add your card again , or add a different card . if you receive an error message , please contact your library for help .\nfrom the lower cretaceous of argentina is known from fragmentary remains . it was an armored sauropod with spikes and plates on its back not unlike the unrelated\nholotype ( mcf - pvph 110 ) : 3 incomplete dorsal , 6 incomplete sacral , and 10 incomplete caudal vertebrae , 9 dermal ossifications , almost complete right tibia and fibula ; and 5 articulated left metatarsals .\nj . f . bonaparte . 1999 . an armoured sauropod from the aptian of northern patagonia , argentina . y . tomida , t . h . rich , and p . vickers - rich ( eds . ) , proceedings of the second gondwanan dinosaur symposium , national science museum monographs 15 : 1 - 12 .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nmuseo municipal\ncarmen funes\n, av . c\u00f3rdoba 55 , cp8318 , plaza huincul , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina . flaviobellardini @ gmail . com .\ndirecci\u00f3n provincial de patrimonio cultural , vuelta de obligado 50 , cp8300 , neuqu\u00e9n , argentina . flaviobellardini @ gmail . com .\nconicet , instituto de investigaciones en paleobiolog\u00eda y geolog\u00eda , universidad nacional de r\u00edo negro , museo carlos ameghino , belgrano 1700 , paraje pichi ruca ( predio marabunta ) , cp8324 , cipolletti , r\u00edo negro , argentina .\ndinosaur model enthusiast and collector robert townsend very kindly sent into everything dinosaur some further pictures of his prehistoric landscape . this time he has focused on dinosaurs that roamed the southern hemisphere during the mesozoic . in his diorama entitled \u201csouth american giants\u201d , robert highlights the diversity of sauropods that once roamed the landmass of gondwana , he has also added some large theropod models to highlight the apex predators which once called south america home .\nthe picture above shows a safari ltd ( wild safari dinos ) amargasaurus in the foreground , in the background , a pair of long - necked dinosaurs ( saltasaurus ) walk by . this is a well composed photograph . the position of the models provides perspective and depth perception , the animals moving in opposite directions provides contrast and draws the eye into the photograph , allowing the clever and careful use of foliage to be appreciated .\na number of super - sized theropods are known from south america . robert depicts different types of meat - eating dinosaur in his diorama . amongst the abelisaurids , robert has included a number of different types of predator , including mapusaurus and giganotosaurus which are greedily feeding on the remains of a sauropod in the photograph above .\n\u201cwhen i was about eleven or twelve years old i saw the film \u201cvalley of the gwangi\u201d which was about some cowboys in the old wild west who discover a lost world of living dinosaurs inside a secret and hidden canyon . i was so impressed with the realism of the animation of the creatures that i wanted to make my own lost world of dinosaur models in a prehistoric world . \u201d\nin his childhood , robert constructed a number of dinosaur model kits and he started building landscapes from a young age , but not always with the results he desired . when it came to creating prehistoric scenes , robert admits his early efforts were a case of trial and error .\n\u201cwhat materials did one use ? i didn\u2019t have a clue . my dad suggested that i make the landscape out of a large piece of white card he obtained from somewhere . it was rolled up , and when unrolled and flattened out it was about four feet square . on the dining room table i used a felt tip pen to draw where the rocks and the rivers were meant to go . to make prehistoric type plants i rolled up pieces of white paper , coloured them in with green and brown felt tip pens and then cut one end to spread out the fronds at the top . they were stuck on the card with sellotape . after an afternoon of trying this , the whole thing looked such a mess and so totally unconvincing that i was disappointed with my clumsy efforts . i threw the whole lot away in the bin . i thought it was best to wait until a time when i learnt what materials to use and how to build properly with them . well , now that time has come and you can see some of the results above . \u201d"]}
{"id": 1527, "summary": [{"text": "eoconodon is an extinct genus of triisodontid mesonychid that existed during the early paleocene of north america .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "characteristics of the genus include massive jaws , blunt builds , and strong canine teeth .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "eoconodon 's were about the size of a modern house cat , but were considered giant for mammals at the time . ", "topic": 10}], "title": "eoconodon", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define eoconodon in a sentence and how is the word eoconodon used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528eoconodon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528eoconodon\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528eoconodon\u9020\u53e5 , eoconodon meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\neoconodon is an extinct genus of triisodontid mesonychid that existed during the early paleocene of north america .\neoconodon (\ntriisodontidae ,\nmammalia ) from the early paleocene ( puercan ) of northeastern montana , u . . .\neoconodon ' s were about the size of a modern house cat , but were considered giant for mammals at the time .\neoconodon (\ntriisodontidae ,\nmammalia ) from the early paleocene ( puercan ) of northeastern montana , u . s . a\n\n' eoconodon\n' is an extinct genus of triisodontid mesonychid that existed during the early paleocene of north america .\nspecies of the early paleocene ( puercan north american land mammal age ) triisodontid eoconodon were among the first eutherians in the northern western interior to evolve body masses significantly larger than those of the latest cretaceous mammals of the area . description of additional specimens of eoconodon nidhoggi from the tullock formation , northeastern montana , sets the stage for formal . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfor example , longrich told gizmag that there was a mammal in wyoming called the eoconodon , which was considered giant at the time , being about the size of a cat . but that same species wasn ' t found in nearby montana .\nit ' s almost like you ' re looking at separate islands , but there are no physical barriers between these localities ,\nhe says .\nthe uppermost hell creek and tullock formations of garfield and mccone counties , northeastern montana , have yielded large samples of earliest paleocene ( puercan north american land mammal ' age ' ) local faunas . these are allocated to either the earliest puercan ( pu1 ) interval zone or an undifferentiated pu2 / pu3 interval zone of middle and / or late puercan age . eoconodon (\ntriisodontidae\n) is . . . [ show full abstract ]\nby now , most people are familiar with the theory that an asteroid that smacked into our planet 66 million years ago caused the extinction of the dinosaurs . but it turns out that dinosaurs might not have been the only casualty of that cataclysmic event . new analysis of the fossil record indicates that a full 93 percent of mammals living at the time also went extinct , a number significantly higher than previously thought .\nresearchers at the milner centre for evolution at the university of bath looked back over mammalian fossil reports and research that had been published for about the last 100 years , specifically focusing on the time frame on both sides of the meteor strike \u2013 about 68 million years ago to 65 . 7 million years ago . they also concentrated on mammals in north america .\nnot only did they find that more mammals went extinct during this time than the roughly 75 percent previously thought , but also that they rebounded extremely quickly , with the number of species doubling those found before the impact in just 300 , 000 years \u2013 a relatively short time in evolutionary terms .\nbecause mammals did so well after the extinction , we have tended to assume that it didn ' t hit them as hard ,\nsays nick longrich from the milner center .\nhowever our analysis shows that the mammals were hit harder than most groups of animals , such as lizards , turtles , crocodilians , but they proved to be far more adaptable in the aftermath .\nlongrich is the lead author on a paper regarding the find published in the journal of evolutionary biology .\nlongrich and his team also discovered a high degree of separation in terms of the way species developed geographically .\nyou might expect to see the same few survivors all across the continent . but that ' s not what we found ,\nhe says .\nafter this extinction event , there was an explosion of diversity , and it was driven by having different evolutionary experiments going on simultaneously in different locations . this may have helped drive the recovery . with so many different species evolving in different directions in different parts of the world , evolution was more likely to stumble across new evolutionary paths .\nwith 100 years of fossil data lying around , it seemed surprising to us that no other researchers had arrived at the same conclusion as longrich and his team before now . so we asked him about that , and it turns out there ' s been a bit of a mammal - dino - asteroid debate raging in academia .\nit may just be a matter of perspective ,\nhe told us .\nhistorically the asteroid impact hypothesis has been really controversial \u2013 and the paleontologists working on fossil mammals have been bitter opponents of the asteroid - impact hypothesis . so they ' ve probably tended to overlook evidence that supports it , and haven ' t really been interested in looking at the issue carefully . we don ' t specialize on mammals , so we ' re able to look at the evidence in a different way \u2013 and in fact , the fossil mammal data strongly support the asteroid hypothesis ; it ' s some of the best data out there in support of it , in fact .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : w . d . matthew and w . granger . 1921 . new genera of paleocene mammals . american museum novitates 13 : 1 - 7\nsee also archibald 1998 , clemens 2011 , clemens and williamson 2005 , matthew and granger 1921 , mckenna and bell 1997 , st . clair et al . 2010 , thewissen et al . 2001 and zhou et al . 1995\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nresponse to critique by lucas et al . ( 2009 ) of paper by fassett ( 2009 ) documenting paleocene dinosaurs in the san juan basin\npurgatorius ( plesiadapiformes , primates ? , mammalia ) , a paleocene immigrant into northeastern montana . . .\nthe earliest unquestionable records of purgatorius ( plesiadapiformes , primates ? , mammalia ) in northeastern montana and other areas of the western interior of north america are of early paleocene , specifically middle or late puercan ( pu 2\u20133 interval zones , undifferentiated ) north american land mammal age ( nalma ) . the report of an occurrence of purgatorius in the late cretaceous ( lancian nalma ) . . . [ show full abstract ]\nevolution of the mammalian fauna across the cretaceous - tertiary boundary in northeastern montana and . . .\npaleontological and geological studies of the hell creek formation and tullock member of the fort union formation in the northern western interior of north america provide a globally unique , detailed record of the evolution of terrestrial vertebrates during the transition from the latest cretaceous into the earliest paleocene . in the area south of the fort peck reservoir , northeastern montana , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nearly paleocene ( puercan ) peradectid marsupials from northeastern montana , north american western in . . .\nanalysis of the molar dentitions of early paleocene ( puercan nalma ) peradectid marsupials from the upper part of the hell creek formation and the tullock formation of northeastern montana documents the presence of two species . on the basis of currently published data the genus thylacodon is provisionally regarded as a nomen dubium and these species from montana are designated peradectes cf . p . . . . 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{"id": 1550, "summary": [{"text": "the feathered brindle ( aporophyla australis ) is a species of moth in the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in western and southern europe , north africa and the middle east . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "aporophyla australis", "paragraphs": ["aporophyla australis subsp . australis ( boisduval , 1829 ) aporophyla australis subsp . australis\naporophyla australis subsp . pascuea aporophyla australis subsp . pascuea ( humphreys & westwood , 1843 )\nverbesina australis verbesina australis ( hook . & arn . ex dc . ) baker\nn / a . cavolinia tridentata australis . 1807 . lesueur 284 cavolinia tridentata australis\naporophyla ( phylapora ) nigra ( haworth , 1809 ) = noctua nigra haworth , 1809 = phalaena noctua lunula str\u00f6m , 1768 = noctua nigricans h\u00fcbner , [ 1813 ] = aethiops ochsenheimer , 1816 = aporophyla ( phylapora ) nigra .\nxanthorrhoea australis , the grass - tree or black boy is an australian plant .\ntwo beetles , cassida sanguinolenta , lacon murinus ; a thysanop terous insect , thrips physapus ; 3 moths , coscinia striata , feathered brindle ( aporophyla australis ) , marbled clover ( heliothis dipsaceus ) ; and a homopterous insect , orthocephalus saltator , are found upon it .\nhost plants : the caterpillars feed in the field probably only on the grasses phalaris arundinacea and phragmites australis .\nskull and lower jaw of a gigantic extinct marsupial , the diprotodon australis . from meyers lexicon , published 1924 .\ncordyline australis , commonly known as the cabbage tree , cabbage - palm or ti kouka , is a widely branched monocot tree .\nthe pied - grallina ( grallina australis ) and its nest . drawing - freeman , vintage engraved illustration . magasin pittoresque 1875 .\nhost plants : the species lives on phragmites australis and also other grasses and sedges of wetlands ( e . g . on carex acuta ) .\nthe southern brown kiwi , or tokoeka , ( apteryx australis ) is found in new zealand ' s south island . the greek - derived name means ' wingless ' .\nbaptisia australis , blue wild indigo or blue false indigo . blaue f\u00e3\u00a4rberh\u00e3\u00bclse , australische f\u00e3\u00a4rberh\u00e3\u00bclse oder falscher indigo , indigolupine , digital improved reproduction from a print of the 19th century\n' maize , corn , zea mays ( left ) , sugarcane , saccharum officinarum ( right top ) , phragmites australis , cav . trin . ; syn . : phragmites communis trin . ( right bottem ) , bothriochloa ischaemum l . auch andropogon ischaemum l . bzw . dichanthium ischaemum l ( top left ) '\nmais auch kukuruz , zea mays ( links ) , zuckerrohr , saccharum officinarum ( rechts oben ) , schilfrohr , teichrohr , phragmites australis , cav . trin . ; syn . : phragmites communis trin . ( rechts unten ) , gemeines oder gewoehnliches bartgras auch huehnerfussgras , bothriochloa ischaemum l . auch andropogon ischaemum l . bzw . dichanthium ischaemum l ( oben links )\nlife cycle : the pupa hibernates . adults can be found from may to june and occasionally in mid - summer in a partial second generation . in the alps , the adults can be observed in june and july . i found larvae in the allgaeu alps and in motafon in august during the day open at the host plant . they somewhat resemble those of colias australis .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hern\u00e1ndez\nrecords of caterpillar hostplants are scattered through published and manuscript sources worldwide and are difficult to retrieve . many rearing records are never published and so are not accessible to other entomologists . but collected hostplant records form a valuable scientific resource that can be used eventually to answer broader biological questions about how lepidoptera and plants interact ( eg , letourneau , hagen & robinson , 2001 ) . it provides information of immediate relevance to agriculture , ecology , forestry , conservation and taxonomy .\nwe hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .\nhosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .\nin text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .\nhint : leave the ' starts with ' command as the default and in the species entry box omit the last few letters of the species - name ( eg , atalant ) . this will get around the problem of variable gender - endings . hosts uses original orthography of species - group names as far as possible , but some checklists follow the convention of altering the species - group name to accord with the presumed gender of the generic name ( eg flava , flavus ) .\nrestrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .\nhint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .\ndrill - down search mode allows the user to home in from the starting - point of either the lepidoptera or the plant family . choose a family group from the drop - down box and allow time for all genera of that family in the database to load to the genus drop - down box ; choose a genus and wait for the species to load . the search button can be pressed at any time , but the record delivery limit may be exceeded at higher taxonomic levels . drill - down search allows the user to see by scrolling all the taxa that are represented in the database . following the previous example , choose nymphalidae , then choose vanessa from the genus drop - down box and then atalanta from the ten possible species of vanessa included in hosts .\nleguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .\ndetailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]\nbeccaloni , g . w . , viloria , a . l . , hall , s . k . & robinson , g . s . 2008 . catalogue of the hostplants of the neotropical butterflies / cat\u00e1logo de las plantas hu\u00e9sped de las mariposas neotropicales . m3m - monograf\u00edas tercer milenio , volume 8 . zaragoza , spain : sociedad entomol\u00f3gica aragonesa ( sea ) / red iberoamericana de biogeograf\u00eda y entomolog\u00eda sistem\u00e1tica ( ribes ) / ciencia y tecnolog\u00eda para el desarrollo ( cyted ) / natural history museum , london , u . k . ( nhm ) / instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas , venezuela ( ivic ) . 1 - 536 pp . , 1 fig , 3 tabs .\ngaden robinson was responsible for the overall project design and management of the hosts database , and for records of lepidoptera exclusive of butterflies and bombycoid moths . phillip ackery and george beccaloni were responsible for butterfly data , including data drawn from card catalogues developed by ackery , whilst ian kitching was responsible for hostplant data of bombycoid moths . luis m . hern\u00e1ndez was responsible for abstracting in the latter two years of the project and for development of the bibliography for the hardcopy versions of the data .\nwe are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .\nwe are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .\nmarian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .\nwe are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .\nwe thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .\nrobinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hern\u00e1ndez , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .\nbrummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .\nkartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .\nkitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .\nkitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .\nletourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .\nmabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]\nnielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .\nnye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .\nrawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .\nrobinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .\nroyal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\noccurring sporadically along the southern coastline of england from suffolk to cornwall , and also south wales , the species inhabits a range of coastal habitats such as sandhills and shingle beaches .\nflying from august to october , the moths can be attracted to both sugar and light .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 07 13 : 06 : 42 page render time : 0 . 3950s total w / procache : 0 . 4477s\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntaxa which do not fall within rdb categories but which are none - the - less uncommon in great britain and thought to occur in 30 or fewer 10km squares of the national grid or , for less well - recorded groups , within seven or fewer vice - counties . superseded by nationally scarce , and therefore no longer in use .\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\n: angiospermivora regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\n: euheteroneura regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nall along our coast , doubtless . several at felixstow in 1895 ( lord rendlesham ) and in september 1902 ( gibbs ) . three at light at thorp on 15 september 1930 ( trans . i , 101 ) . kessingland ( emm . 1904 , 81 ) ; several at dusk and light in benacre broad during mid - september 1935 ( mr , mly ) and 1936 ( btn ) . over thirty on benacre denes in sept . 1937 .\nfound at night on sea campion - shingle street , suffolk ( v . 2003 ) \u00a9 n sherman\nmale - swanage , dorset ( 18 . x . 2015 ) \u00a9 neil sherman\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis section is from the book\nbritish wild flowers - in their natural haunts vol2 - 4\n, by a . r . horwood . also available from amazon : a british wild flowers in their natural haunts .\nlike other cultivated or casual plants , our knowledge of its range and age is derived from its present - day distribution in europe . n . africa , siberia , n . w . india . in america it is only an introduction . in great britain it is found throughout the peninsula , channel , thames , anglia , severn provinces . in s . wales it is absent from brecon . radnor ; in n . wales from montgomery and merioneth . it is found throughout the trent province , but not in the mersey provinces , the humber , tyne , and lakes provinces . it is rare in england , improbably native in scotland , ireland , and the channel islands .\nchicory is a casual plant which is always more or less a follower of man , being associated with weeds of cultivation . sometimes it is found in towns , in areas fenced in as building plots , or in a cornfield , or perchance a fowl - run in an orchard .\nthis beautiful wild flower has a thick , yellow , milky , spindle - shaped root . the stem is rough , tall , rigid , wiry , twig - like , woody , with wide - spreading and ascending branches . the lower leaves have lobes each side of a stalk , turned backwards , slightly rough ; the stem - leaves are smooth or nearly so , alternate , lance - shaped , clasping , entire , and axillary , paired , and more or less stalkless .\nthe flowerheads are of a beautiful blue colour , open in sunshine , but soon fading . they are stalkless , paired , borne in the axils of the upper leaves , or terminal . linnaeus said they opened at 5 and closed at 10 at upsala . kerner , at innsbruck , found them open at 6 - 7 , closing at 2 - 3 p . m . the involucre is double , with lance - shaped phyllaries , broad at the base , and the outer ones are covered with a glandular fringe of hairs .\nthe stem is often 3 ft . high . the flowers are tall , blooming in july up to september . chicory is a herbaceous perennial plant , propagated by division , coming up yearly in the same place , and worthy of cultivation .\nthe pappus of the crown of minute , erect , blunt scales assists in dispersing the achenes by the wind .\nwherever it is found the requirements of chicory are sand soil , as it is practically a sand - loving plant growing on sand soil or gravel , as well as on chalky soils or oolite , where it may at least be native .\na fungus causing chicory disease , pleospora albicans , attacks it , as well as puccinia hieracii .\nphoto l . r . j . horn - chicory ( cirhorium inlybus , l ) .\nthis beautiful composite is called bunk , chicory , wild cicory , succory . chicory is also called barbe de capucin .\nthe plant served as a floral index . in germany , a girl ,\nafter waiting day after day for her betrothed , at last sank exhausted by the roadside and expired . before long a star - like flower sprang up on the spot where the maiden ' s heart was broken and she breathed her last , and it was called the watcher of the road .\nthe plant is used for chicory for adulterating coffee . the root is roasted and crushed . the root is boiled and eaten , and the leaves also when blanched . it was formerly used in skin troubles and chronic disorders , and as a cooling medicine .\nessential specific characters : 176 . cichorium intybus , l . - stem tall , rigid , striate , bristly , branched , lower leaves runcinate , upper clasping , flowerheads blue , numerous , axillary , subsessile .\nnext : hawk ' s beard ( crepis virens , l . = c . capillaris , wallr . )\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by & skule , mr bjarne fibiger , mr michael\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nalbania , austria , belgium , bulgaria , france , germany , greece , denmark , ireland , spain , italy , corsica , crete , malta , netherlands , norway , poland , portugal , romania , sardinia , sicily , slovakia , the soviet union - the european part of france switzerland , yugoslavia .\nalbania , andorra , the balearic islands , belgium , bulgaria , bosnia and herzegovina , british isles , germany , gibraltar , greece ( mainland ) , denmark ( mainland ) , ireland , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) cyprus , corsica , crete , macedonia , malta , netherlands , norway ( mainland ) channel islands , poland , portugal ( mainland ) , romania , sardinia , northern ireland , sicily , slovakia ? , slovenia , france ( mainland ) , croatia , switzerland , yugoslavia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nvery dark indeed ! impressive . and this one is also the form with the little blue dots .\nl . sinapis in corsica was once described as a subspecies corsica verity 1911 and this is now regarded as a synonym of the nominate race . this butterfly was quite common in the woods of vizzavona but they were ever patrolling and never kept still . an late evening walk produced a resting sinapis but the results were a little disappointing , not enough depth of field because no flash was used in those dark woodlands .\nthe corsican speckled wood has been referred to as pararge aegeria sardoa verity but this may be a synonym of the nominate race . corsica .\nlooking through my corsican images , there are a few others that might be of interest , so i will post them here . up in rocky places in the mountains , we found a few aricia agestis calida bellier . this form has very bright submarginal orange spots .\nwe only saw one male of the corsican subspecies , polyommatus icarus sardoa . we were probably out of season for this lovely lycaenid . the females of this race have the submarginal spots well developed . our single male was seen along a track high up in the vizzavona forest . it landed on some bramble flowers to feed and rest , then as i disturbed it , the butterfly shot up high into the air to disappear over the towering hundred foot plus pines . strange behaviour for this lycaenid ! !\nmust be very familiar with most of our european members . not so us brits , we do not have it , perhaps it has occasionally turned up here a few times as a migrant , perhaps not .\none day during our holiday in corsica , we set off for the town of corte on the super mountain train . what a lovely old place the centre of that town is , we tried walking up the resonica valley but it was too hot , above 100 degrees , phew . so myself and my very hot wife returned to the centre of corte to seek refreshment . in the middle of the old part of town was a buddleia . in my small garden in england which is in the centre of a large town i have a large bush of this lovely honey scented shrub but the only visitors this year have been pieris and a lone vanessa atalanta .\nfeeding on the purple flowers , mostly at the top of the bush . luckliy an old cobbled street wound around the bush and standing on a wall on the bend , i took these images . perching on the wall caused much amusement to the locals and shopkeepers below . just another mad englishman after a papilio they must have thought .\nno this is podalirius , feisthamelii occurs from n africa to spain and as far as perpignan in southern france , where it occurs together with podalirius . adam .\na record of my seventeen year long moth trapping career in my thanet garden , with photos where possible .\n: wide ranging around various grasslands , the larval food plants are grasses including common couch and cock ' s - foot .\n: wide ranging over open grasslands , the larval food plants are grasses especially cock ' s - foot and meadow grasses .\n: manly coastal , the larval food plants are various grasses , including common couch and cock ' s - foot .\n: the books say that there is mainly just one generation in the uk , with overlapping migrant generations showing up , so the moths can be on the wing pretty much anytime between may and november . . . this doesn ' t exactly fit what goes on here ? the larval food plants are grasses , including cock ' s - foot and common couch .\n: usually a coastal migrant in the uk . on the continent it occurs in southern europe and north africa .\n: it occurs here any time between april and november . the larval food plants are various grasses .\n: taken here in six of the seventeen years , most notably in 2007 when i caught 1 - 2 moths on ten dates .\nthe annual tallies were : 2004 = 2 . 2005 = 1 . 2006 = 5 . 2007 = 11 . 2014 = 1 . 2015 = 1 . 2016 = 0 .\n: marshes , fens , riverbanks etc . the larvae feed on common reed and reed canary - grass .\n: taken here on eleven dates , in 2000 , 2003 , twice in 2005 , twice in 2009 then once in 2011 , 2012 , 2014 , 2015 and 2016 .\n: all types of grassland , the larval food plants are grasses including cock ' s - foot and common reed .\n: common ( ish ) but showing obvious signs of decline in recent years .\n: a wide range of dry and damp grasslands . the larval food plants are various grasses including cock ' s - foot , annual meadow grass , tufted hair - grass and common couch .\n: a species of coastal salt marsh , the larval food plants are especially common salt marsh grass , but others including cock ' s - foot and annual meadow grass .\n: double brooded , flying from mid june till late july then a partial second generation again in september .\n: rough grassland on the coast , the larvae feeding on marram grass and tall fescue .\n: two generations , on the wing in july then september and october / november .\n: a scarce / rare coastal migrant , which arrives regularly in the uk from southern europe and north africa . apparently it colonised europe from north america !\n: in the uk it has been recorded throughout the year , apparently it even occasionally overwinters in the extreme south - west . the larval food plants are grasses such as cock ' s - foot and common couch .\n: four records here , all as single moths on 26 / 10 / 02 , 25 / 11 / 02 , 21 / 10 / 04 and 29 / 10 / 05 .\n: reed beds and marshes ( including salt marsh ) where the larval stage feeds on common reed .\n: fens / marshland , the larval food plants are grasses such as cock ' s - foot etc .\n: taken on six occasions here , on 03 / 08 / 99 , 24 / 07 / 02 , 21 / 07 / 03 , 21 / 07 / 05 , 24 / 07 / 2007 and 28 / 07 / 2016 .\n: open grassy places . the larval food pants are scentless mayweed , chamomile , corn chamomile , stinking chamomile and feverfew .\n: open country where the larvae feed on sow thistle , wild lettuce , hawk ' s - beard and hawkweeds .\n: coastal salt marsh and woodland clearings . on the coast the larvae feed on sea aster and sea wormwood , in woodland on the flowers of goldenrod .\n: recorded on nine dates here , in 2002 , 2003 , 2008 , 2009 and 2010 .\n: calcareous habitats , ofetn with disturbed ground . the larval food plants are mulleins , water figwort and buddleias .\n: i have been visited on just three very special occasions by this stunning creature , on 12th may 2000 , 1st may 2009 and 5th april 2014 .\n: double brooded , flying from may to july then from july till august .\n: damp woodland , marshes etc . the larval food plant is mainly grey willow , though it will feed on other willows and aspen .\n: coastal areas , sand dunes , soft rocky sea cliffs and south facing downland . the larval food plants are sea campion , common sorrel , bramble and wood sage .\n: only six records here and none at all since the autumn of 2005 . the dates were : 1 on 27th september 1999 , 1 on 28th september 1999 , singles on 3 dates between 28th and 30th september 2002 then 1 on 22nd september 2005 .\n: open habitats , the larvae feeding on a wide rage of herbaceous plants .\n: recorded only nine times here and only in the years of 1999 , 2001 , 2003 , 2005 , 2011 , 2014 and 2016 .\n: it occurs in various locales and it ' s larvae eats various things .\n: broadleaved woodland , parkland and marshes . the larval food plant is ash .\n: the adults are single brooded , on the wing initially in october and november , then after wintering , again from march till may .\n: only seven records here , in 2002 , 2006 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013 and 2015 .\na very tatty specimen , taken on 8 / 05 / 2014 . . . only my second ever record here .\n: broadleaved woodland and parkland . the larval food plants are varied including , oaks , sallows , birches , apple , horse chestnut , bramble and wild privet etc .\n: only two have ever succumbed to the traps here , on 12th april 2002 and on 8th april 2014 .\n: the adults are single brooded , flying initially in september and october , then after overwintering , again from february till april .\n: it took me ' many ' years to savour the delightful sight of one of these little blighter ' s around my garden traps . . . up till now i ' ve taken only two , on 25th february 2011 and 11th march 2012 .\n: broadleaved woodland , scrub , hedgerows etc . the larval food plant is honeysuckle .\n: relatively stable , decreasing slightly here in recent years . rarely numerous , only ever reaching double figures on any one night on two occasions .\n: broadleaved woodland , scrub , hedgerows etc . the larval food plants are hawthorn , blackthorn , crab apple , dog rose , plum etc .\n: a moth of oak woodland where the larvae eats pedunculate , sessile and possibly turkey oaks .\n: only two of these rather splendid creatures have shown here , the first on 12th october 1999 and the second on 1st october 2009 . there are few finer sights than to see a ' mervielle ' in one of your moth traps .\n: broadleaved woodland and parkland . the larval food plants is mainly the buds and leaves of sessile and pedunculate oaks .\n: five moth have been taken here on only four occasions , a single on 1st october 2005 then two on 2nd october 2010 then further singles on 1st october 2014 and 20th september 2015 .\n: gardens , suburban areas , damp meadows , coastal grasslands etc . the larval stage feeds on the flowers and leaves of various wild and cultivated herbaceous plants .\n: most coastal habitats are used , the larval food plants are varied and include hound ' s - tongue , sea plantain , thrift , biting stonecrop and wild cabbage .\nnote - plants hyperlinked in red below take the visitor to the relevant plant page on\nplants for a future\nwebsite where further information like photos , physical characteristics , habitats , edible uses , medicinal uses , cultivation , propagation , range , height etc . are clearly listed . plant families - in bold red below takes the visitor to the relevant\nlepi - plants\npage where other butterflies & moths using the plants below are listed .\nmiller ( acronicta leporina ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nbroad - leaved woodland , heathland , fens , scrub and increasingly urban areas where food plants found .\nrecorded in 60 ( 87 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1834 . last recorded in 2018 .\nthe 40mm final instar larva viwed from the side has a cream coloured lateral line running adjacent to spiracles with crimson edging on the top . viwed from above the dark dorsal lateral line with two subdorsal lines in crimson . the larva is bright green and the head is usually breen or brownish green .\nthe moth is usually deep brownish grey or blackish with broad wings and a virtually straight costa whilst the termen tapers towards the apex . markings for this moth usually vary with the forewing colour difference but often have a clearly defined median area with antemedian and postmedian lines feint in white or missing altogether the moth is attracted to light and can be found at the moth trap in small numbers . also attracted to sugar they are to be found at ivy flowers and blackberries .\nwebsite where further information like photos , physical characteristics , habitats , edible uses , medicinal uses , cultivation , propagation , range , height etc . are clearly listed .\nplant families - in bold red below takes the visitor to the relevant\nlepi - plants\npage where other butterflies & moths using the plants below are listed .\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . native homes in oonalashka\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . karakakooa in owhyhee ship and native boats\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . otago chief of amsterdam ohedidee of bolabola\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . canoes of oonalashka\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man and woman of christmas sound\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . north east view island otaheite native boats\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . chief of christina and woman\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man and woman of kamtschatka\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . island of pines\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man and woman of new caledonia\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . morai in atooi tower\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man and woman of santa christina\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . fleet of otaheite assembled at oparee\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man and woman of sandwich islands\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . sea horses on ice west coast north america\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . interior of house nootka sound home family cooking\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . winter habitation home kamtschatka family cooking\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man and woman of prince william sound\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man dancing and masked from sandwich islands\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man woman easter island\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . white bear\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . sea otter\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . inhabitants north sound houses canoe\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . man on sledge kamtschatka in winter dogs fur\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . offering gift to cook in sandwich islands\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . fish animals trees tres marias islands\nnational flag and state ensign of new zealand ( blue ensign ) . stylized i .\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . matavia bay otaheite one tree hill erythrina\ncaptain james cook frs 1728 1779 british explorer , navigator , cartographer , captain royal navy . bay coast huaheine sailing ship canoe\nimages and transcriptions on this page , including medium image downloads , may be used under the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international licence unless otherwise stated .\na handbook to the larvae of the british macro - lepidoptera and their food plants : both in nature and in confinement , with authorities / by j . seymour st . john .\nto find similar items , select the checkboxes next to the characteristics you are interested in , then select the ' find similar ' button .\na selection of books from a collection of more than 500 titles , mostly on religious and literary topics . also includes some material dealing with other celtic languages and societies . collection created towards the end of the 19th century by lady evelyn stewart murray .\nselected items from five ' special and named printed collections ' . includes books in gaelic and other celtic languages , works about the gaels , their languages , literature , culture and history .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhabitat : mythimna straminea inhabits higher growing siltation zones at lakes and rivers as well as other wetlands with reed and sedges .\nlife cycle : the very elongated caterpillar overwinters . in october , i tapped it several times from reeds . it is fully - grown in may , then nocturnal and can be found with a pocket lamp . it is betrayed by distinct feeding scars on the reed leaves . the moths fly in a single generation from june to early august .\nendangerment factors : mythimna straminea is in decline in many regions and locally already extinct due to the destruction of wetlands ( agricultural intensification , fertilization , drainage , afforestation ) .\nremarks : mythimna straminea is known from morocco , southern and central europe and asia minor .\nhabitat : apamea unanimis colonizes wetlands , riparian forests , bog woodland , wet meadows , reed beds and stream edges or ditches with stocks of the host plants .\nendangerment factors : despite its dependence on wetlands and the resulting narrowing of their habitats by destruction in a big way , apamea unanimis is still not endangered too much due to its ability to use even small habitats and the host plant ' s nutrients love .\nremarks : the distribution ranges from central europe to the amur . in the far south of europe it seems to be missing . apamea unanimis also occurs in n - america .\nhabitat : discestra microdon inhabits nutrient - poor grasslands and alpine meadows on limestone up to about 2000m above sea level .\nendangerment factors : discestra microdon is endangered outside the alps due to the loss of nutrient - poor grasslands ( succession and land use of man ) ."]}
{"id": 1573, "summary": [{"text": "brachycythara biconica , common name the biconic top turrid , is a species of very small sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family mangeliidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "brachycythara biconica", "paragraphs": ["brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) biconic top - turris\nbrachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) - let ' s talk seashells !\nworms - world register of marine species - brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 )\nturridae - mangeliidae \u00bb brachycythara biconica , id : 303656 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\nin abbott it ' s listed as mangelia ( brachycythara woodring , 1928 ) biconica c . b . adams , 1850 ( # 3187 ) . marlo\nel complejo brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) en cuba , con la descripcion de una nueva especie\nbrachycythara alba ( adams c . b . , 1850 ) . retrieved through : world register of marine species on 8 august 2011 .\nrol\u00e1n e . & espinosa j . ( 1999 ) el complejo brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) en cuba , con la descripci\u00f3n de una nueva especie . bollettino malacologico 34 : 43\u201349 . [ details ]\nrol\u00e1n , e . & espinosa , j . ( 1999 ) el complejo brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) en cuba , con la descripcion de una nueva especie . bollettino malacologico , 34 , 43\u201349 .\nrol\u00e1n e . & espinosa j . ( 1999 ) . el complejo brachycythara biconica ( c . b . adams , 1850 ) ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) en cuba , con la descripci\u00f3n de una nueva especie . bollettino malacologico , 34 ( 1 - 4 ) : 43 - 49\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 5 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 7 publications ) ( from synonym mangelia biconica c . b . adams , 1850 ) to encyclopedia of life to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to itis\n( of mangelia biconica c . b . adams , 1850 ) adams , c . b . 1850 . description of supposed new species of marine shells which inhabit jamaica . contributions to conchology , 4 : 56 - 68 , 109 - 123 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nif you are generating a pdf of a journal article or book chapter , please feel free to enter the title and author information . the information you enter here will be stored in the downloaded file to assist you in managing your downloaded pdfs locally .\nthank you for your request . please wait for an email containing a link to download the pdf .\nsign up to receive the latest bhl news , content highlights , and promotions .\nbhl relies on donations to provide free pdf downloads and other services . help keep bhl free and open !\nthere was an issue with the request . please try again and if the problem persists , please send us feedback .\nrosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579\u2013699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\nwe ' ve updated our privacy policy and by continuing you ' re agreeing to the updated terms .\nwhen you visit our site , preselected companies may use cookies or other certain information on your device to serve relevant ads and for analytics purposes . learn more\ndiscussions , photo series , how to identify or distinguish a species or between species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nolsson , a . a . & mcginty , t . l . 1958 . recent marine mullusks from the caribbean coast of panama with the description of some new genera and species . bulletins of american paleontology vol . 39 n\u00ba304\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\npanama . caribbean sea . escudo de veraguas island . dredged at 120 m . 2002 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\n( caribbean ) panama ( 5 mm . ) | digital images by david kirsh\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nrubellatoma rufocincta ( e . a . smith , 1882 ) [ extralimital ? ]\nthis section needs expansion . you can help by adding to it . ( april 2017 )\ntucker , j . k . 2004 catalog of recent and fossil turrids ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . zootaxa 682 : 1 - 1295 .\nespinosa , jos\u00e9 , et al .\nmoluscos marinos . reserva de la biosfera de la pen\u00ednsula de guanahacabibes .\ninstituto de oceanolog\u00eda , la habana , cuba ( 2012 ) .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . , a non - profit organization .\nbollettino malacologico : v . 34 : no . 1 : fasc . 1 - 4 ( 1998 )\ndescription of a new species of conidae fleming , 1822 from the mediterranean sea : conopleura aliena n . sp\nbhl ' s existence depends on the support of its patrons . help us keep this free resource alive !\ng . quadrata can be found in atlantic waters , ranging from the eastern coast of florida and the gulf of mexico , south to brazil , and also surrounding bermuda . ; in the gulf of mexico , the caribbean sea and the lesser antilles .\nthe size of the shell varies between 4 mm and 6 . 8 mm .\nin order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .\n877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in sealifebase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by kbanasihan , 06 / 28 / 2010\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nphillip j . jr . fallon research associate academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , drexel university , philadelphia , usa .\nabbott , r . t . ( 1958 ) the marine mollusks of grand cayman island , british west indies . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , monograph , 11 , 1\u2013138 , 5 pls .\nabbott , r . t . ( 1968 ) a guide to field identification seashells of north america . golden press , new york , 280 pp .\nabbott , r . t . ( 1974 ) american seashells . van nostrand reinhold , new york , 663 pp .\nabbott , r . t . & dance , s . p . ( 1982 ) compendium of sea shells . e . p . dutton , new york , ix + 411 pp .\nabbott , r . t . & morris , p . a . ( 1995 ) a field guide to shells atlantic and gulf coasts and the west indies . 4 th edition . houghton mifflin co . , boston , xxxiii + 350 pp . , 74 pls .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . ( 1986 ) moluscos da comiss\u00e3o oceanogr\u00e1fica geocosta rio i , rj , brazil . revista brasileira de biologica , 46 , 27\u201331 .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . ( 2007 ) appendix 3 molluscs recorded during the abrolhos rap survey . in dutra , g . e . , allen , g . r . , werner , t . & mckenna , s . a . ( eds . ) , a rapid marine biodiversity assessment of the abrolhos bank , bahia , brazil . university of chicago press , chicago , pp . 126\u2013133 .\nabsal\u00e3o , r . s . , pimenta , a . d . & caetano , c . h . s . ( 2005 ) turridae ( mollusca , neogastropoda , conoidea ) coletados no litoral sudeste do brasil , programa revizee\nscore\ncentral . bioci\u00eancias , porto alegre , 13 ( 1 ) , 19\u201347 .\nadams , c . b . ( 1850 ) description of supposed new species of marine shells , which inhabit jamaica . contributions to conchology , 4 , 56\u201368 .\nadams , h . & adams , a . ( 1853\u20131858 ) the genera of recent mollusca ; arranged according to their organization . john van voorst , london , xl + 484 pp .\naltena , c . o . van r . ( 1975 ) the marine mollusca of suriname ( dutch guiana ) holocene and recent . part iii . gastropoda and cephalopoda . zoologische verhandelingen , 139 , 3\u2013104 .\nanimalbase project group ( 2005\u20132015 ) animalbase . early zoological literature online . - world wide web electronic publication . available from : urltoken ( accessed 25 january 2016 )\narango y molina , r . ( 1878 ) contribucion a la fauna malacologica cubana . g . montiel y comp . , havana , 280 pp . , 35 pls .\narnow , l . , st . clair , f . & arnow , t . ( 1963 ) the mollusca of a lagoonal area at playa de vega baja , puerto rico . caribbean journal of science , 3 ( 2\u20133 ) , 163\u2013172 .\nbarros , j . c . n . , de lima , s . f . b . , da silva , s . v . , santos , m . c . f . & cabrel , e . ( 2005 ) sobre fam\u00edlia turridae swainson , 1840 em dep\u00f3sito no labor\u00e1t\u00f3rio de malacologia da ufrpe e os tipos brasileiros presentes na cole\u00e7\u00e3o malacol\u00f3gica do national museum of natural history - smithsonian institution . boletim t\u00e9cnico cient\u00edfico do cepene , 13 , 143\u2013149 .\nbartsch , p . ( 1933 ) station records of the first johnson - smithsonian deep - sea expedition . smithsonian miscellaneous collections , 91 ( 1 ) , 1\u201331 , pl . 1 .\nbartsch , p . ( 1934 ) new mollusks of the family turritidae . in : reports on the collections obtained by the first johnson - smithsonian deep - sea expedition to the puerto rican deep . smithsonian miscellaneous collections , 91 ( 2 ) , 1\u201329 .\nbartsch , p . ( 1943 ) a review of some west atlantic turritid mollusks . memorias de la sociedad cubana de historia natural\nfelipe poey\u201d , 17 ( 2 ) , 81\u2013122 , pls . 7\u201315 .\nbartsch , p . & rehder , h . a . ( 1939 ) new turritid mollusks from florida . proceedings of the united states national museum , 87 , 127\u2013138 , pl . 17 . urltoken\nbieler , r . & bradford , b . ( 1991 ) annotated catalog of type specimens in the malacological collection of the delaware museum of natural history . nemouria occasional papers of the delaware museum of natural history , 36 , 1\u201348 .\nboatman , e . & harasewych , m . g . ( 2014 ) yo , ho , ho and a bottle of shells . smithsonian national museum of natural history department of invertebrate zoology news \u2013 no bones , blog post . available from : urltoken no _ bones / 2014 / 10 / yo - ho - ho - and - a - bottle - of - shells - 1 . html ( accessed 24 october 2014 )\nboettger , o . ( 1895 ) die marinen mollusken der philippinen ( iv ) nach den sammlungen des herrn jos\u00e9 florencio quadra in manila . iv . die pleurotomiden . nachrichtsblatt der deutschen malakozoologischen gesellschaft , 27 , 1\u201320 .\nborn , i . ( 1778 ) index rerum naturalium musei caesarei vindobonensis . pars i . testacea . officina krausiana , wien , xlii + 458 + [ 82 ] pp . , 1 pl .\nborn , i . ( 1780 ) testacea musei caesari vindobonensis . born , vienna , xxxvi + 442 + [ 17 ] pp . , 18 pls .\nbouchet , p . , kantor , yu . i . , sysoev , a . & puillandre , n . ( 2011 ) a new operational classification of the conoidea ( gastropoda ) . journal of molluscan studies , 77 , 273\u2013308 . urltoken\nbouchet , p . & strong e . ( 2010 ) historical name - bearing types in marine mollusks : an impediment to biodiversity studies ? in : polaszek , a . ( ed . ) , systemae naturae 250 . crc press , london , pp . 63\u201374 .\nbouge , l . j . & dautzenberg , p . ( 1914 ) les pleurotomid\u00e9s de la nouvelle cal\u00e9donie et de ses d\u00e9pendances . journal de conchyliologie , 61 , 123\u2013214 .\nboyko , c . b . & cordeiro , j . r . ( 2001 ) catalog of recent type specimens in the division of invertebrate zoology , american museum of natural history . v . mollusca , part 2 . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 262 , 1\u2013170 .\nbritton , j . c . ( 1975 ) the shallow water marine mollusks of the swan islands , honduras . bulletin of the american malacological union , 33\u201340 .\ncampbell , l . , campbell , d . , colquhoun , d . , ernissee , j . & abbott , w . ( 1975 ) plio - pleistocene faunas of the central carolina coastal plain . geological notes south carolina development board division of geology , 19 , 51\u2013124 .\ncampbell , l . d . ( 1993 ) pliocene molluscs from the yorktown and chowan river formations in virginia . publication 127 . virginia division of mineral resources , charlottesville , virginia , vii + 259 pp .\ncampbell , l . d . , campbell , d . c . & carter , j . g . ( 1995 ) molluscs of the natural well locality , duplin stratotype , near magnolia , north carolina , and rediscovery of carinorbis quadricostata ( emmons , 1858 ) ( gastropoda : amathinidae ) . tulane studies in geology and paleontology , 27 , 165\u2013177 .\ncarnes , s . f . ( 1975 ) mollusks from southern nichupt\u00e9 lagoon , quintana roo , mexico . sterkiana , 60 , 1\u201340 .\ncarr - brown , b . & frampton , j . ( 1979 ) an outline of the stratigraphy of trinidad . 4th latin american geological congress : field guide , 1979 , 7\u201319 .\nchang , c . - k . ( 2001 ) small turrids of taiwan , a cd - book . internet hawaiian shell news , hawaii , iv + 248 pp .\nchemnitz , j . h . ( 1795 ) neues systematisches conchylien - cabinet . raspe , n\u00fcrnberg , 312 pp . , pls . 174\u2013213 .\nchenu , j . c . ( 1859 ) manuel de conchyliologie et de paleontogogie conchyliologique . vol 1 . masson , paris , vii + 508 pp .\nconquiliologistas do brasil ( 2016 ) an association created on september 19 , 1989 , in s\u00e3o paulo , brazil , with the main goal of spreading and increasing conchology , the study of mollusc shells . available from : urltoken ( accessed 1 january 2016 )\ncronin , t . m . ( 1991 ) pliocene shallow water paleoceanography of the north atlantic ocean based on marine ostracodes . quaternary science reviews , 10 , 175\u2013188 . urltoken\ndaccarett , e . y . & bossio , v . s . ( 2011 ) colombian seashells from the caribbean sea . grafiche scarponi , osimo , 400 pp .\ndall , w . h . ( 1881 ) reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico , and in the caribbean sea , 1877\u201379 , by the united states coast survey steamer blake , lieutenant commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xv . preliminary report on the mollusca . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 9 ( 2 ) , 33\u2013144 .\ndall , w . h . ( 1884 ) on a collection of shells sent from florida by mr . henry hemphill . proceedings of the united states national museum , 6 , 318\u2013342 , pl . 10 . urltoken\ndall , w . h . ( 1885 ) list of marine mollusca comprising the quaternary fossils and recent forms from american localities between cape hatteras and cape rogue including the bermudas . united states geological survey , 24 , 1\u2013336 . urltoken\ndall , w . h . ( 1889a ) reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877\u201378 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879\u201380 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer blake , xxix . report on the mollusca . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , 18 ( 6 ) , 1\u2013492 .\ndall , w . h . ( 1889b ) a preliminary catalogue of the shell - bearing marine mollusks and brachiopods of the southeastern coast of the united states , with illustrations of many of the species . bulletin ( united states national museum ) , 37 , 221 pp . , 74 pls .\ndall , w . h . ( 1890 ) contributions to the tertiary fauna of florida , with special reference to the miocene silex - beds of tampa and the pliocene beds of the caloosahatchie river . part i . pulmonate , opisthobranchiate and orthodont gastropods . transactions of the wagner free institute of science of philadelphia , 3 , 1\u2013200 , pls . 1\u201312 .\ndall , w . h . ( 1903 ) contributions to the tertiary fauna of florida , with special reference to the miocene silex - beds of tampa and the pliocene beds of the caloosahatchie river . part vi . concluding the work . transactions of the wagner free institute of science of philadelphia , 3 , xiv + 1219\u20131654 , pls . 48\u201360 .\ndall , w . h . ( 1918 ) notes on the nomenclature of the mollusks of the family turritidae . proceedings of the united states national museum , 54 , 313\u2013333 . urltoken\ndall , w . h . & simpson , c . t . ( 1901 ) the mollusca of porto rico . bulletin of the united states fish commission , 20 , 351\u2013524 .\ndautzenberg , p . ( 1900 ) croisi\u00e8res du yacht chazalie dans l\u2019atlantique . mollusques . m\u00e9moires de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 zoologique de france , 13 , 145\u2013265 , pls . 9\u201310 .\nd\u00edaz , j . m . ( 1994 ) la malacofauna de la zona costera de santa marta y parque nacional natural tayrona , caribe colombiano . bolet\u00edn de investigaciones marinas y costeras , invemar , 23 ( 1 ) , 15\u201343 .\nd\u00edaz , j . m . & puyana , m . ( 1994 ) moluscos del caribe colombiano , un catalogo ilustrado . colciencias y fundacion natura colombia , santafe de bogota , 291 pp .\nd\u00edaz , j . m . , escobar , l . a . & velasquez , l . e . ( 1990 ) reef associated molluscan fauna of the santa marta area , caribbean coast of colombia . anales del instituto de investigaciones marinas de punta de betin , 19\u201320 , 173\u2013196 .\ndonovan , s . k . ( 1998 ) an introduction to the bowden shell bed , southeast jamaica . contributions to tertiary and quaternary geology , 35 ( 1\u20134 ) , 3\u20138 , 4 figs .\ndu - bar , j . r . ( 1958 ) stratigraphy and paleontology of the late neogene strata of the caloosahatchee river area of florida . state of florida , department of conservation , geological bulletin , 40 , 1\u2013267 , 12 pls .\ndubar , j . r . & solliday , j . r . ( 1961 ) check list of duplin ( late miocene ) molluscan species of georgia and the carolinas . geologic notes division of geology state development board columbia , s . c . , 5 , 15\u201330 .\ndu - bar , j . r . ( 1962 ) check list of waccamaw and croatan ( pliocene ? ) macrofossils of north and south carolina . geologic notes division of geology state development board columbia , s . c . , 6 , 25\u201341 .\nekdale , a . a . ( 1974 ) marine molluscs from shallow - water environments ( 0 to 60 meters ) off the northeast yucatan coast , mexico . bulletin of marine science , 24 , 638\u2013668 .\nemerson , w . k . & jacobson , m . k . ( 1995 ) the american museum of natural history guide to shells . alfred a . knopf , new york , xviii + 482 pp . , 47 pls .\nespinosa , j . & rol\u00e1n , e . ( 1995 ) una nueva especie del g\u00e9nero drillia ( mollusca : neogastropoda ) del caribe mexicano . avicennia , 3 , 29\u201333 .\nespinosa , j . , fern\u00e1ndez - garc\u00e9s , r . & rol\u00e1n , e . ( 1995 ) cat\u00e1logo actualizado de los moluscos marinos actuales de cuba . rese\u00f1as malacol\u00f3gicas , 9 , 1\u201390 .\nfaber , m . j . ( 1988 ) studies on west indian marine molluscs 13 . the malacological taxa of gordon w . nowell - usticke . de kreukel , 24 , 67\u2013102 .\nfargo , w . g . ( 1953 ) part ii . the pliocene turridae of saint petersburg , florida . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , monograph , 8 , 361\u2013409 , pls . 16\u201324 .\nfaustino , l . a . ( 1928 ) summary of philippine marine and fresh water mollusks . manila bureau of science monograph , 1 ( 25 ) , 1\u2013384 .\nfigueira , r . m . a . & absal\u00e3o , r . s . ( 2010 ) deep - water drilliinae , cochlespirinae , and oenopotinae ( mollusca : gastropoda : turridae ) from the campos basin , southeast brazil . scientia marina , 74 ( 3 ) , 471\u2013481 . urltoken\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2000 ) surprising new molluscan records for louisiana and the northwestern gulf of mexico . american conchologist , 28 ( 3 ) , 5\u20136 , 31 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2002 ) more discoveries from a collecting expedition off the louisiana coast . american conchologist , 30 ( 1 ) , 6\u20137 , 10 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2007 ) report on mollusks collected in a dredging expedition to bahia de campeche , southwestern gulf of mexico . american conchologist , 35 ( 2 ) , 4\u201311 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2012a ) clathrodrillia phasma ( schwengel , 1940 ) ( gastropoda : drilliidae ) , an east florida species reported herein from three quadrants of the gulf of mexico . the festivus , 45 ( 6 ) , 65\u201367 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . ( 2012b ) report on a dredging expedition off the louisiana coast , including geographical extensions and new record sizes . american conchologist , 40 ( 4 ) , 7\u201310 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . & lee , h . g . ( 2002 ) report on molluscan species found in the offshore waters of louisiana , including many extensions of known range and un - named species . american conchologist , 30 ( 4 ) , 10\u201313 .\ngarc\u00eda , e . f . & lee , h . g . ( 2004 ) report on the malacofauna of offshore louisiana waters\u2014including many range extensions and unnamed species iii . american conchologist , 32 ( 3 ) , 21\u201324 .\ngarc\u00eda , m . t . & luque , a . a . ( 1986 ) contribuci\u00f3n al concocimiento de los gaster\u00f3podos prosobranquios de la isla de la juventud del archipi\u00e9lago de los canarreos ( cuba ) . revista de investigaciones marinas , 7 ( 2 ) , 31\u201352 .\ngardner , j . ( 1948 ) mollusca from the miocene and lower pliocene of virginia and north carolina . part 2 . scaphopoda and gastropoda . united states geological survey professional paper , 199 - b , 179\u2013310 .\ngardner , j . a . & aldrich , t . h . ( 1919 ) mollusca from the upper miocene of south carolina with descriptions of new species . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 71 , 17\u201354 , 4 pls .\ngibson , t . g . ( 1962 ) revision of the turridae of the miocene st . mary ' s formation of maryland . journal of paleontology , 36 ( 2 ) , 225\u2013246 , pls . 40\u201342 .\ngibson - smith , j . & gibson - smith , w . 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( 1882b ) mollusca of h . m . s . challenger expedition . part xiii . journal of the linnean society ( london ) , 16 , 358\u2013372 . urltoken\nwatson , r . b . ( 1886 ) report on the scaphopoda and gasteropoda collected by the h . m . s . challenger during the years 1873\u201376 . report on the scientific results of the voyage of the challenger ( zoology ) , 15 , 1\u2013756 , 50 pls .\nweinkauff , h . c . & kobelt , w . ( 1875\u20131887 ) die familie pleurotomidae . systematisches conchylien - cabinet von martini und chemnitz . vol . 4 . bauer & raspe , n\u00fcrnberg , 248 pp . , pls . a , 1\u201342 .\nweisbord , n . e . ( 1962 ) late cenozoic gastropods from northern venezuela . bulletins of american paleontology , 42 , 1\u2013672 .\nwells , f . e . ( 1991 ) a revision of the recent australian species of the turrid genera clavus , plagiostropha , and tylotiella ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . journal of the malacological society of australia , 12 , 1\u201333 .\nwells , f . e . ( 1995 ) a revision of the drilliid genera splendrillia and plagiostropha ( gastropoda : conoidea ) from new caledonia , with additional records from other areas . m\u00e9moires du museum national d ' histore naturelle , 167 , 527\u2013556 .\nwenz , w . ( 1943 ) gastropoda . prosobranchia . in : shindewolf , o . h . , ( ed . ) , handbuch der pal\u00e4ozoologie . vol . 6 . gebr\u00fcder borntraeger , berlin , pp . 1201\u20131505 , figs . 3417\u20134211 .\nwilliams , m . a . s . ( 2005 ) shallow - water turridae of florida and the caribbean . williams , tallevast , florida , 223 pp .\nwilliams , m . a . s . ( 2006 ) shallow - water turridae of florida and the caribbean , version 3 . williams , tallevast , florida , 233 pp .\nwilliams , m . a . s . ( 2009 ) shallow - water turridae of florida and the caribbean , version 3 . williams , tallevast , florida , 230 pp .\nwoodring , w . p . ( 1928 ) miocene mollusks from bowden , jamaica . part ii . gastropods and discussion of results . carnegie institute of washington , washington , d . c . , vii + 564 pp . , 40 pls .\nwoodring , w . p . ( 1970 ) geology and paleontology of canal zone and adjoining parts of panama : description of tertiary mollusks ( gastropods : eulimidae , marginellidae to helminthoglyptidae ) . united states geological survey professional paper , 306 - d , 299\u2013452 .\nworms ( 2016 ) worms editorial board 2016 . world register of marine species . available from : urltoken ( accessed 15 january 2016 )"]}
{"id": 1581, "summary": [{"text": "heikegani ( \u5e73\u5bb6\u87f9 , \u30d8\u30a4\u30b1\u30ac\u30cb , heikeopsis japonica ) is a species of crab native to japan , with a shell that bears a pattern resembling a human face which many believed to be the face of an angry samurai hence the nickname samurai crab .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is locally believed that these crabs are reincarnations of the heike warriors defeated at the battle of dan-no-ura as told in the tale of the heike . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "heikegani", "paragraphs": ["artist\u2019s impression of a heikegani . remarkably , it\u2019s pretty close to the reality .\nheikegani crab , japan crab with a human like face on it ' s shell . it is believed that a heikegani is the reincarnation of heike warriors defeated at\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nthe heikegani crab ( heikeopsis japonica ) and a stylize kabuki samurai face . image source .\ntwo times per day as a swift action , a heikegani can challenge a foe to combat .\neach time the heikegani molts , its new shell comes to more closely resemble an angry demonic face .\n[ \u2026 ] sources : andrew kincaid . \u201cheikegani \u2013 the samurai crab . \u201d ( 2013 ) [ \u2026 ]\nheikegani\nwas premiered in april 1912 in \u010fsaka at the naniwaza , starring onoe baik\u02d8 vi and sawamura s\u02d8j\u0171r\u02d8 vii .\nheikegani\nis made up of 1 act , divided into 2 scenes , which runs for just over an hour .\nbut the legend of the samurai crabs has turned them into souvenirs for the historically - minded travel . and the heikegani\u2019s shells certain do look like angry samurai faces . maybe the vengeful ghosts of the heike are expressing themselves through the snarling shells of the heikegani .\nheikegani has become a popular image in japanese tattooing , though the face on the shell is exaggerated for dramatic effect . a tattoo that works great as a japanese themed gap filler , heikegani tattoos are the funkiest of all crab tattoos and offer some awesome crustacean inspiration .\nonce per day when the heikegani is about to attempt a saving throw or skill check , it can call upon the resolve it held to in its prior life , gaining a + 4 bonus on the roll . the heikegani must decide to use this ability before the roll is made .\nuntil either that foe is rendered unconscious , or the combat ends , the heikegani gains a + 4 bonus on damage rolls against that enemy , and takes a \u20132 penalty to ac except against attacks made by the challenged foe . the heikegani gains dr 2 / \u2014 against attacks made by the target of its challenge .\ndan - no - ura tatakai no zu ( \u2018battle of dannoura\u2019 ) . the heikegani crabs can be seen in the lower half of the painting . image source .\nthe soul of a heikegani has very few of its memories from life , but retains its single - minded sense of purpose and honor , and is quick to challenge those it meets to mortal combat . a heikegani believes it has been reincarnated , but in reality it never passed on to be judged . the unnatural genesis of a heikegani causes it great agony , and the dangerous crustacean scuttles along the shores , seeking foes that it can defeat in honorable combat so its soul can finally be put to rest .\naccording to the japanese legend , the ghosts or souls of the heike samurais were reincarnated into the heikegani crabs who ate their remains , their angry faces now shown on the shells of the crabs . to this day , it is said that the heikegani crabs roam the depths of the oceans around japan , searching for the lost heirlooms of their empire .\nas a full - round action , a heikegani can stand on its rear legs and display its facelike carapace , snapping its pincers in a threatening display . the heikegani can attempt an intimidate check to demoralize all foes within 30 feet that can see its display , as if it had used the dazzling display feat . it doesn\u2019t take penalties on this check for being smaller than its targets .\nfeatured image : \u2018the ghost of taira tomomori\u2019 by utagawa kuniyoshi \u2013 depicts the ghost of taira tomomori along with the anchor he drowned with , and heikegani with faces of fallen soldiers . image source .\na resounding battle cry for many vegetarians is : \u201ci don\u2019t eat food with a face\u201d , and luckily for the heikegani crabs , the inhabitants of the inland sea have taken that gustatory sentiment to heart .\nafter that battle start appeared heikegani , the so - called \u201csamurai crab\u201d . it was a unique species of crab , with a shell that bore a pattern resembling the face of an angry samurai . the superstitious believed these crabs were reincarnated souls from toshigoku , the realm of slaughter , and it was considered unlucky to eat the plentiful heikegani from the region , for to do so was to invite the sin of familial betrayal into one ' s heart . [ 1 ]\nto see more traditional japanese body art and perhaps a few more disgruntled samurai crabs , visit these tattooists\u2019 instagrams . should you want a piece of irezumi featuring heikegani for yourself , have one of them design a tiny clawed crustaceans just for you .\ni\u2019ve read carl sagan\u2019s take on heikegani before . just imagining thousands of angry faced crabs scurrying in mass under the water , it sends shivers down my spine \ud83d\ude2b why crab ? it\u2019s also reind me the scene from the film \u201cthe thing\u201d\u2026 too creepy \ud83d\ude31\na species of crab native to japan heikegani is widely recognized for its bizarre shell . the shell of heikegani has numerous myths and legends surrounding it , but the most common is that the shell shows the face of an angry samurai slain in battle . they are also known as the samurai crab . in certain regions of japan a more detailed explanation is offered , it is believed that the crabs are reincarnations of the heike warriors , who were defeated at the battle of dan - no - ura in 1185 .\nfor the heike samurai , surrender to the enemy was never an option . those that were not slain in battle , committed suicide by drowning themselves along with their emperor . their bodies became food for the heikegani crabs who lay in wait on the sea floor .\nduring an episode of the pbs science show , \u2018cosmos : a personal voyage\u2019 , carl sagon expounded on a theory put forward by julian huxley in 1952 , to explain the strange face - like characteristics of the heikegani crab shell . huxley theorized that the crab\u2019s samurai faces are the result of artificial selection . he proposed the fishermen fishing japan\u2019s waters would throw back any crabs whose shells looked like a samurai\u2019s face out of respect for the fallen heike . this preserved the dna of the heikegani with samurai - like faces while thinning the genetic lines of those without .\nbut , while it certainly is an interesting theory , it\u2019s likely only a bit of scientific folklore . the snarling samurai face on the heikegani\u2019s shells is the result of nothing more than the natural site of muscle attachments . the crabs are only around four centimeters and not used for food , making the theory that fishermen threw samurai face - bearing heikegani back while keeping those without extremely unlikely . other crabs with human - like shells have also been found throughout the world , even appearing in the fossil record , lending even less credit to the still fascinating theory .\nmagic is always involved , either because the death happened in a high - magic environment or because the samurai was dealt a magical deathblow . a heikegani is especially vicious when young , and kills other crabs and marine creatures it encounters until it develops the ability to travel onto land .\nthe problem with this theory is that the heikegani crabs , which have a maximum length of 1 . 2 inches , are too small to be eaten , so it is unlikely they were ever caught for food in the first place . furthermore , analysis of the shells has shown that the face - like patterns are simply the result of connection points for muscle and ligament tissue . finally , heikegani crabs are not the only crabs with a human - looking face on the shell . a variety of crabs from the family dorippidae all appear to have human faces on their backs .\ncarl sagan theorized that the crabs\u2019 samurai faces are the result of artificial selection . he proposed the fishermen fishing japan\u2019s waters would throw back any crabs whose shells looked like a samurai\u2019s face out of respect for the fallen heike . this preserved the dna of the heikegani with samurai - like faces while thinning the genetic lines of those without .\nin the aftermath of the battle , the leader of the genji , minamoto yoritomo , became the first shogun to realize complete military control of japan . the fate of the remaining heike was execution\u2013this time without exception . it\u2019s said the heike samurais\u2019 angry spirits were reincarnated into the heikegani crabs who ate their remains , their scowling faces now marking their carapaces .\nthe heikegani crab has inspired reverence to ancient legends , as well as scientific investigation into the power of selection . while many believe the angry samurai face in the crab\u2019s shell is simply the result of the psychological phenomenon of pareidolia , others believe that the grimaced faces are the heike samurai warriors , who were reborn and are still , somehow , watching over them .\nfamous american astronomer and author carl sagan once speculated that the resemblance was due to artificial selection . sagan proposed that the fishermen fishing japan\u2019s waters would throw back any crabs whose shells looked like a samurai\u2019s face out of respect for the fallen heike tribe . this preserved the dna of the heikegani with samurai - like faces while thinning the genetic lines of those without .\na far more plausible theory is that any resemblance of a human face seen in the shells of the heikegani crabs is the result of pareidolia , the human brain\u2019s innate ability to recognize faces and human forms in a set of random stimuli . common examples include seeing images of animals or faces in clouds , the virgin mary on toast , and the man in the moon .\nthe battle of dan - no - ura was preceded by an immense struggle between the imperial rulers of japan , the taira clan ( later known as heike ) , who the heikegani crabs are named after , and the minamoto clan ( genji ) , who were fighting for control of the throne at the end of the 12th century in the genpei war ( 1180 - 1185 ) .\nwhile it sounds good and it does fit the mold for how selective pressures tend to work , there\u2019s a problem\u2013nobody eats heikegani . they\u2019re too small . plus , crabs with this kind of shell pattern aren\u2019t confined to only that small bay , but they can be found all over the bay of japan . and there are other species of crabs with similar patterns , although maybe not as pronounced .\na japanese crab , the heikegani , has a shell closely resembling a samurai\u2019s face . legend says the crabs are the souls of the fallen heike samurai who died in a massive battle over the japanese imperial throne . the battle of dannoura , immortalized in the heike monogatari ( the tale of heike , ) was a pivotal moment in japan\u2019s history that both established the first shogunate and killed a child emperor .\nheikegani or heike crabs ( heikeopsis japonica ) are a species of crab native to japan many of who share a distinctive feature : strange markings on their carapace that have a striking resemblance to the face of an angry samurai . the crabs get their name from a japanese epic : the tale of the heike s , an epic prose tale about a battle that was fought in japan\u2019s inland sea , which is where these crabs are found .\nthe reason people see a face in the crabs is because of a psychological phenomena called pareidolia , which makes vague or random things seem significant . seeing a samurai face in the shells of crabs\u2013even the japanese heikegani\u2013is like how we see shapes in the clouds or a man in the moon . ( i\u2019ve never quite been able to see a man in the moon , by the way . i tend to side with the japanese , who say it\u2019s a rabbit . )\nthe battle of dan - no - ura gave rise to many legends , the strangest of which involves a crab . this crab has a distinctive shell with a pattern that vaguely resembles the angry face of a samurai . the story goes that when the heike warriors died and sank , their souls were transferred to the crabs and their gnarled faces were forever etched onto the crab ' s back . the crab is called heikegani or the heike crab . sometimes , it\u2019s also called the samurai crab .\nbecause of their fascinating backstory , heikegani have skittered their way out of the history books and traditional japanese art into popular culture . one can\u2019t help but faintly see their vestige in anthropomorphic arthropods like dr . zoidberg from futurama , crabby a la pokemon , or the subterranean \u201ccrab people\u201d in south park . even carl sagan cited the angry - looking crustaceans as evidence of artificial selection in the second episode of cosmos , but beyond the shores of japan , tattoos are where they\u2019re most commonly found , grimacing amidst the waves and wind bars of irezumi .\nthe heikegani crab\u2019s legend finds its roots from the two rival families\u2019 involvement in japan\u2019s government , which eventually toppled the imperial courts\u2019 power . after a fierce battle between the two opposing samurai factions , the heike seized control of japan . their leader though , kiyomori taira , was in love with his rival\u2019s , yoshitomo minamoto , concubine . at her behest he showed an uncharacteristic degree of mercy by sparing her and minamoto\u2019s sons . though it might be considered noble by modern standards\u2013especially since killing them was legally permitted\u2013it was ultimately a mistake that would later put and end to the heike samurai .\nsamurai are renowned for their resolve , but sometimes a samurai becomes so obsessed with her purpose that her soul can\u2019t depart from the material plane upon her death . unable to seek eternal rest , and unwilling to become undead in the pursuit of vengeance , the samurai soul instead finds a suitable host in which to continue its existence . a heikegani is the effect of such a joining : a tragic , furious symbiosis of the soul of a dead samurai and the body of a crustacean . this usually occurs when the samurai dies near a crab habitat and her soul imprints upon a newly hatched crab zoea .\nthe mythos surrounding heikegani originates from a military conflict between two feuding japanese clans back in the 12th century . following a five - year power struggle known as the genpei war , the taira ( later referred to as the heike ) and minamoto clashed in a final battle at a small bay called dan - no - ura on april 25 , 1185 . the taira were severely outnumbered , and during the fighting , their child emperor \u2014 antoku \u2014 drowned . as the tide turned in their enemy\u2019s favor , the samurai , rather than dying in dishonor , took their own lives , leaping into the frigid sea .\nyears later those very sons led an uprising against him after he installed his own grandson as the new child emperor . genji forces drove the heike out of the capital and proclaimed their own emperor . their forces pursued the fleeing heike samurai and the rival emperor to the shimonoseki straight , were a final , decisive naval battle ensued . the heike were outnumbered three to one , and the battle was quickly over . the emperor was drowned by his grandmother , who promised him a new kingdom under the sea . the heiki samurai were either killed or committed suicide by drowning themselves along with their emperor\u2013their dead bodies food for the heikegani crabs .\nokamoto wrote\nheikegani\nat age 39 from childhood memories of a popular edo picture book in which a young fisherwoman encounters the spirit of tamamushi , a heike court lady from the heian period ( 794 ~ 1185 ) . inspired by the illustrations of tamamushi in the book , the playwright created the character of a proud , modern woman who is unwilling to passively accept others ' choices and is prepared to use violence to achieve her ends . yet tamamushi ' s passion drives her to madness , causing her to kill her own sister and the man her sister wants to marry . ultimately , it leads her to her own self - annihilation .\n( sasaguchi rei )\nthe heian imperial court was simultaneously the high and low point of japan\u2019s aristocracy . it had reached the height of its refinement , but at the cost of alienating the ruling class from the people they supposedly governed . there was an explosion in literature . poetry flourished , dress was extravagant , and the tale of genji , one of the world\u2019s first novels , arose from the heian court . japan also discovered buddhism during this time . unfortunately , the court\u2019s preoccupation with the arts allowed lower - ranking officials and their families to gain the real control over japan . the two largest families were the taira ( later known as heike , ) who the fated heikegani crabs are named after , and the minamoto , later called the genji .\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\non 24 the april , 1185 ad , the two powerful samurai clans fought to the death on the dan - no - ura bay of japan\u2019s inland sea . the ruling taira clan ( heike ) , was led by their child - emperor , antoku , and his grandmother . the heike had ruled for many decades , but now , massively outnumbered , they faced defeat at the hands of the minamoto .\nduring the battle , a member of the royal household took the seven - year - old emperor antoku and plunged with him into the water in the shimonoseki straits , drowning the child emperor , rather than allowing him to be captured by the opposing forces . his mother and grandmother followed him in their grief . antoku came to be worshipped as mizu - no - kami (\ngod of water\u201d ) .\nthis crucial battle was a cultural and political turning point in japanese history : minamoto yoritomo became the first shogun , or military ruler , of japan . dan - no - ura marked the beginning of seven centuries , in which japan was ruled by warriors and shoguns instead of emperors and aristocrats .\ndefeated heike warriors are turned into crabs as they are tossed from their ships . painting by kuniyoshi . image source .\npareidolia is the brain\u2019s innate ability to see faces in a set of random stimuli .\napril holloway is a co - owner , editor and writer of ancient origins . for privacy reasons , she has previously written on ancient origins under the pen name april holloway , but is now choosing to use her real name , joanna gillan .\ni think the idea that the fishermen throw back the crabs with the samurai faces out of respect for the samurai therefore making the samurai crabs dominant is highly plausible .\ni think it\u2019s a quaint idea but i doubt there\u2019s any truth in it , especially since the crabs are too small to be eaten and other crabs have similar markings .\nregister to become part of our active community , get updates , receive a monthly newsletter , and enjoy the benefits and rewards of our member point system or just post your comment below as a guest .\nthe content of this field is kept private and will not be shown publicly .\nthe largest pre - hispanic civilization in the americas was the inca empire and from their capital city of cusco , rulers known as sapa inka ( quechua for\nthe only inca\u201d ) controlled a vast territory known as tahuantinsuyo , which extended from the south of colombia to the west of present - day argentina .\nwootz steel was amongst the finest in the world . it is the metal that was used to fashion weapons such as the famous damascus blades of the middle ages . however , wootz steel dates back much further . . .\nduring sir charles leonard woolley\u2019s excavation of ur from 1922 to 1934 , any burial without a tomb chamber was given the name \u2018death pit\u2019 ( known also as \u2018grave pits\u2019 ) . arguably the most impressive . . .\nswiss archaeologists seem to have solved a mystery at a famous roman site . they have come to the conclusion that some mysterious shafts at the archaeological site were used as a method of refrigeration .\nmost people who have the rh blood type are rh - positive . there are also instances , however , where people are rh - negative . health problems may occur for the unborn child of a mother with rh - negative blood when the baby is rh - positive .\ndoes a hidden garden hold the encoded secrets of the kabbalists ? hidden away in a cul - de - sac at the base of the towering medieval walls of girona , catalonia , spain , is a tranquil garden . a statue of a long - haired angel stands guard over the entrance , its hands clasped in prayer .\nat ancient origins , we believe that one of the most important fields of knowledge we can pursue as human beings is our beginnings . and while some people may seem content with the story as it stands , our view is that there exists countless mysteries , scientific anomalies and surprising artifacts that have yet to be discovered and explained .\nthe goal of ancient origins is to highlight recent archaeological discoveries , peer - reviewed academic research and evidence , as well as offering alternative viewpoints and explanations of science , archaeology , mythology , religion and history around the globe .\nwe\u2019re the only pop archaeology site combining scientific research with out - of - the - box perspectives .\nby bringing together top experts and authors , this archaeology website explores lost civilizations , examines sacred writings , tours ancient places , investigates ancient discoveries and questions mysterious happenings . our open community is dedicated to digging into the origins of our species on planet earth , and question wherever the discoveries might take us . we seek to retell the story of our beginnings .\nhansik of the day ( ep . 3 ) gejang ( fermented crab ) _ full episode\nclip from carl sagan , cosmos , episode 2 on artificial selection and heike crabs .\ncarl sagan , stephen hawking and arthur c . clarke - god , the universe and everything else ( 1988 )\nthe carapace of this large crab resembles a scowling face , its eyes seething with an ancient fury .\nxp 1 , 200 ne small aberration ( aquatic ) init + 1 ; senses darkvision 60 ft . ; perception + 10 ; aura unnatural aura ( 30 ft . , dc 14 )\nstr 18 , dex 13 , con 18 , int 9 , wis 14 , cha 7 base atk + 3 ; cmb + 6 ( + 10 grapple ) ; cmd 17 ( 25 vs . trip ) feats power attack , skill focus ( intimidate ) , weapon focus ( claw ) skills intimidate + 9 , knowledge ( nobility ) + 4 , perception + 10 , swim + 18 languages common ( can\u2019t speak )\npathfinder roleplaying game bestiary 5 \u00a9 2015 , paizo inc . ; authors : dennis baker , jesse benner , john bennett , logan bonner , creighton broadhurst , robert brookes , benjamin bruck , jason bulmahn , adam daigle , thurston hillman , eric hindley , joe homes , james jacobs , amanda hamon kunz , ben mcfarland , jason nelson , thom phillips , stephen radney - macfarland , alistair rigg , alex riggs , david n . ross , wes schneider , david schwartz , mark seifter , mike shel , james l . sutter , and linda zayas - palmer .\ncheck out our other srd sites ! traveller srd | swords and wizardry srd | 5th edition srd | dungeon world srd | 13th age srd | d20herosrd | the modern path srd | d20pfsrd | 3 . 5e srd | gumshoesrd | fatecoresrd | starjammer srd | ogn articles | design finder 2018 | fudge srd\nhaha , \u201cthe thing ? \u201d you\u2019re giving me shivers now . a sheet of angry samurai faces crawling along the ocean floor is pretty creepy now that you mention it though\u2026\n[ \u2026 ] fuente : introvert japan / japan powered / wikipedia / japan hoppers . [ \u2026 ]\nthe crabs that these traditional japanese tattoos are based on are believed to embody the souls of dead samurai .\nthe downfall of the taira ushered in an era of shogunate rule that lasted for nearly 700 years , during which the art of traditional japanese tattoos rose to prominence among the merchant class . to this very day , the descendants of the heike gather on april 24th at the akama shrine near the sea where their ancestors perished to honor the memory . in the age - old ceremony , people cast nets to catch crabs , throwing the ones with faces on their backs into the water , because they are believed to contain the souls of the doomed samurai .\nandroid apple arrow - right arrow - rounded arrow avatar - follow avatar - hollow avatar - unfollow avatar burger - search calendar caret checkmark clock close comment - filled cross - fashion cross done edit email exit facebook heart icon instagram like - filled like link list location - hollow location logo medium next phone pin - filled play previous review - star path 2 save - plus save scroll - down search share shareemail sharefacebook sharepinterest sharetwitter combined shape created with sketch . star studio - simple go to studio icon tag - button user - lock verified website youtube zoom - in zoom - out\nthe famous story of the genji warrior nasu no yoichi in the fierce 1185 battle of yashima between the genji and heike clans : nasu no yoichi shot an arrow through a fan held by tamamushi , so foretelling the fall of the heike clan at dan - no - ura ( the inland sea ) the following month .\nheikeopsis japonica , a species of crab native to japan , with a shell that bears a pattern resembling a human face .\nthis page was last edited on 12 november 2017 , at 16 : 26 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nthe year was 1185 , the place a tiny bay called dan - no - ura . two great fleets faced one another ; on once side , the heike clan , imperial rulers of japan , and on the other the minamoto , upstarts fighting to control the throne . at stake was control of all japan . after a half - day of fighting , the heike were routed , and their 6 - year old emperor drowned to keep him out of minamoto hands . minamoto yoritomo went on to become the first shogun , or military ruler , of japan .\na strange story arose in the wake of the battle . locals told a legend about crabs in the area with strange patterns on their shells , said to resemble samurai masks . legend held that the crabs were the reincarnations of samurai slain at the battle of dan - no - ura .\nthe crabs do bear an uncanny resemblance to samurai masks . carl sagan speculated in his show cosmos that the resemblance was due to artificial selection . basically , people would throw back crabs that resembled samurai masks , and eat the ones that didn\u2019t . so that put selection pressure on the population to grow shells that resembled masks .\nthe folds and creases are points where muscles attach to the carapace . humans just happen to think they look like faces\u2013or masks\u2013because of a phenomena called pareidolia , where we see faces in random patterns . it\u2019s not quite as cool as reincarnated samurai ghosts , but then again , not many things are .\n[ \u2026 ] just learned about heike crabs a month ago when crystal from gomineko books posted about them . the legend behind them is super [ \u2026 ]\nif you like japanese folklore , a fairly new series called \u201cfolktales from japan\u201d has sprung up on crunchyroll . co . uk . its a collection of the best of japanese folktales come to life and is mostly presented in a way that makes you think its target audience must be older children . still , i watched a few over time and last night watched episode number 18 and completely out of the blue they have put a terrifying horror story called left behind in as the second story . if you have time you really should watch it , its psychologically very scary and definitely not the type of thing i\u2019d show to a child . also i was wondering how anyone in japan manages to find the courage to fish if this tale is common place . i thought maybe i might have a low threshold for horror since i don\u2019t watch it , but there\u2019s a few comments under that video and the fact that it was so mind bogglingly out of the blue and scary seems to be the general consensus .\nthanks for the tip ! it sounds interesting . often the psychological is more terrifying than gore .\nhey thanks for the link ! i watched left behind . the ghost in the show is called a noppero _ bo , which will be the subject of a future post . it was a pretty creepy story !\ncurrently you have javascript disabled . in order to post comments , please make sure javascript and cookies are enabled , and reload the page . click here for instructions on how to enable javascript in your browser .\nwe use cookies so you get the best experience on our website . by using our site , you are agreeing to our cookie policy .\ncarl sagan 222 success secrets - 222 most asked questions on carl sagan - what you need to know edition by evelyn gonzales and publisher emereo publishing . save up to 80 % by choosing the etextbook option for isbn : 9781488572159 , 1488572151 . the print version of this textbook is isbn : 9781488543609 , 1488543607 .\ni claim no rights or ownership to any of the material , pictures , music , diagrams or information provided in this video . for educational and creative purposes only . epic music : requiem for a dream ~ night of the violin { \u266b\nla violoni $ te\n\u266b } urltoken urltoken\nrare 1980\nthe empire strikes back\ninterviews and the future of star wars .\nthe epic recounts the genpei war , an event that radically changed japanese history in the late 12th century . the war involved the imperial taira clan ( later known as heike ) and the warrior minamoto clan as they struggled for control of the imperial throne . the minamoto\u2019s final victory ended the reign of imperial rule in japan and heralded the event of the shogun rule with minamoto yoritomo , the first military ruler .\nthe final battle in this story is the battle of dan - no - ura . while the taira had retained power through the child emperor antoku , years of fighting had left the taira weak , and their numbers dwindled . the taira had retreated to their fortress on the island of yashima , and were holed up there protecting the seven year old emperor . the minamoto\u2019s landed a small force on the rear of the island , lighting bonfires and making it look like they were staging a full attack . the taira , thinking the armies were behind them , and worried that the fortress would be breached took to the water , escaping in a number of boats . the attack had been a ruse , and the main forces of minamoto\u2019s army were waiting for them in a flotilla of ships . while the taira were easily outnumbered , their skillful archers put in a valiant effort and the forces seemed to be evenly matched .\nunfortunately for the taira , bad omens started occurring ; a white banner unfurled itself from the heavens upon a minamoto boat , and a number of dolphins swam towards the taira . these omens all portended to the defeat of the taira , and so a number of their allies deserted and betrayed them . knowing that they were facing certain defeat , the emperor\u2019s grandmother took the young child in her arms and slipped quietly off the boat , preferring drowning over capture . many of the taira samurai followed suit , leading to a minamoto victory .\nthe crabs , which are native to the inland sea ( the location of the battle ) are thought to be the re - incarnation of the many samurai who died that day . the locals refuse to eat the crabs that are marked with faces ( not all are ) , throwing them back into the sea . carl sagan famously did a piece on his show cosmos on the crabs , claiming that they were a perfect example of artificial selection ; after all , not being eaten makes spreading one\u2019s genes easier . while sagan\u2019s theory has garnered criticism , one thing is certain :\nthe battle of dannoura resulted in the destruction of the crab village of dannoura .\ntwo twins from the yasuki family , grew apart in the years after the first yasuki war . yasuki heike remained with the crane and was fostered into the daidoji , but he kept his original family name . his brother yasuki taira joined the crab and was given command of the coastal village of dannoura . [ 1 ]\nno one was certain what prompted the battle between brothers , but the result was the death of both along with hundreds of their men , while dannoura burned to the ground . [ 1 ]\nthis battle related article is a stub . that means that it has been started , but is incomplete . you can help by expanding this article .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\namusing planet is a small , independently - run website that relies entirely on advertising revenue to survive . researching , fact checking , and writing articles for this website takes several hours every day , and the only monetary compensation for that work comes from displaying ads that you\u2019ve chosen to block . so if you are a regular reader of amusing planet , please consider supporting this website by whitelisting us in your adblocker settings . thanks \u2764\nin a small seaside park near the kanmonkyo bridge , in the japanese city of shimonoseki , stands two bronze statues depicting two samurai warriors locked in mortal combat . the statues are flanked by replicas of cannons and ships . the monument commemorate a historic battle that took place in this area more than eight centuries ago .\nthe year was 1185 . two powerful fleets , one consisting of the heike clan , the imperial rulers of japan , and the other consisting of the minamoto , who were fighting for control of the throne , faced each other one april morning on tiny bay called dan - no - ura in japan\u2019s inland sea . in the fierce battle that followed , hundreds of samurai warriors lost their lives and their bodies slipped between the waves to the bottom of the sea . at the end of the day , the minamoto came out victorious ; the heike were routed and their 6 - year old emperor was drowned by his grandmother to prevent his capture . minamoto yoritomo went on to become the first shogun , or military ruler , of japan .\nhowever , the heike crabs are tiny\u2014about four centimeters\u2014 and nobody actually ate them , and so the fishermen used to throw them from the nets . besides , crabs with human - like shells have been found all throughout the world .\nthe folds and creases that resembles a snarling samurai face are actually the points where muscles attach to the carapace . they just happen to look like the face of an angry samurai , thanks to our innate ability to find faces in random objects\u2014a phenomena called pareidolia .\nthe sculptures at mimosusogawa park in shimonoseki . photo credit : hidetsugu tonomura / flickr\ncrab tattoos are always a funky design that look even better with a japanese twist ."]}
{"id": 1599, "summary": [{"text": "the finnieston crane or stobcross crane is a disused giant cantilever crane ( hammerhead crane ) in the centre of glasgow , scotland .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is no longer in working order , but is retained as a symbol of the city 's engineering heritage .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the crane was used for loading cargo , in particular steam locomotives , onto ships to be exported around the world .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it is one of four such cranes on the river clyde , a fifth one having been demolished in 2007 , and one of only eleven giant cantilever cranes remaining worldwide .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the crane can be seen in the background of news broadcasts from bbc pacific quay . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "finnieston crane", "paragraphs": ["finnieston crane is a listed and the north rotunda and custom house are b listed .\nfinnieston crane glasgow - retained as a symbol of the city ' s engineering heritage .\nit is officially known as the stobcross crane ( or , to the navigation trust as clyde navigation trustees crane # 7 ) , but its proximity to finnieston quay , and the fact that it was intended to replace the previous finnieston crane , has led to its being popularly known as the finnieston crane .\ndeacon blue singer ricky ross photographed in front of the finnieston crane . picture : robert perry\noblique aerial view centred on the bridge with finnieston cantilever crane adjacent , taken from the n .\nthe finnieston crane is one of glasgow\u2019s most iconic monuments - and one of its most unusual .\nthe finnieston crane ( also known as the stobcross crane ) is the largest of the cantilever cranes , of which four remain along the river .\nthere are only 15 surviving cantilever structures like the finnieston crane in britain , seven of which are in scotland .\na bright yellow question mark has been hung from glasgow\u2019s finnieston crane as a tribute to the scottish artist george wyllie .\nambitious plans to house a restaurant at the top of glasgow ' s finnieston crane have taken a huge step forward .\nalthough the finnieston crane was actually part of the stobcross quay and should accurately be referred to as the stobcross crane ; it derives its title from the crane it was built to replace ; the old finnieston crane which stood just at the end of the squinty bridge , the actual locations can be seen in the map above .\nthe finnieston crane is a crane and landmark in glasgow , scotland . it is now disused but is retained as a symbol of the city ' s engineering heritage .\nranald macinnes , principal inspector with historic scotland , said :\nthe finnieston crane is a much - loved glasgow landmark .\nfinnieston in glasgow has been named the hippest place to live in the uk .\n[ 1 ] the finnieston crane in 1957 . ( source : ben brooksbank / wikimedia commons ) [ 2 ] the docks in 1950 . ( source : rcahms ) [ 3 ] the \u201cfinnieston crane\u201d at stobcross quay , 1955 . ( source : burrell collection photo library , 1955 survey / the glasgow story ) [ 4 ] the finnieston crane holding the straw locomotive by george wyllie , 1987 ( source : wikimedia commons ) [ 5 ] story on a planned restaurant up the finnieston crane . ( source : evening times , 06 / 09 / 06 ) [ 6 ] the 1892 ordnance survey overlaid with the original location of the finnieston crane .\nhello gordon , was there ever a titan crane located in the broomielaw just east of finnieston street . this is to settle a discussion .\nno future events currently found at finnieston crane in glasgow ( view past events ) . check out the similar venues below or view events in glasgow .\nthe finnieston crane , floodlit during the glasgow garden festival in 1988 . the crane was situated directly opposite the festival site , which was on the south bank of the river clyde . a straw locomotive by artist george wyllie was hung from the end of the crane .\nmr wyllie ' s most memorable pieces of public art included a straw locomotive suspended from the finnieston crane in glasgow and a paper boat launched on the river clyde .\nfinnieston crane news 8 oct 2015 \u2013 we were advised today by e - mail of plans now with glasgow city council , to apparently build a 10 storey hotel complex \u201cwith massive interactive billboards on the street and blocking vies of the now iconic buildings at finnieston street . \u201d\nuse this fun activity sheet to challenge your class to create their own version of glasgow ' s finnieston crane . this resource is available in standard and super eco colour .\nthe \u2018finnieston crane\u2019 , actually the proper description should be the \u2018stobcross crane\u2019 was built in the early 1930s to replace a 130 ton steam crane which was located about 100m upstream of it . it was called the finnieston crane . the reason for removing it was to make way for a high level bridge at the location now occupied by the clyde arc ( squinty bridge ) . ships would have been able to pass under it . however , the great depression in the late 1920s put paid to the idea of building a bridge the until the start of the 21st century . as a result the old finnieston crane remained in use and it\u2019s intended replacement was completed and called the stobcross crane ( or crane no 7 in the clyde navigation trust\u2019s plant inventories ) . there had been an earlier stobcross crane of around 50 ton swl , which was big in its day\ni\u2019d like to know why , on both our visits to glasgow , you\u2019ve neglected to take us on an illegal nighttime climb of the finnieston crane . seems an oversight to me \ud83d\ude42\nthe finnieston or stobcross giant cantliever crane by cowans sheldon and co . of carlisle and cleveland bridge and engineering co . ( cantilever ) was buit in 1931 ( operating from 1932 ) .\nfor ( associated and adjacent ) stobcross quay ( ns 5674 6532 ) and finnieston cantilever crane ( ns 57103 65151 ) , see ns56ne 123 . 00 and ns56ne 123 . 01 respectively .\nthe finnieston crane has loomed over the clyde since 1932 and stands 165ft high , with a 253ft cantilever . when it was commissioned in 1926 , its owners , the clyde navigation trust christened it with the catchy moniker , clyde navigation trustees crane # 7 .\nin the years since , the finnieston crane has been the subject of a great deal of speculation . while the crane itself is category a listed , there have been many attempts to ' turn it into something\u2019 but of course , it already is something .\n\u2022 the titan crane at clydebank - once towering over the john brown shipyard the crane is now a tourist attraction . picture : stephen mansfield\nit is a monument to glasgow and a symbol of everything that glasgow has both lost and gained in the 20th century . if the finnieston crane never moves again , it will forever be something .\nthe new macron - designed \u2018built for glasgow\u2019 kit features the warriors\u2019 standard colours of black and light blue , with a design of the famous finnieston crane on light blue panels on the side of the shirt .\nthe finnieston ( or stobcross ) crane is a perfect example of maritime engineering . it was built for one purpose only - to load glasgow - built railway carriages onto ships to be transported all over the world .\nthe crane mostly carried steam locomotives which were brought down from the railyards in springburn for export . the crane would wheecht them up and onto the waiting ships .\na spokeswoman for clydeport said :\nwe have had further meetings with glasgow city council regarding plans to develop the finnieston crane into a restaurant with office buildings looking on to the clyde - and the response has been positive .\nit was a 130 ton steam crane built in the 1890s and a sister crane was built in the princes dock in front of govan town hall . a third heavy lift crane , called the clyde villa crane was located on plantation quay at the berth now occupied by the paddle steamer waverley ( the quay was renamed pacific quay in the past few years )\nthe greenock crane is the one my grandfather climbed back when he worked in the yard .\ndescribed as\na buzzing neighbourhood\n, finnieston has undergone a host of changes in recent years which helped it beat london ' s bllackhorse road to the top spot .\nthe cantilever crane was built for the clyde navigation trust by cowans , sheldon & co of carlisle , to replace the trust ' s crane at finnieston . work on the crane , which had a lifting capacity of 175 tons ( 178 tonnes ) , was completed in 1932 . the crane was used to lift boilers and engines into new ships , and to load heavy goods such as locomotives and tanks . the domed roof in the background belongs to the south rotunda on mavisbank quay , which contained the entrances and hoists which gave access to the glasgow harbour tunnel .\nthe opening of the queen ' s dock and the railway spelt the end of stobcross house and finnieston . cut and built in giffnock stone , the dock transformed the area into a city service centre , legacies of which are still evident . it was filled for the scottish exhibition centre . only the finnieston crane , 1932 , by cowans sheldon , now recalls the mercantile bustle . the crane could load railway engines and tanks on to cargo ships , which is said to be one reason for its survival . otherwise the engineering works have gone .\nit is a giant - cantilever crane , measuring 50 . 24metres ( 165 ft ) tall with a 77 metre ( 253 ft ) cantilever jib . it has a lifting capacity of 175 tons . it can be ascended either by a steel staircase or an electric lift . the actual finnieston crane was located a bit further upriver on the site now occupied by the city inn .\nthe imposing form of the finnieston crane also features in willie rodger\u2019s 100 foot long mural for the exhibition centre rail station painted in 1988 . the kirkintillock - born printmaker works with the economical lines of lino - cut , producing bold imagery that captures the character of the city and its people .\ninitially called the stobcross crane ( or , to give it its much stiffer formal title , the clyde navigation trustees crane # 7 ) , the structure is a permanent reminder of glasgow\u2019s once - mighty industrial past , but the city\u2019s current inhabitants - especially artists - have made use of the crane\u2019s dominance of the skyline .\na major glasgow hotel has already expressed an interest in developing the crane which is in a prime location .\nin 1987 the glasgow sculptor george wylie created a memorable and poignant artwork , the straw locomotive , for the finnieston crane in 1987 . made from straw in the form of a full size locomotive , the sculpture processed slowly through the streets , then dangled from the crane for two weeks , twisting slowly in the wind , before being brought down and set ablaze , as a commemoration of this once vital industry .\nthere are some absolutely stunning images of the city taken from the crane at night here , by the cycleologist .\nhaving lived directly on the clyde for a few years , i really grew to love this view . it was industrial and dramatic and the showstopper was when the waverley paddlesteammer would sail past my window on it\u2019s way down the clyde\u201d . the clyde has transformed completely over the past few decades and with all the shipyards more or less gone , the finnieston crane and the titan crane stand as monuments to what went before .\nplans can be viewed on the council website : 15 / 02220 / dc site formerly known as 200 finnieston street , glasgow . erection of hotel with ancillary facilities , car parking and associated works .\nopen only seasonally from may to october each year , bungee jumps from the crane\u2019s summit are available on limited dates .\nstraw locomotive was a 78ft effigy of a steam engine constructed from steel , straw and chicken wire that wyllie suspended from the landmark finnieston crane in may 1987 . it was later taken to springburn engineering works , once the heart of the glasgow locomotive industry , and set ablaze in what the artist described as a viking funeral .\nthe crane was commissioned in 1926 by the clyde navigation trust , the operators of the port and dock facilities in glasgow .\nthe opening of the queen\u00bfs dock and the railway spelt the end of stobcross house and finnieston . cut and built in giffnock stone , the dock transformed the area into a city service centre , legacies of which are still evident . it was filled for the scottish exhibition centre ( see below ) . only the finnieston crane , 1932 , by cowans sheldon , now recalls the mercantile bustle . the craine could load railway engines and tanks on to cargo ships , which is said to be one reason for its survival . otherwise the engineering works have gone .\nthe clydebank crane is the only grade \u2018a\u2019 listed structure in clydebank . it is one of five titans designed for the clyde shipyards by william arrol . the crane was one of the key targets for destruction in wwii but managed to survive the blitz .\nas scotland\u2019s manufacturing sector declined in subsequent decades , so did the use of the crane . it was last operational in 1988 - the docks that housed the crane were closed much earlier , in 1969 . at the time of its construction , it was the largest hammer - head crane of its type in europe - now , it is one of only 11 cantilever cranes in existence .\na giant straw sculpture in the shape of a locomotive , designed by scottish artist george wyllie , was hung from the crane in 1987 . as a tribute to wyllie , who passed away in 2012 , a question mark was hung from the crane in tribute . lately , the crane has been a temporary pub , a musical instrument , and a vertigo - inducing platform for stunt cycling .\nit\u2019s true . you can\u2019t have a party up the top a\u2019 that finnieston cran but you can read this post and learn all about it . if history\u2019s taught us one thing , it\u2019s that learning\u2019s much more fun than parties .\nclydebank shipbuilder john brown & co ltd awarded arrol a design and build contract for the crane in december 1905 . they specified an overhead rotating cantilever with a fixed jib . sometimes called a hammerhead crane because of its shape , this type came to be much used in ship construction and for loading extremely heavy items , such as locomotives , into vessels . construction of the clydebank crane began in 1906 .\nit is part of a series of events that pay homage to the life of wyllie , who died last may . the artist adopted the question mark as his trademark , reflecting his interest in questioning conventional artforms . one of his most famous artworks was the straw locomotive , a sculpture that was hung from the finnieston crane for several months in 1987 , before being taken down and burned .\ncommissioned in the first years of the 20th century , the crane was built in the heart of the shipbuilding hub of clydebank and finished in 1907 . a hundred years later , titan crane reopened as one of scotland\u2019s most unique tourist attractions , acting as a lookout point over glasgow .\nthe titan crane on queens quay at clydebank , west of glasgow , is the oldest giant cantilever crane in the world . fewer than 60 such cranes were built worldwide , the overwhelming majority of them by sir william arrol & co \u2014 at may 2011 it was thought that only 11 were extant , four of them along the river clyde . the clydebank crane is no longer operational but has been refurbished and can be visited .\ngordon , you mention that a \u2018scale model\u2019 was made of the govan titan crane . any idea where this is currently located ? i know that some equipment from the crane ( hoists etc . ) was sent to the scottish maritime museum in irvine . any information would be much appreciated !\ntwo bulging packs of lessons have been created , one for primary and one for secondary children , with innovative ideas for teaching youngsters about the crane in every subject from using the geometry of the crane in maths , to drawing it in art and writing reports on it in english lessons .\ni ' m glad they ' ve chosen the guy that runs gamba and papingo . these are very pleasant places to eat and i ' m relieved that they are going for the exclusive end of the market rather than some sort of tgi friday clone . i think , on balance , i ' m pleased at the crane being put to this new use but i hope they take care not to obliterate the crane ' s silhouette by building within the crane ' s tower and i hope that the proposed office block doesn ' t distract from the majestic isolation of the crane .\nthe crane passed its commissioning tests and was accepted by john browns on 24 april 1907 . despite being a major target during the war , the crane and shipyard survived the devastating clydebank blitz in march 1941 . more information on the clydeside blitz can be found at the blitz on clydeside website .\na century - old crane that has been transformed into a popular tourist attraction , the titan is one of scotland ' s most unusual engineering feats .\nthough derigged and no longer operational , the crane has been used for several high profile arts projects . one of the most well - known took place in 1987 , when the artist george wyllie used the crane to suspend a straw locomotive for eight weeks , before being ceremoniously burned . in 2013 , artist bill fontana captured the sounds of the crane by attaching microphones to it , turning it into a musical installation in a project commissioned by the glasgow unesco city of music project . the crane features prominently as part of a newly redeveloped riverscape , and forms part of the backdrop to bbc and stv news broadcasts .\nkey to its success is passing on memories , and former workers at the yard have been recruited to relate their days under the shadow of the titan crane .\n\u201cit was me , ma sister and ma da , and we wur huvin\u2019 a party . but somehow we wur huvin\u2019 it up the top a\u2019 that finnieston cran . that\u2019s whut makes me \u2018hink it nevur happened ' cuz that canny be done . \u201d - dee dee , limmy\u2019s show\nthe titan towers 150 ft over the clyde , and on a clear evening you can see the mighty cantilever crane from miles away , thanks to its nightly illuminations .\noriginally known as the stobcross crane , it was built for the clyde navigation trust by cowans , sheldon & co of carlisle in 1932 . the cantilever crane stands 195 feet high and has a hammerhead jib of 152 feet . it was used to transfer boilers and engines into new vessels and load heavy machinery such as railway locomotives onto freighters .\ntoday the crane remains as a landmark , a category a listed structure , and one of the most identifiable images of glasgow . during the 1988 glasgow garden festival ( sited on the princes dock on the opposite bank of the river ) a full - size replica locomotive , made from straw by local sculptor george wyllie , was suspended from the crane .\nconnected to a spur of the stobcross railway , the crane ' s primary purpose was to lift massive boilers and engines onto new ships ; at the time glasgow was one of the leading shipbuilding cities in the world . with the decline of the shipbuilding industry , the crane survived with a secondary use , loading heavy machinery \u00e2\u20ac\u201c mainly springburn ' s then renowned locomotives \u00e2\u20ac\u201c for export . with the downturn in seafaring trade , use of the crane continued to decline and it fell completely into disuse in the early 1990s .\nthe crane ' s capacity was 175 tons . it is 175 ft high with a 152 ft jib which could make a full revolution , of 1 , 000 ft at the tip of the jib , in 3\u00bd minutes . it was built by the carlisle firm cowans , sheldon & co . at the time it was the largest hammerhead crane in europe .\njust next to a junkyard , and itself next to a listed building of the former diesel works , this crane is visible from the m8 as you approach glasgow from the west .\nbuilt in 1926 at the time it was the largest hammer - head crane anywhere in europe ( standing at 59 metres , 195 feet ) and it was always in great demand .\nit also has a rather cleverly designed sloping glass wall which allows a full view of the crane from inside \u2013 no mean feat when it is almost directly below this 150ft giant .\nthe steel sculpture , called the big clyde question mark , weighs a ton and was hoisted into place to hang from the crane\u2019s arm , where it will remain until next february .\nadvertisementnow clydeport is carrying out a feasibility study to ensure the giant cantilever crane could be successfully developed into what would be a unique dining experience with fine views over the river clyde .\nthe scale model of the crane you are referring to sat in the entrance foyer of sir william arrol & co . ltd where i worked for five years . . from memory it was a model of the crane built in belfast for harland & wolff . just for clarity folks none of these cranes are \u201ctitan\u201d cranes , they are giant cantilever cranes . best regards gordon campbell\ndirections : from the crane continue along the riverside to the rotunda . it ' s now a straight path all the way along to the suspension brideg at the end of the walk .\nin the 1980s the crane came to be regarded as a symbol of glasgow ' s industrial past . although seldom used for its original purpose , the crane is still in working order . in the past it has been used to load tanks onto ships , and could do so again , should the need arise . it is sometimes used for fundraising events such as abseiling .\nconnected to a spur of the stobcross railway , the crane ' s primary purpose was the lifting of heavy machinery \u2013 mainly springburn ' s then renowned steam locomotives \u2013 onto ships for export . with the decline of locomotive manufacturing and other heavy engineering in the city during the 1960s , use of the crane continued to decline and it fell completely into disuse in the early 1990s .\nthe fifth crane , at govan , despite also being category a listed , was demolished in 2007 . sadly , the justification was that the yard needed the space to remain economically viable , and the only option was to demolish the crane . despite the fact a scale model of it was made , i still feel its a shame that it couldn\u2019t have been moved or otherwise retained for display elsewhere .\nduring construction , small sub - assemblies of the cantilever weighing just a few tons were lifted by means of hand - powered cranes and riveted in place after first fixing with temporary bolts and adjusted for alignment etc . for lifting the heavier sections of machinery , a steam powered crane was provided . the crane was initially fitted with two ' hoists ' the main one able to lift very heavy loads of up to 150tons and a 30ton ' auxiliary ' hoist to ensure that the crane remained useful for lifting lighter loads , as the very heavy lifts were comparatively few . this lifting capacity was increased to 200tons in 1938 to assist with the war effort .\nthe docks having long since been filled in to be replaced with the scottish exhibition and conference centre and the clyde auditorium . the north rotunda ( part of the defunct clyde harbour tunnel ) stands next to the crane .\nit is a 174 ft high cantilever crane built in the 1920s , and it began operating in 1932 with the rather unornamental job of lifting railway carriages , engines and other heavy structures onto ships docked on the river clyde .\ni reckon its a horrible idea . any insertion of occupiable space into the crane would destroy its integrity as an object . it would end up as quite a disneyesque object that would trivialise the industrial heritage of its origins .\nlittle else remained of the town after the blitz \u2013 just eight houses in this town of 47 , 000 souls remained untouched \u2013 but the titan crane was undamaged , a symbol of the industry and survival which had created this community .\nthe steel superstructure was bolted together in sections , adjusted for alignment and then riveted . pieces of the sub - assembly and the machinery were lifted into place either by manually operated derricks or a steam - powered crane , depending upon weight .\norignally part of john brown\u2019s yard in clydebank , this crane now has a lift and staircase erected next to it , allowing the visitor to see the town from a unique angle . the view from the top is stunning , to say the least\u2026\nin the third line of photos , you can see renowned scul ? tor george wyllie\u2019s straw locomotive which was suspended from the crane during the 1988 garden festival . the locomotive was brought to the crane down the old route from the railworks in springburn before being taken back up the road where it was burned on the derelict site of the old hyde park works , revealing wyllie\u2019s trademark question mark . if you\u2019re going to plough in with some heavy handed imagery , plough in with some viking heavy handed imagery .\nthe titan , weighing in at more than 800 tonnes , was erected at the brown\u2019s shipyard , the former site of which is just north of the crane ' s location . its steel frame is 49m high , with cantilever frames 45 . 7m and 27 . 4m long , rotating above a square lattice girder tower some 12m wide . the crane is founded on boulder clay on four concrete piles extending 23m below ground level . the centreline of the tower is just 10 . 7m from the edge of the quay .\nthe crane is an a - listed building and , while we have been told historic scotland are in principle happy with the concept , we are currently conducting a full feasibility study into the development to ensure any work carried out complies with appropriate regulations .\nduring 1988 garden festival a huge straw built locomotive was suspended from the crane as a nostalgic reminder . it is one of the emblems of glasgow , partly for its iconic status in the cities industrial past and partly because of the way it still dominates the skyline .\nhowever , today ' s residents will never line the banks of the clyde to watch a ship launch from here again , as all that remains of the famous john brown ' s shipyard is the titan crane which made such giant vessels possible . since a 3m refit of the crane in 2007 , via government - owned regeneration company clydebank re - built , installed a lift , visitors have been able to visit the top in just seconds rather than the 30 minutes it took the original operators to climb the ladders to the top .\nimagine the movement in the cantilever as you get out towards the end . rather him than me ! to give you an idea of the movement in the crane check out bill fontana\u2019s silent echoes project which lets you hear every yawning creak of the structure moving in the wind .\nmad , but genius mad . if they can put a table on top of battersea power station , this should be a doddle . be good to see the crane brought back to productive use . i presume it will require a lift and fit out similar to the clydebank titan .\nthe crane was never meant to be an object to be looked at and admired , it was there to be used . it ' s integrity would be ruined by leaving it dormant . any conversion into a useable space would have to be done incredibly sympathetically , and carefully however .\nit survived the bombs of the second world war and enabled the construction of some of the world ' s most famous ships . ahead of the opening of an education centre in its honour , our reporter traces the history of clydebank shipbuilding and the structure that made it possible , the titan crane\nanother consideration was the height to which the crane would have to lift a load in order to clear the structure of the ship , known as the ' lifting range ' , and the distance out from the quay side a load could be taken , known as the ' radial capacity ' .\nhaha what a good idea . although it could end up ruining the industrial look and historic aspect of the crane in the process . it would have to be done very tastefully , minimalistic almost . . . but i ' d eat there ( if i had the money ) . . .\nthe crane ' s image is used extensively in the media , including by bbc scotland news programmes and for the quintessentially glaswegian crime drama taggart . it stands as a symbol to the industrial heartland that glasgow and clydeside were in the early to mid - 20th century , and of the downturn of those industries .\npeter harford - cross , of the architectural firm , says :\nthe idea was we would have this big bank of windows looking right up at the crane and in bad weather some of the children could sit here and draw it while others had a lesson in the interactive area . it wasn ' t easy !\nperhaps its a political sort of notion but i beleive that there is an integrity to it only as a crane and a certain poignancy to it sitting there disused . the very machinery of the trade that made glasgow what it is sitting there idle speaks more poetically than a base commercial reuse of a structure just because its avaiable .\ncreated by the firm collective architecture , the glass - fronted building contains an open - plan classroom area with benches and a whiteboard area , as well as models of some of the famous vessels built using the crane as well as a display of trinkets , photographs and documents , such as letters sent by passengers from the ships themselves .\nin 1988 its future was secured when it was given a - listed status , putting it on a par with edinburgh and stirling castle . that was to be a lonely future , however , as in 1999 the yard and engineering works on the 100 - acre site was sold , closed and eventually demolished . the titan then stood alone in clydebank , a survivor of the industry which had created it . it had built some of the most famous and largest sea - going vessels the world had ever seen : from the world ' s largest ship , the lusitania , to the clyde ' s biggest ship , the queen mary , warships during the second world war with their heavy artillery and the royal yacht britannia . but it wasn ' t a solitary survivor , 11 titans still exist around the world from australia to japan , and three others , including the finnieston crane up - river , still stand on the banks of the clyde .\non 19 november 1968 , above the crowds watching the qe2 launch , 150 feet ( 46 metres ) tall and motionless , stood the blue giant titan crane that had made it possible to build the iconic ship . it had stood in the same spot for decades , rising above the flames and destruction as the town burned during the bombing raids of the second world war .\nthere is still an arrol titan on the tyne and the one and only titan built by babcock & wilcox of renfrew for j samuel white\u2019s shipyard at cowes on the isle of wight is still standing but not in good nick . there was an arrol designed titan at the royal australian navy base at sydney until earlier this year but it was under a demolition order and may well be gone now . it was built during ww2 to replace an arrol - built titan at the royal navy base at singapore which had been destroyed by british forces just in advance of the japanese invasion to prevent it from falling into enemy hands . another scottish - built titan still stands in the harbour at nagasaki , japan . it was built by motherwell bridge engineering for the mitsu bishi shipyard there . it was to be the marker the us air force would use to drop the atomic bomb in 1945 . however , the weather was very cloudy and they failed to find the crane as a result of which the crane survived but the bomb landed in a more residential area of nagasaki . today the crane is regarded as a sort of memorial to those who died .\nhowever , many lamented the fact there was nothing here but the view and the memories which would soon disappear with time . in a bid to preserve the history for a new generation , an education centre , built at the bottom of the crane , will open next tuesday to ensure the tales of this giant icon of a dying trade that touched the lives of millions will live on .\ntotally agree , legs - great idea and good choice of folks to run the joint , but i can only hope they don ' t touch the outside of the crane anymore than they have to . . . it would be such a shame to see such beauty wasted just so people can dine about higher up than usual . . . the outside of this tower needs to be left alone !\nbuild your own delightfully detailed 1 : 1200 scale model of glasgow\u2019s iconic \u2018finnie monster\u2019 crane in photo - etched brass . the ingeniously intricate design features a rotating jib with a sliding trolley , complete with a hook block , just like the real thing . a great gift for the industrially minded and perfect for posting . this make - your - own kit requires no glue to assemble , just concentration and nimble fingers !\n\u201cplease can i urge you to join residents and other local groups to submit an objection to the current planning application as it will completely ruin the now globally recognised glasgow skyline ! ! ! if these plans go ahead it will ruin the local , chic ethos of this eclectic up and coming area , should we allow it to become like las vegas ! ! ! ! ! but mainly the beautiful skyline of glasgow will be completely ruined . in recent years glasgow has hosted many globally recognised events and this will help generate tourism to the city as a whole . finnieston has a fantastic feel about it and there is no place for a ten story hotel there , i am sure there would be better suited locations for it . \u201d\ni don ' t think the idea is necessarily bad - lots of industrial structures by the ruhr in germany no longer needed for their orginal purpose have been reused very sucessfully - but i ' d struggle to imagine how you could put a sufficiently large restaurant up there without siginificantly compromising the crane . i think the jules verne restaurant in the eiffel tower is meant to be very good ( food wise ) , though maybe that ' s the exception that proves the rule .\nclydebank rebuilt ltd , a local urban regeneration company , acquired 4ha of the site , including the crane , in 2004 . work to restore it began the following year and was completed in july 2007 under engineer arup ' s supervision , at a cost of about \u00a33 . 75m . the task included installing a lift tower and illuminating the structure after dark . it is open to the public between may and september , and can accommodate up to 60 people on the jib . the original operating machinery has been preserved .\nfar below , thousands of men and women poured out of clydebank ' s factories . foremen at the nearby singer sewing machine factory ordered workers not to leave , but in vain , as the crowds swarmed out of the doors regardless , along streets towards the river to a spot underneath the shipyard ' s giant crane . this was a moment no - one in this town wanted to miss : one still etched on the hearts and memories of those who were there \u2013 the launching of the rms queen elizabeth 2 .\nfor versatility , the crane was equipped with two hoists . the main one was capable of lifting 152 tonnes , and the auxilliary 30 . 5 tonnes . its operating machinery ( except the roller path ) was supplied by stothert & pitt of bath . the original lifting capacity was increased to 203 tonnes in 1938 , when world war ii navy ships , such as the battleship hms duke of york ( keel laid 1937 , launched 1940 ) , were being fitted out . though clydebank suffered in the heavy enemy bombing of march 1941 , the titan was not damaged .\nthese unforgettable scenes in 1968 had their roots in a decision more than 60 years earlier by shipyard owners and sheffield steelmakers john brown & co , who took the forward - thinking step to order the latest in technology : the world ' s first electrically - driven cantilever crane , from the same firm which made the forth rail bridge and london ' s tower bridge . it could be controlled by one man and lift tremendous weights of up to 150 tonnes , allowing the yard to create the biggest ships in the world , heaving the enormous steam boilers and engines the ocean - going giants needed .\nhowever , he does have one abiding regret \u2013 that he left before he had a chance to work on the qe2 .\nthat was the curse of my life . it went against the grain with me that i never worked on it . a lot of people in clydebank have a love affair with that ship .\nat the time of the launch he was working in the singer factory when the managers made an announcement :\nthey told us , ' nobody is to leave your place to watch . ' but they might as well have been talking to that crane out there . everyone just walked out and they couldn ' t sack everyone .\nlocal author james cowan described a trip up the crane and to the far end of the jib in 1935 : ' a noticeable peculiarity of each lateral movement was that it was not continuous , but took place in gentle jerks of a few inches at a time . the object of this is to prevent the load at the end of the cables acquiring a swinging motion , which would soon render the accurate placing of any load a matter of great difficulty and danger . . . i saw the heavy machinery . . . placed in a few minutes into a space where there was hardly an inch to spare on one side or the other , all the directions during this delicate operation being conveyed to the craneman by signs , and blasts on a whistle . . . '\ndestroy its integrity as an object ? what the * * * * does that mean ? why not breathe life into the old beast ? let it become a functional object again in a new era . open it up to the public and people from all over the world and of all ages - then when they are there you can educate them and remind them of its great past and glasgow ' s former industrial might . most people at the moment dont bat an eyelid or think theres that big old crane . this is a positive , why just let it sit there as a dead monument to the past ? let it be alive and productive once more . there are thousands of dead cranes , statues and monuments around the world - why not do something different . i cant see this as anything but a positive .\nordnance survey licence number 100057073 . all rights reserved . \u00a9 copyright and database right 2018 .\nyou must be signed in to do this . please login or register now .\nprince ' s dock and queen ' s dock , glasgow . oblique aerial photograph taken facing north - west .\nqueen ' s dock and prince ' s dock , glasgow . oblique aerial photograph taken facing north - west .\nprince ' s and queen ' s docks , glasgow . oblique aerial photograph taken facing north - west . this image has been produced from a print .\none of four surviving on the clyde , the other three being : formerjohn brown shipyard , glasgow ( sir wiliam arrol and co . , 1907 , 150 tons ) ; watt dock greenock , inverclyde ( sir wiliam arrol and co . , 1917 , 150 tons ) and former barclay curle north british diesel engine works , south street , glasgow ( sir william arrol and co . , 1920 , 150 tons ) , it is one of 11 surviving worldwide .\ntaken from\ngreater glasgow : an illustrated architectural guide\n, by sam small , 2008 . published by the rutland press urltoken\nvisited by rcahms ( agch ) 13 may 2015 , information from martin conlon 14 december 2015 .\nselected writings and things . not all the entries are about old cinemas . honest .\nboth my grandfathers have links to shipbuilding on the clyde ; my maternal grandfather worked on the qe2 , and many other ships ; his speciality was working on propellar shafts . my paternal grandfather was a clerk in the yard at greenock . both would have been very familiar with the titan cranes that make up such an iconic part of the shipbuilding heritage of the river .\n42 were built originally around the world , of which 40 were designed by willaim arrol ltd . 27 of those were in the uk , of which ( in 1988 ) 15 still existed , of which 7 were in scotland .\nuntil quite recently , there were five titan cranes left on the clyde ; there were also two at rosyth on the east coast .\nthe most famous titan ; this can be seen in the background of most bbc scotland news studio reports .\nthe rosyth cranes appear to have been demolished around 1990 ; a great photo of one of these cranes can be seen on the rcahms website here .\nthere\u2019s something about these titan cranes \u2013 their elegance as objects designed to do a job , but in the best possible way \u2013 that reminds me of the forth bridge ; in some ways , they are all practical , but at the same time , they become beautiful , and well worth fighting to make sure some remain .\nold buildings fan , ex - scientist , software dev , old cinemas buff , occasional boffin & cow - wrangler . too many books , too few bookshelves .\ni * think * it is part of glasgow museum\u2019s collections now \u2013 not sure how you\u2019d go about finding it though . can put you in touch with someone at gm if you\u2019d like ?\nold buildings fan , ex - scientist , software dev , old cinemas buff , occasional boffin & cow - wrangler . too many books , too few bookshelves . co - editor of @ scottishcinemas and works at @ archhfund\nrt @ mrtimdunn : lots of chat today about # oxfordstreet not being pedestrianised . simple solution ! just follow the 1951 proposal for a bennie\u2026 3 days ago\nrt @ emilyvcole : now here ' s something i hadn ' t thought about before - the protection given to monuments during the second world war . the ' sh\u2026 4 days ago\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n> biography of hunter > more modern industrial machinery > show me other items from the 1900s > show me more in west dumbartonshire > all items by sir william arrol & co . ltd > all items by adam hunter > all items by arup\nall the remaining titan cranes along the clyde are category a listed structures . two were also constructed by arrol and are each capable of lifting 152 tonnes . they can be found at james watt dock , greenock ( 1917 ) , and scotstoun , glasgow ( 1920 ) . the third was built by cowans sheldon & co ltd at stobcross quay , glasgow ( 1931 ) and has a lifting capacity of 178 tonnes . a fifth was demolished in 2007 .\nas shipbuilding , and later oil rig construction , at the site dwindled , the clydebank titan became neglected . it was last used in the mid 1980s , and was designated category a in april 1989 . the shipyard closed on 31st july 2001 and was dismantled in 2002 .\nhi , this is a comment . to delete a comment , just log in and . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nin 1955 partick camera club set out to create a photographic survey of glasgow . as the project progressed , other camera clubs joined and each was allocated a district of the city to photograph . glasgow museums exhibited the photographs at kelvingrove art gallery and museum and at the people ' s place , and in 1956 the exhibition was shown at the palace of art in bellahouston park . the photographs are now part of glasgow museums ' collections .\nthe legal part of the listing is the address / name of site only . all other information in the record is not statutory .\nlisting is the way that a building or structure of special architectural or historic interest is recognised by law through the planning ( listed buildings and conservation areas ) ( scotland ) act 1997 .\nwe list buildings of special architectural or historic interest using the criteria published in the historic environment scotland policy statement .\nthe statutory listing address is the legal part of the listing . the information in the listed building record gives an indication of the special architectural or historic interest of the listed building ( s ) . it is not a definitive historical account or a complete description of the building ( s ) . the format of the listed building record has changed over time . earlier records may be brief and some information will not have been recorded .\nlisting covers both the exterior and the interior . listing can cover structures not mentioned which are part of the curtilage of the building , such as boundary walls , gates , gatepiers , ancillary buildings etc . the planning authority is responsible for advising on what is covered by the listing including the curtilage of a listed building . for information about curtilage see urltoken . since 1 october 2015 we have been able to exclude items from a listing . if part of a building is not listed , it will say that it is excluded in the statutory address and in the statement of special interest in the listed building record . the statement will use the word ' excluding ' and quote the relevant section of the historic environment scotland act 2014 . some earlier listed building records may use the word ' excluding ' , but if the act is not quoted , the record has not been revised to reflect current legislation .\nif you want to alter , extend or demolish a listed building you need to contact your planning authority to see if you need listed building consent . the planning authority is the main point of contact for all applications for listed building consent ."]}
{"id": 1642, "summary": [{"text": "call boy ( 1924 \u2013 1940 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "in a career which lasted from july 1926 to june 1927 , he ran seven times winning four races .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "his most notable success came in the 1927 epsom derby , which he won in record time .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "partly because of the death of his owner , call boy never ran again after his win at epsom . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "call boy ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["see assessment , 4 . at call , or on call , liable to be demanded at any moment without previous notice ; as money on deposit . call bird , a bird taught to allure others into a snare . call boy\nride a boy , tuck a bird into bed and kiss a horse . got it .\nask them to predict what they would expect to see the boy and the horse doing .\ndiscuss the relationship between the boy and the horse . which sentence confirms what children think ?\npartly because of the death of his owner , call boy never ran again after his win at epsom .\ntrump lied about the boy scouts . a senior scouts source says there was no call at all , let alone a call telling him his speech was the best .\na waiting boy who answers a cal , or cames at the ringing of a bell ; a bell boy .\nbut the boy scouts organization said such a call never took place , according to reports from time magazine and the toronto star .\na dramatic 911 call made by the mother of the boy who fell into the gorilla enclosure at cincinnati zoo has been released .\ncall boy won the 1926 renewal and after running well in the following year\u2019s 2 , 000 guineas , added the epsom derby .\nfuck being sad its 2017 we positive as hell from now on . call up your boy and tucc him into bed . kiss a bird . ride a horse bitch . we happy .\nreading the book set a purpose by telling children to read the book and find out what the boy ' s horse does .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for excitable boy . excitable boy is a gelding born in 2010 september 27 by more than ready out of sequential\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for superior boy . superior boy is a gelding born in 2012 november 11 by magic albert out of free spirited\ncall note , the note naturally used by the male bird to call the female . it is artificially applied by birdcatchers as a decoy . - - latham .\nin another frantic 911 call , an unidentified woman is heard pleading for help .\na boy who calls the actors in a theater ; a boy who transmits the orders of the captain of a vessel to the engineer , helmsman , etc .\nauthorities did not release the identities of the boy or the other boaters thursday .\nthe 29 - year - old was tending to a fallen jockey on an emergency call when she came into contact with the horse poo .\ngoth turtle on twitter :\nfuck being sad its 2017 we positive as hell from now on . call up your boy and tucc him into bed . kiss a bird . ride a horse bitch . we happy .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for kabam boy . kabam boy is a gelding born in 2007 september 30 by stormy ' s son out of strike the wind\ni rose as at thy call , but found thee not . - - milton .\nwillms jd . early childhood obesity : a call for early surveillance and preventive measures .\ntuck a horse into bed , kiss a boy , and ride a bird . oh , shit . i think that ' s the godfather trilogy .\nthat you can use when you call our office for additional information on the particular consignment .\nthe call boy or girl also calls the\nquarter hour\nand\noverture and beginners\n, the preparatory warning that signals for the orchestra to start the introductory music and the beginners , those performers who appear on stage at the beginning of the first act , to get into their opening positions . the call boy or girl also assists with scene changes .\n\u2018pat brought in a second horse , liberty major , a stud horse discarded for being dull , stupid , and unwilling . \u2019\ndeidre lykins was also at the zoo when she saw the boy drop into the enclosure .\npolice find the body of a missing four - month - old boy near . . .\nnancy boy has been described as \u201cone in a million\u201d , but although rare , horses like him are out there ; you just have to get lucky and mark bentham was indeed lucky when he found nancy boy as only his second horse . . . .\nthe boy scouts are shooting down president trump\u2019s claim that they called his speech the greatest ever .\nthe family released a statement on sunday saying they had taken their boy home from the hospital .\npictured : the three - year - old boy who fell into zoo ' s gorilla . . .\n$ 1 , 819 , 915 . 25 today . more than enough for him to be declared champion handicap horse and horse of the year .\nthe term was already current at the end of the 18th century , when the shakespearean scholar edmond malone claimed that william shakespeare ' s first job in the theatre was that of\ncall - boy\n.\natty persse said of his sprinter portlaw , ' he ' s a curious horse to train as he requires less work than any horse . . .\nthe primary responsibility of the call boy or girl is to move from backstage to the dressing rooms and green rooms alerting actors and actresses of their entrances in time for them to appear on stage on cue . for example , they might call out ,\nyou ' re on in five minutes , miss bernhardt .\none 8 - year - old boy was unresponsive when he was air - lifted to a boston hospital .\ncall boy ( or call girl ) is the job title of a stagehand in the theatre . they are hired by either the director , producer or stage crew chief . they report directly to the crew chief , are usually paid by the hour , and will sometimes rotate between several groups from one performance to the next .\nsocial studies : the boy in the story lives in the southwestern part of the united states . in the background you can see a pueblo . ask : \u201cin what other kinds of houses might a boy who owns a horse live ? how is a pueblo the same and different from where you live ? \u201d\nthe act of calling ; - - usually with the voice , but often otherwise , as by signs , the sound of some instrument , or by writing ; a summons ; an entreaty ; an invitation ; as , a call for help ; the bugle ' s call . ` ` call of the trumpet . ' ' - - shak .\nmath : compare the size of a horse to that of a child . use string to measure the length and height of a horse . then use string to measure children\u2019s height and width . how much bigger is a horse than a child ?\nparamedic haley noele\u2019s life completely changed after attending an emergency call to help a fallen jockey . picture : swns / mega\nat 3 : won derby s . ( eng ) , sledmere plate ( eng ) ; 2nd two thousand guineas ( eng ) call boy never ran again following his derby win as his owner frank curzon died two wee ( close )\nboth gregg , who was with isiah when he crawled into the exhibit , and the boy ' s father deonne dickerson have praised zoo staff for ' protecting our child ' after keepers shot harambe dead when he got hold of the boy .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\nthe last sentence of the book contains four words : \u201cmy horse loves me . \u201d\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nharambe was shot while sitting with the boy between his legs after dragging him through the water of his enclosure several times .\nmargulis cradled the boy under one arm and protected his head with the other , as he swam out from under the boat . he handed the child to murphy and bass who were clinging to the top of the hull . the boy was unconscious . murphy and bass began pumping the boy\u2019s chest , as the mother and father watched from bass\u2019s boat , uttering words of hope .\nthe boy scouts organization said its chief executive never called the president and it stood by its open letter apologizing for the speech .\nboy scouts refute president trump ' s claim that chief said he gave ' greatest speech ' the boy scouts organization said its chief executive never called the president and it stood by its open letter apologizing for the speech . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\na file number for each horse follows the consignment information and description . this number is a\nhold the book , calling children\u2019s attention to the title . read : \u201cmy horse . \u201d\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\nthe current race record for superior boy is 0 wins from 28 starts with prizemoney of $ 1 , 550 , 100 . 00 .\nhis defeats led to opinions regarding his merit being revised : from being a potential\nhorse of the century\nhe was now seen as simply\na good horse .\n[ 23 ]\nwriting : children may write about how a horse owner takes care of his or her pet .\nhorse grooms look after horses\u2019 everyday needs , and make sure they\u2019re healthy and in good condition .\na short visit ; as , to make a call on a neighbor ; also , the daily coming of a tradesman to solicit orders .\nfrank wootton was indeed a boy wonder . he rode his first winner at turffontein in south africa , at the age of . . .\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\nauthorities said their best guess was that the boy was underwater for about 24 minutes , a length of time that stretches ordinary boundaries for survival .\nst . paul himself believed he did well , and that he had a call to it , when he persecuted the christians . - - locke .\ntrump ' s speech at the boy scouts ' national jamboree was filled with political rhetoric and attacks on the press , polls and predecessor barack obama .\nmargulis said he was impressed by the rescue effort , the speed of the response , and the determination of those who tried to save the boy .\na stable jockey for the powerful stable of arthur yates , william dollery had once been a shepherd boy . cloister ' s grand national . . .\ni don ' t have a horse or bird , so this is the best i could do . urltoken\nthe vault will be back again in mid - august with more stories of horse racing past and present .\ncaptain morel bred that durable horse golden myth on his tally ho stud in county limerick . . . .\nlook at page 2 and ask children to comment on the picture . if children do not raise it , inform them that horses do not normally lay down when they sleep . ask children why the illustrator drew the horse this way and what changes they could make so the horse would look like a real horse sleeping .\njacob pincus entered a charleston racing stable as a twelve - year - old boy and two years later he was riding in races , being . . .\ncall boy ( gb ) ch . h , 1924 { 2 - f } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 8 - 16 ( 24 ) di = 0 . 00 cd = - 1 . 67 - 7 starts , 4 wins , 2 places , 1 shows career earnings : $ 91 , 500\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nthe boy ' s father has a significant criminal history , with offenses including burglary , firearms offences , drug trafficking , criminal trespass , disorderly conduct and kidnap .\nthe pair have been sharply criticized online by those who believe harambe was trying to protect the boy , though experts have suggested isiah was in danger of being killed .\na paramedic was left fighting for her life after catching a flesh - eating bug from a pile of horse manure .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nequipoise won champion handicap horse for three straight years , from 1932 - 1934 . so spectacular was he that the chocolate soldier was also awarded horse of the year in 1932 and again in 1933 . photo and copyright , the baltimore sun .\nyoung rider , gabrielle pither put the eventing fraternity on notice at the recent melbourne international horse trials , taking out the hotly contested 2 star aboard max almighty . horse deals was keen to learn more about this talented young rider . . .\ncall children\u2019s attention to the \u201cs\u201d at the end of each verb . talk about why \u201cs\u201d is there and generate other sentences in which the verb has an \u201cs\u201d ending .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\nthe breeding of equipoise provides insight into the knowledge that h . p . whitney exercised in arriving at a champion horse .\n\u2018it was protected by huge wooden doors , imprinted with black metal studs and a silver depiction of man and horse . \u2019\nyou can also do pre - apprenticeship courses at racing schools and colleges , and specialist training in the horse breeding industry .\nmitchel \u2013 2009 grade red roan gelding . mitchel is a real tough ranch horse . he has been used outside in the rough country . he handles steep ground with easy , and pays attention to where he puts his feet . he is a finished ranch horse that has had all the jobs done on him . branding , doctoring , sorting . for more information please call 208 - 550 - 0992 . coggins . y10\n( fowling ) the cry of a bird ; also a noise or cry in imitation of a bird ; or a pipe to call birds by imitating their note or cry .\nthe term pretty much became obsolete in larger theatres in the mid - 20th century , when most call boys were replaced by loudspeakers placed in each dressing room and green room .\nkatie gronendyke , spokeswoman for the environmental police , which is investigating the incident , said thursday the boy remained in the hospital , but she had no word on his condition .\nsofia richie , 19 poses in a bikini top just after scott disick ' s ex kourtney kardashian , 39 , did the same . . . and fans call her out for it\nhaley contracted the bug after being called to indiana downs racing track after a rider fell from his horse , in october 2013 .\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\nwhen the champion jockey gerry wilson was axed from riding golden miller as the horse began to show his patent dislike . . .\norby was the first horse trained in ireland to win the epsom derby . he was a rangy colt , but did . . .\npicaroon was a very high class horse , winner of 8 races and rated one of the best by his trainer who . . .\nmr taylor sharpe owned properties in newmarket and the baumber park stud near horncastle in lincolnshire . the best horse he bred . . .\nhours after his horse gainslaw had won the ascot gold vase , mr leader and his wife were killed on their way . . .\nson of a suffolk clothier and close friend of the race horse owner and breeder sir abe bailey , donald fraser owned . . .\nreiff looked like an angel and was kissed by society ladies , but he was fully capable of pulling a horse to . . .\nin a released transcript of trump ' s interview with the wall street journal , the president disputed that there had been any negative reaction to his speech :\nand i got a call from the head of the boy scouts saying it was the greatest speech that was ever made to them , and they were very thankful . so there was \u2013 there was no mix .\nvolodyovski ( or ' bottle of whisky ' as the public liked to call him ) was a high - class two - year - old , winning four times ( including the . . .\npresident trump said he was commended by the boy scouts of america for the speech he gave to its national jamboree last week , but the group said this never happened , according to reports .\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\nthis photograph shows the statue of persimmon which stands at sandringham stud . a very impressive horse , persimmon turned out to be . . .\nswynford was the best horse to race for the 17th lord derby and , according to george lambton , was far and away . . .\nwhile this is not a brilliant photograph of ormonde , it does show his trainer and jockey . this great horse was unbeaten . . .\na black horse , foaled in ireland from a mare reputed to have pulled a cart . he was well bought as a . . .\ngentle shepherd may seem an obscure horse to chronicle , for he was unraced and made no impact as a sire , but . . .\nharry mccalmont , who was not yet a colonel when his horse isinglass won the triple crown , inherited a great fortune from . . .\ncharles morton was apprenticed to thomas parr , the trainer of a wonderful horse called fisherman , who won 70 races including 2 . . .\nlord clonmell , who succceeded to the title in 1898 , was educated at eton and was a captain in the royal horse . . .\nthe boy ' s mother , michelle gregg , wrote a facebook post saying her son suffered a concussion and a few scrapes . she defended her role as a parent and called the incident an accident\non thursday , as the boy\u2019s fate captured the area\u2019s attention , boaters and workers on the docks in wareham hoped against hope that rescuers had been able to bring him from the water in time .\nmiscellaneous trainer danny o ' brien ' s saturday started in sad fashion but smart youngster excitable boy lifted his spirits with his strong win in the listed festival of racing 1000 ( 1000m ) at flemington .\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nthe winner of 4 races at 2 and 3 years , humorist ' s connections could not understand why the horse was up one . . .\na genuine , speedy horse , tommy atkins won ten races including the ayr gold cup for owner william sears , who would go . . .\nthomas pilkington was a member of the well - known firm of glass manufacturers of the same name . his most famous horse was . . .\ngerry wilson , the son of a whaddon chase horse dealer , was champion national hunt jockey seven times between 1933 and 1941 . . . .\na long - time patron and friend of the trainer basil briscoe , philip carr paid \u00a3100 to buy a rather unpromising horse in . . .\njenkinstown was a difficult horse to get fit . his trainer , thomas coulthwaite , said he really needed the work of four animals . . . .\na handsome horse , standing 16 hands high , maiden erlegh ( named after the place and title of his owner ' s stud ) . . .\na little chesbnut horse , all quality , cicero was trained at exning , near newmarket . he won 8 races from two to four . . .\nalfred newey , a native of worcestershire , did not sit on a horse until he was 18 . originally a miner , he took . . .\naristedes welch was a millionaire stock raiser of pennsylvania who bought leamington , a sire imported from england . the horse sired welch ' s . . .\npeptos lil hickory \u2013 2010 aqha chestnut gelding x pepto taz x peptoboonsmal out of miss jesse hickory x doc\u2019s hickory . taz was started in a cutting program , and has a beautiful handle . he is cowy and fun to sort on . he has been to the branding pen , doctored cattle outside , and is a finished ranch horse . taz is very broke in the arena , and would make a great show horse . he is sound and has clean legs . taz is a very personable horse that loves people . he is easy to catch and has great ground manners . for more information please call 208 - 550 - 0992 . urltoken coggins . ys1\nour soundness guarantee - credibility and dependability are important to us at billings livestock horse sales . at billings livestock horse sales , all horses that are ridden through the ring and sell as a result of being ridden through the ring , are guaranteed sound until monday noon following the saturday sale and tuesday noon following the sunday sale unless otherwise stated from the block . to further define our policy , if the horse sells at 6 p . m . on the saturday of our sale , the horse will be guaranteed sound for an additional 42 hours - noon on monday . what we here at bls horse sales consider sound is : sight out of both eyes , good in the air , hit the ground sound on all four , and not to crib .\ncincinnati zoo director thane maynard confirmed the boy was not under attack , but called it a ' life threatening situation ' where the gorilla was ' agitated ' , ' disoriented ' , and ' behaving erratically ' .\npeteski ( 1990 ) : affirmed\u2019s little boy \u2014 \u201ca decisive winner\u201d of the 1993 queen\u2019s plate . the win gave trainer roger atfield his 6th queen\u2019s plate winner . peteski went on to win the canadian triple crown .\nmiscellaneous the danny o ' brien - trained excitable boy broke through for his first career victory when dashing home to win the listed $ 120 , 000 festival of racing 1000 ( 1000m ) at flemington on saturday .\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nprince palatine was the champion three - year - old of his generation and horse of the year at 4 and 5 . winner of 11 . . .\nthe first foal of his [ ? dam ? ] , hampton was a small horse who started his career in selling plates and ran over . . .\nwinner of 17 races , springfield ( who looks very old in this photograph ) was , in his prime , the most beautiful horse and . . .\na massive horse with a bad mouth , which made him very hard to hold , troytown ' s days were shortlived . he had to . . .\ncross - curricular activities music : play some music and have children act out horse actions : trot , walk , gallop , run , skip , etc .\n2009 aqha sorrel gelding x sugs scorpio x doc\u2019s sug out of tina peppy bars x peppy suzy prom . sugar is a very well put together horse that is ready for a job . he was started in the reigning and then used as a ranch horse . colton had got him in hopes of using him for high school reigning and cow work but just feels he is not finished enough to be competitive , videos and pictures on our facebook page kelly tara turbiville or call / text 701 - 440 - 0207 . coggins . y2\nknown as ' the rocking horse ' or ' the spotted wonder ' , this colt was a phenomonen . when a propsective buyer looked him over . . .\nif only this horse had never been sold abroad ! dark ronald never ran in a [ ? classic ? ] , but this handsome individual won . . .\nthe trainer john porter said , ' there are rogues , savages , jades , fools and other eccentrics in the horse tribe . throstle was simply . . .\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\nposted in thoroughbred horse , tagged assault , baba kenny , buckpasser , c . v . whitney , champion handicap horse , commando , elkridge , equipoise , hof , horse of the year , jamestown , johnstown , marylou whitney , mate , pennant , peter pan , shut out , sonny workman , tamerett , the chocolate soldier , tim tam , tom fool , tosmah , tred avon , twenty grand , us racing during the depression , whitney stables on march 1 , 2014 | 20 comments \u00bb\nsuch an unlucky horse . after a fine two year old career , craganour looked to have won the 2000 [ ? guineas ? ] , only the . . .\njulius solomon , a dublin moneylender , was breeder of golden miller , but somewhat by default . he took his horse ' s dam , probably as . . .\nfelix leach ' s association with racing began on the day he first saw st simon , joining that horse ' s trainer , mathew dawson , forthwith . . .\nart : have children draw or paint a setting for a horse . give children pre - cut pictures of horses and have them paste the horses on their papers .\nsome employers may provide you with accommodation and food . some may also offer free stabling for your own horse along with riding lessons . these figures are a guide .\n2007 aqha bay gelding x tivios smokin badger x smokin buckshot out of tqh lady t bars leo x doc t bar . 11 year old ranch horse . mom\u2019s favorite pasture horse and dad heels on him . all of us have used him during springs work . he likes to step out and travel , very cowy . coggins . y27\ncall of the house ( legislative bodies ) , a calling over the names of members , to discover who is absent , or for other purposes ; a calling of names with a view to obtaining the ayes and noes from the persons named .\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\n8 : 30 a . m . bls arena - cutting horses preview followed by saddle horse demonstration finishing up at 11 a . m . with roping horses ( weather permitting )\nbenny \u2013 2011 grade sorrel gelding . benny is a 7 year old stout 14h sorrel qh gelding . he has been ridden by my 12 year old for the past 3 years . he is a great trail horse , arena horse , playday horse , and has been used to push cows as well . he has a big motor and can go all day . loads , stands for farrier , ties , clips , and bathes . current on farrier , vaccines , and worming ( 806 ) 201 - 2334 . coggins . y14\niroquois , who stood only 15 . 2 1 / 2 hands high , was the first american - bred horse to win the derby . he was amongst a . . .\nbars silver sky - 2009 apha sorrel overo gelding x pc silver socks x pc sun socks out of ala sky x alaman . a very nice looking , well built and bred minimal white over gelding . a versatility gelding , used and hauled as a head horse will fit a # 5 + and above . seasoned ranch horse , has worked each and every phase . also , used as a pickup horse at rodeos . a well rounded gelding , with a lot of handle . sound . fmi 406 - 381 - 2347 . coggins . ys4\nthe world championship freestyle reining at the kentucky reining cup is a night of costumes , music and theatrical performances showcasing some of the best reining horse trainers in the industry . . .\ncoronach , a big , handsome chestnut horse standing 16 . 2 hands high [ 3 ] with a white blaze , white socks on his hind feet and a light - coloured mane and tail , was bred by his owner lord woolavington . [ 4 ] he was sired by the unbeaten champion , hurry on , making him a representative of the godolphin arabian sire line . [ 5 ] apart from coronach , hurry on sired the winners of seven classics including the derby winners captain cuttle and call boy . his most influential son was the ascot gold cup winner precipitation , who sired four classic winners . coronach was the fifth foal of the mare wet kiss who finished fourth in the 1916 oaks .\nbadger \u2013 2014 grade gray gelding . badger stands around 15 hands and is super gentle , friendly , and very easy to catch . badger is well started with outside miles in rough country and is started roping and logging in the arena . i believe badger would make an excellent outfitter horse because of his gentle disposition . badger is shod , sound , healthy , and ready to use . call 307 - 680 - 5156 . coggins . y9\nwhen catherine grayson from harmony reins got a phone call to come and rescue a thoroughbred broodmare , she had no idea what bad shape the mare would be in . luckily for shanti , she found herself in the perfect place to be nursed back to health . . .\n\u2026the racetrack during the 1913 epsom derby and moved in front of king george v\u2019s horse , which struck her while galloping at full force . she never regained consciousness and died four days later . \u2026\nace \u2013 2009 grade blue roan gelding . ace is a pretty 9 year old gelding . he is 14 . 3 hands tall and broke to ride ! ! he is very gentle and quite . no buck or bad habits . easy going and very broke ! ace has been used on our ranch for the past couple years . he has been trail rode a ton and used around cattle . goes every direction you point him . thick made horse with lots of potential ! ! ace is easy to catch and loads great ! a horse anyone can ride and enjoy . check him out the day of sale ! ! fmi call 605 - 323 - 7906 . coggins . y29\nmouse \u2013 2000 grade grulla gelding . mouse is a been there done that kind of lil horse . he has done all the kid rodeo events , the boys have out grown him . he has lots of go , so not for a beginner or timid rider . he has some allergy issues so please visit with us prior to buying . he has lots of videos and pictures on our facebook page kelly tara turbiville or call / text 701 - 440 - 0207 . coggins . y5\nall mixed up : what do we call people of multiple backgrounds ? : code switch the share of multiracial children in america has multiplied tenfold in the past 50 years . it ' s a good time to take stock of our shared vocabulary when it comes to describing americans like me .\nin their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated coronach the forty - second best british horse of the 20th century and the best derby winner of the 1920s . [ 24 ]\na year after petrarch had won the middle park , chamant became the first horse to win both the middle park stakes and the dewhurst stakes and the following year he also added the 2 , 000 guineas .\ncall boy was hurry on ' s third and last derby winner , and the one who did not run for darling and lord woolavington . he was bred by frank curzon , a successful entertainment entrepreneur , at his primrose cottage stud , and was trained by john evelyn watts , a former jockey who had worked as a trainer for the german government stud prior to world war i , and who served in that war for four years with the suffolk yeomanry . after the war he established a training stable , lansdowne house , at newmarket , and in 1922 accepted the trainer ' s post with curzon .\nhank \u2013 2011 grade bay roan gelding . hank is a good using horse . he has seen many miles on the ranch . he has been branded on and rode outside checking fence . he is a ranch horse deluxe . he has performed all the chores on the ranch . rope , ranch or trail wrapped up in a pretty bay roan package . for questions please matt . 208 - 550 - 1571 . coggins . y19\nreeves \u2013 2006 grade sorrel gelding . good looking , stout made gelding that stands around 15 . 1 . this gelding has been used on a ranch most of his life . has been roped and doctored off of . moving from area must sell . call 307 - 351 - 1194 . coggins . y26\n2003 aqha chestnut gelding x skirt chasin alibi x sir alibi out of my pie gal x money pie . 15 year old gelding used as a backup barrel and pole horse for high school and college rodeos . my daughter\u2019s employment has left her no time to use him . has 1d potential but will run at whatever speed you want . is gentle , loves attention and has no buck . would make nice trail horse . coggins . y28\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for yourthewonforme ( nzl ) . yourthewonforme ( nzl ) is a gelding born in 2011 october 28 by sufficient out of encantada\nflint \u2013 2011 grade gray gelding . flint has been trail ridden a lot . flint goes where you point him and is easy to get along with . flint moves out nicely , and walks easily on a loose rein . he has been used in the feedlot , on the ranch moving cattle , branding , and doctoring outside . lopes nice circles in the arena . he is an all - around nice horse . he is willing to do just about anything ! call matt with questions . 208 - 550 - 1571 . coggins . y17\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\n2008 aqha bay gelding x dualin with cows x dualin gun out of ms lucky lena x gay bar lena . this is one of those all - around geldings that is good at everything on the ranch . doctored outside , real good in the branding trap , good outside in any terrain . does not get lonely when off by himself . saddles up good and rides off nice . good , all around horse . good to shoe and never have had any soundness issues . call for more information 208 - 599 - 3611 . coggins . y11\nedward stanley , the 12th earl of derby , the group conceived the idea of a race on the downs for three - year - old fillies , which was subsequently called \u201cthe oaks\u201d after the name of derby\u2019s nearby estate . derby\u2019s horse bridget won the first running of the oaks in 1779 . at a celebration after the race , bunbury and derby suggested a similar race for both colts and fillies , to begin the following year . reputedly , a coin toss followed , and derby won the honour of naming the race after himself . bunbury\u2019s horse diomed won the first running of the derby on may 4 , 1780 . many other horse races have since been named after the derby ( most notably the\nbass and murphy quickly handed the child to rescuers aboard the wareham harbormaster\u2019s boat , which raced several miles to tempest knob , a pier in wareham . there , the boy was loaded onto a stretcher and into an ambulance , which took him to tobey hospital in wareham . from there , he was flown to a boston hospital .\nusually actors themselves , they have historically taken roles and done crowd scenes as needed . the actor william j . ferguson ( june 8 , 1845 \u2013 may 3 , 1930 ) was the call boy at ford ' s theatre in washington , d . c . , when actor john wilkes booth killed president lincoln and fled . ferguson was described as the last surviving eye witness . he said he and actress laura keene were standing off stage at the first entrance , opposite the president ' s box , when it occurred . he heard the shot , looked up and saw lincoln ' s head slump , then booth jumped to the stage and rushed between him and keene .\n2003 aqha sorrel gelding x vcr golden cache x lil easy cash out of vcr cinnamon twist x jet aflame . jp is a solid barrel and pole horse great for a youth rider that can handle speed . he is a push style and very honest in his turns . same run every time . he has been tucker\u2019s ( ten year old boy ) main ride and has won numerous awards . barrels he will run in the 3d at tough open races and poles runs 23\u2019s , tucker is moving up in age groups and no longer will be running barrels and poles so jp isn\u2019t getting used as much . jp is great to haul and be around . he loves to go ranching or trail ride in the badlands . he is as sweet as they come and loves to be your friend . there are lots of pictures and videos on our facebook page kelly tara turbiville or call / text 701 - 440 - 0207 . coggins . y4\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\nhorse ownership is not for the faint - hearted ! equestrian enthusiasts are unique in their love for their horses , and often it leads to a \u2018double life\u2019 \u2013 indeed , horses are less a pet , and more of a lifestyle . . .\nyeller \u2013 2008 grade palomino gelding . yeller is a flashy looking 10 year old grade palomino gelding ! he ' s more than just looks though ; yeller is a worker . he ' s got a light handle in the bit and moves out easily . he ' s got a lot of go and willing to do any type of ranch work . ride him every day for three or four days and he ' ll be the same on day 4 as on day 1 . he is very cowy , so he works cattle with ease . he ' s roped cattle in the pasture and has been used as a heading horse . he ' s been hauled to rodeos and team penning events . he is very calm in pens with cattle . yeller is well mannered on the ground . he ' s got good feet and is easy to trim . yeller is eager to work and loves doing his job . if you need a horse that can go to work , yeller is the horse for you ! any questions , please call 307 - 758 - 4529 . urltoken coggins . y6\nbutton \u2013 2012 grade bay mare . button is as cute as they come , she is a 14 . 3 stout lil mare that has a great start . colton bought her as a project horse but doesn\u2019t have the time to finish her . but has done a great job of putting a good start on her . she doesn\u2019t have mean bone in her body , you can jump on her bareback with a halter , she wants to please and is ready for a job . pictures and videos on our facebook page kelly tara turbiville or call / text 701 - 440 - 0207 . coggins . y3\nthree years later the great bahram gave notice of his immense talent as he won the gimcrack stakes and middle park stakes . in 1935 he was a fantastic winner of the triple crown and became the last horse to accomplish this feat before nijinsky in 1970 .\nhall ' s subjects didn ' t seem to suffer such internal discord . they didn ' t necessarily agree about what to call themselves \u2014 they variously identified as\nafro - american ,\njapanese ,\nblack - japanese\nand\nother\n\u2014 but overall , hall found ,\nall felt happy and lucky\nto be who they were .\nincludes winners on the flat in classic races and some important handicap races in england , the u . s . a . , france , germany , italy , australia , and some principal steeplechase races . info behind names links to biographic information on the horse .\nin 2012 reckless abandon became the latest horse to complete the prix morny - middle park stakes double , having already won the norfolk stakes and prix robert papin . he ended the year unbeaten in 5 races but ran well without winning as a 3 year old sprinter .\nthe first winner of the race was a horse called the rake in 1866 and just five years later , the 1871 winner was called prince charlie and the following years he went on to become the first colt to land the middle park - 2 , 000 guineas double .\npeewee \u2013 2006 grade buckskin quarter pony gelding . attention ropers and goat tyers : if you are looking for an honest quarter pony that has seen and done it all , peewee is the one for you ! peewee is a 12 - year - old gelding owned and ridden by teagen binder for the last 4 years . together , they have won the wyoming junior high school rodeo association boy ' s goat tying title and finished 11th in the nation at the njhfr in this event . he is also an amazing breakaway horse , and has competed in both events at little britches finals , as well as been heeled off of . peewee absolutely loves his job , whether ranching , in the rodeo arena , or in the halter , trail , and working cowhorse classes at 4 - h shows . at only 13 . 2 hands , he still outpaces and outworks big horses and has a quarter horse mentality and heart . if you are looking for a horse to propel your kids to greatness in the rodeo arena , peewee is the pony for the job ! pictures and videos of peewee are available on kristie binder\u2019s facebook page ; for more information , please contact doug binder at 970 - 467 - 0444 ! urltoken coggins . y13\ncoronach was a british thoroughbred racehorse and sire . he was a champion two - year - old who went on to become only the third horse to complete the derby , eclipse stakes and st leger treble ( tulyar , in 1952 , become the most recent and fourth horse to equal the feat ) [ 2 ] as a three - year - old in 1926 , a year in which he also won the st . james ' s palace stakes . he won the coronation cup at four , but was beaten in his two remaining starts by his long - standing rival colorado\nbold lad and petingo were smart winners of the race in the 1960s but both failed to add classic glory the following season . right tack however , won the 1968 middle park stakes and the following season became the first horse to win both the english and irish 2 , 000 guineas .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\nthe parents of queen elizabeth ii , king george vi and his queen ( later known as the queen mother ) arrive for the 1939 queen\u2019s plate in a horse - drawn landau reminiscent of the one they would use at royal ascot . ( photo and copyright , city of toronto , canada )\n2009 aqha sorrel gelding x rey de bay x rey de peppy out of peppys final filly x peppys tejon . squirrel is a nice gelding that has had all aspects of ranch work done on him from calving to branding to doctoring by myself as well as will watch a cow . has good feet and has always been sound . good to shoe , load etc . any questions call 406 331 0621 . coggins . y34\nthe mayday call , sent over marine channel 16 , the international distress frequency , crackled over ship radios all over the area . responders dropped what they were doing . an mh - 60 jayhawk helicopter launched from a coast guard air station . the crew of a 45 - foot boat from station cape cod canal gunned their boat\u2019s engine . so did harbormasters from wareham , marion , and bourne . in wareham , a commercial diver known as \u201cdiver mike , \u201d michael margulis , was wearing his wetsuit and inspecting a mooring in sippican harbor when he heard the call . as he raced his 21 - foot motorboat , island time , toward the canal , a harbormaster\u2019s boat blasted by him at full speed , lights flashing and sirens wailing . it was bad , he thought . and if a child was indeed trapped under the water , they had to move fast .\nmidnight \u2013 2009 grade black pony mare . midnight is a 9 year old 40 in pony mare . very good , broke to ride . good feet and never foundered . gentle and good to catch ! ! ! gentle and easy going . no bad habits or bad tricks . easy to be around and safe ! ! ! come check her out the day of sale . fmi call 605 - 323 - 7906 . coggins . y31\nhe used his hands to feel his way through the darkness . he pushed away a pool noodle , a shoe , an empty life jacket . he was underwater about four minutes , methodically but desperately hoping to grasp a live person . then he saw a flash of orange near his face . he grabbed it . sure enough , the boy was wrapped inside . the life jacket had apparently pinned him to the floor of the boat .\nsaint leger , one of the english triple crown races and , with the derby , the two thousand guineas , the one thousand guineas , and the oaks , one of the classic horse races . the race was established by colonel barry saint leger in 1776 and was named for him in 1778 . an event\u2026\nrun on june 7 at london , ontario , the first heat was won by stone plover , owned by a mr . harry chappel , who gave his home as sandwich , ontario . but the judges disqualified stone plover after his winning of the second heat , having discovered that mr . chappel was a native of detroit . accordingly , the second heat went to a horse called beacon , who had come in second . however , it was discovered that beacon\u2019s jockey had pulled the weights assigned to his horse out of the saddle pads and thrown them into the infield before the start of the second heat . so beacon was disqualified too ."]}
{"id": 1648, "summary": [{"text": "harpago chiragra , common name the chiragra spider conch , is a species of very large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family strombidae , the true conchs . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "harpago chiragra", "paragraphs": ["zool . chiragra spider conch [ harpago chiragra , syn . : lambis chiragra , l . harpago , l . undulata , pterocera kochii , strombus chiragra ]\nmolluscabase - harpago chiragra rugosus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1842 )\nlambis chiragra chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( chiragra spider conch ) and subspecies l . chiragra arthritica ( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) ( arthritic spider conch ) .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\nchiragra - spinnenschnecke\nto\nharpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nhans - martin braun added the english common name\nchiragra spider conch\nto\nharpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nworms - world register of marine species - harpago chiragra rugosus ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1842 )\ngbif , 2015 harpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . urltoken [ accessed 5 / 8 / 2015 ] .\nhans - martin braun added the german common name\ngro\u00dfer bootshaken\nto\nharpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\n' harpago chiragra ' . hardy ' s internet guide to marine gastropods . accessed on jan 27 , 2013 . url : urltoken\nobis , 2015 harpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . obis search interface . urltoken [ accessed 4 / 29 / 2015 ] .\nharpago chiragra . ( 2012 , september 29 ) . in wikipedia , the free encyclopedia . retrieved 20 : 17 , january 28 , 2013 , from urltoken\n' < i > harpago chiragra < / i > ' . hardy ' s internet guide to marine gastropods . accessed on jan 27 , 2013 . url : urltoken\nbouchet , p . ( 2012 ) . harpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2013 - 01 - 28 .\nyou selected lambis chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . this is a synonym for :\n< i > harpago chiragra < / i > . ( 2012 , september 29 ) . in wikipedia , the free encyclopedia . retrieved 20 : 17 , january 28 , 2013 , from urltoken\nbouchet , p . ( 2012 ) . < i > harpago chiragra < / i > ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2013 - 01 - 28 .\n( of harpago chiragra chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) liverani v . ( 2014 ) the superfamily stromboidea . addenda and corrigenda . in : g . t . poppe , k . groh & c . renker ( eds ) , a conchological iconography . pp . 1 - 54 , pls 131 - 164 . harxheim : conchbooks . [ details ]\nsmithsonian institution , 2014 lambis chiragra linnaeus , 1758 . urltoken ; = all [ accessed 19 / 12 / 2014 ] .\n{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . harpago chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .\n, commonly called the chiragra spider conch , is a large marine true conch distributed from the east indian ocean to east polynesia .\n( of lambis ( harpago ) chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) zhang s . - p . [ suping ] . ( 2016 ) . fauna sinica . invertebrata 56 . mollusca : gastropoda : strombacea and naticacea . beijing : science press . 317 pp . , 10 pls . [ details ]\nflorida museum of natural history , 2014 lambis chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) . dataset : invertebrate zoology , accessed via urltoken on 2015 - 07 - 15 .\nin addition to the so called l . wheelwrighti , to date the following lambis hybrids have been documented : l . lambis x l . chiragra chiragra , l . lambis x l . millipeda , l . lambis x l . scorpius scorpius , l . scorpius scorpius x l . millepeda , and l . scorpius scorpius x l . crocata crocata ; thus involving six of the nine species in the genus .\n( of lambis chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) walls , j . g . ( 1980 ) . conchs , tibias and harps . a survey of the molluscan families strombidae and harpidae . t . f . h . publications ltd , hong kong . [ details ]\n( of pterocera chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) walls , j . g . ( 1980 ) . conchs , tibias and harps . a survey of the molluscan families strombidae and harpidae . t . f . h . publications ltd , hong kong . [ details ]\n( of harpago rugosa [ sic ] ) dekkers a . m . ( 2012 ) a new genus related to the genus lambis r\u00f6ding , 1798 ( gastropoda : strombidae ) from the indian ocean . gloria maris 51 ( 2 - 3 ) : 68 - 74 . [ 8 april 2012 ; title page erroneously dated 11 march ] [ details ]\n( of lambis chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of strombus chiragra linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of lambis chiragra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies fran\u00e7aises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d ' editions g\u00e9ographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of pterocera kochii freyer , 1855 ) albano p . & de mattia w . ( 2010 ) . rediscovery of the holotype of pterocera kochii freyer 1855 ( gastropoda : strombidae ) . journal of conchology . 40 ( 2 ) : 163 - 167 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nliverani v . ( 2014 ) the superfamily stromboidea . addenda and corrigenda . in : g . t . poppe , k . groh & c . renker ( eds ) , a conchological iconography . pp . 1 - 54 , pls 131 - 164 . harxheim : conchbooks . [ details ]\n( of lambis rugosa ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1842 ) ) walls , j . g . ( 1980 ) . conchs , tibias and harps . a survey of the molluscan families strombidae and harpidae . t . f . h . publications ltd , hong kong . [ details ]\n( of pterocera rugosa g . b . sowerby ii , 1842 ) walls , j . g . ( 1980 ) . conchs , tibias and harps . a survey of the molluscan families strombidae and harpidae . t . f . h . publications ltd , hong kong . [ details ]\nto biodiversity heritage library ( 23 publications ) ( from synonym pterocera rugosa g . b . sowerby ii , 1842 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nversion 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ndescribes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .\nshell very thick , robust and heavy with a distinct anterior notch ; lirate columella and aperture ; flaring , thick outer lip and canals with six long and curved marginal digitations . females usually larger than males .\ndescribes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .\nsummary of general nature of feeding interactions . for example , basic mode of nutrient uptake ( autotrophy , heterotrophy , coprophagy , saprophagy ) , position in food network ( top predator , primary producer , consumer ) , diet categorization ( detritovore , omnivore , carnivore , herbivore ) . specific taxa are treated under associations ( specifying predators or prey ) and associatedtaxa .\nmarine : coral reefs , in littoral and sublittoral zones , in tidal pools and low tide levels to a depth of around 25 m .\ngeneral description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .\ndescribes the likelihood of the species becoming extinct in the present day or in the near future . population size is treated under population biology , and trends in population sizes are treated under trends . however , this is the preferred element if an object includes all of these things and details about conservation listings .\nlisted in cites : no . listed in wildlife ( protection ) act : yes . schedule : 1 appendix : part iv ( b ) mollusca\nlegal regulations or statutes relating to the taxon - international , national or regional . this could include proposed or existing laws or a group of laws .\nlocally collected for human consumption . industrially used in lime production . also sold as decorative items .\nknown or potential benefits of the species for humans , at a direct economic level , as instruments of education , prospecting , eco - tourism , etc . it includes published material or suggestions from the author or others . in any event , the source must be explicitly quoted . can include ecosystem services . however , benefits to ecosystems not specific to humans are best treated under risk statement ( what happens when the organism is removed )\n' protected species of mollusca ' . malacology division , zoological survey of india , kolkatta , west bengal , india . url : urltoken\non the molluscan fauna of lakshadweep included in various schedules of wildlife ( protection ) act of in . . .\nout of the 24 species of marine molluscs included in schedule i and iv of the wildlife ( protecti . . .\nthis species is protected under schedule iv of wildlife protection act 1972 and not under schedule i part iv b .\n| | best supported on google chrome , firefox 3 . 0 + , internet explorer 8 . 0 + , safari 4 . 0 + , opera 10 + . powered by the open source biodiversity informatics platform . technology partner strand life sciences\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\nthank you for your contribution to the improvement of the inpn . the information submitted has been sent to an expert for verification and correction .\nwarning : the data available reflects the progression status of knowledge or the availability of the inventories . it should never be considered as comprehensive .\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nphilippines . palawan . 10 - 20 m . collected by local fishermen . 2010 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 001 seconds . )\nzool . ( common ) spider conch [ lambis lambis , syn . : l . adamii , l . cerea , l . hermaphrodita , l . laciniata , l . lamboides , l . lobata , l . maculata , pterocera lambis , strombus lambis ]\nzool . smooth spider conch [ lambis lambis , syn . : l . adamii , l . cerea , l . hermaphrodita , l . laciniata , l . lamboides , l . lobata , l . maculata , pterocera lambis , strombus lambis ]\nzool . giant spider conch [ lambis truncata , syn . : l . bryonia , l . truncata sebae , pterocera bryonia , strombus truncatus ]\nzool . giant spider stromb [ lambis truncata , syn . : l . bryonia , l . truncata sebae , pterocera bryonia , strombus truncatus ]\nzool . scorpion spider conch [ lambis scorpius , syn . : pterocera nodosa , p . scorpius , strombus scorpius ]\nzool . inkfish [ coll . ] [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ]\nzool . common squid [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ]\nzool . european squid [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ]\nzool . inshore squid [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ]\nzool . cape hope squid [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ]\nzool . long - finned squid [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ]\nzool . sea arrow [ loligo vulgaris , syn . : l . affinis , l . berthelotii , l . breviceps , l . mediterranea , l . microcephala , l . neglecta , l . pulchra , l . rangii ] [ common squid ]\nbot . bloomfell [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nbot . birdfoot deervetch [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nbot . cat ' s clover [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nbot . ground honeysuckle [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nbot . bacon and eggs [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nbot . crowtoes { pl } [ treated as sg . ] [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nbot . bird ' s - foot deervetch [ lotus corniculatus , syn . : l . ambiguus , l . arvensis , l . balticus , l . caucasicus , l . major , l . tauricus ]\nunter folgender adresse kannst du auf diese \u00fcbersetzung verlinken : urltoken tipps : doppelklick neben begriff = r\u00fcck - \u00fcbersetzung \u2014 neue w\u00f6rterbuch - abfrage : einfach jetzt tippen ! suchzeit : 0 . 533 sek .\n) , m\u00f6glichst mit einem guten beleg im kommentarfeld . wichtig : bitte hilf auch bei der\nlimited input mode - mehr als 1000 ungepr\u00fcfte \u00fcbersetzungen ! du kannst trotzdem eine neue \u00fcbersetzung vorschlagen , wenn du dich einloggst und andere vorschl\u00e4ge im contribute - bereich \u00fcberpr\u00fcfst . pro review kannst du dort einen neuen w\u00f6rterbuch - eintrag eingeben ( bis zu einem limit von 500 unverifizierten eintr\u00e4gen pro benutzer ) .\ndieses deutsch - englisch - w\u00f6rterbuch basiert auf der idee der freien weitergabe von wissen . mehr informationen ! enth\u00e4lt \u00fcbersetzungen von der tu chemnitz sowie aus mr honey ' s business dictionary ( englisch / deutsch ) . vielen dank daf\u00fcr ! links auf dieses w\u00f6rterbuch oder einzelne \u00fcbersetzungen sind herzlich willkommen ! fragen und antworten\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nabbott , r . t . 1961 ,\nthe genus lambis in the indo - pacific\n, indo - pacific mollusca , vol . 1 , no . 3 , pp . 147 - 174\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 157a1a8f - b998 - 4c9e - 9859 - b0d5f7645fdf\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 477f88aa - 99ac - 4937 - add6 - 24f7c2409bbe\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a2332426 - ca0e - 4d11 - a5f5 - 743659272819\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 625064\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\ndescription distinctive shell , up to 20 cm , with six projections ( including the long siphonal canal ) . colour white , with brown . . .\ndescription distinctive shell , up to 20 cm , with six projections ( including the long siphonal canal ) . colour white , with brown mottling and streaks . columella dark brown with pale pleats . habitat : sandy bottoms in shallow areas . distribution : indo - pacific . regional names : port . aranha - de - cinco - dedos . ( richmond , 1997 ) . [ details ]\n( spider conchs ) of the family strombidae . found exclusively in the indo - pacific region , its species readily exhibit traits not so easily recognizable in other genera / families .\none such trait is sexual dimorphism of shells . the females of some species , lambis lambis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) as an example , are generally much larger , have more well developed knobs on the dorsum , and have the spines angled upward ( occasionally nearly vertical ) . the males of the species are generally much smaller , occasionally much more colorful , less knobby , with the spines being near horizontal .\nanother very interesting , if not well understood , trait of the genus is the propensity for hybridization . while hybridization is not an uncommon phenomenon in nature , it is poorly documented for marine gastropods . the limited studies which have thus far have been conducted suggest that it does in fact occur in other families ( specifically west american haliotidae ) . there is even evidence that some of the hybrids were capable of producing offspring .\nvirtually all popular shell book authors accept the existence of nine valid species , divided into three sub - genera . these include :\nlambis crocata crocata ( link , 1807 ) ( orange spider conch ) and subspecies l . crocata pilsbryi abbott , 1961 ( pilsbry ' s spider conch )\nlambis truncata truncata ( humphrey , 1786 ) ( truncate spider conch ) and subspecies l . truncata sebae ( kiener , 1843 ) ( seba ' s spider conch )\nlambis scorpius scorpius ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( scorpion conch ) and subspecies l . scorpius indomaris abbott , 1961 ( lesser scorpion conch )\na potential tenth species , in all likelihood a hybrid resulting from the mating of l . truncata sebae and l . millipeda , which has gained some acceptance as a valid species , was originally described by shikama in 1971 as lambis arachnoides . this same morph was named l . wheelwrighti by joel green in 1978 . the latter binomen has gained wider acceptance due to some inconsistencies in shikama ' s original description .\nbased upon availability from retail specimen shell dealers , it would appear that so called l . wheelwrighti and the l . lambis x l . millepeda hybrids are the most common . however , in light of the fact that fairly close examination is necessary in certain instances to distinguish a hybrid from the dominant parent species , this may only reflect the energy and skill applied to the supply side of the equation .\nthis extensive hybridization by the lambis does beg one question . we have a genus containing but nine species , all large and distinctive looking , with each species being easily identifiable by any amateur , and some hybrids being rarely seen . considering that hybridization is known to occur in other families , one might ask what is the possibility that some of the described species in other families such as conus and cypraea ( families in which there is often little difference between species ) might too in fact only be hybrid , especially when the species is known / described from only a few specimens .\nthat aside , next time you find yourself in a shell store catering to tourists and have a plethora of lambis at your disposal , you may want to invest a few moments to take a closer look . you never know what you might find ; especially if they are from the philippines , which for some reason seems to be the source of most lambis hybrids .\nabbott , r . tucker , 1961 . the genus lambis in the indo - pacific , indo - pacific mollusca , 1 ( 3 ) : 147 - 174 , photographic plate 121 .\nabbott , r . tucker and s . peter dance 1986 . compendium of seashells , american malacologists , inc . , melbourne , fl , 411 pp .\nkronenberg , g . c . , 1993 . on the identify of lambis wheelwrighti green , 1978 and l . arachnoides shikama , 1971 , vita marina , 42 ( 2 ) : 41 - 55 .\nwalls , jerry g . 1980 . conchs , tibias , and harps , tfh publications , inc . ltd . , new york , ny , 191 pp .\nto organize and save selections in a folder you must first register or log in . registration is free !\nlogin or register ! to organize the photos in galleries you must first register or login . registration is free !\nour monthly packs allow you to download hi - res photos and vector files whenever you want within a month , with just one simple price for all files .\nif you don ' t use all your downloads , they simply roll over to the next month for as long as your pack is active or renewed .\nthe author of this picture , gguerao also has 29 images in the same series .\nto download this image , you can buy fotolia credits , a monthly pack or purchase a subscription plan and benefit from the amazing price of $ 0 . 19 per image .\nwith the standard license , images can be used for any illustrative purpose in any type of media . examples : websites , web banners , newsletters , pdf documents , blogs , emails , slide shows , tv and video presentations , cell phones , splash screens , movies , magazine articles , books , advertising , brochures , document illustrations , booklets , billboards , business cards , packaging , etc .\nthe extended license gives you all the rights granted by the standard license , but also the ability to print our creative files more than 500 , 000 times and allows you to use them on your own products . an extended license lets you create derivative products or services intended for resale or distribution . examples : postcards , calendars , posters , t - shirts , print & presentations templates , video clips intended for resale , video applications , and any project where the fotolia file lends primary value to the product intended for resale or distribution .\nyou ' ll get access to all the essential fotolia content and so much more .\nadobe stock offers an incredible range of exceptional images , videos , and templates plus 3d , editorial , and premium assets to make your work stand out .\npreview watermarked images inside your designs to make sure they look just right . then license and manage them directly within photoshop cc , illustrator cc , indesign cc , and other adobe desktop apps for a seamless workflow .\n{\ninterception\n: {\nipc\n: false ,\nii\n:\n1\n} ,\nfotolia _ tooltip\n: {\nlicenses _ label\n:\nlicenses :\n} ,\nfotolia\n: {\nhost _ base\n:\nurltoken\n} ,\nsearch\n: {\nheader - search\n: {\nautocomplete _ container _ id\n:\nsearch - 5b43c1a6768bd\n,\nautocomplete _ url\n:\nhttps : \\ / \\ / autocomplete . urltoken \\ / ? language _ id = 2\n} } }\nour new search experience requires javascript to be enabled . please enable javascript on your browser , then try again .\nsave spider conch shell to get e - mail alerts and updates on your ebay feed .\nreal lambis lambis spider conch sea shell seashell beach nautical decor 7 . 5\nbuonanni - spider conch shells . 3 - 311 - 1681 cabinet of curiosities engraving\nnatural vintage spider conch sea shell 15 . 0cm x 7 . 8cm x 4 . 70cm ( 86 )\nebay determines this price through a machine - learned model of the product ' s sale prices within the last 90 days .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\namounts shown in italicized text are for items listed in currency other than canadian dollars and are approximate conversions to canadian dollars based upon bloomberg ' s conversion rates . for more recent exchange rates , please use the universal currency converter\nthis page was last updated : 09 - jul 16 : 01 . number of bids and bid amounts may be slightly out of date . see each listing for international shipping options and costs .\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nstrombidae , or the conchs are one of the more familiar of the molluscan groups . though many larger molluscan species are commonly referred to as conchs , the strombs or generically , strombus are the true conch shells . the number of species in the family numbers around 60 species , which is small in comparison with other molluscan families . yet the size difference between the largest and smallest strombus species is huge . a few grow to be the largest and heaviest of the marine mollusks such as eustrombus goliath\n. the largest recorded shell is around 380 millimeters . at the other end of the size spectrum is\n, a species that rarely reaching 25 millimeters in length . a comprehensive display of strombs are quite beautiful . some of the species can vary considerably in color and make for an\nsearch urltoken search urltoken - enter search word . avoid using the word\nshell\n- e . g . , use conch instead of conch shell . * * * google strombidae on the internet\nclick on the thumbnail images for an enlarged view . images will open up in a separate , resizeable window .\n* turn off your browser ' s pop - up blocker to see enlarged pictures and links . *\ntaxonomic ref . : ponder & lindberg . 1997 . towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs ; an analysis using morphological characters . zoological journal of the linnean society , 119 83 - 265 .\ndillwyn , 1817 - philippines , 27 - 36mm - found in a rainbow of varied colors and patterns .\ndillwyn , 1817 - philippines , 28mm - a striking solid orange color form .\ndillwyn , 1817 - tulear , madagascar , 47mm - at 47mm , this specimen is considered well above average in size .\nsowerby , 1842 - mozambique , 29 - 34mm - intertidal sand dweller found in the western indian ocean & red sea .\nsowerby , 1842 - marshall islands , 15 - 17mm - found scuba diving among sand and rubble . the species has an interesting red operculum with a serrated edge .\nkiener , 1843 - hawaii , 19mm - an unusual orange color form . this species is the smallest of the genus .\nduclos , 1844 - mozambique , 39mm - the geographical range of this subspecies is the indian ocean from east africa to vietnam . it can be found in relatively shallow water . the illustrated shell represents a very shouldered form .\nswainson , 1821 - madagascar , 23mm - the color and patterns of this species varies considerably throughout its indo - pacific range , as well as within individual populations as illustrated here .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - philippines - the shell is found in a array of color forms . in nature the shell is often covered with a thick periostracum and organic growth that masks the color . lip color can be white or black , though the lighter colored shells tend to have a white lip .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - philippines - black color form . the species is quite variable with a number of subspecific names applied to geographical forms .\nwood , 1828 - vanuatu , 18 - 20mm - dwarf adult specimens . the subspecies is restricted to a portion of melanesia .\nsowerby , 1842 - madagascar , 32 - 33mm - one of many forms widely varying forms found throughout the range of the species from the eastern mediterranean through the indian ocean . the form coniformis is found from mauritius through east africa .\nduclos , 1844 - philippines , 39mm - this form is limited to the southern pacific . it is differentiated from typical d . dilatatus by the shorter canal at the aperture .\n( reeve , 1850 ) , - vietnam , 65 - 67mm - a form limited to the indian ocean . taken in trawl nets of a commercial fishing boat .\n( swainson , 1821 ) - philippines , 31mm - distributed through the western pacific , but not found in the indian ocean , where the nominate form is found .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - australia , 65mm - as with many species of the genus , this is an intertidal dweller .\npilsbry , 1917 - hawaii , 92mm - a fresh dead collected specimen . the subspecies is very rare in this size and condition , and is endemic to the hawaiian islands .\npilsbry , 1917 - hawaii , 65 . 7mm - also dead taken . the lip is immature , but rarely seen this dark and beautiful . the species is a sand dweller .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mahe island , seychelles , 57 . 3mm - the nominate form of gibberulus gibberulus [ synonym : strombus gibberulus ] .\nm\u00f6rch , 1850 - saudi arabia , 43mm - a pale form . [ synonym : strombus gibberulus albus ]\nr\u00f6ding , 1798 - coral sea , 40 - 46mm - these specimens were taken near east diamond island , way out in the middle of nowhere ! a geographical morph with a dark band below the suture line on the body whorl is more typical at this location ( middle specimen ) , though a wider range of coral sea color forms is illustrated here . [ synonym : strombus gibberulus gibbosus ]\nm\u00f6rch , 1852 , pterocera anton , 1839 ( non lamarck , 1799 ) ; subgenus : millepes m\u00f6rch , 1852 .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - philippines , 121 - 132mm - dwarf adult specimens of a species that typically grows to over 200mm in length . the depth of aperture color and pattern on the dorsum varies considerably .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - mellish reef , coral sea , 76mm - a pure white color form . taken scuba diving in \u00b135 feet of water on sand , during a night dive .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - davao , philippines , 97 . 2mm - an extremely large specimen for the species . closely related to l . canarium .\nr\u00f6ding , 1798 , pterocera lamarck , 1799 , pteroceras link , 1807 ( err . ) , pteroceres montfort , 1810 ( err . ) , digitator fabricius , 1823 ( nom . nud . ) , pterocerus brongniart , 1829 ( err . ) , heptadactylus m\u00f6rch , 1852 .\n( link , 1807 ) - philippines , 128mm - the nominate form of the species . digits are proportionately shorter than the localized form l . c . pilsbryi .\nabbott , 1961 - marquesas , 254mm - a huge specimen , 4 . 2mm smaller than the largest recorded size for the species . the subspecies is limited to french polynesia .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - philippines , 129 - 137mm - the illustrated specimens exhibit extremely dark coloration .\n( swainson , 1821 ) - tahiti , 131mm - endemic to polynesia . the dark - tipped digits are characteristic of this uncommon species .\n( born , 1778 ) - madagascar , 39 - 40mm - species is limited to the western indian ocean and the rea sea ; forms from the latter location have been described as subspecific . knobby and smooth - shouldered forms are found throughout its range .\n( roding , 1798 ) - davao , philippines , 52mm - orange color form .\niredale , 1921 ; aliger thiele , 1929 ; eustrombus wenz , 1940 . .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - cabo rojo , puerto rico . the famed rooster tail conch is found in a variety of colors ; this specimen has shades of pink . [ synonym : strombus gallus ]\n( gmelin , 1791 ) - aguadilla , puerto rico - 77mm . a gerontic specimen with a blackened lip . strombs found along the west coast of puerto rico seem to be prone to this type of discoloration . [ synonym : strombus raninus ]\n( gray , 1852 ) - andaman sea , 109mm - once considered one of the rarest shells , now it is commonly trawled off the coast of thailand and burma ( myanmar ) , a by - product of commercial fishing boats . m . listeri is the only species in the genus .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - philippines , 163mm - grows to over 200mm . the shell is heavy with a thick calcareous shell .\n( emerson , 1965 ) - somalia , 95mm - a dead taken specimen . live specimens rarely surface in trawling nets .\n( emerson , 1965 ) - somalia , 101 . 7mm - a beautiful shell with mature , fully developed wing .\n, or cap shell attached to the body whorl , which when removed leaves an crater - like indentation in the shell .\nstrombus linn\u00e9 , 1758 ; vaught , 1989 : 31 ; le renard , 1996 : 41 , strombella schl\u00fcter , 1838 , conomurex fischer p . , 1884 ex bayle ms , strombus ( conomurex ) ; vaught , 1989 : 31 .\ngmelin , 1791 - florida keys , 87 - 100mm - a relatively large and variably colored species . it is common throughout its range .\ngmelin , 1791 - florida keys , 81 - 88mm - two distinct color forms from the same locale .\nlinn\u00e9 , 1758 - florida keys , 89mm - typical specimens have longer spines on the spire than does strombus alatus .\n: kronenberg , g . c . & g . j . vermeij . terestrombus and tridentarius , new genera of indo - pacific strombidae ( gastropoda ) , with comments on included taxa and on shell characters in strombidae . vita malacologica ( 1 ) 49 - 54 .\n( r\u00f6ding , 1798 ) - philippines , 30 - 40mm - the thin , shiny shell is characteristic of this species . do not confuse with\nsowerby ii , 1842 - philippines , 36 - 41mm - typical form with taller spire .\n( sowerby , 1842 ) - philippines , 34mm - an unusual solid orange color form .\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - somalia , 114 . 5mm - the coloring varies widely ; this specimen has an unusual dark striped pattern on the back . [ synonym : strombus tricornis ]\n( lightfoot , 1786 ) - somalia , 128 . 7mm - a specimen with an extremely dark dorsum coloring . typically the species exhibits a much lighter color .\n( linn\u00e9 , 1758 ) - solomon islands , 32mm - the type species of the genus . the color - pattern of the body whorl varies .\nstrombidae on this page click name to view image - click \u00bb to view caption below .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsyn . : digitata fabricius , 1823 : 86 [ nom . nud . fide abbott , 1960 ]\noriginal diagnosis of the genus pterocera by lamarck , 1799 , p . 72 :\npteroc\u00e8re . pterocera . coq . ventrue , termin\u00e9e inf\u00e9rieurement par un canal along\u00e9 ; bord droit se dilatant avec l ` age , en aile digit\u00e9e , et ayant un sinus vers sa base .\nmillepes by refering to klein , 1753 . species were : pterocera ( millepes ) millepeda , pterocera ( millepes ) scorpius\nheptadactylus by refering to klein , 1753 . species were : pterocera ( heptadactylus ) crocata , pterocera ( heptadactylus ) yoldii , pterocera ( heptadactylus ) lambis , pterocera ( heptadactylus ) radix bryoniae\nalvarado , r . , & bautista , c . ( 1977 ) . las colecciones malacologicas del museo nacional de ciencias naturales de madrid [ espana ] . revision del genero lambis roeding , 1798 ( estirpe strombacea , familia strombidae ) . boletin de la real sociedad espanola de historia natural . seccion biologica , 75 .\nkronenberg , g . c . ( 2008 ) . an intergeneric hybrid ( gastropoda : caenogastropoda : strombidae ) with remarks on the subdivision of indo - pacific tricornis . basteria , 72 ( 4 - 6 ) , 331 - 343 .\nm\u00f6rch , o . a . l . 1852 . catalogus conchyliorum qu\u00e6 reliquit d . alphonso d ' aguirra & gadea comes de yoldi . fasciculus primus . cephalophora . - pp . [ 1 - 4 ] , 1 - 170 , [ 1 - 2 ] . hafni\u00e6 .\nwoodward , m . f . 1894 . on the anatomy of pterocera , with some notes on the crystalline style . proceedings of the malacological society of london 1 : 143 - 150 + 1 pl , fulltext\na . strummeri a newly discovered species of spiky - shelled , deep - sea snails .\ni ' ve seen granny go out in the chicken yard and get a chicken and so on , and so on , until she had made a perfect chicken pot pie .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fc869 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322fc9b6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3242651f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3262ea26 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32630206 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 349fc894 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nbieler r . bouchet p . dijkstra h . faber m . finn j . garcia - alvarez o . gofas s . la perna r . marshall b . moretzsohn f . neubauer t . a . rosenberg g . sartori a . f . schneider s . taylor j . ter poorten j . j . & vos c . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . worms mollusca : molluscabase ( version 2018 - 06 - 06 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 91967608 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\nstrombidae a semi - precious family and now one of the most popular ones . no members of the strombidae are really small and all have an attractive shape and nice colours . some of the strombidae belong to the famous shells . strombus listeri was only known by one specimen for more than 300 years until its habitat was discovered ( thailand ) at the beginning of the seventies . at the beginning of the eighties strombus oldi was rediscovered in somalian waters . rarest among known strombidae is the small strombus scalariformis from the philippines .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 071 seconds . )\nabbott , r . t . , 1991 seashells of south east asia . graham bash , singapore . 145 p .\nabubakr , m . m . , 2004 the republic of yemen marine biotic ecosystem ( resources - habitats and species ) . the republic of yemen , ministry of water and environment , environment protection authority , 128p .\nal - ansi , m . a . and j . a . al - khayat , 1999 preliminary study on coral reef and its associated biota in qatari waters , arabian gulf . qatar univ . sci j . 19 : 294 - 311 .\nal - khayat , j . a . , 1997 the marine mollusca of the qatari waters , arabian gulf . qatar univ . sci . j . 17 ( 2 ) : 479 - 491 .\nal - yamani , f . y . , v . skryabin , n . boltachova , n . revkov , m . makarov , v . grinstov and e . kolesnikova , 2012 illustrated atlas on the zoobenthos of kuwait . kuwait institute for scientific research .\nalcolado , p . m . , 1976 crecimiento , variaciones morfol\u00f3gicas de la concha y algunos datos biol\u00f3gicos del\ncobo\nstrombus gigas l . ( mollusca , mesogastropoda ) . acad . cienc . cuba . ser . oceanol . 34 : 1 - 36 .\nalfaro , a . c . , w . l . zemke - white and w . nainoca , 2009 faunal composition within algal mats and adjacent habitats on likuri island , fiji islands . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 89 ( 2 ) : 295 - 302 .\nallan , g . r . and g . s . stone , 2005 rapid assessment survey of tsunami - affected reefs of thailand . final technical report 02 - 05 : 124 p .\nallen , g . r . and r . steene , 1996 indo - pacific coral reef field guide . tropical reef research , singapore , 378 p .\nallen , g . r . and s . a . mckenna , 2001 a marine rapid assessment of the togean and banggai islands , sulawesi , indonesia . rap bulletin of biological assessment 20 , conservation international , washington , dc .\nalter , c . and v . von mach , 2010 annual reef check survey of kalawy house reef , safaga , egypt . reef check germany , bremen .\n\u00e1lvarez - le\u00f3n , r . , f . d . p . guti\u00e9rrez - bonilla , j . f . ospina - arango and e . chiquillo - esp\u00edtia , 2007 in the colombian caribbean : monographic revision . the queen conch , strombus gigas , ( linnaeus , 1758 ) status report . bolet\u00edn cient\u00edfico . centro de museos . museo de historia natural 11 ( 1 ) : 301 - 332 .\nanaluddin , k . , nasarudin , w . masa , w . o . sarlyana and s . rahim , 2013 the spatial trends in the community structure of gastropod assemblages the coastal area of tomia island , wakatobi marine national park , indonesia . international journal of development research 3 ( 11 ) : 162 - 167 .\nanam , r . and e . mostarda , 2012 field identification guide to the living marine resources of kenya . fao species identification guide for fishery purposes , rome : fao , 357 p .\nannamary , s . and j . mohanraj , 2014 by - catch landing of lambis gastropods in gulf of mannar coast , tamil nadu . indian journal of science and technology 7 ( 10 ) : 1509 - 1512 .\nans , academy of natural sciences , 2007 academy of natural sciences malacology database . accessed through gbif data portal , urltoken 13 / 09 / 2007 .\nappeldoorn , r . s . , 1988 age determination , growth , mortality and age of first reproduction in adult queen conch , strombus gigas l . , off puerto rico . fisheries research 6 ( 4 ) : 363 - 378 .\nappeldoorn , r . s . , 1992 development of a combined model of growth in weight for juvenile and adult queen conch ( strombus gigas ) and its application to the population off la parguera , puerto rico . in : proceedings of the gulf and caribbean fisheries institute , 42 , pp . 13 - 20 .\nappeldoorn , r . s . , 1990 growth of juvenile queen conch , strombus gigas l . , off la parguera , puerto rico . j . shellfish res . 9 : 59 - 62 .\nappeldoorn , r . s . and q . b . rodr\u00edguez ( eds . ) , 1994 queen conch biology , fisheries and mariculture . fundaci\u00f3n cient\u00edf\u00efca los roques , caracas , venezuela . 356 p .\nappukuttan , k . k . , 1996 marine molluscs and their conservation . pp . 66 - 79 . in n . g . menon and c . s . g . pillai ( eds . ) , marine biodiversity conservation and management . cmfri , cochin .\nappukuttan , k . k . , 1977 trochus and turbo fishery in andamans . seafood export journal 9 ( 12 ) : 21 - 25 .\nappukuttan , k . k . and k . ramadoss , 2000 edible and ornamental gastropod resources . pp . 525 - 535 . in v . n . pillai and n . g . menon ( eds . ) , marine fisheries research and management , cmfri , cochin 682 014 , kerala , india .\narg\u00fcelles - tic\u00f3 , a . , \u00e1lvarez , f . , & alcaraz , g . , 2010 shell utilization by the hermit crab clibanarius antillensis stimpson 1862 ( crustacea anomura ) in intertidal rocky pools at montepio , veracruz , mexico . tropical zoology 23 ( 1 ) : 63 - 73 .\narumugam , m . , a . shanmugam , t . balasubramanian , l . kannan and s . ajmalkhan , 2010 studies on molluscan diversity of great nicobar island - a pre tsunami scenario . recent trends in biodiversity of andaman and nicobar islands\natmadja , w . s . , 1977 notes on the distribution of red algae ( rhodophyta ) on the coral reef of pari islands , seribu islands . marine research in indonesia 17 : 15 - 27 .\naustralian biological resources study , 2000 australian faunal directory . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken\navila poveda , o . h . and e . r . baqueiro cardenas , 2009 reproductive cycle of strombus gigas linnaeus 1758 ( caenogastropoda : strombidae ) from archipelago of san andres , providencia and santa catalina , colombia . invertebrate reproduction & development 53 ( 1 ) : 1 - 12 .\navila - poveda , o . h . and e . r . baqueiro - c\u00e1rdenas , 2006 size at sexual maturity in the queen conch strombus gigas from colombia . bol . invest . mar . cost . 35 : 223 - 233 .\nbaker , n . , r . s . appeldoorn and p . a . torres - saavedra , 2016 fishery - independent surveys of the queen conch stock in western puerto rico , with an assessment of historical trends and management effectiveness . marine and coastal fisheries 8 ( 1 ) : 567 - 579 .\nbaldwin , j . and w . r . england , 1982 the properties and functions of alanopine dehydogenase and octopine dehydrogenase from the pedal retractor muscle of strombidae ( class gastropoda ) . pacific science 36 ( 3 ) : 381 - 394 .\nbarnes , d . k . a . , a . corrie , m . whittington , m . a . carvalho and f . gell , 1998 coastal shellfish resource use in the quirimba archipelago , mozambique . journal of shellfish research 17 ( 1 ) : 51 - 58 .\nbartley , d . m . ( comp . / ed . ) , 2006 introduced species in fisheries and aquaculture : information for responsible use and control ( cd - rom ) . rome , fao .\nbatoy , c . b . , 2050 survey of the marine macrobenthic invertebrate fauna of coastal waters in selected places in leyte and vicinity . department of plant protection , visayas state college of agricultre , visca , baybay , leyte 7127 . pp 1 - 284 .\nbayne , c . j . , b . h . cogan , a . w . diamond , j . frazier , p . grubb , a . hutson , m . e . d . poore , d . r . stoddart and j . d . taylor , 1970 geography and ecology of cosmoledo atoll . atoll research bulletin 136 : 37 - 56 .\nberg , c . j . , 1976 growth of the queen conch strombus gigas , with a discussion of the practicality of its mariculture . marine biology 34 ( 3 ) : 191 - 199 .\nberry , c . , r . l . hill and b . k . walker , 2016 demographics of a nearshore mating queen conch ( lobatus gigas ) aggregation on the southeast florida reef tract . bulletin of marine science 92 ( 1 ) : 59 - 73 .\nberthou , p . , j . m . poutiers , p . goulletquer and j . c . dao , 2009 shelled molluscs . in fisheries and aquaculture , from encyclopedia of life support systems ( eolss ) , developed under the auspices of the unesco , eolss publishers , oxford , uk , [ http : / / www . eolss . net ] .\nbisby , f . a . , m . a . ruggiero , k . l . wilson , m . cachuela - palacio , s . w . kimani , y . r . roskov , a . soulier - perkins and j . van hertum , 2005 species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : 2005 annual checklist . cd - rom ; species 2000 : reading , u . k .\nboletzky , s . v . and r . t . hanlon , 1983 a review of the laboratory maintenance , rearing and culture of cephalopod molluscs . 44 : 147 - 187 . in c . f . e . roper , c . c . lu and f . g . hochberg ( eds . ) memoirs of the national museum of victoria : proceedings of the workshop on the biology and resource potential of cephalopods , melbourne , australia , 9 - 13 march , 1981 .\nboyko , c . b . , 2003 the endemic marine invertebrates of easter island : how many species and for how long ? in p . 155 - 175 loret , j . ; tanacredi , j . t . ( eds ) . 2003 . easter island scientific exploration into the world ' s environmental problems in microcosm . kluwer academic / plenum publishers , new york . 240p .\nbranch , g . m . , c . l . griffiths , m . l . branch and l . beckley , 2005 two oceans : a guide to marine life in southern africa . struik publishers , cape town , 360 p .\nbright , t . j . , 2010 a list of species from glover ' s reef atoll , belize . wildlife conservation society . urltoken ; = 1207 & language ; = en - us [ accessed 22 / 11 / 2010 ] .\nbrook , f . j . , 1998 the coastal molluscan fauna of the northern kermadec islands , southwest pacific ocean . journal of the royal society of new zealand 28 ( 2 ) : 185 - 233 .\nbrown , d . p . , 2011 marine gastropods of american samoa . micronesica 41 ( 2 ) : 237 - 252 .\nbrownell , w . n . , 1977 reproduction , laboratory culture , and growth of strombus gigas , s . costatus and s . pugilus in los roques , venezuela . bulletin of marine science 27 ( 4 ) : 668 - 680 .\nbrownell , w . n . and j . m . stevely , 1981 the biology , fisheries , and management of the queen conch , strombus gigas . us nat . mar . fish . serv . mar . fish . rev . 43 ( 7 ) : 1 - 12 .\nbrunt , m . a . and j . e . davies , 2012 the cayman islands : natural history and biogeography . springer science and business media , 604 pp .\nbryceson , i . and a . massinga , 2002 coastal resources and management systems influenced by conflict and migration : mecufi , mozambique . ambio 31 ( 7 / 8 ) : 512 - 517 .\nbubble vision , 2016 mucky secrets - part 20 - sap - sucking slugs , headshield slugs , sea hares and flatworms - lembeh strait . urltoken [ accessed 14 / 03 / 2016 ] .\nbujang , j . s . , m . h . zakaria and a . arshad , 2006 distribution and significance of seagrass ecosystems in malaysia . aquatic ecosystem health and management 9 ( 2 ) : 1 - 14 .\ncamp , d . k . , w . g . lyons and t . h . perkins , 1998 checklists of selected shallow - water marine invertbrates of florida . florida marine reasearch istitute technical reports tr - 3 .\ncaras , t . , 2001 environmental management and biodiversity conservation of forests , woodlands , and wetlands of the rufiji delta and floodplain . status of the marine habitat and resources adjacent to the rufiji river outflow . rufiji environmental management project technical report ( 27 ) : 37 p .\ncarpenter , k . e . and n . de angelis ( eds . ) , 2016 the living marine resources of the eastern central atlantic . vol . 2 : bivalves , gastropods , hagfishes , sharks , batoid fishes , and chimaeras . fao species identification guide for fishery purposes , rome , fao . pp . 665 - 1509 .\ncash , e . , 2013 assessment of queen conch , lobatus gigas , density , middens and permitting requirements , in south eleuthera , bahamas . doctoral dissertation , auburn university .\nchongpeepien , t . , 1988 bivalve mollusc culture research in thailand . worldfish , 170p .\nchou , l . m . and k . s . tan , 2008 corals , worms , and molluscs : cnidaria , playhelminthes , nemertea , annelida , brachiopoda , mollusca . in pp . 39 - 61 , davison , g . w . h . ; ng , p . k . l . ; ho , h . c . , 2008 . the singapore red data book : threatened plants and animals of singapore . singapore : the nature society , 285pp .\ncimt eis / oies , 2015 chapter 3 , affected environment marine biology . retrieved from urltoken\ncites , 2009 appendices i , ii and iii valid from 22 may 2009 . unep .\ncites , 2010 appendices i , ii and iii valid from 23 june 2010 . unep .\ncites , 2011 appendices i , ii and iii valid from 27 april 2011 . unep .\ncites , 2012 appendices i , ii and iii valid from 3 april 2012 . unep .\ncites , 2015 the checklist of cites species website . appendices i , ii and iii valid from 05 february 2015 . cites secretariat , geneva , switzerland . compiled by unep - wcmc , cambridge , uk . http : / / checklist . cites . org . [ accessed 04 / 11 / 2015 ] .\ncites , unep - wcmc , 2016 the checklist of cites species website . appendices i , ii and iii valid from 10 march 2016 . cites secretariat , geneva , switzerland . compiled by unep - wcmc , cambridge , uk . urltoken [ accessed 23 / 06 / 2016 ] .\ncites , unep - wcmc , 2017 the checklist of cites species website . appendices i , ii and iii valid from 04 april 2017 . cites secretariat , geneva , switzerland . compiled by unep - wcmc , cambridge , uk . urltoken [ accessed 01 / 08 / 2017 ] .\ncmfri , 2015 annual report 2014 - 15 . central marine fisheries institute , cochin . 353 p .\ncob , z . c . , j . s . bujang and m . a . ghaffar , 2009 age , growth , mortality and population structure of strombus canarium ( gastropoda : strombidae ) : variations in male and female sub - populations . journal of applied science 9 ( 18 ) : 3287 - 3297 ."]}
{"id": 1669, "summary": [{"text": "the arnhem leaf-nosed bat ( hipposideros inornatus ) is a species of bat in the family hipposideridae .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it lives in the sandstone areas of kakadu national park ( northern territory , australia ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "it is most often considered to be a subspecies of hipposideros diadema . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "arnhem leaf - nosed bat", "paragraphs": ["the arnhem leaf - nosed bat is a medium - sized very pale brown bat . it has large , pointed ears and a well - developed nose - leaf .\narnhem long - eared bat , northern long - eared bat and pygmy long - eared bat ( plate 63 ) .\n2009 .\nleaf - nosed bat\n( on - line ) . encyclopaedia britannica online . accessed february 27 , 2009 at urltoken .\ndescribes the arnhem leaf - nosed bat hipposideros inornata , its conservation status , appearance , distribution , ecology , threatening processes and conservation management . a list of relevant references is provided . ( pdf file , 417 kb )\narnhem leaf - nosed bats are present in monsoon forest , eucalyptus forest and woodlands , and open heath on sandstone plateaus usually close to water . they roost in caves or abandoned mine adits . the largest known roost possibly contains between 20 and 50 individuals . its diet includes beetles , moths , cockroaches , and leaf - hoppers ( woinarski and milne 2005 ) .\nimages of bat species found in the northern territory . note : list to be complete\ndewey , t . 2011 .\nhipposiderinae ( old world leaf - nosed bats )\n( on - line ) . grzimek ' s animal life . accessed april 25 , 2011 at urltoken .\nmembers of hipposideridae are found throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the old world . these old world leaf - nosed bats are found in africa , southern asia , the philippine islands , the solomon islands , and australia .\nthe presence of insectivorous bats indicates suitable roosting sites nearby and intact and healthy feeding habitat . the disappearance of arnhem leaf - nosed bat from litchfield national park highlights the extreme sensitivity of this species to disturbance . the most likely cause is humans visiting roosting caves , a threat which is now under control . rarity of the species may indicate a shortage of suitable , undisturbed roost sites , but may also reflect health of the broader landscape .\nkunz , t . , p . racey . 1998 . bat biology and conservation . washington and london : smithsonian institution press .\nthis bat roosts in caves or abandoned mines in cool drafty areas , close to water , but may also use tree hollows . it forages in riparian areas and in eucalypt tall open forests , where it feeds on flying insects and other small animals . restricted to the northern territory , it is only known to occur on the western arnhem land sandstone massif , although it was formerly found in litchfield national park .\nhand , s . j . and archer , m . 2005 . a new hipposiderid genus ( microchiroptera ) from an early miocene bat community in australia . palaeontology 48 ( 2 ) : 371\u2013383 .\nmckean , j . l . 1970 ,\na new subspecies of the horseshoe bat , hipposideros diadema from the northern territory , australia\n, western australian naturalist , vol . 11 , pp . 138 - 140\nmany hipposiderid species have a small sac just posterior to the nose leaf . the sac , which is possessed primarily by males , secretes a waxy substance that may be used during mating season to attract mates or fend of potential rivals .\nhipposiderids cause little economic damage . there are no known pathogens specific to hipposideridae that are harmful to people or domesticated animals . however , bats occasionally roost in occupied buildings , which can be destructive and has the potential to spread disease . any species of bat infected with rabies could potentially bite and transmit the pathogen to humans .\na defining characteristic of hipposiderids is their elaborate noseleaf . the noseleaf consists of fleshy protrusions on top of a u - shaped rhinarium ( i . e . , the wet surface surrounding the nostrils ) . hipposiderids have an erect transverse leaf within the noseleaf as well as smaller accessory leaflets . the common name of many genera corresponds to the shape of the noseleaf . for example ,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) , racey , p . a . , medell\u00edn , r . & hutson , a . m . ( chiroptera red list authority )\njustification : listed as vulnerable because the overall number of mature individuals is estimated to be between 300 and 999 mature individuals . currently the proven population of the species is less than 250 mature individuals , but this is almost certainly due to limited sampling . the distribution of this species falls within a large , well - managed protected area and its numbers are considered to be stable .\nit is quite a rare and restricted species , with only three roosting sites ( a disused mine adit and two caves ) known ( milne and richards 2008 ) . this species is almost certainly under - recorded as much of the kakadu escarpment in which it lives has not been surveyed ( d . milne pers . comm . ) . although the proven populations of this species are quite small , it is very unlikely that the overall population is > 300 mature individuals ( d . milne pers . comm . ) .\nit is potentially threatened by loss of suitable roosting sites in mines . disappearance from litchfield national park may be due to human visitation ( g . richards pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nfor information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .\nrecovery plan not required , as the approved conservation advice for the species provides sufficient direction to implement priority actions and mitigate against key threats ( 19 / 11 / 2015 ) .\nlisted as vulnerable ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )\nthe distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .\nwoinarski , j . , a . burbidge & p . harrison ( 2014 ) . the action plan for australian mammals 2012 . csiro publishing , victoria , australia .\nanonymous ( 2009 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .\nepbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .\ncitation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . hipposideros inornatus in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 03 : 50 + 1000 .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 31119c6c - ef15 - 43f0 - a10f - 87f4d22788e5\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3caa8731 - 43c1 - 43df - a5bf - 2179c668ca79\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6aee58a2 - 41ae - 4638 - 8735 - 210db9951812\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c89e9095 - 0dd4 - 4f19 - ac70 - 014426d7c238\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 616550\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncompiled by gabriel crowley & mark ziembicki based on woinarski j . c . z . , pavey c . , kerrigan r . , cowie i . & ward s . 2007 . lost from our landscape - threatened species of the northern territory . northern territory department of natural resources , environment and the arts , darwin .\nby managing for a high habitat diversity that will ensure an abundance of prey . maximise habitat diversity by establishing a fire regime that ensures patches of both recently burnt and long - unburnt country . control feral animals that either reduce abundance of prey or degrade their habitat . do not disturb known roost sites .\nbullen r . d . and mckenzie n . l . ( 2009 ) .\naerodynamic cleanliness in bats\n. australian journal of zoology 56 , 281 - 296 .\nbullen r . d . and mckenzie n . l . ( 2009 ) . < i > australian journal of zoology < / i > 56 , 281 - 296 .\n( roundleaf bats ) , which consists of 76 species . the remaining genera are\nalso varies in length and texture . they may have small or large ears , and some species\u2019 ears are interconnected along the dorsal surface of the head . the appearance of the noseleaf is highly variable among genera . hipposiderids show a great deal of diversity in roosting behavior and reproductive habits and show slight differences in feeding habits from genus to genus .\nhill , j . , j . smith . 1992 . bats : a natural history . austin , tx : university of texas press .\nnowak , r . 1994 . walker ' s bats of the world . baltimore : johns hopkins university press .\nwilson , d . , d . reeder . 2005 . mammal species of the world . a taxonomic and geographic reference ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press .\nsimmons , n . , t . conway . 1997 .\ntree of life web project\n( on - line ) . rhinolophidae . horseshoe bats . . accessed february 26 , 2009 at urltoken .\nhave two circular lateral leaflets , the smaller of which is superimposed onto the larger , resulting in a noseleaf resembling the petals of a flower . differences in noseleaf characteristics are commonly used to discern between genera . these ' appendages ' are thought to be related to nasal echolocation , and may help to focus and modify echolocation signals .\nmolars , and a u - or horseshoe - shaped rhinarium . however , hipposiderids can be differentiated from rhinolophids using a number of different characteristics . hipposiderids generally have a more rounded noseleaf , while the noseleaf of rhinolophids is spear - like and pointed . hipposiderids have only two bones in each toe , while rhinolophids have three in all except the first toe , which has two . rhinolophids always have three lower premolars on each side of the mandible and hipposiderids have only two . the two families also differ in the structure of their shoulder and hip girdles . finally , rhinolophids have a sella , a flattened leaflet in the middle of the noseleaf structure , that is not present in hipposiderids .\njones , g . 2001 . bats . pp . 754 - 785 in d macdonald , ed . the encyclopedia of mammals . oxfordshire , uk : andromeda oxford limited .\nhipposideridae inhabits tropical and subtropical habitats and roosting preferences vary by genera . hipposiderids have been found roosting in caves , mines , hollow trees , buildings , and man - made underground compartments like cellars and tombs . in africa ,\nroost in the inner walls of wells , in caves , and in man - made structures . though\nlive in forests and generally roost in trees , in taiwan they have been discovered in abandoned japanese bomb shelters , also known as pillboxes .\nalthough little information is available on the diets of most hipposiderid species , they are considered to be primarily insectivorous . those species that have been studied prefer cicadas , cockroaches , termites , and beetles . the beetle larvae prey of\nlive in wild figs , which results in the addition of small amounts of fruit to their otherwise insectivorous diet .\nhipposiderids have excellent echolocation , and catch most of their prey via aerial hawking and gleaning . they usually fly only a few meters above the ground while echolocating for potential prey . although most species are thought to prey on flying insects , some occasionally feed on flightless insects such as\n. hipposiderids are generally territorial and hunt and feed within a specific range . for example , members of the genus\n, have been observed flying more than a mile through the desert to their feeding territory . often , hipposiderids bring captured prey back to their roost prior to consumption . when chewing , the jaws of hipposiderids move side - to - side and up and down , simultaneously . this shearing motion helps break down the chitinous exoskeleton of insect prey .\ngraham , g . , f . reid . 1994 . bats of the world . new york : st martin ' s press .\nnowak , r . 1991 . walker ' s mammals of the world : fifth edition . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .\nwalton , d . , b . richardson . 1989 . fauna of australia volume 1b : mammalia . canberra , australia : australian government publishing service .\nas insectivores , hipposiderids help control insect pest populations . while little information exists on potential endoparasites of hipposiderids , like most\nhipposiderids are preyed upon by a number of small nocturnal mammals with the ability to capture them mid - flight or locate their roosts . in many localities , the major predator of hipposiderids is\n, which are sometimes able to locate their roosting sites . during flight , hipposiderids can be captured and eaten by various birds of prey including\nhave been known to locate hipposiderid roosts . in conjunction with their ability to fly , the nocturnal lifestyle of bats helps reduce predation as does the colonial roosting behavior of many species .\n, members of the family hipposideridae have relatively small eyes , indicating that vision may not be as important as echolocation for navigation and foraging purposes . however , vision may be used to detect objects past the range of echolocation . hipposiderids , like all\nthomas , j . , c . moss , m . vater . 2004 . echolocation in bats and dolphins . chicago : university of chicago press .\ninformation regarding the lifespan of hipposiderids is limited , as a majority of species in this family are not well - known . however , some species have been found to live more than 10 years .\nnot enough information is known about hipposiderid mating systems to make accurate generalizations about the family as a whole ; however , research on individual species provides limited but important insight . only one example of a polygynous mating in hipposiderids is known . colonies of\n, which can contain up to 500 , 000 individuals , are divided into small harems consisting of one adult male and several adult females , with whom the male mates . mating occurs seasonally , during the fall , and females give birth to a single young during spring after storing sperm over winter .\nmate in october and give birth in april . although birthing season varies slightly , coinciding with peak rainy season when food is most abundant ,\ngive birth in april north of the equator and in october south of the equator .\nmate in november and give birth in late april . although the specific times vary among species , birthing among hipposiderids generally occurs during spring . female hipposiderids give birth to a single young per pregnancy . gestation lasts from 90 days in\nin south africa . females typically carry their young for a few weeks after giving birth . for example ,\nproduce a single young , which the female carries for 20 to 22 days . age at weaning , age at first flight , and age at independence appears to vary according to latitude . species subject to greater seasonality appear to mature more quickly than those resident to more tropical regions . in at least one species ,\nof nigeria , delayed implantation occurs . the egg does not implant in the uterine lining for up to 2 months after fertilization , and as a result , young are born when prey are more abundant , directly before the rainy season .\nfemales are the primary care givers in hipposiderids . female typically carry their young for a few weeks after birth and prior to weaning . females have\npubic teats\n, which their young hold on to during the carrying period . little is known of lactation and weaning in hipposiderids . however , lactation lasts for about 40 days in the genus\nare usually weaned at 7 weeks old . tropical species are thought to be weaned by 8 to 20 weeks and time to independence appears to vary according to latitude , as tropical species reach sexual maturity between 16 and 24 months , and temperate species reaching sexual maturity by 6 to 8 months .\nslaughter , b . , d . walton . 1970 . about bats : a chiropteran biology symposium . dallas : southern methodist university press .\nhave been subjected to severe range contraction due to deforestation , which has resulted in a population reduction of 20 % in just the last 5 years .\nhave had nearly all of their native range destroyed and now only roost in the homes of three different villages in central india . due to deforestation ,\ncan be found in a single cave on the island of guinea , and are classified as critically endangered . if conservation efforts are to be successful , habitat loss must be slowed and reforestation projects should be encouraged in critical habitat areas .\niucn , 2008 .\niucn 2008 red list\n( on - line ) . accessed february 15 , 2009 at urltoken .\nas insectivores , hipposiderids help control insect pest populations that might otherwise spread disease or damage crops . the guano of hipposiderids is locally used as a nitrogen rich fertilizer .\n, malcolm c . mckenna and susan k . bell proposed a division of hipposideridae ( called rhinonycterinae in their work ) into three\nsimmons , 2005 , pp . 365\u2013379 ; mckenna and bell , 1997 , pp . 306\u2013307 ; other sources cited for specific genera\nziegler , 2000 , p . 652 ; hand and kirsch , 2003 , table 3 ; cf . mckenna and bell , 1997 , p . 305 ( excluded from rhinonycterinae )\narcher , m . , arena , d . a . , bassarova , m . , beck , r . m . d . , black , k . , boles , w . e . , brewer , p . , cooke , b . n . , crosby , k . , gillespie , a . , godthelp , h . , hand , s . j . , kear , b . p . , louys , j . , morrell , a . , muirhead , j . , roberts , k . k . , scanlon , j . d . , travouillon , k . j . and wroe , s . 2006 . current status of species - level representation in faunas from selected fossil localities in the riversleigh world heritage area , northwestern queensland . alcheringa special issue 1 : 1 - 17 . isbn 0 - 9757894 - 5 - 7\nbenda , p . and vallo , p . 2009 . taxonomic revision of the genus triaenops ( chiroptera : hipposideridae ) with description of a new species from southern arabia and definitions of a new genus and tribe . folia zoologica 58 ( monograph 1 ) : 1\u201345 .\nhand , s . j . and kirsch , j . a . w . 2003 . archerops , a new annectent hipposiderid genus ( mammalia : microchiroptera ) from the australian miocene . journal of paleontology 77 ( 6 ) : 1139\u20131151 .\nhutcheon , j . m . and kirsch , j . a . w . 2006 . a moveable face : deconstructing the microchiroptera and a new classification of extant bats . acta chiropterologica 8 ( 1 ) : 1\u201310 .\nmckenna , m . c . and bell , s . k . 1997 . classification of mammals : above the species level . new york : columbia university press , 631 pp . isbn 978 - 0 - 231 - 11013 - 6\nsimmons , n . b . 2005 . order chiroptera . pp . 312\u2013529 in wilson , d . e . and reeder , d . m . ( eds . ) . mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference . 3rd ed . baltimore : the johns hopkins university press , 2 vols . , 2142 pp . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0\nziegler , r . 2000 . the bats ( chiroptera , mammalia ) from the late oligocene fissure fillings herrlingen 8 and herrlingen 9 near ulm ( baden - w\u00fcrttemberg ) . senckenbergiana lethaea 80 ( 2 ) : 647\u2013683 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nwe are making changes to our business . andrew isles books will now focus on secondhand and antiquarian books , as well as natural history art . this means we will be retreating from stocking new books , until sold out . we are not closing ! it ' s still business as usual . our shop hours have changed . we are closed monday , open 10 am to 4 . 30 pm other weekdays and 9 am to 12 . 30 pm saturday . contact us if you wish to see us outside these hours . noleen glavish of nokomis publications will occupy the new book niche , and we encourage customers to visit her website and make contact : urltoken or contact @ urltoken\nkeep up - to - date by subscribing to our free email book lists in over 20 subject categories .\noriginal watercolour by frank knight from menkhorst and knight ' s field guide to the mammals of australia [ 15291 ] . 29 . 5 cm x 42 cm unframed . .\ni ' d like to be notified of new arrivals in the following categories ."]}
{"id": 1686, "summary": [{"text": "hexagonaria is a genus of colonial rugose coral .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "fossils are found in rock formations dating to the devonian period , about 350 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "specimens of hexagonaria can be found in most of the rock formations of the traverse group in michigan .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "fossils of this genus form petoskey stones , the state stone of michigan .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "hexagonaria is a common constituent of the coral reefs exposed in devonian fossil gorge below the coralville lake spillway and in many exposures of the coralville formation in the vicinity of coralville , iowa . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "hexagonaria", "paragraphs": ["the hexagonaria coral ( hexagonaria percarinata ) is commonly and incorrectly referred to as the \u201cpetoskey stone . \u201d\n3 . ) what is the diameter of a single polyp in this fossilized hexagonaria percarinata .\nhexagonaria coral head with several simulated coral polyps as an example of how this creature may have looked in life .\nhexagonaria fossils , at center , with partial crinoid fossils , above and to the left , seen at the devonian fossil gorge outside iowa city , iowa .\nhexagonaria percarinata stumm , 1969 - fossil rugose coral from the devonian of michigan , usa . ( polished surface ; field of view ~ 3 . 2 cm across )\nrounded hexagonaria coral as found on the beach near charlevoix . in many cases it is hard to discern what they are until they are moistened with water to reveal the delicate structure .\nasexually , the corals produce \u201cbuds\u201d that grow from the main coral animal . budding slowly expands the size of the colonies . the hexagonaria buds in this manner . some of the hexagonaria coral heads found in michigan were several feet in diameter , indicating that the corals were quite old . one coral head in the lafarge north america quarry in alpena is in excess of 20 feet in diameter\nthe requirements to log this cache are to email me the answers to questions 1 , 2 and 3 at my profile : 1 . ) what is the height of this fossilized hexagonaria percarinata .\ntoday the fossilized remains of the hexagonaria percarinata are found in the limestone of the traverse group . near petoskey they are found the the gravel point formation and in the alpena area they are found in alpena limestone .\nthis is a beautifully detailed fossil coral colony quarried from near assa zag morocco in the western sahara . the genus appears to be hexagonaria and it would be devonian in age , 350 - 400 million years old . hexagonaria is a genus of colonial rugose coral . fossils are found in rock formations dating to the devonian period , about 350 million years ago . fossils of this genus form petoskey stones , the state stone of michigan\nbeach & lake gravel in this area consists of many lithologies , including fossiliferous limestone clasts and worn fossil corals ( favositids & colonial rugosans ) . hexagonaria is a colonial rugose coral ( animalia , cnidaria , anthozoa , rugosa , phillipsastraeidae ) .\nthe city of petoskey , michigan gets its name from an old ottawa indian chief , ignatius petosega . \u201cpet - o - sega\u201d means \u201crays of the rising sun\u201d . petoskey stones are so - named in reference to the dark - colored \u201ceye\u201d & radiating lines of individual hexagonaria corallites .\nthe hexagonaria are found across the state of michigan along lakeshores and rivers in sediments commonly called the traverse group . they are rounded fragments of the coral hexagonaria . some of these coral reefs still lie beneath the ground and under the water of little traverse bay . due to the waves and abrasive action of the sand , these stones are rounded and washed up on the beach . the action of ice also brings these stones into shallow water . the best time to hunt for petoskey stones is in the spring as soon as the ice melts . i have even seen locals donning wet suits and walking in waste deep water as ice floats by , picking up the stones before they even reach shore .\nthe soft living tissue of the coral was called a polyp . at the center of this was the area where food was taken in , or the mouth . this dark spot , has been filled with mud or silt that petrified after falling into the openings . surrounding the openings were tentacles that were used for gathering food and drawing it into the mouth . the living hexagonaria percarinata coral thrived on plankton that lived in the warm sea . calcite , silica and other minerals have replaced the first elements of each cell . each separate chamber , then , on each petoskey stone , was a member of a thriving colony of living corals . for that reason the hexagonaria percarinata is called a colony coral .\nthe \u201cofficial \u201cstate stone\u201d of michigan is the petoskey stone , the local name for rounded pebbles or cobbles of the fossil coral hexagonaria percarinata stumm , 1969 . petoskey stones have been weathered & eroded from fossiliferous limestones of the traverse group ( middle devonian ) . they are particularly common in the vicinity of little traverse bay & the town of petoskey ( northwestern lower peninsula of michigan ) .\npetoskey stones were mass coral colonies of hexagonaria , percarinata . each hexagon ( very visible in the stone ) held a single animal which opened a mouth exposing its tentacles in order to take in food . the tentacles were also used to sting any organism or other corallite that came too close . calcite , silica and other minerals replaced the original corallite exoskeleton over many millions of years .\neach corallite of the hexagonaria is made up of a usually six - sided \u201ccompartment\u201d that adjoins the others in the colony and creates an elaborate hexagon . the radiating lines one sees in the petoskey stone are the septa and theca . the septa are the lines of division between each corallite , and the theca are the internal radiating lines . theses patterns of hexagon shapes and radiating lines are what eventually give the petoskey stone its uniqueness among rocks .\nthe \u201cofficial state stone\u201d of michigan is the petoskey stone , the local name for rounded pebbles or cobbles of the fossil colonial rugose coral hexagonaria percarinata . petoskey stones have been weathered & eroded from fossiliferous limestones of the traverse group ( middle devonian ) . they are particularly common in the vicinity of little traverse bay & the town of petoskey ( northwestern lower peninsula of michigan ) . beach & lake gravel in this area consist of many lithologies , including fossiliferous limestone clasts and worn fossil corals ( favositids & colonial rugosans ) .\nto paleontologists , this coral truly does not become a \u201cpetoskey stone\u201d until someone slices and polishes it ( and charges lots of money for it ) . in its natural form , it is really a piece of hexagonaria coral . scattered along the northern lower peninsula shorelines of lakes huron and michigan , this fossil holds natural attraction for people . one can sometimes see this coral , rounded by relentless waves , worn smooth and showing its beautiful internal structure . it is easy to see that rock hounds , jewelry makers and almost everyone would be taken by this striking fossil .\njr\u0089\u00a4\n\u00d76\u0081\u00f8\u001b\u008e\u00e6vqh\u009b \u00fb\u00fd\u00e6\u00ebe0z\u008fx\u00e6\u00e0\u00f5 ? x\u00e9v\u00f432\u00b6tk\u00e4\u00bd > \u00e93 : \u00f3t @ \u00f9\u00fbzt - 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\u00e9\u00a5\u00bf\u00e0\u00ee ^ \u00f6\u00e5\u00f5 * juxo\u00ee ~ \u00be\u00f6\u0017\u0017\u0015\u00d7\u00a6\u0082w\u00a6\u00e3\u00ee \u00f3\u00e7\u00f4\u00e6sns ~ \u0087\u00a8\u0018\u0095\u00f3\u000ed\u0003o\u0095\u00fb ] \u001b\u0088\u00fa\b\u0019v , \u0087p ~ fh\u00e2\u00ab [ \u0081\u00ea\u00df $ \u00ef\u00ff - ? \u0094\u00e9aq\u00fd\u009f } & bv ; \u0084hh / \u001a\u00b8\u00b44o \u0087\u00b7s\u00e7\u009d\u00b6\u00e6 + k\u008c\u00ad\u00b0 # \u009ei\u007fu\u00ee \u00ea ) \u00f6\u00e9\u00acfuov ! \u00ef\u0091 % \u00e6\u0086i\u0086\u001b . # \u0001 @ q\u0082k\u0089\u008a\u00e9 # \u00aa\u00aa\u00a4\u00f4\u00f8\u00b5\u00b1\u001a\u00fb\u000f 8\u0013\u00efe\u00e6\u00f1x\u009e ~ \u009d\u00fd ? \u00f7al\u0006\u0092 } @ \u00a3 + 4\u00fa\u0097\u00ad\u008e\u00bd\u0002w\u00b0\u0090 \u008e\u00f9\u00f8c\u00bc\u0093t \u0080\u00bd\u00f8h\u0098x\u00b0\u0092 $ g\u001b . \u00fbr\u00a7p ? \u00fcwrg\u00a1 \u00a5 ? \u0083\u00d7\u00f5\u00f4 ? \u00e3lq \u00f0\u00a6\u00e4\u00e3\u0005\u00ffd @ x\u0098\u0010 z\u0015\u00b5\u00e3\u0083\u00e3\u00fev\u0093\u00fb\u00b2 \u00e0\u00e4\b\u008d\b { \u00872e\u009co\u00fc\u0092\u00ffm\u00a8\u00f0tt - j . d & ( r\u008b\u0091y\u00a1g\u00ee\u0018\u00f2f < \u00e9\u00b0b\u00fa\u0094\u0005 { = \u00df 2w\u00ff\u007f\u00ff % ( hz\u0090 ! \u00dfks\u001b $ \u009e\u009e\u008a \u0011\u00ac & \u00f4\u00b6 { x\u00e1\u0010kh | \u00eb\u00e0\u0083\u007f\u00a6\u0093i\u000f\u00bb\u0082\u0005\u0005\u000ft\u00f1wjr\u00df \u00ee\u00dfyi\u00b0s\u00f8\u00aa\u00f4\u001a\u00bc\u00af\u00f8\u0098\u00e6\u0098\u00fd\u00b6k\u00f0\u0099 } \u00e2\u00b6 % \u00a9 ; \u00b2\u00e0b9z\u00fcl\u00edvy < \u0090\u00ae\u00e7 - \u00f8f\u00f4\u007f\u008b\u00f9p\u00fe\u0092 + \u00d7go\u00a3\u00ae\u00f8 @ \u00ff } cv\u00ec\u0091 = 9x $ hs\u0095\u001a b ] o\u009c\u0095\u00f1a\u00a9 % \u00ad\u00ec ^ ] \u00f3qy\u00e5\u0099\u0003 ) \u00bb = h\u00fe % k ( \u00f8\u0001\n\u0091\u00fd\u0019\u00f9\u00fes\u00f5 | \u0084 * \u00fao\u0089\u00b7\u00e2\u00e0\u009c\u00b7\u00e8\u00efy % \u00ac\u00b8\u0013\u00b4 ] 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\u00f9 - \u00e8\u00e8\u00bc\u0087\u00a9\u00fab ) \u0003 ~ bd # \u001a\u00af\u00bd\u00e6\u0013\u00f1\u00e3a - \u00e1 ) \u00a3\u0082 ; \u00e4\u00e2uyk\u00b4\u00e2\u0004 { \u00ff { aae\u0012eh\u0087\u00b2 ~ \u001bl\u00b4yr\u00b1\u00fb ) \u00f1\u00dfn\u009a\u00e0\u0012\u009e ( \u0005\u0099l\u00eae\u001a + ~ \u00e6\u00eaj @ _ + \u0089l\u00ea9\u0016\u00bd > \u0087\u009d\u00aa / a \u00b12f\u0084\u00b8 ; [ ta\u00ac\u00ac\u008e\u0007\u0019\u00a4\u00f6\u00ef\u009d\u00a8\u00f7\bb \u00e3\u00f7\u0093\u00fd\u00e3\u008e\u00a6\u00e8\u00bbv ~ + k\u00f0 7\b\u00048\u0083\u008de $ \u00f4\u0084\u00a5\u00bc\u0007bn\u00b9\u00f9 < \u008a2\u00e0ph + g\u00ee\u00b4\u00be\u00b56j\u00e0\u0005 \\ c ? e\u00e2\u00a9\u00fd\u00e5 swz ' \u00a3\u00bc\u0000 ] \u00e2\u0080\u0080\u0086\u00fc < \u00eb\u00b5 ) \u0089\u0015\u0096\u0010\u00a7 \u00f4\u00ba\u0088j\u00e8\u00f2\u00b4 / \u00f5\u00b3n\u0094 \u00a4\u0093\u00b4\u00f9\u00f5a\u00a1q \u0087\u00872\u008c\u0018\u00eb\u00fbg . \u0098 \u00e7\u00f9ux + \u0089 , * \u00ac\u0089\u0001\u00b5\u00e7a\u00f9\u00f4\u00f5\n\u00fa\u0095\u00f9\u00fe4 + \u0001\u00eb [ \u00b1j\u00b5n * z \\ \u00f0\u00f9d\u0099\u00a3\u00eb @ \u00ada\u00b0mj 8\u0012h\u00fb \b % \u00a1\u00a7\u00fc\u00b6\u00fb\u0096\u00f0\u00f8v\u00f9\u00f36zs\u00aa\u0003\u0099\u00b1\u00eb\b ! \u0018\u00b1\u0016\u00bc\u00e7m\u00fb\u00153r\u00f8\u00bd\u00f3\u0017\u00b1 _ \u0011\u00f3\u0086m\u008d p\u00e8a\u00ee\u0017\u00b8 _ z\u00d7\u00f2\u00e1yw\u0084\u0091r\u00ec\u0016\u00fc\u00fb\u0015\u00b5 | \u00ffcl \u00ee\u00e5\u0094\u00eej\u008do\u00f6\u0091\u009a4fx\u00e2\u00f2\u00fa\u00b4 { \u0088\u008c\u00a19\u00fd\u00f6h\u00b8 _ 8\u0089\u0080 { g\u00afrw\u00b6\u00f0e\u00e2g\u00e7\u007fx _ \u00e9\u008e\u00e0 ~ \u00ed\u00ee\u00e7\u00f7\u00a1\u0099f\u0097\u0082\u00ff\u0013\u0095\u00b8\u00e4g\b\u009b\u00f0\u00f2ed\u009d t\u00e6\u00ff , + \u00ac\u00e1 \u0002 $ \u000et\u00ef\u00ea\u00f0\u00e5\u009e\u000f\u007f ( \u0006\u00ea\u00ea\u00ed\u00e7\u00a3\u0019\u0081m\u00a1y\u00b8i\u00e8\u008c\u00fd\u00ba > \u00fb\u0012\u00e1\u00ef @ \u00e6y\u00e1g\u00028\u00fe\u00e5\u00ac [ et\u00e4 / \u00e2\u00e3 kp\u00f3\u00fd \u00ee { \u00b8\u00e8 ( \u00e4 ( \u00e1j\u0097 | \u00f5\u0006\u0012\u0018\u00e6 [ \u0088\u00f4\u00e1\u00a44y\u0011\u0093\u00f3\u0016f\u00f2\u00ba\u00f9\u00ae\u00a7 + ac\u0001 @ \u0007r\u00b2q + . o\u00e5\u001b\u00f8u\u0097\u00e2 = \u00fe\u0090 $ \u0007\u00a7\u0018w\u00fc\u00abfu\u00b2\u0004 ' \u0010\u00aa = \u00efu\u00b27\u00bcdx \\ \u00f2d\u0091o\u00fa\u0011o\u009am\u00f9\u00ea\u00eae0n\u0086\u0092 . \u0088m\u00e4 # n < \u0002 c0\u00b6\u00b2\u00fa\u00ac\u0003 \\ \u0019\u00a7h\u00e0\u00fc\u009c\u00e2\u00a9\u00a3\u0017 \u00ed , \u00fd ) m\u00a9l\u00ed\u00edr1 ` \u00e5\u00a6\u00f0 ] \u00ab\u0004\u00e1\u0090\u0013p\u0010 ] v\u0002p\u0015\u0003\u0084\u00b4\u00f2\u00e4\u00bd\u0003zm\u00e7\u00a9 \u0094\u00a3\u0006\u0001z ] \u00ac\u008a\u0018\u00b5k\u0081\u0013t * \u00e5\u00fb\u00ef\u00f3\u00b0 ` ) \u001a\u00bf\u00aa ! x\u00fe # \u00a7\u00b2z @ \u0084\u0089i\u008b\u00ea\u00807\u00eci\u0011 } \u00e1\u00e1 + kg > [ \u0080\u00b1\u00e5 + t\u00a4\u008aa\u00a1\u00e4\u00ab\u0098\u00e2\u009c\u00eb [ \u00b4\u0000\n\u000eyb\u00b8 \u0080b4\u000fq\u00fc v\u0019\u00f0\u00e1\u0004n\u008e\u00fe \u0091\u00f8\u0006i\u0099 =\n` \u00fa\u009fn\u00e9\u00ac\u0082\u00e5e\u00e2\u00f0\u00e6\u0013n\u00e2\u009c\u0017\u0084n ; \u0095\u008a\u00a3\u008f \\ # & o ; \u00be \u00acg\u00b4\u00f9 \u00f9u\u00e9iu\u00e5 % p ~ \u00f4u ; \u00e9\u009b\u00bf\u00878\u00e0\u0081a\u00fb\u0013\u00a7\u00ea\u00ee\u00fd\u00e8 \u009f\u0001\u0090\u00f4 \\ \u00ae { _ \u00e9vkp\u00e9\u00b2 @ ) | \u00f3\u00bc\u0014k\u00d7c\u009e\u0019\u008e\u00a3uv ~ c\u00e5\u0081n\u0012\u00b4\u00f5\u0005\u00f0\u00f0\u00b3\u00b6 & 5\u00e7\u0007\u00f4 ? \u00b1\u009c > ws\u0010\u00e5\u00e94\u0095\u00fc\u00f7 ) \u00e2 ! \u00e3\u0003\u00e4 | \u00b5\u00ff ; e\u008c < \u00e2\u00ef\u0017\u0088o\u00bdy \\ \u00f4\u008d\u00fb\u000fv\u00fa\u0080 / 5\u00ae0\u00e9 < \u0003a\u008bq\u008df\u00f5\u00b7 { ax\u00bf\u008bpy ) ? ^ cq\u0091\u00e3\u00e1z ! c \u00ed\u0083\u00a7\u00f5 ) \u00f0q\u0007\u00a9\u00f7\u00a6\u0087 & #\nonce removed from the water , however , it quickly dries and loses its bright polished shine . in order to achieve that permanent shine , it is necessary to polish the rock by sanding and grinding it with various grits of sandpaper and abrasives , finally finishing it with a polishing compound in order to bring out the beautiful luster of the stone . then it is a petoskey stone .\ncorals live in a symbiotic relationship with a variety of marine algae . although these corals had tentacles similar to those of sea anemones and were able to capture food such as plankton and even small fish , the algae provided much of what the corals needed for survival . food such as plankton was captured by tentacles and brought down to the center where the mouth and stomach was located . the algae used a process called photosynthesis to provide additional energy to the coral polyp . in turn , the hard exoskeleton of the coral and stinging tentacles provided protection for the algae . the coral polyp produced waste products that the algae needed for its survival . because sunlight is needed for the algae photosynthesis and sunlight only penetrates the ocean to a certain depth , the corals only grow in shallow waters of 30 to 150 feet .\ncorals are marine organisms that are made up of many \u2014 sometimes thousands \u2014 of hard calcium carbonate exoskeletons called corallites . each corallite contains a polyp , or an individual multi - cellular animal . there are two major types of corals found in michigan : solitary corals growing by themselves , and colonial corals growing in a tight community of genetically identical polyps . the polyp is the actual living individual creature that inhabits each corallite . as the coral grows it extends the calcium carbonate exoskeleton and seals off part of the base . corals can reproduce asexually and sexually .\ncertain corals also reproduce sexually , releasing both sperm and egg into the marine environment . the mixing of the two results in the production of larvae , which then float in the ocean currents . within two days to three weeks , the larvae attach themselves to rocks or other corals on the reef to begin their lives as reef builders .\nthe name petoskey came from an old odawa indian legend . it is said that a french fur trader named antoine carre came to michigan and traveled extensively in the area now known as petoskey , where he met and married an odawa princess . in time he was adopted by the local odawa tribe and eventually was made their chief . it is further told that in the spring of 1787 , while traveling with his wife on his way from near present - day chicago , he camped near what is now kalamazoo . during the night , his wife gave birth to a son . it is legend that as the morning sun rose , the rays of the sun fell upon the infant\u2019s face , and his father pronounced his name to be petosegay and predicted that he would be an important person . the translation of the odawa \u201cpetosegay\u201d means sunbeam , or rising sun or rays of dawn .\npetosegay became a fur trader like his father and also became quite wealthy . he owned much land in the petoskey area , and a community was settled on the shores of little traverse bay . the present location of the city of petoskey stands as a tribute to petosegay . because these rounded and water tumbled fossils were found in great abundance on the shores of little traverse bay , they became known as petoskey stones .\nthe petoskey stone was made the state stone of michigan by legislative action . house bill 2297 was signed by then - gov . george romney in 1965 , thus elevating this fossil to the prestigious position it now holds around the world as something one must seek , find or purchase when visiting michigan .\nlearn how you can help the mackinac center provide incisive , accurate and timely analysis of critical policy issues .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\na taxonomic genus within the family disphyllidae \u2013 fossil corals from the devonian period .\nthis page was last edited on 20 october 2015 , at 19 : 47 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nit\u2019s a fossil coral . why is it called a petoskey stone ? because many of their kind are found abundantly in and around the lake michigan shores near the northern city of petoskey , michigan ( usa ) !\ncould the remains of a coral which thrived in tropical warm waters possibly find its way to michigan ? because 350 million years ago during the devonian time period much of north america was covered by warm shallow seas . later , the corals were buried under deep layers of sediment . millions of years after that , when the great glaciers retreated , they scraped and dug into those forgotten layers of earth . the glaciers deposited them where we can now enjoy the good fortune of discovering their mysteries .\nthis is where i share my fossil discoveries enhanced with photographs and illustrations . i also write about them at urltoken along with other subjects including places of interest in my community , gardening , poetry and more . click one of the links below to visit there . all rights reserved \u00a9 fossillady 2011\nthe place of nature in the ' ordinary ' spiritual life through meditation using macro photography to illustrate .\nwe ' re already living in the future . it ' s just not evenly distrbuted yet .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nuse this space to describe your geocache location , container , and how it ' s hidden to your reviewer . if you ' ve made changes , tell the reviewer what changes you made . the more they know , the easier it is for them to publish your geocache . this note will not be visible to the public when your geocache is published .\nplease note use of urltoken services is subject to the terms and conditions in our disclaimer .\nthis area has been covered with blocks of limestone brought here from a nearby quarry . a nice park runs along the shore where these blocks can be found .\nyou will need a tape measure and a camera to full fill the logging requirements for this earthcache . also bring a bottle of water to wet the fossil as this makes it much easier to see it .\n4 . ) post with your log a photo of yourself holding your gps with the breakwater in the background .\na fossil ( from latin fossus , literally\nhaving been dug up\n) is any rocky remains of a past living organism preserved in earth ' s bedrock . the fossilization process typically occurs when a plant or animal ' s remains sinks to the bottom of a body of water . sediments then cover the remains protecting it from scavengers and the elements . this slowed the decaying process of the harder body parts . over time the sediments become rock and water seeped through the rock dissolving the hard body parts . this would leave a hollow cavity that is then filled in by dissolved minerals in the same water that dissolved the hard body parts .\nfossilization is an rare occurrence as the majority of most living organisms are soft and these parts decay quickly . due to the combined effect of decomposition and simple mathematical chance , fossilization tends to favor organisms with hard body parts , those that were widespread , and those that existed for a long time before going extinct . on the other hand , it is very unusual to find fossils of small , soft bodied , geographically restricted and geologically ephemeral organisms , because of their relative rarity and low likelihood of preservation .\nthe rock you are looking for came from a nearby quarry to provide protection of the shoreline . the mine safety rules restrict the access to mines and quarries unless you have proper safety training . it is about 3 ' x 3 ' square and can be easily spotted walking along the rock blocks near the shoreline . this angle favors the best view .\n\u00a9 2000 - 2018 groundspeak , inc . all rights reserved . groundspeak terms of use | privacy policy\na genus of ornithopod dinosaur that lived in what is now north america during the late cretaceous period , about 76 . 5 - 73 million years ago\nsome images used in this set are licensed under the creative commons through urltoken . click to see the original works with their full license .\nmainpage register newest messages informative posts general forum locations forum identification forum trade forum trilobites group members member rules website help search in community activity agenda the collection of . . .\nthis listing was ended by the seller because the item is no longer available .\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping programme terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis item will be sent through the global shipping programme and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nif you have an interest in local history , why not take it back a few hundred million years ? studying fossils and learning to identify them can be wonderful activities for families and individuals \u2014 and you don\u2019t have to journey far to find them .\njohn oostenryk , assistant curator at augustana college\u2019s fryxall geology musuem , says fossil explorers will find marine and invertebrate fossils in the area from the sirulian and devonian geologic periods and also plant fossils , although they are more frail .\n\u201ci am enthusiastic about inspiring kids and adults to investigate their surroundings . most have some inquisitive \u2018science\u2019 in themselves , \u201d says oostenryk . \u201cthe critical thinking that goes into getting out of the house and checking into \u2018stuff\u2019 is important in so many ways . \u201d\nto find fossils , go anywhere you\u2019d find rocks , such as creeks or rivers or ravines , and look for patterns . the riprap rock used to halt erosion along riverbanks and other areas is often rife with fossil life , too , although it may not be \u201clocal . \u201d\n\u201cwhen i look at a rock , i look for openings , or voids , or patterns and shapes , \u201d oostenryk says .\nplant fossils will have a black coating over the top of the cast , which is actually carbon , and it doesn\u2019t last long in the air , according to oostenryk .\nfor a surefire way to spot some fossils , head to the devonian fossil gorge at coralville lake in coralville , iowa . in 1993 , raging floodwaters washed out about 15 feet of silt and sand exposing the devonian bedrock below .\nthis unique window into iowa\u2019s geologic past features fossilized tropical ocean marine life from the seafloor that is approximately 375 million years old . terry escher , natural resource specialist for the u . s . army corps of engineers at coralville lake , explains that it was once south of the equator and covered in warm tropical waters .\nat the fossil gorge , visitors can see fossilized marine life including brachiopods , crinoids , favocites , and , of course , coral , including a completely fossilized coral reef home to many other fossilized species .\nthe fossil gorge includes six huge limestone monoliths with interpretive displays overlooking the gorge . brochures with a map are available to direct visitors through the gorge and aid in identification of species . discovery points are marked with plaques embedded in the rock .\nadmission is free , and the gorge is open dusk until dawn . visitors should wear comfortable shoes . at the fossil gorge , the policy is \u201clook , touch , but don\u2019t take . \u201d in fact , there are fines for removing anything from the gorge .\n\u201cplease leave it so that the people coming out the next week can see it , too , \u201d escher says . she recommends instead taking photographs of fossils seen in the gorge or located elsewhere .\nfor help in identifying fossils you\u2019ve located on your own , oostenryk recommends online research . locate a bedrock geologic map for your state through a google search and identify what geologic periods are present on the map in your area .\nfrom there , search for prevalent fossils from those periods , and you\u2019ll find many resources and line drawings online to aid in the identification process . other guides may be found at your local library .\nor , get assistance from the fryxall geology museum , during its open season ( which corresponds with the academic year , august through may ) . when the fryxall is not open , oostenryk says other great regional resources for fossil identification and education are the museum of natural history at the university of iowa and the state geologic survey .\nyou can also join a local rock and fossil club to keep your interest going and your knowledge growing . the blackhawk gem and mineral club , online at urltoken , is based in the quad - cities . oostenryk also recommends the cedar valley rock and minerals society , based in cedar rapids , online at urltoken .\nradish magazine is published monthly by the dispatch and rock island argus , 1033 7th st . ste . 101 , east moline , il 61244 . | terms of use | privacy policy\nthis item will be shipped through the global shipping program and includes international tracking . learn more - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nthis amount includes applicable customs duties , taxes , brokerage and other fees . this amount is subject to change until you make payment . if you reside in an eu member state besides uk , import vat on this purchase is not recoverable . for additional information , see the global shipping program terms and conditions - opens in a new window or tab\nestimated delivery dates - opens in a new window or tab include seller ' s handling time , 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{"id": 1727, "summary": [{"text": "chrysotoxum cautum is a species of hoverfly .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in southern britain and europe east into the palearctic but is normally encountered in small numbers .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae are thought to feed on root aphids .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "adults are usually found on the edges of woodland or scrub or along hedgerows where they visit a wide range of flowers . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "chrysotoxum cautum", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\netel\u00e4nsarvikirvari\nto\nchrysotoxum cautum ( harris , 1776 )\n.\nchrysotoxum cautum - large species , female with long dense hairs on thoracic dorsum . antennal segment 1 shorter than segment 2\ntergites of investigated species , lateral view . a , chrysotoxum festivum a ; b , chrysotoxum festivum b ; c , chrysotoxum elegans ; d , chrysotoxum elegans \u2013intermediate form ; e , chrysotoxum octomaculatum .\ninvestigated localities . a , chrysotoxum festivum a ; b , chrysotoxum festivum b .\nthin - plate - spline deformation grids shape differences . a , males of chrysotoxum festivum a and chrysotoxum festivum b ; b , females of chrysotoxum festivum a and chrysotoxum festivum b ; c , males of chrysotoxum festivum a and chrysotoxum elegans ; d , females of chrysotoxum festivum a and chrysotoxum elegans ; e , males of chrysotoxum festivum b and chrysotoxum elegans ; f , females of chrysotoxum festivum b and chrysotoxum elegans . differences between the species were exaggerated five - fold to make them more visible .\nchrysotoxum tomentosum giglio - tos , 1890 : 159 stat . nov . corresponds to chrysotoxum festivum b\nfig . 5 . superimposed outline drawings showing wing shape differences between analysed species . a , chrysotoxum vernale and chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . ; b , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . and chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . ; c , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . and chrysotoxum vernale .\npilosity on mesoscutum , lateral view . a , chrysotoxum festivum a ; b , chrysotoxum festivum b .\nit just doesn ' t quite seem to have markings which match cautum or verralli when i check ' google ' .\nfig . 10 . male genitalia . a , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . , lateral view ; b , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . , dorsal view ; c , chrysotoxum festivum , lateral view ; d , chrysotoxum festivum , dorsal view ; e , chrysotoxum vernale , lateral view ; f , chrysotoxum vernale , dorsal view .\nfig . 11 . abdomen , dorsal view . a , chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . ; b , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . ; c , chrysotoxum vernale .\nfigure 1 . adult female hover fly , chrysotoxum cautum ( harris ) , showing resemblence of some hover fly species to yellowjackets . photograph by david a . iliff , cheltenham , england .\nfig . 6 . superimposed outline drawings showing surstylus shape differences between chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . and chrysotoxum vernale .\nfig . 14 . distribution maps of the material examined . a , chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . ; b , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . ; c , chrysotoxum vernale .\nfig . 13 . right surstylus of the male genitalia , lateral view . a , chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . ; b , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . ; c , chrysotoxum vernale .\nfig . 8 . thoracic scutum of males , lateral view . a , chrysotoxum vernale ; b , chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov .\nhead of male , anterior view . a , chrysotoxum festivum a ; b , chrysotoxum festivum b ; a , width of black vitta .\nfig . 9 . thoracic pleura , lateral view . a , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . ; b , chrysotoxum vernale ; c , chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . dotted areas indicate yellow colour ( kepst , katepisternum ) .\na small dumpy chrysotoxum looking like a diminutive c . cautum or chubby c . verralli . the first two antennal segments are very short ( like cautum ) but the third segment is very long . the male has dense , dark eye hairs . this is the only chrysotoxum with a northern - biased distribution and is frequent in sheltered , scrubby parts of heathland , moorland and open structured woodland , particularly in upland districts of britain . the larvae feed on ant - associated aphids . nbn map : urltoken bnsys0000006893\nchrysotoxum festivum ( linnaeus , 1758 : 593 ) corresponds to c . festivum a\nfig . 7 . scatter plot of factor loadings of two pc scores showing the positions of chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . and chrysotoxum vernale in the environmental space .\nright surstylus of male genitalia , lateral view . a , chrysotoxum festivum a ; b , chrysotoxum festivum b ; a , length of surstylus ; b , width of surstylus .\na review of the palaearctic species of the genus chrysotoxum mg . ( diptera , syrphidae )\nch . cautum should be correct . however , a good picture of the antennae is needed to compare the length of the segments ( this is the first question the key http : / / web . archiv . . . x _ key . html asks ) . in your fly the third segment seems to equal the first and second together , which is fine for ch . cautum . the colouring fits well , too . regards , sundew\nthe european chrysotoxum species can be grouped according to the proportional length of the basoflagellomere : species with basoflagellomere shorter than scape and pedicel together , chrysotoxum bicinctum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , chrysotoxum elegans loew , 1841 , chrysotoxum festivum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , chrysotoxum gracile becker , 1921 , chrysotoxum lineare ( zetterstedt , 1819 ) , c . montanum sp . nov . , chrysotoxum octomaculatum curtis , 1837 , c . orthostylum sp . nov . , chrysotoxum parmense rondani , 1845 , chrysotoxum tomentosum giglio - tos , 1890 , c . vernale and chrysotoxum verralli collin , 1940 ; species with basoflagellomere longer than scape and pedicel together , chrysotoxum arcuatum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , chrysotoxum cisalpinum rondani , 1845 , chrysotoxum cautum ( harris , 1776 ) , chrysotoxum fasciolatum ( de geer , 1776 ) and chrysotoxum intermedium meigen , 1822 . within the group with a relatively short basoflagellomere , masseti et al . ( 2006 ) defined the morphological festivum group , c . bicinctum , c . festivum , c . elegans , c . octomaculatum , c . parmense and c . vernale , excluding characters such as the colour of femur and lateral margin of terga 3 and 4 . based on morphology , c . tomentosum , c . montanum sp . nov . , and c . orthostylum sp . nov . are likely to belong to the festivum group ( sensu masseti et al . , 2006 ) . these three species have the yellow fasciae on terga 3 and 4 not reaching the lateral margin of the tergum , but the festivum group ( sensu masseti et al . , 2006 ) includes some species with yellow fasciae reaching the lateral margin . further morphological and molecular analyses are required to access the concept of a festivum group .\nfig . 1 . location of the 16 analysed landmarks on the right wing in the chrysotoxum vernale .\nchrysotoxum tomentosum , male genitalia . a , epandrium , dorsal view ; b , hypandrium , lateral view .\nchrysotoxum festivum , c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( femora wholly yellow ) , and c . tomentosum\nsang - wook s , ho - yeon h . 2013 . clarification of previously confused chrysotoxum sapporense and chrysotoxum graciosum ( insecta : diptera : syrphidae ) in east asia based on morphological and molecular data . animal cells and systems 17 : 277 - 289 .\nchrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . , c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( femora black basally ) , and c . vernale\nboxplot of mean centroid size showing differences in wing size between chrysotoxum festivum a , c . festivum b , and c . elegans .\nfig . 2 . location of the 30 analysed semi - landmarks on the right surstylus of the male genitalia in the chrysotoxum vernale .\nthe social wasp - mimicking hoverfly chrysotoxum cautum must be a strong contender for the most handsomely marked british fly species . the subterfuge ( batesian mimicry ) is enhanced by the adoption of a flight pattern and buzz very similar to that of the social wasps that are being mimicked and it is very likely that any predators already wise to the hazards of being stung will avoid the perceived risk and leave this fly well alone . there are several other members of the chrysotoxum genus with very similar markings so close examination of the relative lengths of the antennal segments will be required in order to unequivocally separate the species .\nhabitat and flowers visited . chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . has been found flying with other chrysotoxum species in the grassy edges of conifer forests at high altitudes in serbia and montenegro . in fyr macedonia , c . orthostylum sp . nov . has been found resting on lapsana and chrysanthemum leaves in wet meadows .\ngiglio - tos e . 1890 . le specie europee del genere chrysotoxum meig . atti della r . accademia delle scienze di torino 26 : 134 - 165 .\nrefinements to couplets in the key to the palaearctic chrysotoxum in violovitsh ( 1974 ) are provided below , based on the results presented here , as well as those in nedeljkovi\u0107 et al . ( 2013 ) . chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . , c . vernale and specimens of c . orthostylum sp . nov . with femora black basally would key out to c . vernale ( sensu lato ) in violovitsh ( 1974 ) ; specimens of c . orthostylum sp . nov . with femora wholly yellow would key out to chrysotoxum festivum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( s . l . ) . chrysotoxum festivum and chrysotoxum tomentosum giglio - tos , 1890 , which also have yellow fasciae on terga 2 - 4 not reaching the lateral margins of tergum , would key out to c . festivum ( s . l . ) .\nhabitat and flowers visited . this species has been found with other chrysotoxum species in the grassy edges of conifer forests at high altitudes . flowers visited : no data .\nadditional material . holotype of chrysotoxum collinum : m , museo \u201cla specola\u201d coll . rondani holotypus ( red label ) / 357 / chrysotoxum vernale ( = collinum rnd . ) / rev . ( overwritten by hand on \u2018det . \u2019 ) m . daccordi 1985 [ lsf ] . for further non - type additional material see table s1 .\ntwo or three legs of each specimen were used for total genomic dna extraction from 25 chrysotoxum dry specimens ( table s2 ) , following chen et al . ( 2010 ) . material analysed included 22 specimens of the c . vernale a , two specimens of the c . vernale b and one of third chrysotoxum species . dna voucher specimens are deposited in fsuns .\nfig . 12 . terga 3 - 5 , dorsal view , chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . a , male ; b , female ( t , thorn - like process ) .\nviolovitsh na . 1974 . a review of the palaearctic species of the genus chrysotoxum mg . ( diptera , syrphidae ) . \u044d\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0435 \u043e\u0431\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 ( entomological review ) 53 : 196 - 217 .\nchrysotoxum verralli - restricted to south - east england and the midlands . very similar to elegans but smaller and with black at front of tergite 2 mostly straight , not curved as in elegans .\nsommaggio d . 2001 . the species of the genus chrysotoxum meigen , 1822 ( diptera , syrphidae ) described by giglio tos . bollettino del museo regionale di scienze naturali , torino 1 : 115 - 126 .\nin the world approximately 150 chrysotoxum species has been recorded so far ( evenhuis et al . , 2008 ) . peck ( 1988 ) listed 69 species of this genus occurring in the palaearctic of which 23 occur in europe .\nmasetti a , luchetti a , sommaggio d , burgio g , mantovani b . 2006 . phylogeny of chrysotoxum species ( diptera : syrphidae ) inferred from morphological and molecular characters . european journal of entomology 103 : 459 - 467 .\namongst the most striking of all british hoverflies , chrysotoxum species are boldly marked with yellow and black and have distinctly elongated antennae . although the genus is distinctive , identification to species level can be tricky and may require close examination of the abdominal markings in combination with other characters .\nnedeljkovi\u0107 z , a\u010danski j , vuji\u0107 a , obreht d , \u0111an m , st\u00e5hls g , radenkovi\u0107 s . 2013 . taxonomy of chrysotoxum festivum linnaeus , 1758 ( diptera : syrphidae ) - an integrative approach . zoological journal of the linnean society 169 : 84 - 102 .\na preliminary examination of named specimens of chrysotoxum vernale loew , 1841 resulted in the identification of two different morphotypes according to the colour of long pile on thoracic scutum of males : yellow ( morphotype a ) and black ( morphotype b ) ( nedeljkovi\u0107 , 2011 ) . in addition , a new chrysotoxum taxon sharing with morphotypes a and b an antenna with basoflagellomere shorter than scape and pedicel together and abdominal terga with yellow fasciae not reaching the lateral margins was recognized . the main objective of the present study is to test using an integrated approach , whether these morphotypes correspond to different species .\nmusca arcuata and m . festiva linnaeus , 1758 ( currently chrysotoxum arcuatum and c . festivum ) and m . citrofasciata de geer , 1776 ( currently xanthogramma citrofasciatum ) ( insecta , diptera ) : proposed conservation of usage of the specific names by the designation of neotypes for m . arcuata and m . festiva\nopinion 1982 ( case 3090 ) . musca arcuata linnaeus , 1758 and m . festiva linnaeus , 1758 ( currently chrysotoxum arcuatum and c . festivum ) and m . citrofasciata de geer , 1776 ( currently xanthogramma citrofasciatum ) ( insecta : diptera ) : specific names conserved by the designation of neotypes for m . arcuata and m . festiva\nveli\u010dkovi\u0107 n , obreht d , \u0111an m , ko\u010di\u0161 tubi\u0107 n , vuji\u0107 a . 2012 . cytochrome oxidase i gene variation in genus chrysotoxum ( diptera , syrphidae ) . pp . 63 - 68 in : sabin i , ed . , proceedings of the xivth international symposium \u2018young people and multidisciplinary research\u2019 , timis\u00b8oara . timisoara , romania : editura politechnica .\nchrysotoxum species are present in all bio - geographic regions except for australasia . in the palaearctic region 71 species are recorded , 24 of which are present in europe ( vockeroth , 1969 ; violovitsh , 1974 ; peck , 1988 ; nedeljkovi\u0107 et al . , 2013 ) . these wasp - mimics can be separated from other syrphid genera by the yellow and black body colouration ( yellow maculae in thoracic pleura and yellow fasciae in abdominal terga ) , the very long antenna and the convex , margined abdomen ( thompson and rotheray , 1998 ) . chrysotoxum adults are found in many habitat types ( speight , 2013 ) and their poorly known larvae are associated with ants and / or root aphids ( rotheray , 1994 ) .\nworldwide , syrphids ( diptera : syrphidae ) play important ecological roles in nature . adults are usually conspicuous flies that feed on pollen and nectar from a wide range of plants in numerous habitats ( rotheray and gilbert , 2011 ) . in europe , syrphids are one of the better studied diptera families . however , the taxonomy of certain groups is still provisional and uncertain , such as the genus chrysotoxum meigen , 1803 ( speight , 2013 ) .\ndiagnosis . medium to large species ( 15 - 17 mm , n = 10 ) ; r = 1 : 0 . 8 : 1 . 8 ; vertical and frontal triangles with black pile ; scutum with black pile ( fig . 8b ) ; katepisternum completely black ( fig . 9c ) or with a very small yellow macula ; scutellum with long black pile ; male genitalia very similar to that in c . vernale ; surstylus 1 . 3 times longer than hypandrium ( excluding superior lobes and aedeagus ) ; epandrium plus surstylus 1 . 2 - 1 . 3 times longer than hypandrium ( excluding superior lobes and aedeagus ) ; in female frons black , with two triangular pollinose maculae . chrysotoxum montanum has longer wings than c . vernale . chrysotoxum montanum occurs only at high altitude . ml tree based on mtdna coi gene revealed a clear separation of c . montanum from c . vernale .\nthree morphologically related taxa , c . elegans loew , 1841 , c . festivum , and c . gracile becker 1921 share the following morphological characters : first flagellomere short ( shorter than scape and pedicel together ) and yellow legs . chrysotoxum gracile , clearly separable by the longer scape than pedicel from c . elegans and c . festivum , is not included in the present study . based on mtdna and internal transcribed spacer 2 ( its2 ) , c . festivum and c . elegans appeared in the same clade ( masetti et al . , 2006 ) .\ntaxonomic notes . in this new species , the katepisternum colour ranges from completely black ( fig . 9c ) to black with a small yellow macula anteriorly . chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . can be separated from c . orthostylum sp . nov . and c . vernale by the colour of the long pile on the scutum , which are black in c . montanum sp . nov . ( fig . 8b ) and yellow in the other species . for further morphological differences between c . montanum sp . nov . and c . vernale see table 2 .\nparalectotypes ( designated here ) . 1f labelled as 16 / 547 / vernale f loew alte sammlung / austria alte sammlung / chrysotoxum vernale f loew * ( nhmw ) . 20 specimens labelled as \u2018coll h . loew\u2019 and seven specimens not labelled but supposed to be part of loew\u2019s collection and have been collected in pozna\u0144 ( j . ziegler , in lit . ) ; 10 of the 20 \u2018coll h . loew\u2019 specimens are labelled as \u2018wien schiner\u2019 ( 4 specimens ) , \u2018florenz mann\u2019 ( 3 specimens ) , \u2018syrakus zeller\u2019 ( 1 specimen ) , \u2018spanien\u2019 ( 1 specimen ) , \u2018paris\u2019 ( 1 specimen ) ( zhmb ) .\nan integrative taxonomic approach revealed two taxa within chrysotoxum festivum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ( diptera , syrphidae ) , c . festivum a and c . festivum b . in addition to morphological differences , results also showed significant distinction in geometric morphometrics of wings and surstyli , and in dna sequence data ( nuclear its2 sequences ) between c . festivum a , c . festivum b , and the closely related species c . elegans loew , 1841 . from examination of type material , the name c . tomentosum giglio - tos , 1890 is proposed for c . festivum b , and the taxon is redefined . \u00a9 2013 the linnean society of london\nthe taxon tomentosa was originally described as a variety of chrysotoxum festivum based on material from the alpine region of piemonte and surrounding localities alagna and valsesia , valdieri , val dell ' orco , santa redegunda in stiria ( giglio - tos , 1890 ) . z . nedeljkovi\u0107 and a . vuji\u0107 examined the lectotype designated by sommaggio ( 2001 ) labelled as follows : 20\u201368 / ch . festivum linn . var . tomentosa giglio - tos ( handwritten ) / ch . festivum var . tomentosa ( handwritten ) lectotype / mzut - mrsn torino , coll . bellardi box 12 . the redescription of c . tomentosum is based on the examination of lectotype and additional studied material .\nchrysotoxum festivum linnaeus , 1758 . described based on a male specimen bm 1937 - 539 as musca festiva . type locality : \u2018europa\u2019 . the lectotype of musca festiva was designated by thompson et al . ( 1982 : 155 ) . neotype : male . type locality : germany , schneverdingen , l\u00fcneberg heath , n . germany , leg . t . h . rowsell and b . j . clifton in 1937 was designated by p . j . chandler ( iliff & chandler , 2000 ) and is deposited in bmnh . it was examined by n . wyatt in october 2012 , a . ricarte in january 2013 , and also via photos by z . nedeljkovi\u0107 in october 2012 .\nthe pca reduces the bioclim variables ( table 1 ) to three pcs with eigenvalue \u2265 1 . 88 % of the variation . separation among species were statistically significant along pc1 and pc2 ( anova , pc1 : f 1 , 302 = 141 . 26 ; p < 0 . 00000 , fisher lsd post hoc test p < 0 . 00000 ; pc2 : f 1 , 302 = 155 . 27 ; p < 0 . 00000 , fisher lsd post hoc test p < 0 . 00000 ) , but not along pc3 ( f 1 , 302 = 1 . 90 ; p < 0 . 168397 ) . because of this , pc3 was excluded in the interpretation of results . the precipitation - related pc1 explained 61 % of the total variation , while the temperature - and altitude - related pc2 explained 17 % of the total variation ( table 1 ) . the scatter plot of pc1 against pc2 illustrated a clear niche separation between c . vernale and c . montanum sp . nov . chrysotoxum vernale occurs across a wide temperature range , precipitation and altitude ( fig . 7 ) , while c . montanum sp . nov . occurs in a much narrower range of temperatures . chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . occurs only at high altitudes with high precipitation , and its distribution is strongly influenced by the precipitation in the coldest and wettest quarters of the year ( bio19 , bio12 , bio16 and bio13 ) .\nchrysotoxum vernale was described from an unspecified but large ( \u201cunter vielen exemplaren . . . \u201d ) number of specimens , both males and females . some males studied by hermann loew were collected in the place where he was working at the time of the description ( \u201c . . . hier gefangen . . . \u201d ) : pozna\u0144 ( \u201cposen\u201d ) , poland . apart from this , no other data about the type locality of c . vernale are given in the original description . in the zmhb there are 27 specimens of c . vernale belonging to loew\u2019s collection ( j . ziegler , in lit . ) ; of these specimens only 20 are labelled as \u2018coll . h . loew\u2019 and further information is not provided in the available data bases at the zmhb ( sven marotzke , in lit . ) . these specimens were examined here to confirm the colour of scutum pile , which was yellow . two named specimens ( male and female ) of c . vernale from the \u2018old collection\u2019 ( \u201calte sammlung\u201d ) at the nhmw were also examined ; the female is labelled as \u2018 chrysotoxum vernale f loew * \u2019 ( handwritten ) . no information about the locality where the nhmw specimens were collected is available , but loew\u2019s type material is usually marked with an asterisk ( * ) ( a . vuji\u0107 , pers . obs . ) . we consider that the specimens examined both in zmhb and nhmw belong to the type series of c . vernale and the nhmw male is designated as lectotype in order to stabilize this species concept .\nfor surstyli , outline shape was studied . surstyli of 51 chrysotoxum males were analyzed : 21 of morphotype a and 30 of morphotype b . the right surstylus was taken off using pins . surstyli were mounted in hoyer\u2019s medium on a microscopic slide and immobilized with a cover slip . in the absence of clearly - identifiable , homologous , anatomical loci , 30 semi - landmarks were generated ( fig . 2 ) . for each specimen semi - landmarks were drawn twice to reduce statistical error . to superimpose semi - landmarks , coordgen7 . 14 and an integrated semiland module were used following a distance - minimising protocol to minimize the shape differences due to the arbitrary nature of semi - landmark positions along the curve ( bookstein , 1997 ; zelditch et al . , 2004 ) .\ndiagnosis . large to medium size species ( 11 - 15 mm , n = 10 ) ; r = 1 : 0 . 6 : 1 . 5 ; vertical and frontal triangle with yellow pile ; scutum with long yellow pile ( male ) ( fig . 8a ) ; katepisternum with a yellow macula ( fig . 9b ) ; scutellum mainly with long yellow pile ; basal third of pro - and mesofemora black ; surstylus 1 . 2 - 1 . 3 times longer than hypandrium ( excluding superior lobes and aedeagus ) ( fig . 13c ) ; epandrium plus surstylus 1 . 1 - 1 . 2 times longer than hypandrium ( excluding superior lobes and aedeagus ) ( fig . 10e ) ; in female , frons black , with two rectangular pollinose maculae . chrysotoxum vernale has larger wings than c . montanum . additionally , it has wide temperature , precipitation and altitude range .\nsignificant differences in wing size and shape between c . montanum sp . nov . , c . vernale and c . orthostylum were detected ( fig . 5a ) . inconspicuous but statistically significant differences in surstylar shape between c . montanum sp . nov . and c . vernale were also revealed with a geometric morphometric analysis ; this is the second example after that of nedeljkovi\u0107 et al . ( 2013 ) in which geometric morphometry of genitalia has successfully contributed to the separation of cryptic syrphid species . in addition , niche divergence analysis reveals that c . montanum sp . nov . is more specialised than c . vernale . chrysotoxum montanum sp . nov . occurs only at high altitudes with high precipitation , while c . vernale is able to thrive in a wider range of environmental conditions of temperature , precipitation and altitude . the sympatric ( e . g . in fyr macedonia , golema poljana ) and synchronic ( early may to mid - august ) distributions of c . montanum sp . nov . and c . vernale also support their taxonomic separation .\nthe anova of wing centroid size showed significant differences between c . vernale and c . montanum sp . nov . ( males : f 1 , 117 = 8 . 99 ; p < 0 . 00331 , tukey\u2019s post hoc test p < 0 . 01227 ; females : f 1 , 117 = 81 . 12 ; p < 0 . 00000 , tukey\u2019s post hoc test p < 0 . 00010 ) . anova test and tukey\u2019s post hoc test showed significant differences in wing size between c . orthostylum sp . nov . and c . vernale ( f 1 , 182 = 6 . 69 ; p < 0 . 01045 , tukey\u2019s post hoc test p < 0 . 00969 ) and c . orthostylum sp . nov . and c . montanum sp . nov . ( f 1 , 166 = 30 . 12 ; p < 0 . 00000 , tukey\u2019s post hoc test p < 0 . 00000 ) . chrysotoxum vernale has larger wings than c . montanum sp . nov . and c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( fig . 4b ) .\nthin - plate spline deformation grid allows recognition of wing regions that are contributing to the discrimination . the main differences in wing shape between c . festivum a and c . festivum b are in the basal and apical parts of the wing and in wing length . males of c . festivum a have a wider basal part ( landmarks 1 and 16 ) and narrow medial ( landmarks 7 and 8 ) and apical ( landmarks 3 and 6 ) parts of the wing ( fig . 10a , b ) . the major wing deformations affecting c . elegans and c . festivum a occur in the medial part of the wing and are associated with landmarks 7\u201313 , and in the apical part of wing associated with landmarks 3\u20135 ( fig . 10c , d ) . the deformation grid indicates that the shape difference between c . elegans and c . festivum b is due to wing width and associated with displacement of all landmarks . chrysotoxum elegans is characterized in having a generally narrower wing than c . festivum b , especially in the male ( fig . 10e , f ) .\ntaxonomic notes . chrysotoxum orthostylum sp . nov . can be distinguished from c . montanum sp . nov . and c . vernale by the abdomen shape , which is slender and nearly parallel - sided in c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( fig . 11b ) but more oval in other species ( fig . 11a , c ) . in addition , the posterior corners of tergites 3 and 4 in c . orthostylum sp . nov . are developed into thorn - like processes ( fig . 12a , b ) , while in similar species these corners are blunter . the katepisternum of c . orthostylum sp . nov . has a yellow macula ( fig . 9a ) , which is more reduced or even absent in c . vernale and c . montanum sp . nov . ( fig . 9b , c ) . males of c . orthostylum sp . nov . can be separated from other species by the long surstylus , which is 3 . 3 - 3 . 7\u00d7 ( n = 5 ) longer than wide in c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( fig . 13b ) but 2 . 8\u00d7 or less in the other species ( fig . 13a , c ) . in addition , the shape of the hypandrium apex is rectangular in c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( fig . 10a ) and more triangular in c . festivum ( fig . 10c ) and c . vernale ( fig . 10e ) .\nda correctly classified the material studied in accordance with the three defined species . the overall classification success of the da was 92 . 95 % which indicates wing shape is a reliable predictor of interspecific discrimination . of the 249 digitalisations , only 21 were misclassified . canonical variate analysis conducted on shape variables gave two highly significant axes . the first canonical axis ( cv1 ) , with 65 . 4 % of total variation , separated c . vernale from c . orthostylum sp . nov . ( wilks\u2019 lambda = 0 . 09515 ; \u03c7 2 = 662 . 18 ; p < 0 . 00000 ) . the second canonical axis ( cv2 ) , with 34 . 6 % of total variation , separated c . vernale and c . orthostylum sp . nov . from c . montanum sp . nov . ( wilks\u2019 lambda = 0 . 38388 ; \u03c7 2 = 269 . 52 ; p < 0 . 00000 ) ( fig . 4a ) . the superimposed outline drawings showing major wing deformations between c . vernale and c . montanum sp . nov . occur in the central and distal part of wing and are associated with landmarks 2 , 4 , 5 and 9 - 11 ( fig . 5a ) . major differences in wing shape were found in the central part of the wing ( landmarks 2 , 7 - 11 ) of c . orthostylum sp . nov . and c . vernale ( fig . 5c ) , and in the central ( landmarks 7 , 8 , 12 and 13 ) and apical parts in c . orthostylum sp . nov . and c . montanum sp . nov . ( landmarks 4 and 5 ) ( fig . 5b ) . chrysotoxum vernale has wider wings , while c . orthostylum sp . nov . longer wings .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nfauna europaea is europe ' s main zoological taxonomic index . scientific names and distributions of all living , currently known , multicellular , european land and freshwater animal species are available in one authoritative database .\nfauna europaea provides access to its rich and quality - checked data via this public web portal that also links to other key biodiversity services . it is installed as a taxonomic backbone in a wide range of biodiversity services and actively contributes to biodiversity informatics innovations in various initiatives and ec programs . fauna europaea started in 2000 as an ec funded fp5 project and provides a unique taxonomic reference for many user - groups such as scientists , governments , industries , nature conservation communities and educational programs . fauna europaea was formally accepted as an inspire standard for europe , as part of the european taxonomic backbone established in pesi . today it is hosted by the museum f\u00fcr naturkunde in berlin .\nthis site is powered by the edit platform for cybertaxonomy and supported by eu bon ( urltoken ) . eu bon - building the european biodiversity observation network , presents an innovative approach towards the integration of biodiversity data and information systems , both from in - situ and remote sensing data sources . the eu bon project is a 7th framework programme funded by the european union under contract no . 308454 .\ndue to significant security issues and a warning received from the german federal office for information security , the old fauna europaea site ( urltoken ) urgently had to be closed and is unfortunately no longer available . all requests to this site are automatically redirected to the new portal , also directly available under fauna - eu . org .\nthe new fauna europaea portal first launched in late 2016 provides access to all taxonomic and geographic distribution information currently contained in the fauna europaea database by directly searching for individual taxa . through a search request , also the full taxonomic tree is available for further navigation .\nhowever , a number of functionalities ( e . g . to obtain a list of species for any taxon above the genus level , to offer export / download functionalities for species lists / distributions ) as well as some statistics available at the old site are not yet implemented at the new site , which is still under development . these functionalities will be implemented in the near future , as well as further improvements on display and functions . also , pending updates on the taxonomic and geographic content in the database will be tackled , but may still take some time due to limited personnel and resources available .\nmany thanks for your understanding and we apologize for all inconveniences . in case of urgent need of specific information currently not accessible from the site , please , do contact us .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\na relatively large robust boldly marked grassland hoverfly species , widespread in southern britain and europe , usually seen flying near hedgerows , woodland edges and scrubby areas in small numbers where they visit a wide range of flowers . they are most often seen from june to october with a peak in mid july to early august . wing length 10 - 13mm ( 0 . 4 - 0 . 5in ) .\nis similar to several hoverfly species and care is needed for identification . the abdominal patterning has two straight black bars thinly joined in the centre per segment , with the pattern towards the rear falling short of the segment edge and gradually becoming more like the shape of a whales fluke .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyou can not post a blank message . please type your message and try again .\nhtml public ' - / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en ' ' urltoken '\nhello , can this hoverfly be identified by foto ? i caught it on may 10th , 2011 , on the light . location : germany , rhineland - palatinum , 53572 unkel , river rhine valley , dry and warm habitat . i already posted this fly 1 1 / 2 years ago , with another photo , but never got an answer . perhaps this photo is better for an identification . thanks in advance , michael\nwhy didn\u00b4t the upload work ? there were nop spaces , dots etc . in the name . one more try : michael stemmer attached the following image : [ 71 . 88kb ]\nthank you , sundew ! this helps me a lot . greetings from the river rhine valley , michael\njump to forum : diptera ( adults ) diptera ( eggs , larvae , pupae ) other insects , spiders , etc . fossils asilidae forum syrphidae overviews rearing diptera methodology what should i use ? what is new ? interesting literature about the website ( requests , discussion , errors , etc . ) international congress of dipterology 7 general queries the lounge distribution queries queries submitted as articles\nusername password not a member yet ? click here to register . forgotten your password ? request a new one here .\ndue to fact this site has functionality making use of your email address , any registration using a temporary email address will be rejected .\nhelp again can any1 give me the full title of kulon . allat . kozlem thx\ncopyright \u00a9 2004 - 2018 paul beuk , images in diptera gallery and forum of their respective owners powered by php - fusion copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 by nick jones . released as free software without warranties under gnu affero gpl v3 . simpleasthat\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe family syrphidae , also known as hover flies , flower flies , and syrphid flies , is one of the largest families of diptera with over 5 , 000 described species ( capinera 2004 ) . they are called hover flies because they can hover while in mid - flight , lingering in one place much like a hummingbird . while many diptera are detrimental to humans , most syrphid flies are beneficial . the larvae of some species ( for example , allograpta obliqua ) are natural predators of aphids , and many of the adults are important crop pollinators ( weems 1951 ) .\nhover fly adults are often brightly colored and are commonly mistaken for the bees and wasps that they resemble ( mimic ) in appearance and behavior ( catts and mullen 2002 ) . many are black with either white , yellow , or orange bands across the abdomen and similar in shape to bees and wasps . they also have similar flight behavior and feed on pollen and nectar ( brower and brower 1965 , heal 1979 ) . this type of mimicry is called batesian mimicry because the mimic , although it is not dangerous to predators , benefits because the model is dangerous to predators ( bates 1961 ) . in other words , predators may avoid bees , wasps and yellowjackets because they can inject toxins by stinging , so predators also avoid the flower flies that are mistaken for bees and wasps ( gilbert 1986 ) .\nfigure 2 . adult female eastern yellowjacket , vespula maculifrons ( buysson ) . photograph by bruce marlin , http : / / cirrusimage . com .\nthe species eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) , commonly known as the drone fly ( adult ) or rat - tailed maggot ( immature ) , is a mimic of the european honey bee apis mellifera linnaeus ( golding et al . 2001 ) , and was introduced from europe around 1875 ( gilbert 1986 ) . the rat - tailed maggot is probably the source of biblical writings that depict honey bees spontaneously developing from dead animals . this is because female drone flies can lay their eggs in carcasses ( osten - sacken 1893 ) .\nfigure 3 . adult female drone fly , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) . photograph by lloyd spitalnik , copyright 2006 . www . lloydspitalnikphotos . com , used with permission .\nfigure 4 . adult honey bee , apis mellifera linnaeus . photograph by zachary huang , urltoken .\nadult e . tenax are important pollinators of many crops and wildflowers , while their larvae occasionally are pests around livestock ( day 2008 ) and cause accidental myiasis in humans ( catts and mullen 2002 ) . myiasis occurs when fly larvae infest humans and other vertebrate animals and feed on the host ' s living tissue ( lakshminarayana et al . 1975 ) , and is a common occurrence in certain other dipteran species , such as bot flies ( human bot fly , horse bot fly ) and screwworms .\nthe rat - tailed maggot is cosmopolitan , occurring on every continent except antarctica and ranges to the highest latitudes in the north ( metcalf 1913 ) . it is absent in the extreme southern latitudes and in arid areas of europe , asia , and africa ( thompson 1999 ) . in the united states , it is found as far north as alaska and south through california and florida ( milne and milne 1980 ) .\negg : the egg is white in color , has an elongate shape , and is covered in a sticky substance ( milne and milne 1980 ) .\nlarva : the following information is from metcalf ( 1913 ) . the aquatic larva has a cylindrical shape with patches of horizontal folds dividing the body into segments , between which the cuticle is smooth . at the division of each body segment , two rows of flexible hairs are visible . the larva has a highly specialized organ on the posterior end ( siphon ) that acts as a respiratory appendage and also looks like a tail , thus giving them their nickname\nrat - tailed maggot .\nthe siphon can be several times the length of the body .\nfigure 5 . larva of the rat - tailed maggot , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) , about two and a half inches in length . photograph by walter reeves , the georgia gardener .\nfigure 6 . larvae of the rat - tailed maggot , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) , in dirty , polluted water within a tire . photograph by tami ansley , atlanta , ga .\nfigure 7 . larvae of the rat - tailed maggot , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) , in manure . photograph by j . keith waldron , cornell university .\npupa : the pupa looks very similar to the larva but is shorter and thicker ( gilbert 1986 ) . however , unlike the larva the pupa has two pairs of cornua , or horn - like bumps , located on the thorax ( metcalf 1913 ) . the siphon remains present in the pupa but generally locks in a curved position over the back ( metcalf 1913 ) .\nfigure 8 . rat - tailed maggot pupa , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) . photograph by unknown .\nadult : the following information is from milne and milne ( 1980 ) . the adult drone fly can be over half an inch in length . they can be easily differentiated from honey bees because they lack a constricted waist between the thorax and the abdomen , and they only have two wings , while honey bees have four . short , brownish - yellow hairs are located on the thorax and the first segment of the abdomen . the body is dark brown to black in color , with yellow - orange marks on the side of the second abdominal segment while a narrow yellow - orange band crosses the third abdominal segment .\nlike many other fly species , males can easily be distinguished from females because they have larger eyes that almost touch , while females have smaller eyes that are spaced further apart . flies from the family syrphidae can be distinguished from all other fly species by the identification of a spurious vein , or\nfalse vein .\nthis vein does not terminate at the end of the wing or at another vein but has a free end , and is not as sclerotized as the other wing veins ( metcalf 1913 )\nfigure 9 . adult male drone fly , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) . photograph by lloyd spitalnik , copyright 2006 . used with permission .\nfigure 10 . adult female drone fly , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) . photograph by lloyd spitalnik , copyright 2006 . www . lloydspitalnikphotos . com , used with permission .\nfigure 11 . spurious vein that is indicative of all syrphidae flies . illustration from maxwell lefroy , manual of entomology , 1923 .\nthe drone fly undergoes complete metamorphosis with three larval instars . usually two to three generations are produced each year ( gilbert 1986 ) . however , there are many gaps in our understanding of the drone fly life cycle and more research is needed to provide detailed information on the life cycle .\neggs : eggs are deposited near the surface of foul water or decaying organic material , and are laid in masses with the eggs side by side , perpendicular to the ground ( metcalf 1913 ) . it is not known how long it takes for eggs to hatch .\nfigure 12 . larvae of the drone fly , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) , sharing their habitat with mosquito larvae . the drone fly larvae are represented by the dimples where their siphons are attached to the surface of the water . photograph by phillip e . kaufman , university of florida .\npupae : pupation occurs in a drier environment than where the larvae develop . this is usually just below the soil surface , where they remain for eight to 10 days ( gilbert 1986 , milne and milne 1980 ) . cornua that appear on the pupa are thought to aid in respiration during the pupation period as the trachea within the siphon becomes unusable ( metcalf 1913 ) .\nadults : females will feed on pollen once they emerge from the pupa in order to obtain the necessary nutrients to complete reproduction ( gilbert 1986 ) . subsequent meals will consist mainly of nectar to provide the energy necessary for activity ( gilbert 1986 ) . adult drone flies often feed on nectar from daisies , chrysanthemums , and asters ( gilbert 1986 ) . the adults prefer yellow flowers , leading to their importance in the pollination of yellow - flowered crops ( ilse 1949 ) .\nmale e . tenax tend to be territorial . observations suggest that males may live in the same territory their entire lives where they mate , feed , and groom , defending this area against other insects ( wellington and fitzpatrick 1981 ) . mating can occur while the pair is flying , with the male uppermost , or terrestrially while resting on foliage ( rogers and walker 1916 ) . after mating , adult rat - tailed maggot females lay clusters of about 20 eggs near dirty , contaminated water , sewage , or decomposing organic substances ( milne and milne 1980 ) .\nadults can be found from late march to early december and most often in september and october ( gilbert 1986 ) . in the late autumn months , females from the latest generation will mate and find a secure place to overwinter . the sperm remain alive , nourished by fat reserves from the female , while her eggs remain undeveloped until the spring ( kendall and stradling 1972 ) . after overwintering , the female emerges and lays from 80 to 200 eggs , and the cycle begins again ( kendall and stradling 1972 ) .\neristalis tenax is usually not a serious pest , but occasionally the larvae can become a nuisance in livestock areas , where they are often abundant in manure lagoons and holding pits ( kaufman et al . 2000 ) . during the summer , larvae can migrate from these sites in massive numbers as they seek dry pupation sites ( day 2008 ) . the migrations can cause many problems , such as contamination of livestock feed , short circuits from accumulations in electrical boxes , and congregations in barn stalls , egg cartons , and other unwanted places ( kaufman et al . 2000 , day 2008 ) .\nfigure 13 . a dairy farm lagoon in upstate new york . photograph by j . keith waldron , cornell university .\nfigure 14 . rat - tailed maggots of the drone fly , eristalis tenax ( linnaeus ) , infesting a dairy farm lagoon in upstate new york . photograph by j . keith waldron , cornell university .\nthe drone fly is reported to have caused accidental myiasis , which occurs when fly larvae inhabit a living host by accident , usually because of the ingestion of contaminated food in humans ( lakshminarayana et al . 1975 ) . this can transpire in four ways : intestinal or gastric , nasal , auricular , or anal , with intestinal or gastric being the most common ( rogers and walker 1916 , herms 1969 ) . the larvae are able to survive gastric fluids , possibly due to the fact that they are adapted to living in polluted habitats ( aguilera et al . 1999 ) . myiasis from e . tenax becomes apparent when the host notices the larvae in their bowel movements ( lakshminarayana et al . 1975 , aguilera et al . 1999 ) . symptoms of this condition include diffuse abdominal pain and diarrhea , and can easily be treated with medication which expels the larvae from the body ( lakshminarayana et al . 1975 , aguilera et al . 1999 ) .\nbecause e . tenax larvae live in highly polluted water , lagoons and manure pits need to be kept in the best condition possible . not allowing the manure to extend through the surface of the water can help prevent fly development ( lyon 1995 , day 2008 ) . physical blockades between lagoons and barns / coops can prevent larvae from migrating to the barns / coops when searching for pupation sites , and will keep the pupating larvae in a non - essential area ( lyon 1995 , day 2008 ) . agitating the lagoons frequently by pumping , especially during the warm summer months can disrupt larval development .\naguilera a , cid a , regueiro bj , prieto jm , noya m . 1999 . intestinal myiasis caused by eristalis tenax . journal of clinical microbiology 37 : 3082 .\nbates hw . 1862 . contributions to an insect fauna of the amazon valley . lepidoptera : heliconidae . transactions of the linnean society 23 : 495 - 566 .\nbrower jz , brower lp . 1965 . experimental studies of mimicry . 8 . further investigations of honeybees ( apis mellifera ) and their dronefly mimics ( eristalis spp . ) . the american naturalist 99 : 173 - 187 .\ncapinera jl . 2004 . flies . pp . 875 - 883 . in encyclopedia of entomology , vol . 2 . capinera jl [ ed . ] . kluwer academic publishers , dordrecht , the netherlands .\ncatts ep , mullen gr . 2002 . myiasis ( muscoidea , oestroidea ) . pp . 319 - 348 . in mullen g , durden l [ eds . ] , medical and veterinary entomology . academic press an imprint of elsevier , san diego , ca .\nday er . ( 2008 ) . livestock area fly control . virginia tech extension . urltoken ( 5 february 2009 ) .\ngilbert fs . 1986 . hoverflies . cambridge university press , cambridge , england .\ngolding yc , ennos ar , edmunds m . 2001 . similarity in flight behaviour between the honeybee apis mellifera ( hymenoptera : apidae ) and its presumed mimic , the dronefly eristalis tenax ( diptera : syrphidae ) . the journal of experimental biology 204 : 139 - 145 .\nheal j . 1979 . colour patterns of syrphidae ii . eristalis intricarius . heredity 43 : 229 - 238 .\nherms wm . 1969 . herms ' s medical entomology 6th ed . james mt , harwood rf [ eds . ] , the macmillan company , london , england .\nibrahim ia , gad am . 1978 . the occurrence of paedogenesis in eristalis larvae ( diptera , syrphidae ) . journal of medical entomology 12 : 268 .\nilse d . 1949 . colour discrimination in the drone fly eristalis tenax . nature 163 : 255 - 256 ."]}
{"id": 1732, "summary": [{"text": "brasilennea arethusae is a fossil species of air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family cerionidae , from the paleocene itabora\u00ed basin , brazil .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "brasilennea arethusae is the largest species in the genus brasilennea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was one of the first fossils found in itabora\u00ed basin and its name makes reference to the fact that it is a terrestrial species : the name is in honor of arethusa , a sylvan nymph and one of the hesperides from greek mythology . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "brasilennea arethusae", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define brasilennea arethusae in a sentence and how is the word brasilennea arethusae used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528brasilennea arethusae\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528brasilennea arethusae\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528brasilennea arethusae\u9020\u53e5 , brasilennea arethusae meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nclade panpulmonata clade eupulmonata clade stylommatophora informal group sigmurethra | superfamilia = urocoptoidea | familia = cerionidae | genus = { extinct } brasilennea | species = { extinct } b . arethusae | binomial = brasilennea arethusae | binomial _ authority = maury , 1935 | synonyms = } } brasilennea arethusae is a fossil species of air - breathing . . .\nbrasilennea arethusae var . minor trindade , 1956 : 18 ( pl . 3 , figs . 1e , 2e ) .\nstylommatophora family cerionidae genus brasilennea maury , 1935 ( figs . 3 - 26 )\n\n' brasilennea arethusae\n' is a fossil species of air - breathing land snail , a arethusa , a sylvan nymph and one of the hesperides from greek mythology .\nbrasilennea arethusae maury , 1935 : 4 - 6 , figs . 1 - 5 ; salvador et al . 2011 : 445 - 447 , fig . 1 , a - g , l .\nbrasilennea guttula salvador & simone , 2012 : 2 ( figs . 1 - 4 ) .\nincluded species : b . arethusae maury , 1935 ; b . guttula salvador & simone , 2012 ; b . minor trindade , 1956 .\n- following salvador et al . ( 2011 ) , the genus brasilennea is considered a cerionidae , not a streptaxidae ;\nb . arethusae usually has stronger ribs ( and fewer per whorl ) than other brasilennea species . quensen & woodruff ( 1997 ) attribute such strong ribs to protection against predators in cerion r\u00f6ding , 1798 ; the ribs strengthen the shell structure and make it harder for predators ( in this case , crabs ) to crush it . however , b . arethusae ' s possible predators are unknown : there is no record of crabs in itabora\u00ed or other possible predators known for crushing shells , such as beetles ( symondson , 2004 ) ; still , some small mammals , also potential predators ( allen , 2004 ) , do occur in itabora\u00ed , but possibly not in the same sequence as the brasilennea ( bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) . in any case , the shell of b . arethusae would be more resistant to predation due to its strong ribs .\netymology : maury ( 1935 ) considered the newfound species very similar to the african genus ennea and thus named the new genus brasilennea , meaning\nbrazilian ennea\n.\nshell shape , structure and sculpture : in respect to the general shell shape , brasilennea strongly resembles the typical cerionidae : a thick , pupiform and multispiral shell , with acuminated apex ( triphasic sensu gould , 1989 ) , hollow columella ( at least in first whorls ) , and the shape , placement and size of aperture ( schileyko , 1999b ) . also , b . arethusae has strong and regularlyspaced ribs that become less oblique towards the shell aperture , as commonly seen in cerionids ( schileyko , 1999b ) . the ribs in the other brasilennea species are weaker , but still raised and well - marked .\ndiscussion : b . minor was originally described as a smaller sympatric variety of b . arethusae by trindade ( 1956 ) , but it was lately elevated to the category of species by brito ( 1967 ) , using the sympatry as one of the reasons for such . b . minor specimens are smaller than the smallest specimen of b . arethusae , showing no overlapping in size distribution . b . minor shows a smaller number of whorls than the other brasilennea species : usually 9 ( 8 or 10 whorls are not uncommon ) . the whorls of b . minor are more convex and its shell is weaker and thinner than the other species . it has a greater number of ribs and they are also weaker . the basal furrow in the body whorl is more weakly marked . b . minor also shows some variation in shell shape besides whorl number as , for example , thinner and more elongated specimens ( fig . 25 ) ; however , in a broader sense , this variation seems to be less than what is seen in b . arethusae .\nos calc\u00e1rios da bacia de itabora\u00ed ( paleoceno m\u00e9dio ) , rio de janeiro , brasil , abrigam uma rica fauna de gastr\u00f3podes pulmonados do paleoceno m\u00e9dio , tanto terrestres quanto dulciaqu\u00edcolas . no presente trabalho realiza - se uma extensiva revis\u00e3o taxon\u00f4mica dessa paleofauna . duas novas esp\u00e9cies , eoborus fusiforme e gastrocopta itaboraiensis , s\u00e3o descritas , assim como um novo g\u00eanero , cortana . a classifica\u00e7\u00e3o revisada encontra - se do seguinte modo : austrodiscus lopesi ( charopidae ) ; biomphalaria itaboraiensis ( planorbidae ) ;\nbrachypodella\nbritoi ( urocoptidae ) ; brasilennea arethusae , brasilennea guttula , brasilennea minor ( cerionidae ) ; bulimulus fazendicus , bulimulus trindadeae , cortana carvalhoi , cyclodontina coelhoi , itaborahia lamegoi , leiostracus ferreirai , plagiodontes aff . dentatus ( orthalicidae ) ; cecilioides sommeri ( ferussaciidae ) ; eoborus rotundus , eoborus sanctijosephi , eoborus fusiforme ( strophocheilidae ) ; gastrocopta mezzalirai , gastrocopta itaboraiensis ( gastrocoptidae ) ; temesa magalhaesi ( clausiliidae ) . a esp\u00e9cie strobilopsis mauryae foi considerada sin\u00f4nimo de brasilennea arethusae ; bulimulus sommeri sin\u00f4nimo de itaborahia lamegoi ; e vorticifex fluminensis sin\u00f4nimo de eoborus sanctijosephi . a bacia conta com os registros f\u00f3sseis mais antigos das fam\u00edlias orthalicidae , gastrocoptidae , ferussaciidae e strophocheilidae . al\u00e9m disso , os registros de itabora\u00ed das fam\u00edlias charopidae , clausiliidae , cerionidae , e urocoptidae est\u00e3o entre os mais antigos do mundo e , dentre esses , os de cerionidae , clausiliidae e urocoptidae merecem destaque por estarem bem afastados das distribui\u00e7\u00f5es atuais das fam\u00edlias . ademais , os registros de itabora\u00ed s\u00e3o os mais antigos para os g\u00eaneros austrodiscus , brachypodella , bulimulus , cecilioides , cyclodontina , eoborus , gastrocopta , leiostracus , plagiodontes e temesa . h\u00e1 tr\u00eas g\u00eaneros end\u00eamicos na bacia : brasilennea , cortana e itaborahia . discuss\u00f5es adicionais sobre paleobiogeografia e evolu\u00e7\u00e3o dessa paleofauna s\u00e3o oferecidas .\ngeographic and stratigraphic occurrence : known only from the type locality . the precise stratigraphic occurrence can ' t be assessed ; probably sequence s1 , the same sequence of occurrence of the other brasilennea species ( medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ; bergqvist et al . 2006 ) .\ndiagnosis : shell bigger than other species . greatest width in central portion of shell . sculptured by stronger whorls , usually in lesser quantity . in some specimens , weaker ribs , in greater quantity ( similar to the other brasilennea species ) , may also occur in some specimens .\ndiscussion : b . guttula is smaller than b . arethusae but larger than b . minor , and has more whorls than both ( b . guttula has 14 , while b . arethusae has 10 - 11 and b . minor has 8 - 9 ) . the most striking difference , however , is its\nwater drop\nshape , i . e . , an acuminate spire ( the other species have wide , dome - shaped first whorls ) . regarding the other typical features of the genus , b . guttula shares all of them : the shell strength , the smooth protoconch , the sculpture pattern , the suture pattern and the most prominent feature of the genus , the two furrows on the body whorl . nevertheless , the holotype ( the only specimen known ) has the last portion of the body whorl broken , so for now there is no clue indicating if the peristome has a doubled aspect or if there was a parietal lamella and / or a columellar lamella as in the other two brasilennea species .\nsalvador , r . b . ; rowson , b . & simone , l . r . l . 2011 . rewriting the fossil history of cerionidae ( gastropoda , pulmonata ) : new family assignment of the brazilian paleocene genus brasilennea maury , 1935 . journal of molluscan studies , 77 : 445 - 447 . [ links ]\nthere are 20 species in the itaborahian fauna ( including four entirely new species ; marked in bold on the list below ) , which is a fair amount of diversity . almost all of them are land snails , with the exception of the freshwater biomphalaria species . the genera brasilennea , cortana and itaborahia are endemic to the basin .\nsalvador , r . b . ; rowson , b . ; simone , l . r . l . 2011 . re - writing the fossil history of cerionidae ( gastropoda , pulmonata ) : new family assignment of the brazilian paleocene genus brasilennea maury , 1935 . journal of molluscan studies 77 : 445 - 447 . [ pdf ]\ntherefore , here we propose that the specimens previously classified as s . mauryae are in fact juveniles of b . arethusae ( or fragments of it , namely the top of the spire ) . besides all the characters of the supposed specimens of s . mauryae being identical to what is found in the top region of the shell of b . arethusae ( like sculpture pattern , aperture shape , umbilicus shape , absence of teeth and lamellae etc . ) , they do not present a single character that could allow their classification as strobilopsids , such as long parietal lamellae , greatly extending themselves towards the shell ' s interior , and a thickened and reflected lip ( schileyko , 1998a ) . moreover , no deflection of the peristome was detected in the specimens identifiable as s . mauryae , another necessary character for confirming the generic attribution .\ncerionidae : this family was not officially present in the basin until the recent revision of the genus brasilennea by salvador et al . ( 2011 ) , as it was previously classified in streptaxidae . there are three brasilennea species in itabora\u00ed , which together consist on the second oldest record of cerionidae . the oldest is a probable cerion , named c . acherontis , from the upper cretaceous of montana , usa ( roth & hartman , 1998 ) . even if itabora\u00ed ' s record is not the oldest , its location is very interesting , for the basin is greatly removed from the family ' s recent distribution : the islands of florida and the caribbean islands ( fig . 98 ) . despite the absence of recent cerionids in south america , it can be seen that the family ' s distribution included this area in the beginning of the cenozoic . it is even possible that , at that time , cerionidae had a more ample distribution , occurring from northwestern usa ( c . acherontis ) to rio de janeiro ( brasilennea ) .\nsalvador , r . b . ; rowson , b . ; simone , l . r . l . 2011 . rewriting the fossil history of cerionidae ( gastropoda : pulmonata ) : new family assignment of the brazilian palaeocene genus brasilennea maury , 1935 . journal of molluscan studies 77 : 445\u2013447 . doi : 10 . 1093 / mollus / eyr021\nsalvador r . b . , rowson b . & simone l . r . l . ( 2011 ) . re - writing the fossil history of cerionidae ( gastropoda , pulmonata ) : new family assignment of the brazilian paleocene genus brasilennea maury , 1935 . journal of molluscan studies . 77 : 445 - 447 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nimportant characters in the familiar allocation of b . britoi are : the conical - turriform shell shape , sculpture pattern and the body whorl detached from previous whorl , very common in urocoptidae ( schileyko , 1999a ) . the original illustration of ferreira & coelho ( 1971 : p . 471 , fig . 8 ) shows the body whorl greatly detached from the previous one . however , this degree of detachment is not seen in the specimens - the body whorl is only slightly detached ( fig . 88 ) . brachypodella britoi , as brasilennea arethusae , has few ribs per whorl , but they are raised and strong . quensen & woodruff ( 1997 ) relates these ribs to a greater protection against shell - breaking predators in cerion r\u00f6ding , 1798 . unfortunately , there is no known malacophagous predator in itabora\u00ed in sequence s1 .\ndiscussion : in the original description of e . sanctijosephi , the specific epithet had a hyphen , which has reappeared in some recent works , but must be omitted obeying the iczn ( 1999 ) rules ( articles 11 . 2 and 32 . 5 . 2 . 4 . 1 ) . e . sanctijosephi is certainly the largest pulmonate in itabora\u00ed basin and the second species with the most numerous record ( the first is brasilennea arethusae ) . e . sanctijosephi differs from e . rotundus salvador & simone , 2012 by its larger size , conic shell , oval aperture , less reflected peristome and the way in which the upper palatal region of outer lip meets with the preceding whorl accompanying its outline . also , it differs from e . fusiforme sp . nov . by its much larger size , conic shell , less acuminated spire , slightly convex whorls and orthocline aperture .\ndiscussion : b . arethusae is the type species of the genus by original designation and monotypy ( maury , 1935 ) . it is larger than the other species , presenting usually 11 whorls , though a few specimens have 10 whorls . a single specimen has 9 whorls ( fig . 13 ) , but it seems to be anomalous , since it also shows a slightly different shell shape , with the lip largely reflected and without the doubled aspect , and does not have the parietal lamella . the shell shape can vary slightly in the last whorls , which can be thinner and present the aperture more centrally located ( notably in the holotype , figs . 10 - 11 ) . in the same manner , the ribs in some specimens ( ~ 40 % ) can be weaker and more abundant ( figs . 10 - 12 ) , like those of other brasilennea species .\ntherefore , during the beginning of the cenozoic , it seems likely that the morphological variation in the shells of cerionidae would be greater , as shown by brasilennea . this would not be a complete surprise , since the family ' s ancestral stock may have also originated the urocoptidae as suggested by uit de weerd ( 2008 ) , a family with great morphological variation ( schileyko , 1999a ) .\nspiral furrows on body whorl : the furrows in brasilennea ' s body whorl are well - marked and deeply set and comprise the most striking diagnostic feature of the genus . this feature is not known in cerionidae , but some urocoptids do show a single furrow in their body whorl ( schileyko , 1999a ) , such as in the genera apoma beck , 1837 , brachypodella beck , 1837 , mychostoma albers , 1850 and spirostemma pilsbry & vanatta , 1898 .\nferreira & coelho ( 1971 ) described strobilops mauryae ( figs . 14 - 15 ) , stating that it could be taken for fragments of b . arethusae and also that maury ( 1935 ) had committed such error when defining the paratype of b . arethusae ( amnh , 24239 ; fig . 16 ) as a juvenile . ferreira & coelho ( 1971 ) gave the key character to place their specimens in the genus strobilops pilsbry , 1893 : a tooth ( or\nwell - developed basal fold\n) in the aperture ' s basal region . teeth and lamellae are typical of the family strobilopsidae , which , for many authors , contain only the genus strobilops , and are essential to the family ' s taxonomy ( schileyko , 1998a ) . in the illustration of s . mauryae presented by ferreira & coelho ( 1971 : 469 , fig . 6 ) , such tooth can be clearly seen . however , examining the type material , we saw that only the holotype ( figs . 14 - 15 ) presented such tooth . further examination revealed that the supposed tooth was in fact a grain of sediment attached to the shell .\nbrasilennea arethusae maury , 1935 : 4 ( figs . 1 - 5 ) ; oliveira , 1936 : 4 ; mezzalira , 1946 : 18 ; paula couto , 1949 : 11 ; magalh\u00e3es & mezzalira , 1953 : 221 ( pl . 64 , fig . 262 , 262\u00ba ) ; trindade , 1956 : 15 ( pl . 3 , figs . 1c , 2c ) ; zilch in wenz , 1959 - 60 : 578 ( fig . 2025 ) ; brito , 1967 : 18 ( pl . 3 , fig . 6 ) ; jaeckel , 1969 : 822 ; parodiz , 1969 : 186 ( pl . 19 , figs . 3 , 12 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 396 ( pl . 1 , fig . 9 ) ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 51 ( pl . 15 , fig . 430 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 59 ( fig . 74 ) ; salvador et al . , 2011 : 445 ( fig . 1a - g , l ) ; salvador & simone , 2012 : 2 ( figs . 5 - 6 ) .\naperture , peristome and lamellae : the basic shape of brasilennea ' s aperture is the same as in cerionidae , especially when considered together with the complete peristome , virtually straight parietally , and its duplicated aspect ( parallel lamella sensu maury , 1935 , projecting itself forwards , away from the lip , for a couple of millimeters ) . the apertural dentition is also very similar to the typical cerionidae , with a single , strong median parietal lamella reaching the peristome and also a spiral columellar lamella .\nbrasilennea minor : brito , 1967 : 19 ( pl . 3 , figs . 7 , 8 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 397 ( pl . 1 , fig . 10 ) ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 51 ( pl . 15 , fig . 431 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 60 ( fig . 75 ) ; salvador et al . , 2011 : 445 ( fig . 1h - k ) ; salvador & simone , 2012 : 2 ( figs . 7 - 8 ) .\nbrasilennea maury , 1935 : 3 ; oliveira , 1936 : 4 ; mezzalira , 1946 : 18 ; magalh\u00e3es & mezzalira , 1953 : 221 ; trindade , 1956 : 15 ; zilch in wenz , 1959 - 60 : 578 ; brito , 1967 : 18 ; jaeckel , 1969 : 822 ; parodiz , 1969 : 186 ; palma & brito , 1974 : 396 ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 51 ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 59 ; salvador et al . , 2011 : 445 ; salvador & simone , 2012 : 2 .\ndiscussion : brasilennea was originally placed in the family streptaxidae . however , due to many morphological characters shared with cerionidae , and also to the fact that the similarities shared with streptaxidae were superficial , the genus was recently transferred to cerionidae by salvador et al . ( 2011 ) . since this topic was well explored elsewhere , it will not be discussed here ; instead we present only the formal diagnosis and description and limit ourselves to comparisons with other cerionidae ( and urocoptidae , when informative , since these two families were deemed sister taxa by uit de weerd , 2008 ) .\nmaury , c . j . ( 1935 ) . new genera and new species of fossil terrestrial mollusca from brazil . american museum novitates . 764 : 1 - 15 . , available online at urltoken ; = y page ( s ) : 4 - 6 , figs 1 - 5 [ details ]\n( of strobilops mauryae ferreira & coelho , 1971 \u2020 ) ferreira , c . s . ; coelho , a . c . s . ( 1971 ) . novos gastr\u00f3podes pulmonados da bacia calc\u00e1ria de s\u00e3o jos\u00e9 de itabora\u00ed , rj , brasil . geocronologia . anais da academia brasileira de ci\u00eancias . 43 ( supl . ) : 463 - 472 . page ( s ) : 469 , fig . 6 [ details ]\n( of strobilops mauryae ferreira & coelho , 1971 \u2020 ) salvador , r . b . ; simone , l . r . l . ( 2013 ) . taxonomic revision of the fossil pulmonate mollusks of itabora\u00ed basin ( paleocene ) , brazil . pap\u00e9is avulsos de zoologia . 53 ( 2 ) : 5 - 46 . page ( s ) : 9 - 11 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nmaury ( 1935 : 6 ) considered the horizon from which this species was collected as\nprobably miocene , but possibly as young as pliocene .\nsalvador et al . ( 2011 : 445 ) report the itaborai limestones to be of paleocene age .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ni museu de zoologia , universidade de s\u00e3o paulo . caixa postal 42 . 494 , 04218 - 970 , s\u00e3o paulo , sp , brasil ii e - mail : salvador . rodrigo . b @ urltoken iii e - mails : lrsimone @ urltoken , lrlsimone @ urltoken\nkey - words : itabora\u00ed ; middle paleocene ; mollusca ; pulmonata ; rio de janeiro .\npalavras - chave : itabora\u00ed ; mollusca ; paleoceno m\u00e9dio ; pulmonata ; rio de janeiro .\nitabora\u00ed basin is located in the municipality of itabora\u00ed ( fig . 1 ) , rio de janeiro state , brazil , and is one of the smallest basins in the country : it has an elliptical shape , with ~ 1 , 400 m in its biggest axis , ~ 500 m in the smallest and ~ 125 m of maximum depth ( rodrigues francisco & cunha , 1978 ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) . despite its small size , itabora\u00ed basin houses an astounding fossil record in its limestones .\nthese limestones started to be explored in 1933 for the production of cement , and fossils were found there almost as soon as the excavations had begun . the first fossils discovered were the gastropods , but , as excavations proceeded , many other were found , including plants , mammals , reptiles , birds , palynomorphs , coprolites and , of course , more mollusks ( maury , 1929 , 1935 ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) . these fossils alongside the basin ' s geology were studied almost exclusively by researchers of two institutions from rio de janeiro : the museu nacional ( national museum ) and the divis\u00e3o de geologia e mineralogia of the departamento nacional de produ\u00e7\u00e3o mineral ( division of geology and mineralogy of the national department of mineral production ) .\nthe exploration lasted until 1984 , at which point the vast majority of itabora\u00ed ' s outcrops were already destroyed by the quarrying , and little of its limestone remained . after the limestone extraction ceased , the quarry was abandoned and a lake formed in the basin , leaving the few remaining outcrops underwater ( bergqvist et al . , 2008 ) . therefore , it is currently hard to obtain new fossil specimens from itabora\u00ed , as they can only be found in a few restricted sites above water level . as such , any posterior work depended heavily upon data from the literature and museum specimens ( e . g . , medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ) . still , itabora\u00ed is a very important fossiliferous site and on december 12 , 1985 a park was created for its preservation , called parque paleontol\u00f3gico de s\u00e3o jos\u00e9 de itabora\u00ed ( beltr\u00e3o et al . , 2001 ; bergqvist et al . , 2008 ) .\naccording to the last works that listed the fossil mollusks from itabora\u00ed , there are 18 ( simone & mezzalira , 1994 ) or 17 species ( bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) in the basin . three more ( two new species and a new occurrence ) were added to this list by salvador & simone ( 2012 ) . in any case , up to this moment the studies dealing with itabora\u00ed basin ' s molluscan fauna consist almost exclusively of the original descriptions ; no taxonomic revision under a larger scope has been so far produced . as such , many taxonomic problems and inconsistencies have been readily identified , most stemming from the fact that the original descriptions were overly based on comparisons with european genera and species . therefore , this work intends to review the taxonomy of the entire itaborahian molluscan fauna . as the original descriptions ( with the exception of maury , 1935 ) are too brief and incomplete , we expand and complement them , figuring all type material and other well - preserved specimens , and offering a proper diagnosis for each taxon . additionally , two new species , previously misidentified , were found in museum collections and are described herein .\nitabora\u00ed basin is a small tectonic depression dating from the mesozoic , probably related to the tectonic activities during the separation of gondwana ; it rests on a pre - cambrian crystalline basement , over the brazilian southeastern continental rift ( beurlen & sommer , 1954 ; rodrigues francisco & cunha , 1978 ; rodrigues francisco , 1989 ; medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ; sant ' anna & riccomini , 2001 ; sant ' anna et al . , 2004 ) . the basin was then filled by carbonatic sediments during the paleocene ( rodrigues francisco & cunha , 1978 ; medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ) . the resulting limestones were named\nitabora\u00ed formation\nby oliveira ( 1956 ) , but this name was almost never used afterwards ; the majority of authors prefer simply\nitabora\u00ed basin\n. we follow this practice here .\nthe first work dealing with the basin ' s geology ( leinz , 1938 ) defined three rock horizons : laminated limestone , gray limestone and eluvial sediment . this definition still remains basically valid , having received only posterior refinements . the most up - to - date geological profile ( medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ) defines and names two stratigraphic sequences for the basin ' s paleocene limestones : sequence s1 lies at the bottom , directly above the pre - cambrian rocks ; and sequence s2 consists of sediments that filled fissures opened in s1 by water activity .\nsequence s1 is composed of an intercalation of carbonatic rocks of chemical and detrital origins . the chemically originated rocks ( named facies a ) are mainly travertine , linked to hydrothermal activity inside the basin . the grey detrital limestones ( facies b ) are the product of gravitational and hydrodynamic fluxes towards the basin ' s interior and contain all known fossil mollusks as well as some plant , reptilian and mammalian remains . facies c is composed of oolitic - pisolitic limestone , being associated to facies a .\nsequence s2 is also carbonatic and the result of torrent and gravitational flows . its clastic rocks contain the bulk of the basin ' s fossil vertebrate fauna as well as plants and palynomorphs . a third sequence , named s3 , is composed of conglomerates and was deposited on top of the others much later , in the eocene - oligocene . it harbors reptilian and mammalian fossils .\nafter much disagreement about itabora\u00ed basin ' s age , the mammalian fossils allowed the correlation with the upper paleocene fauna of rio chico formation , argentina ( paula couto , 1952 ) . it is currently agreed that both sequences s1 and s2 belong to a time interval ranging from the end of the lower paleocene to the beginning of the upper paleocene ( from about 59 to 57 ma , according to bergqvist et al . 2006 ) , which has been informally named\nmiddle paleocene\n( marshall , 1985 ; medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ) . sequence s1 is younger , of itaborahian age ( according to the nomenclature of the south american land mammalian age ) , while s2 is partly itaborahian and partly riochican ( bergqvist & ribeiro , 1998 ) .\ninstitutional abbreviations : amnh : american museum of natural history , new york , usa . dgm : divis\u00e3o de geologia e mineralogia ( recently transformed into the mct ) , rio de janeiro , rj , brazil . mct : museu de ci\u00eancias da terra , rio de janeiro , rj , brazil . mnrj : museu nacional , rio de janeiro , rj , brazil . mzsp : museu de zoologia da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e3o paulo , sp , brazil .\nexamined material : the material from itabora\u00ed analyzed here ( 79 lots ; 322 specimens ) includes all the types and is housed in the collections of the above mentioned institutions . unfortunately , the holotypes of two species ( austrodiscus lopesi and biomphalaria itaboraiensis ) are lost , i . e . they could not be located in the museums that housed them , respectively mnrj and dgm . only the reasonably well - preserved specimens , i . e . those useful for analysis , were included . the specimens in bad preservational state , including internal molds , were mostly excluded . since most of the basin ' s outcrops are gone and further explorations commonly do not result in good material , all the specimens presented here are from museum collections . in large part , this is the same material used in the species ' original descriptions , but it also contains specimens from later collecting .\nshell terminology and measures : we follow here the terminology of moore et al . ( 1952 ) and cox ( 1955 ) for molluscan shells and their structures . additionally , we follow breure ( 1979 ; p . 10 , figs . 1 - 7 ) for the terminology of whorl convexity and the umbilicus and tillier ( 1989 ; p . 7 , fig . 1c ) for the terminology of the peristome regions ( fig . 2 ) . all shell measures presented here ( fig . 2 ) are in accordance with moore et al . ( 1952 ) : h = shell length ( or height ) ; d = greatest width ( or diameter ) of shell ; s = spire length ( without the aperture ) ; h = aperture height ; d = aperture width ; \u03b8 ' = spire angle ( the\nmean spire angle\nsensu moore , 1960 , approximated to the closest multiple of five ) . all measures were taken with a digital caliper or , in the case of microgastropods ( smaller than 5 mm ) , with the aid of coreldraw \u00ae graphics suit x5 . unfortunately , not every shell is well - preserved or even completely preserved and thus some measures could not be precisely taken or taken at all ( such imprecise measures are indicated by italicized numbers ) . when specimens are abundant , the mean and standard deviation is presented . the whorl counting method follows janssen ( 2007 ) , i . e . , excluding the semicircular nucleus of the protoconch , and thus the total number of whorls can vary a little ( \u00bc to \u00bd whorl ) when compared to other works .\nnomenclatural update : here we follow the work of bouchet et al . ( 2005 ) for the nomenclature of families and sub - families , with the addition of the more recent work of uit de weerd ( 2008 ) with the urocoptoidea . therefore , a few nomenclatural changes had to be made in the classic literature of itaborahian molluscan fauna : ( 1 ) the family bulimulidae is now considered a subfamily of orthalicidae ; ( 2 ) likewise , odontostomidae is now considered a subfamily of orthalicidae ; ( 3 ) the family megalobulimidae is now considered a subfamily of strophocheilidae .\nwe also follow the works of schileyko ( 1998a , 1998b , 1999a , 1999b , 2000 , 2001 ) , which offers the description and diagnosis of families , subfamilies and genera based on morphological characters . other works , dealing more specifically with one or other taxon , were also followed ; among these , the works of breure ( 1978 , 1979 ) on the bulimulinae stand out .\ngeographic and stratigraphic occurrence : known only from itabora\u00ed basin : limestone sequence s1 ( medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) .\ndiagnosis : shell pupiform ( expect for b . guttula : spire sharply acuminated ) . ribs regularly spaced . greatest width in central portion of shell length . body whorl with two well - marked spiral furrows , one central and the other basal . peristome complete , well - marked and with duplicated aspect . single and strong median parietal lamella , reaching the peristome . columellar lamella present .\nre - description : shell dextral , pupiform ( expect for b . guttula : spire sharply acuminated ) , with greatest width in central portion of shell length . columella hollow , at least in first whorls . whorls flat to slightly convex . suture well - marked , linear , practically perpendicular ( horizontal ) to columellar axis , becoming more oblique towards last whorls . shell sculptured by well - defined and raised ribs , regularly spaced , becoming less oblique towards last whorls . first two to three whorls ( protoconch ) smooth ; transition to teleoconch clear . body whorl with two well - marked spiral furrows ( one central and the other basal ) , that can be seen as two parallel folds in shell ' s inner surface . aperture large , approximately semicircular , with parietal and columellar lips straight ; other lip regions rounded . peristome complete , well - marked , virtually straight parietally , with duplicated aspect ( parallel lamella sensu maury , 1935 , projecting itself forward ) . single and strong median parietal lamella reaching peristome . columellar lamella present . umbilicus narrow .\nstrobilops mauryae ferreira & coelho , 1971 : 469 ( fig . 6 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 397 .\nstrobilopsis mauryae : simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 49 ( pl . 14 , fig . 413 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 60 ( fig . 76 ) . ( error )\nparatypes : amnh 24238 ( 1 specimen , examined ; fig . 12 ) , 24239 ( 1 specimen , examined ; fig . 16 ) .\ntype locality : limestones of parque paleontol\u00f3gico de s\u00e3o jos\u00e9 de itabora\u00ed , rio de janeiro , brazil . park ' s center coordinates : 22\u00ba50 ' 20\ns , 42\u00ba52 ' 30\nw .\ngeographic and stratigraphic occurrence : known only from the type locality : sequence s1 ( medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) .\netymology : due to the terrestrial habits of the species , maury ( 1935 ) dedicated it to arethusa ( sometimes also spelled arethousa ) , a nymph from greek mythology . there are mentions to two nymphs of such name in the myths : one is a nereid ( or even a goddess of springs ) while the other is one of the hesperides ( ker\u00e9nyi , 1951 ) . maury did not specify which one she was referring to , stating only that it was a\nsylvan nymph\n. thus , the name probably refers to the latter since the previous is a water - related being .\nmeasures ( in mm ) : holotype : 11 whorls ; h = 23 . 6 ; d = 13 . 2 ; s = 15 . 9 ; h = 7 . 5 ; d = 6 . 1 . paratypes : amnh 24238 : 11 whorls ; d = 12 . 6 ; s = 15 . 8 . amnh 24239 ( juvenile ) : 6 or 7 whorls ( shell apex covered by sediment ) ; h = 4 . 1 ; d = 7 . 7 ; s = 1 . 8 ; d = 3 . 2 . mean ( n = 35 ) : 11 whorls ( eventually 10 ) ; h = 21 . 6 \u00b1 2 . 2 ( max 24 . 9 ; min 17 . 3 ) ; d = 11 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 2 ( max 14 . 4 ; min 9 . 4 ) ; s = 14 . 9 \u00b1 1 . 7 ; h = 6 . 9 \u00b1 0 . 9 ( max 7 . 8 ; min 5 . 2 ) ; d = 5 . 5 \u00b1 1 . 0 ( max 6 . 9 ; min 3 . 2 ) .\nexamined material : types . dgm 4222 - i ( 1 specimen ) , 4998 - i ( 8 specimens ) , 5002 - i ( 25 specimens ) , unnumbered ( 7 specimens ) ; mnrj 3346 - i ( 2 specimens ) , 3348 - i ( 2 specimens ) , 4338 - i ( 5 specimens ) ; mzsp 86321 ( 20 specimens ) , 86322 ( 1 specimens ) , 86324 ( 4 specimens ) . type material of strobilops mauryae : mnrj 5020 - i ( holotype ) , 5021 - i ( paratype , 4 specimens ) .\nholotype : mct 6940 - i ( examined ; figs . 17 - 21 ) .\netymology : the name refers to the species ' intriguing shell shaped as a water drop .\ndiagnosis : outline shaped like water drop ( spire sharply acuminate ) instead of pupiform . greatest width on body whorl . larger number of whorls ( about 14 ) .\nmeasures ( in mm ) : holotype : 14 whorls ; h = 13 . 6 ( aperture broken ) ; d = 6 . 5 ; s = 11 . 3 .\ndiagnosis : shell small ( smallest species in genus ) . greatest width in central portion of shell . profile of whorls slightly convex . sculptured by large number fine ribs . basal furrow in body whorl more weakly marked .\nre - description : shell small , multispiral , pupiform , with acuminated apex . greatest width in central portion of shell ; diameter ~ \u00bd shell length . spire angle ~ 45\u00ba . protoconch dome shaped , blunt , smooth ; transition to teleoconch clear . columella hollow ( at least on first whorls ) . profile of whorls slightly convex . suture well - marked , linear , practically perpendicular ( horizontal ) to columellar axis , becoming more oblique towards last whorls . sculptured by fine and raised ribs , regularly distributed , becoming less oblique towards last whorls , and in large numbers ( ~ 70 on penultimate whorl ) . body whorl with two spiral furrows , one central and the other basal , placed equidistantly from the upper furrow and the bottom of the shell ; basal furrow more weakly marked than the upper one . aperture large , orthocline , approximately semicircular ( parietal and columellar lips straight , others rounded ) ; ~ \u2153 shell length . peristome complete and well - marked , with duplicated aspect ( parallel lamella sensu maury , 1935 , projecting itself forwards away from the lip for a couple of millimeters ) . single and strong median parietal lamella , reaching the peristome and extending itself towards shell ' s interior up until ~ \u00bc of body whorl . columellar spiral lamella extending itself towards interior . body whorl ~ \u00bd shell length . umbilicus narrow .\nmeasures ( in mm ) : holotype : 9 whorls ; h = 9 . 0 ; d = 5 . 0 ; s = 6 . 3 ; d = 2 . 1 . mean ( n = 16 ) : 9 whorls ( eventually 8 or 10 ) ; h = 11 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 9 ( max 14 . 9 ; min 8 . 4 ) ; d = 5 . 8 \u00b1 0 . 6 ( max 6 . 7 ; min 4 . 8 ) ; s = 7 . 9 \u00b1 1 . 2 ; h = 3 . 6 \u00b1 0 . 2 ( max 3 . 9 ; min 3 . 2 ) ; d = 3 . 2 \u00b1 0 . 4 ( max 4 . 0 ; min 2 . 5 ) .\nexamined material : holotype . dgm 4224 - i ( 1 specimen ) , 4999 - i ( 9 specimens ) , unnumbered ( 1 specimen ) ; mnrj 3346 - i ( 1 specimen ) , 4338 - i ( 2 specimens ) ; mzsp 86323 ( 2 specimens ) .\naustrodiscus lopesi ferreira & coelho , 1989 : 193 ( figs . 1 - 2 ) ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 50 ( pl . 15 , fig . 417 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 59 .\ngeographic and stratigraphic occurrence : known only from the type locality . there is no information in the literature about which sequence this species occurs .\netymology : species dedicated to the zoologist dr . hugo s . lopes ( instituto oswaldo cruz , rio de janeiro , brazil ) .\ndiscussion : the genus austrodiscus parodiz , 1957 is normally allocated to the family endodontidae ( schileyko , 2001 ) , a family endemic to the pacific islands ( solem , 1976 , 1979 , 1981 ) . schileyko ( 2001 ) still considers that endodontidae contains some species in south america and on saint helena island , but other authors state that these species actually belong to charopidae , a family with a broader distribution : the americas , the pacific islands , oceania southern africa and saint helena island ( solem , 1981 ; fonseca & thom\u00e9 , 1993 ) . it has been a common practice in revisionary work dealing with the supposed american endodontids to reallocate them in charopidae , as in fonseca & thom\u00e9 ( 1993 ) , who dealt specifically with austrodiscus . such resolution is here adopted .\nall type material of austrodiscus lopesi ( totaling 9 specimens , according to ferreira & coelho , 1989 ) has disappeared ; it could not be found in the museum ' s collection ( mnrj ) or in the records of lent material ( since it is common practice in this institution not to lend type material ) . unfortunately , no additional material exists .\nferreira & coelho ( 1989 ) , when describing the species , decided for its placement in the genus austrodiscus due to its smooth protoconch . however , this character was contested for the genus by fonseca & thom\u00e9 ( 1993 ) , who stated that the protoconch is sculptured . however , this character cannot be confirmed only by the illustration in the species original description . without having the type material , it is impossible to conduct a proper taxonomic revision and thus the allocation of a . lopesi in the genus austrodiscus could not be confirmed or contested . as such , the only alteration proposed here is the change in a . lopesi ' s familiar allocation , transferring it from endodontidae to charopidae .\nfamily clausiliidae subfamily neniinae genus temesa h . & a . adams , 1855 temesa magalhaesi ( trindade , 1953 ) comb . nov . ( figs . 27 - 33 )\nclausilia magalhaesi trindade , 1953 : 40 ( fig . 1 ) ; brito , 1967 : 14 ( pl . 3 , figs . 4 , 5 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 397 ( pl . 1 , fig . 6 ) ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 50 ( pl . 14 , fig . 414 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 59 ( fig . 71 ) .\netymology : species dedicated to prof . j\u00falio de magalh\u00e3es ( faculdade nacional de filosofia , rio de janeiro , brazil ) .\ndiagnosis : shell cylindrical - fusiform , broad and robust , with acuminated apex . ribs very thin and weak . parietal lamella high , vertical ; apparently the single lamella present .\nre - description : shell medium - sized , sinistral , multispiral , thin ( but broad for genus ) , cylindricalfusiform , with acuminated apex . greatest width in central portion of shell ( antepenultimate whorl ) ; diameter ~ \u2153 shell length . spire angle ~ 20\u00ba . protoconch flattened , blunt , smooth . profile of whorls slightly convex , eventually flat . suture well - marked , oblique ( diagonal ) to columellar axis . sculptured by fine ribs ( ~ 85 on penultimate whorl ) , oblique to columellar axis . body whorl not thinned , adnate to the spire . peristome weakly reflected , supposedly complete . parietal lamella high , vertical , median , reaching the peristome and extending itself towards interior . apparently without other teeth and / or lamellae .\nmean measures ( in mm ; n = 4 ) : 10 whorls ( eventually 11 ) ; d = 5 . 1 \u00b1 0 . 2 ( min 4 . 8 ; max 5 . 3 ) .\ndiscussion : the only clausiliid from itabora\u00ed basin was originally placed in the genus clausilia dreparnaud , 1805 . however , clausilia is a recent genus from central europe , of the european subfamily clausiliinae . due to this biogeographical incongruence and additional morphological characters , here we opted for the reallocation of c . magalhaesi in a genus of neniinae , a strictly latin american subfamily ( schileyko , 2000 ) . it is also important to emphasize that all latin american species of clausilia have been reallocated in genera of neniinae ( schileyko , 2000 ) .\nthere is only a single recent clausiliid in brazil , nenia orbignyi ancey , 1892 , in the state of mato grosso ( simone , 2006 ) , despite nenia h . & a . adams , 1855 being a caribbean - endemic genus ( loosjes & loosjes - van bemmel , 1966 ) . moreover , schileyko ( 2000 ) restricted the genus to a single species , n . tridens ( chemnitz , 1786 ) , from puerto rico . as such , the most obvious choice for the generic reallocation of c . magalhaesi would perhaps be the genus nenia , which supposedly occurs in brazil . however , due to doubts regarding the classification of the brazilian species n . orbignyi and also to the astounding similarity of the itaborahian fossil to the recent south - american genus temesa h . & a . adams , 1855 , c . magalhaesi is here reallocated to this later genus . despite being absent in brazil , temesa occurs in various neighboring countries : peru , bolivia , colombia , and , with some doubt , in argentina ( loosjes & loosjes - van bemmel , 1966 ; schileyko , 2000 ; nordsieck , 2005 ) .\nthe decision for the reallocation in temesa is due to a vast array of shared morphological characters : cylindrical - fusiform and thin shell , spire with acuminated apex , protoconch present ( i . e . , non - decollated ) , number of whorls ( 10 or 11 ) , body whorl not thinned and adnate to the spire , peristome weakly deflected , absence of lamellae or teeth in the aperture ( besides the parietal lamella ) . usually , the lamellae of temesa species cannot be seen in the aperture ; they can be found in the inner portion of shell . unfortunately , the presence of additional lamellae could not be assessed in this fossil due to the specimens ' state of preservation : there is not even one specimen with an intact aperture , only one has part of the aperture preserved ( figs . 28 - 33 ) . however , to discover if the other lamellae are present or not , it would be necessary to break the aperture and part of the body whorl and , due to the small number of specimens , this course of action was discarded .\ntemesa magalhaesi differs from the other species in the genus mainly by its broader and more robust shell and the spire apex sharply acuminated . the genus does not possess the clausilial apparatus , a typical structure in the family ; however , such structure is not often preserved in the fossil record .\nfamily ferussaciidae genus cecilioides f\u00e9russac , 1814 cecilioides sommeri ( ferreira & coelho , 1971 ) comb . nov . ( figs . 34 - 35 )\ncarychium sommeri ferreira & coelho , 1971 : 467 ( fig . 4 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 391 ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 49 ( pl . 14 , fig . 405 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 59 ( fig . 70 ) .\nholotype : mnrj 5016 - i ( xamined ; figs . 34 - 35 ) .\netymology : species dedicated to prof . friedrich w . sommer ( divis\u00e3o de geologia e mineralogia do departamento nacional de produ\u00e7\u00e3o mineral , dnpm , rio de janeiro , brazil ) .\ndiagnosis : shell oval . aperture sub - oval . peristome reflected , slightly thickened .\nre - description : shell diminutive , oval , smooth , with blunt spire apex ; 6 whorls ( eventually 5 ) . greatest width on body whorl ; width ~ \u00bd shell length . spire angle ~ 50\u00ba . protoconch smooth , blunt , broad , domeshaped . profile of whorls flattened . suture weakly marked , practically perpendicular ( horizontal ) to columellar axis . aperture small , orthocline , sub - oval ; ~ 2 / 5 shell length . teeth or lamellae absent . peristome reflected , slightly thickened . body whorl ~ \u00bd shell length . umbilicus imperforated .\nmeasures ( in mm ) : holotype : 6 whorls ; h = 2 . 6 ; d = 1 . 3 ; s = 1 . 5 ; h = 1 . 0 ; d = 0 . 8 .\ndiscussion : the species was originally described in the genus carychium , a holartic genus and one of the few exclusively terrestrial animals of the family ellobiidae ( morton , 1955 ; barker , 2001 ) . the apertural dentition is conspicuous in the family ( martins , 1996 ) and was the single character used by ferreira & coelho ( 1971 ) in their original classification . these authors stated that the species presented a\ngreatly evident\nsingle columellar tooth . in the original illustration presented by them ( ferreira & coelho , 1971 : 468 , fig . 4 ) , such tooth can be clearly seen . however , after examining the type specimens , only the holotype seemed to possess this tooth . further examination under stereomicroscope revealed that the supposed tooth was in fact a grain of sediment placed in such a manner that a quick glance could take it for an actual shell structure . after this grain was removed , a toothless aperture was revealed . therefore , the original classification of this species in that genus , done exclusively due to the apertural dentition , is mistaken . in the absence of such dentition , we propose here the reallocation in the family ferussaciidae .\ncecilioides consobrina ( orbigny , 1841 ) . the two species of geostilbia , g . gundlachi ( pfeiffer , 1850 ) and g . blandiana crosse , 1886 , were both previously classified in the genus cecilioides ( morretes , 1949 ; salgado & coelho , 2003 ) . we propose here that the itaborahian species is reallocated in the genus cecilioides .\nthe oval shell shape of cecilioides sommeri is very similar to the norm in this genus and is especially similar to c . consobrina due to the more cylindrical shell and to the aperture less elongated in the upper palatal region . meanwhile , geostilbia species show more acuminated spires , giving a more conical aspect to their shells . c . sommeri differs from the other species in the genus by the sub - oval aperture and by the reflected and lightly thickened peristome . such characters are not uncommon in the family , occurring in some species of the european genus ferussacia risso , 1826 ; however , the latter show more acuminated spires and much larger sizes .\nfamily orthalicidae subfamily bulimulinae genus bulimulus leach , 1814 bulimulus fazendicus maury , 1935 ( figs . 36 - 37 )\nbulimulus fazendicus maury , 1935 : 7 ( figs . 10 , 11 ) ; oliveira , 1936 : 5 ; mezzalira , 1946 : 18 ; magal h\u00e3es & mezzalira , 1953 : 218 ( pl . 64 , fig . 257 ) ; trindade , 1956 : 14 ( pl . 3 , figs . 1d , 2d ) ; brito , 1967 : 16 ( pl . 2 , fig . 1 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 393 ( pl . 1 , fig . 3 ) ; breure , 1979 : 137 ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 50 ( pl . 15 , fig . 420 ) ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 57 ( fig . 64 ) .\nbulimulus ( sensu lato ) fazendicus : parodiz , 1969 : 182 . itaborahia fazendicus : breure , 1978 : 237 .\nparatype : amnh 24242 ( 1 specimen , examined ; fig . 37 ) .\ngeographic and stratigraphic occurrence : known only from the type locality : sequences s1 and s2 ( medeiros & bergqvist , 1999 ; bergqvist et al . , 2006 ) .\netymology : reference to place of discovery , the then called fazenda s\u00e3o jos\u00e9 , of which itabora\u00ed basin was a part .\ndiagnosis : shell small , narrow . spire high . profile of whorls flat . aperture small and narrow , elliptical and slightly trapezoid .\nre - description : shell small , conical - oval , narrow , with acuminated apex . spire high ; 8 whorls . shell smooth , except for growth lines . greatest width on body whorl ; width ~ \u00bd shell length . spire angle ~ 55\u00ba . protoconch apparently smooth ; transition to teleoconch not clear . suture well - marked , slightly oblique ( diagonal ) to columellar axis . profile of whorls flat . aperture small and narrow , orthocline , elliptical and slightly trapezoid ; ~ \u2153 shell length . lamellae or teeth absent . peristome thin , weakly reflected ( only in the columellar region ) . body whorl ~ \u2153 shell length . umbilicus narrow , partially covered by the lip .\nmeasures ( in mm ) : holotype : 8 whorls ; h = 16 . 4 ; d = 9 . 1 ; s = 10 . 5 ; h = 6 . 1 ; d = 5 . 1 . paratype : 8 whorls ; h = 16 . 3 ; d = 9 . 1 ; s = 10 . 6 ; h = 6 . 1 ; d = 5 . 5 .\nexamined material : types . dgm unnumbered ( 8 specimens ) ; mnrj 4339 - i ( 4 specimens ) ; mzsp 86326 ( 1 specimen ) .\ndiscussion : protoconch sculptural pattern is an important character in bulimulinae taxonomy ( breure , 1978 , 1979 ; schileyko , 1999a ) . the shell of bulimulus fazendicus is completely smooth , including the protoconch . this could be a diagnostic feature of this species but could also be a preservation artifact , since this kind of sculpture is very delicate and can be easily erased during fossil diagenesis . this same statement is valid for the others orthalicids from itabora\u00ed . maury ( 1935 ) comments that one specimen showed vertical ribs on the second or third whorl and breure ( 1978 ) says that the protoconch of b . fazendicus shows vertical ribs ; however , this character could not be confirmed .\nmaury ( 1935 ) , citing a personal communication from henry a . pilsbry , stated that b . fazendicus does not seem to be closely related to any other bulimulus species . however , b . fazendicus is very similar to highspired species that also present a narrow aperture such as b . felipponei marshall , 1930 . b . fazendicus differs from the other species by its slightly flattened whorls , suture more weakly marked and trapezoid aperture ( broader than tall ) .\nbulimulus trindadeae ferreira & coelho , 1971 : 470 ( fig . 7 ) ; palma & brito , 1974 : 394 ; breure , 1979 : 137 ; simone & mezzalira , 1994 : 50 ( pl . 15 , fig . 424 ) .\nitaborahia trindadeae : bergqvist et al . , 2006 : 58 ( fig . 69 ) .\nholotype : mnrj 5022 - i ( examined ; figs . 38 - 39 ) .\netymology : species dedicated to prof . nic\u00e9a m . trindade ( faculdade nacional de filosofia , rio de janeiro , brazil ) .\ndiagnosis : shell small , conical , narrow . spire high . aperture elliptical , tall and narrow .\nre - description : shell small , conical , narrow . spire high . shell smooth , except for growth lines . greatest width ( supposedly ) on body whorl ; width ~ \u2153 shell length . spire angle ~ 35\u00ba . protoconch blunt , apparently smooth ; transition to teleoconch unclear . profile of whorls slightly convex . suture well - marked , oblique ( diagonal ) to columellar axis ; less oblique on first whorls . aperture supposed elliptical , tall and narrow , orthocline ; ~ 2 / 5 shell length .\nmeasures ( in mm ) : holotype : probably 6 whorls ; h = 9 . 4 ; d = 3 . 3 ; s = 5 . 4 . paratype : probably 6 whorls ; h = 5 . 6 ; d = 2 . 6 .\ndiscussion : the few specimens of b . trindadeae are in a bad state of preservation , including the type specimens : the apertures are broken or completely covered by sediment . it is impossible to even tell if a shell is an adult or not and , therefore , the precise number of whorls could not be counted . in the same manner , it is impossible to confirm the presence of teeth or lamellae . however , as stated below , there is a set of characters that guarantees its validity as a distinct species ."]}
{"id": 1735, "summary": [{"text": "the scaly-sided merganser or chinese merganser ( mergus squamatus ) is an endangered typical merganser ( genus mergus ) .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it lives in temperate east asia , breeding in the north and wintering in the south . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "scaly - sided merganser", "paragraphs": ["scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) or chinese merganser bird flapping its wings .\nnobody uploaded sound recordings for scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) yet .\ns1 dataset . historical occurrence dataset for wintering scaly - sided merganser in china .\nsummary of selected candidate predictor variables and their relevance to scaly - sided merganser .\nzhengjie z , zhengjie p . the foraging behaviour of the scaly - sided merganser\nresponse curves of environmental variables with highest contribution to occurrence of scaly - sided merganser .\nbirdskorea ( 2013 ) scaly - sided merganser in the republic of korea . available :\nscaly - sided merganser , daily travel distance , mergus squamatus , daily home range , group characteristics .\neast asian - australasian flyway partnership . 2016 . scaly - sided merganser task force . available at : urltoken\ndistribution of scaly - sided merganser flocks and gravel bar patches in the 36 km river section of the lower yuanjiang river .\ngenetic diversity of the endangered scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) in the wintering habitat of central - southern china .\nsurveys in main rivers in distribution areas and population density of scaly - sided mergansers .\n> 0 . 05 ) of scaly - sided merganser among forenoon , noon and afternoon during overall wintering period . in addition , no significant differences were found in the travel distance and home range of scaly - sided merganser among forenoon ( f = 2 . 489 ,\nsince 2000 , wildlife biologists from russia and china have been studying the globally endangered scaly - sided merganser . this species has limited distribution and is found exclusively in isolated areas of russia , china , and korea . the decline of the worldwide population of the scaly - sided merganser and concern for its survival led to the formation of the scaly - sided merganser task force , dedicated to the conservation of the species .\nshokhrin v , solovyeva d ( 2003 ) scaly - sided merganser breeding population increase in far east russia . twsg news 14 : 43\u201351 .\nfenqi h , jiansheng l , bin y , hangdong j , haohui z . current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser\ncranswick , p . 2010 . conservation of the scaly - sided merganser in far east russia . wwt conservation report 2008 - 2009 : 33 .\nsolovyera , d . 2013 . real stories of poaching of the scaly - sided merganser . twsg news 16 , december : 38 - 39 .\ngenetic diversity of the endangered scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) in the wintering habitat of central - southern china . - pubmed - ncbi\nscaly - sided merganser is an endangered species and existing populations contain few individuals . therefore , using launchers to measure the home range of this species involves a high risk to these populations . scaly - sided merganser has a relatively small home range during the entire wintering period , so this provides an opportunity to monitor the travel distance and home range of these birds without using launchers . the overall home range of scaly - sided merganser was about 0 . 2 km\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus )\ntitle =\narkive species - scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - various stages of scaly - sided merganser chick development\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - various stages of scaly - sided merganser chick development\ntitle =\narkive video - various stages of scaly - sided merganser chick development\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ntime budgets provide important information for the study of animal behavior . the present study analyzed the daily travel distance , home range and group characteristics of scaly - sided merganser\nshao m , zeng b , tim h , chen l , you c , et al . ( 2012 ) winter ecology and conservation threats of scaly - sided merganser\nzhiru w , jihong s , yankuo l , xiaobin t , daojiang j , et al . ( 2010 ) wintering distribution and population size of scaly - sided merganser\nshao m , zeng b , tim h , chen l , you c , wang h , et al . winter ecology and conservation threats of scaly - sided merganser\nsolovyeva d . foraging behaviour and daily time budget of scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus breeding on iman river , russia . wildfowl . 2002 ; 53 : 205\u201314 .\nthe globally - threatened scaly - sided merganser is one of the rarest seaducks in the old world , found in remote parts of far - east russia and china .\nsolovyeva dv , liu p , antonov ai , averin aa , pronkevich vv , et al . ( 2014 ) the population size and breeding range of the scaly - sided merganser\nsolovyeva dv , liu p , antonov ai , averin aa , pronkevich vv , shokhrin vp , et al . the population size and breeding range of the scaly - sided merganser\nthe average daily travel distance of scaly - sided merganser was 3100 \u00b1 1313 m with no significant difference in the daily travel distance between different months ( f = 0 . 658 ,\nsolovieva d , shokhrin v , vartanyan s , dondua a , vartanyan n ( 2006 ) scaly - sided merganser surveys in primorye , russia , 2003\u201305 . twsg news 15 : 60\u201369 .\n. the sex ratio of scaly - sided merganser was also different in different months . the sex ratio we observed in february was similar to the results reported as 1 : 0 . 61 by\nthe map of potential habitat shows that highly suitable habitats for scaly - side merganser are located in the middle and lower reaches of the yangtze river ( fig . 2 ) , especially in jiangxi , hunan and hubei provinces . sichuan , chongqing , and henan province also have areas of high importance for scaly - sided merganser .\nliu , y . , yang , z . j . , zuo , b . and yi , g . d . , 2008 . wintering distribution and population size of scaly - sided merganser (\nhe fq , melville d , gui xj , hong yh , liu zy ( 2002 ) status of the scaly - sided merganser wintering in mainland china in the 1990s . waterbirds 25 : 462\u2013464 .\nlarge flocks of scaly - sided merganser were less frequently observed than small flocks . being in small flocks may reduce competition among individuals and ensure that every individual acquires the largest possible benefit from flocking behavior (\nshao , m . q . , shi , w . j . , zeng , b . b . and jiang , j . h . , 2014 . diving behavior of scaly - sided merganser ,\nthe scaly - sided merganser usually forages in small groups of up to three birds and feeds on small fish as well as insect larvae , shrimps , crayfish and beetles , taken from the river ( 5 ) .\nsolovyeva dv , afanasiev v , fox jw , shokhrin v , fox ad ( 2012 ) use of geolocators reveals previously unknown chinese and korean scaly - sided merganser wintering sites . endangered species research 17 : 217\u2013225 .\nsolovyeva , d . , vartanyan , s . , & vartanyan , n . 2013 . artificial nest sites for scaly - sided merganser \u2013 a way to breeding habitat restoration . amurian zoological journal 5 : 201\u2013207 .\n) . in recent years , the population of scaly - sided merganser has shown obvious declines caused by very high levels of habitat loss . currently , the breeding population in china is estimated to be only 200\u2013250 pairs (\nfenqi h , jiansheng l , bin y , hangdong j , haohui z ( 2006 ) current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus in china . chinese journal of zoology 41 : 52\u201356 .\nhe f , melville d , gui x , hong y , liu z . status of the scaly - sided merganser wintering in mainland china in the 1990s . waterbirds . 2002 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 462\u201364 .\nwe observed the endangered duck persistently preferred some river sections over others within the same river reach in its known wintering distribution [ 14 ] . the study is therefore designed to investigate why scaly - sided mergansers choose particular habitats , and aims to test the hypotheses that more gravel bars support high occurrence probability of scaly - sided merganser , and that occurrence probability is also influenced by human disturbance .\nbarter m , zhuang x , wang x , cao l , lei j , et al . ( 2014 ) abundance and distribution of wintering scaly - sided mergansers\nbarter m , zhuang x , wang x , cao l , lei j , solovyeva d , et al . abundance and distribution of wintering scaly - sided mergansers\n) , which could markedly reduce foraging time . to meet daily energy requirements , scaly - sided merganser has to fly to areas where there is less human activity , which unavoidably leads to longer flushing distances , daily travel distances and home ranges (\nthe red dots indicate 127 scaly - sided merganser flocks recorded over three winters . green points represent houses along the river within a 50 m buffer zone . areas in dark grey are gravel bars in river and area in light grey are islands .\nhe , f . q . , li , j . s . , yang , b . , jiang , h . d . and zhang , h . h . , 2006 . current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser (\nsolovyeva , d . v . and pearce , j . m . 2011 . comparative mitochondrial genetics of north american and eurasian mergansers with an emphasis on the endangered scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) . conservation genetics 12 : 839 - 844 .\nsolovyeva , d . ; shokhrin , v . ; vartanyan , s . ; dondua , a . ; vartanyan , n . 2006 . scaly - sided merganser surveys in primorye , russia , 2003 - 05 . twsg news : 60 - 69 .\nsolovyeva , d . v . , afanasiev , v . , fox , j . w . , shokhrin , v . and fox , a . d . in press . previously unknown chinese and korean scaly - sided merganser wintering sites revealed by geolocators .\npartnership for the east asian - australasian flyway . 2008 . scaly - sided merganser . available at : file : / / / w : / 3 % 20species % 20new % 20info / mergus % 20squamatus / mergus % 20squamatus % 20eaafp % 20mar13 . htm .\nduckworth , j . & kim c . scaly - sided mergansers mergus squamatus on the lower chongchon river , central korea . wildfowl ( 2005 ) 55 : 135 - 144 .\nduckworth , j . w . ; kim chol . 2005 . scaly - sided mergansers mergus squamatus on the lower chongchon river , central korea . wildfowl 55 : 133 - 141 .\ncitation : zeng q , zhang y , sun g , duo h , wen l , lei g ( 2015 ) using species distribution model to estimate the wintering population size of the endangered scaly - sided merganser in china . plos one 10 ( 2 ) : e0117307 . urltoken\n] , length was considered to the most suitable to calculate population density for rivers . we estimated the potential scaly - sided merganser population by projecting these observed population densities in the main known habitat , the middle reaches of yangtze river with reference to the entire modelled distribution area [\nzeng q , zhang y , sun g , duo h , wen l , lei g . using species distribution model to estimate the wintering population size of the endangered scaly - sided merganser in china . plos one 2015 ; 10 ( 2 ) : e0117307 . pmid : 25646969\n) . throughout the day , the group size of scaly - sided merganser showed extremely significant differences , which were inseparable from its ecological habits , such as dispersed foraging , collective maintenance and rest . scaly - sided merganser was found foraging in small dispersed flocks at 7 : 00\u20139 : 00 . large flocks were recorded while resting and loafing at 12 : 00\u201313 : 00 and 16 : 00\u201317 : 00 . foraging in small flocks can reduce the competition among different individuals . and rest in large flocks can reduce the alert time and the probability to be predated (\ncitation : zeng q , shi l , wen l , chen j , duo h , lei g ( 2015 ) gravel bars can be critical for biodiversity conservation : a case study on scaly - sided merganser in south china . plos one 10 ( 5 ) : e0127387 . urltoken\nhe fen - qi . ; melville , d . ; gui xau - jie . ; hong yuan - hua . ; liu , zhi - yong . 2002 . status of the scaly - sided merganser wintering in mainland china in the 1990s . waterbirds 25 : 462 - 464 .\nzeng , q . , zhang , j . , li , h . , lu , k . , and lei , g . 2013 . the first record of a ringed scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus at a wintering site in southern china . birdingasia 19 : 57 - 58 .\n: scaly - sided merganser , scimitar babblers , short - tailed parrotbill , dusky fulvetta , chinese bamboo partridge , and other forest birds including pied falconet , red - billed leiothrix , red - billed starling , red - billed blue magpie , chestnut bulbul , grey - headed parrotbill etc .\nrecent phylogenetic study found this species to be basal to m . merganser # r . monotypic .\n. 2015 ) . the scaly - sided merganser project has been running in primorye since 2000 and has collated information on the threats facing the species ( solovyera 2013 ) . in 2010 a task force was formed to develop a species action plan ( east asian - australasian flyway partnership 2016 ) .\nin yihuang and wuyuan counties , jiangxi province , china , from december 2012 to march 2013 and december 2015 to march 2016 . results showed that the daily travel distance of scaly - sided merganser was 3100 \u00b1 1313 m ; the daily home range was 122 , 460 \u00b1 42 , 019 m\nzeng , q . , zhang , y . , sun , g . , duo , h . , wen , l . and lei , g . 2015 . using species distribution model to estimate the wintering population size of the endangered scaly - sided merganser in china . plos one 10 : e0117307 .\na total of 456 flocks of scaly - sided merganser were recorded between december 2012 and march 2013 . the average group size was 3 . 91 \u00b1 2 . 94 individuals and highly significant differences were found in group size between different times of day ( kruskal - wallis h : f = 25 . 540 ,\npeiqi liu ; feng li ; huidong song ; qiang wang ; yuwen song ; yusen liu ; zhengji piao . 2010 . a survey to the distribution of the scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) in changbai mountain range ( china side ) . chinese birds 1 ( 2 ) : 148 - 155 .\ncao , l . and barter , m . 2008 . non - breeding season survey for scaly - sided mergansers in fujian , guangdong and jiangxi provinces . university of science and technology of china , hefei .\nclassed as endangered on the iucn red list owing to its small and declining population , the scaly - sided merganser breeds in a restricted area in southeast russia and northeast china , primarily in the primorye region of far - east russia . it winters in china and north korea , although its distribution is poorly known .\nsolovyeva , d . , newton , j . , hobson , k . , fox , j . w . , afanasyev , v . and fox , a . d . 2014b . marine moult migration of the freshwater scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus revealed by stable isotopes and geolocators . ibis 156 : 466\u2013471 .\nfen - qi , h . , jian - sheng , l . , bin , y . , hang - dong , j . and ho - fai , c . 2006 . current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus in china . chinese journal of zoology 41 : 52 - 56 .\n) . however , we did not find any data on daily travel distance and home range for this endangered species . thus , the objective of this study was to analyze the daily travel distance , home range and grouping characteristics of scaly - sided merganser in yihuang and wuyuan counties , jiangxi , china for future conservation efforts .\nduring the whole 24 surveys ( 2011\u20132013 ) , we counted 514 scaly - sided mergansers , belonging to 127 flocks in total ( fig 2 ) . the number of individual in a flock varied from 1 to 20 .\nwhen the group was encountered we also record their sex composition . before sexual maturity a male scaly - sided merganser cannot be differentiated from a mature female in the field . therefore , birds recorded as \u201cfemale\u201d in this paper actually include females and juveniles and the sex ratio was the ratio of ( females + juveniles ) to males (\ncao , l . & barter , m . 2013 . non - breeding season surveys for scaly - sided mergansers in anhui , fujian , guangdong and jiangxi provinces , china . twsg news 16 december : 35 - 37 .\nchinese merganser ( mergus squamatus ) . it lives in east asia , status - this species is considered endangered .\nthe occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser had significantly positive relationship with contig _ am . the significantly positive relationship was consistence across all the plausible glms although their estimation varied ( i . e . the coefficients are 1 . 09 , 4 . 11 , 3 . 55 , and 3 . 26 for models 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 respectively , table 3 ) . the significant level of positive relationship between scaly - sided merganser presence and contig _ am was verified by bayesian inference ( i . e . the 95 % intervals were all positive and 0 was not included , table 3 and fig 4 ) . the mcmc estimates were consistently higher across the models ( table 3 ) .\nshao , m . q . , zhang , r . , dai , n . h . , guo , y . r . , gan , w . l . , tong , l . f . , jian , m . f . and tu , y . l . , 2010 . preliminary study on behaviors of wintering scaly - sided merganser .\n> 0 . 05 ) . the significant correlation between daily home range and daily minimum temperature may be related to energy requirements or prey activities . the average group size of the scaly - sided merganser was 3 . 91 \u00b1 2 . 94 individuals , and extremely significant differences existed at different time of day ( f = 25 . 540 , df = 11 ,\nstudies suggested that 500 individuals were required to maintain the evolutionary potential of the species [ 4 , 63 ] and an overall population of 5 , 000 individuals would be required to prevent the loss of quantitative genetic variation in a species [ 64 ] . thus , our findings indicated that the scaly - sided merganser was still endangered and the survival of the species requires conservation efforts on an international scale .\nthe scaly - sided merganser breeds in south - east russia , north korea and north - east china . some birds spend the winter in south - east russia , but most are thought to winter in central and southern china . small numbers winter in japan , north korea , south korea and taiwan ( china ) , and a handful of records exist from myanmar , thailand and northern vietnam ( 5 ) .\nthe partial response curves of the four highly influential variables were presented in fig . 4 . the strong non - linear relationships between the probability of scaly - side merganser occurrence and predictor variables are evident . the most suitable habitat for scaly - side mergansers are areas with annual mean temperature around 17\u00b0c , mean temperature in winter around 6\u00b0c minimum temperature in coldest month around 2\u00b0c , and winter precipitation around 170 mm .\nwang , z . r . , shan , j . h . , li , y . k . , tu , x . b . , jia , d . j . , hao , y . , song , y . z . , ying , q . , sun , z . y . and zhao , j . , 2010 . winter population status and endangered factors of scaly - sided merganser (\nsolovyeva , d . v . , liu , p . , antonov , a . i . , averin , a . a . , pronkevich , v . v . , shokhrin , v . p . , vartanyan , s . l . and cranswick , p . a . 2014 . the population size and breeding range of the scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus . bird conserv . int . 24 : 393 - 405 .\ncarboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nannual mean temperature , mean temperature of coldest quarter , minimum temperature of coldest month and precipitation of driest quarter are the most important variables in the scaly - sided mergansers occurrence ( fig . 3 ) . stream density , human influence and land cover are factors of lesser importance ( fig . 3 ) .\nthe occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser was significantly negatively affected by bld , and this was consistent for both the glm estimates ( table 3 ) and the bayesian inferred posterior density distribution ( table 3 and fig 4b ) . in addition , the glm estimation of - 2 . 02 was close the medium of - 2 . 88 from mcmc posterior sampling for the model which included bld as main factor only ( i . e . model 2 ) .\ntitman , r . d . ( 1999 ) red - breasted merganser ( mergus serrator ) . cornell lab of ornithology . birds of north america online .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - red - breasted merganser ( mergus serrator )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - red - breasted merganser ( mergus serrator )\ntitle =\narkive species - red - breasted merganser ( mergus serrator )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbased on the fitted glms , para _ am negatively affects the occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser although the coefficient in model 2 and model 4 was considerably higher than in model 3 . furthermore , the bayesian estimates were higher for models 2 and 4 , but lower for model 3 . in addition , the 95 % intervals included 0 for model 3 and 4 ( table 3 ) although the distribution density was heavily skewed to the left ( negative ) ( fig 4 ) .\nfood selection , food - seeking patterns and hunting success of captive goosanders mergus merganser and red - breasted mergansers m . serrator in relation to the behaviour of their prey\nlarger gravel bars could improve the function of river section as possible roosting sites . the incessant , strongly turbulent flow requires strong rooting to resist , or significant expenditure of energy to withstand [ 32 ] . scaly - sided merganser uses gravel bars to roost and preen , which could minimize the necessary expenditure of energy to maintain position for other activities such as feeding and social interaction . these resting and maintenance behaviors could account for 39 % and 24 % of time budget in male and female during days [ 13 ] .\nthe posterior mcmc showed a strong positive relationship between np and the occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser ( fig 4d and table 3 ) . the coefficient was 1 . 85 and 4 . 83 based on glm and bayesian estimation , respectively . for nlsi , although the glm indicated a significantly positive effect , the bayesian posterior inference was not conclusive ( table 3 ) : the 95 % internals were - 0 . 94 and 1 . 72 , and the distribution density was slightly skewed to the positive range ( fig 4c ) .\nbarter , m . , zhuang , x . , wang , x . , cao , l . , lei , j . , solovyeva , d . , and fox , a . d . abundance and distribution of wintering scaly - sided mergansers mergus squamatus in china : where are the missing birds ? bird conserv . int . 24 : 406 - 415 .\na specific threshold is needed to transform the model results of logistic occurrence probabilities or suitability index to presences / absences [ 35 ] . however , the fixed threshold approach ( e . g . 0 . 5 [ 36 ] , 0 . 3 [ 37 ] , 0 . 05 [ 38 ] ) is arbitrary and lacks ecological basis [ 39 ] . average predicted probability was used as it is considered a more robust approach [ 40 ] . areas with an occurrence probability above the threshold are regarded as modelled distribution areas for scaly - sided merganser .\nyu chang - hao ; sun zhi - yong ; wang zhi - ru . 2008 . winter distribution of chinese merganser in jiangxi . china crane news 12 ( 1 ) : 35 - 36 .\nfield data were collected in three winters ( 2010 / 2011 , 2011 / 2012 , 2012 / 2013 ) when scaly - sided mergansers arrived for wintering . winter is the low water season , and the river is very stable in terms of water level fluctuation . field survey were conducted every second week from november to february ( when the bird population was relatively stable ) , resulting in a total of 24 surveys .\n. 2007 , 2008 ) . logging of river sources and adjacent slopes has led to reduced spring water levels and changes in fish abundance ; since logging began on the avvakumovka river in 2004 , spring water levels and merganser populations have undergone continuous declines ( d . solovieva\nshao , m . q . , zeng , b . b . , shang , x . l . , chen , l . x . , you , c . y . and dai , n . h . , 2012 . group characteristics of chinese merganser (\nstriking merganser with shaggy crest and scaled flanks . adult male has black , glossed green head and neck with long crest . creamy - white lower foreneck , breast and central underparts . whitish flanks , ventral region , and rump with grey scaling . blackish mantle , hindneck and scapulars . mostly white innerwing . adult female has warm buffish head and neck with dusky lores and wispy crest . whitish breast and central underparts . male red - breasted merganser m . serrator has white collar and rufous breast and lacks heavy scaling on flanks . female also lacks scaling .\n52 - 58 cm . striking merganser with shaggy crest and scaled flanks . adult male has black , glossed green head and neck with long crest . creamy - white lower foreneck , breast and central underparts . whitish flanks , ventral region , and rump with grey scaling . blackish mantle , hindneck and scapulars . mostly white innerwing . adult female has warm buffish head and neck with dusky lores and wispy crest . whitish breast and central underparts . < similar species > male red - breasted merganser m . serrator has white collar and rufous breast and lacks heavy scaling on flanks . female also lacks scaling .\nthe red - breasted merganser breeds along the wooded shorelines of deep lakes , rivers and streams , as well as shallow bays and estuaries with a sandy bottom , preferring narrow channels with small rocky islands and grassy banks rather than large , open expanses of water . at other times of the year , it is largely found at sea , inhabiting deeper offshore waters as well as inshore areas ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .\n52 - 58 cm . striking merganser with shaggy crest and scaled flanks . adult male has black , glossed green head and neck with long crest . creamy - white lower foreneck , breast and central underparts . whitish flanks , ventral region , and rump with grey scaling . blackish mantle , hindneck and scapulars . mostly white innerwing . adult female has warm buffish head and neck with dusky lores and wispy crest . whitish breast and central underparts .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nbarter , m . , cao , l . , he , f . , hughes , b . , peiqi , l . , solovyeva , d . & fen - qi , h .\nbenstead , p . , bird , j . , chan , s . , crosby , m . , peet , n . , symes , a . , taylor , j . , allinson , t , north , a . , martin , r\njustification : this species has a very small population which is suspected to be undergoing a continuing and rapid decline as a result of habitat loss , illegal hunting and disturbance . it is therefore listed as endangered . this species may warrant a downlisting in the future but this will depend on a robust understanding of the threats on the status of the breeding population .\n. it had been suggested that there could be around 10 , 000 mature individuals or more globally ( d . solovyeva\nmost breed in russia where , in the early 1980s , there were c . 1 , 000 pairs in primorye and c . 100 pairs in khabarovsk but , by 2012 , the total number in these areas was estimated at c . 448 pairs ( solovyeva\nthe breeding population in china was estimated at 150 - 200 pairs from 2008 and 2009 surveys ( peiqi liu et al . 2010 ) and 166 pairs in 2012 ( the majority of which are found in the chingbai mountains [ 155 pairs ] , with a small number of breeding pairs in the lesser xingan mountains [ 11 pairs ] ) ( solovyeva\nin 2003 , a population of c . 40 individuals was found on the lower chongchon river in central korea ( duckworth and chol 2005 ) . a total of 300 individuals ( including one flock of 80 birds ) were recorded on a stretch of river not more than 3 km long , at song jiang he in jilin province , china , representing a post - breeding congregation prior to migration ( peiqi liu\n. 2007 , 2008 ) . surveys of c . 1 , 000 km of rivers and 11 reservoirs in south - east china in the winters of 2006 and 2008 found a total of 71 individuals ( 31 and 40 respectively ) ( cao and barter 2008 ) , and wintering birds at four sites in northern jiangxi during 2002 - 2007 included a peak of 88 on a 22 - km stretch of xinjiang river ( yu chang - hao\nin russia , c . 1 , 643 pairs nest in sikhote - alin ( solovyeva\n2014 ) , with just 11 pairs estimated to nest north of the amur river . in china , 155 pairs breed in the changbai mountains and 11 pairs in lesser xingan ( solovyeva\n2014 ) . pair densities were found to be highest on the fuerhe river in the chinese changbai mountains ( 0 . 918 pairs / km ) and on the pavlovka river in sikhote - alin ( 0 . 63 pairs / km ) ( solovyeva\n2014 ) . there are , however , other estimates of perhaps several thousand pairs ( b . hughes\n( 2010 ) . this is roughly equivalent to 3 , 600 - 6 , 800 individuals in total . further research is required in order to verify this .\na rapid and on - going population decline is suspected ( see birdlife international 2001 ) . the density of breeding pairs more than doubled since the 1960s / 1970s in the species ' s stronghold in russia , but has since stabilised ( solovieva\n. 2006 ) . the changbai ( china ) breeding population may be increasing , but the western population ( found in xingan , china and zeya - bureya , russia ) has declined rapidly .\n2015 ) . flocks of up to 20 individuals have been noted on passage or in winter ( duckworth and chol 2005 ) . in russia , they moult on a range of water bodies within the breeding range and north and east of breeding range , including rivers , estuaries and the sea but the stable isotope analysis confirmed that the species is predominately confined to freshwater habitat ( solovyeva\n. 2014b ) . a satellite tracking study of individuals breeding in the lesser xingan mountains found migration to last on average 42 days , stopping at several sites on route . this study was however based on a very small sample size and so may not necessarily be representative of the population as a whole ( dong - ping\n. 2007 , 2008 ) . other major threats within the breeding range include illegal hunting ( solovyera 2013 ) , drowning in fishing nets ( a major cause of mortality at russian breeding sites in 2003 - 2007 [ d . solovieva\n. 2007 , 2008 ] ) , disturbance from motor boats during the breeding season , river pollution and natural predators . increased hunting of waterfowl for sport together with poor regulation of the spring hunting season ( which is intended to coincide with passage migration and avoid targeting locally breeding birds ) is a significant and increasing threat ; large numbers were reportedly shot in the kievka river basin , southern primorye , in spring 2008 ( d . solovieva\n. 2010 ) , despite environmental arguments against the project . in south korea , the species is impacted by increased river turbidity due to construction and dredging , bridge - building activities , river - bank strengthening and road - widening schemes ( moores\n. other significant aspects of habitat modification will include the deepening of rivers and the removal of boulders and islands , which are used for roosting . many stretches of river are expected to be rendered unusable for the species owing to habitat degradation and disturbance ( moores\n. 2010 ) . the species has low genetic diversity ( solovyeva and pearce 2011 ) . high levels of heavy metals , especially as and hg , were reported in females and their eggs after wintering in the yangtze catchment ( solovyeva\n2012 ) . poor egg hatchability recorded within sikhote - alin population could be a result of pollution on the wintering grounds .\ncms appendix ii . primary forest is protected at some breeding localities in china and at the most important breeding site in north korea . small proportions of its breeding and non - breeding populations occur inside protected areas , notably sikhote - alin ' state biosphere reserve , lazovskiy state reserve and botchinskiy state reserve ( russia ) ( d . solovyeva\n. 2007 , 2008 ) , and changbai shan nature reserve ( china ) . an artificial nest programme in russia , involving the provision of over 200 nest boxes ( partnership for the east asian - australasian flyway 2008 ) , has shown positive results , increasing habitat capacity along rivers with logged flood - plains ( d . solovieva\n. the programme involves the continued maintenance of artificial nests , liaison with hunters and fishers and collaboration with local communities , including information and education activities and the construction of a research and visitor centre ( d . solovyeva\n. 2007 , 2008 ; anon . 2009 ) . this has already resulted in a change in fishing practices by local people . it has also facilitated the capture of females for tagging with geolocators , allowing the identification of staging and wintering sites ( cranswick 2010 , solovyeva\n. collaboration with general motors has resulted in the re - use of chevrolet volt battery covers as successful nesting boxes in the changbai mountain national nature reserve in china ( general motors green 2015 ) . in 2015 , 11 ducklings hatched from the chinese nest box programme ( cranswick\n( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22680488a118860238 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has a very small population which is suspected to be undergoing a continuing and rapid decline as a result of habitat loss , illegal hunting and disturbance . it is therefore listed as endangered . this species may warrant a downlisting in the future but this will depend on a robust understanding of the threats on the status of the breeding population .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : mergus squamatus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nbreeding occurs along the middle reaches of well - forested , fast - flowing mountain rivers and rapid streams , below around 900 metres above sea level , where the bird is largely confined to primary forests with an abundance of potential nest holes ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . the non - breeding season is spent on larger lakes and more sluggish rivers and lagoons ( 6 ) .\nclassified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of the convention on migratory species ( cms ) ( 3 ) .\nbirdlife international . ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\ninformation authenticated ( 02 / 05 / 07 ) by dr baz hughes , head of species conservation , wildfowl and wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk . urltoken\nphillips , j . c . ( 1986 ) a natural history of the ducks . vols 3 & 4 . courier dover publications , uk .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1992 ) handbook of the birds of the world \u2013 ostrich to ducks . vol . 1 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbbc natural history unit c / o bbc motion gallery getty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 3227 2579 bbc . motiongallerysales @ urltoken urltoken\ngranada wild c / o itn source 200 gray ' s inn road london wc1x 8xz united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7430 4480 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 7430 4453 uksales @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nby clicking the links above , you agree to continue to use this material in accordance with the below terms of use .\narkive videos are protected by copyright and usage is restricted . details of the copyright owners are given at the end of each video . please carefully read the following before downloading this video .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nbreeds in extreme se siberia , ne china and n korea . winters mainly in c & s china ( especially in r yangtze catchment ) ; also in se russia , korea , japan , occasionally taiwan , myanmar and thailand .\n52\u201362 cm ; male 1125\u20131400 g , female 870\u20131100 g ; wingspan 70\u201386 cm . structurally intermediate between\nduring breeding season , inhabits well - forested , clear , fast - flowing mountain rivers and rapid . . .\nuntil recently few data available , but several studies have now elucidated the species\u2019 diet and foraging behaviour . diurnal feeder , . . .\nlittle known until recently . during local spring : arrives on breeding grounds late mar / early apr , initially frequents lakes and larger . . .\nmigratory ( though true extent still not entirely known ) , mainly present on breeding grounds between . . .\nendangered . fully protected in all range states . poorly known , population probably quite small , but has been suggested that perhaps as many as 10 , 000 individuals survive , . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na male performing alarm movements rising the beak close to its mate and finally both taking off .\na fermale having a bath and joining a male on a river , then both preening on the water .\na pair on a river , preening and showing well the fine black scales at the flanks and the long drooping crest , characteristic of this species .\njosep del hoyo , tomasz doro\u0144 , markmaddock , jonathan , pthompson234 , john breugelmans .\nwwt uses cookies on this website we use cookies on this site to improve your user experience . by continuing to use our site , you are agreeing to use our cookies . for further information about our cookies and how we use your personal information visit our privacy and cookies policy . [ x ]\nthe nest boxes have also enabled us to fit data loggers to individual birds , giving us valuable insights into their movements during migration and in winter .\nin 2010 , wwt organised a workshop in vladivostok , bringing together experts from russia , china , north and south korea , australia and the uk to develop an international conservation action plan . new relationships were forged and plans for collaborative surveys developed . the action plan is the first to be developed under the east asian - australian flyway partnership .\nwwt limited is a charity ( 1030884 england and wales , sco39410 scotland ) and a company limited by guarantee ( 2882729 england ) . vat number 618368028 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 016 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nbirds korea would like to thank participating surveyors and ed keeble for financial support of the february 2012 survey .\naustin , o . l . , jr 1948 . the birds of korea . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , harvard university 101 : 1 - 301 .\nministry of environment . 2000 - 2012 . annual reports of the winter bird census ( in korean ) .\nmoores , n . 2002 . wetlands : korea\u2019s most threatened habitat . oriental bird club bulletin 36 : 54 - 60 .\nmoores , n . , kim , a . , park m - n . , & kim s - n . 2010 . the anticipated impacts of the four rivers project ( republic of korea ) on waterbirds . birds korea preliminary report , published by birds korea . march 2010 .\npark , j - y . 2002 . current status and distribution of birds in korea . department of biology , kyung hee university , seoul ( unpublished thesis , in korean ) .\ncopyright 2002 - present urltoken all rights reserved birds korea 1108 ho , 3 dong , samick tower apt . , 148 - 22 , namcheon - dong , su - young - gu busan , 618 - 762 republic of korea\nthe representative cheek teeth of the siwalik cervids from the middle siwaliks of pakistan .\nduring the wintering period . no significant difference was detected in the daily travel distance between different months ( f = 0 . 658 ,\n> 0 . 05 ) . significant differences were detected in the daily home rang between january and february , and between february and march . no significant correlation was observed between daily travel distance and home range ( r = 0 . 256 , n = 12 ,\n< 0 . 01 ) . the largest group size ( 5 . 22 \u00b1 5 individuals ) appeared at 16 : 00\u201317 : 00 , and the smallest at 08 : 00\u201309 : 00 ( 2 . 6 \u00b1 1 . 12 individuals ) , similar results obtained between december 2015 and march 2016 , which was related to the daily habits of this species , such as dispersed foraging , collective maintenance and rest . group size peaked in february ( 5 . 07 \u00b1 4 . 166 individuals ) and was smallest ( 2 . 91 \u00b1 1 . 354 individuals ) in december with significantly different group sizes in all months ( f = 35 . 351 ,\n< 0 . 01 ) . a total of 57 . 98 % of all groups had a majority of females . a large difference in sex ratios was observed among different months . the actual ratio of [ ( adult + sub - adult male ) : ( adult + sub - adult female ) ] was 1 : 1 . 44 ( n = 22 ) in february . future studies are necessary , and the main goal should be focused on sex ratio , mortality and sex ratio at birth .\nms and pc designed the study , ms , bc , bz and jj collected and analyzed the field data . ms , bc wrote the manuscript . ms and pc gave the suggestions and revised paper .\naily travel distance affects the time budget of animal behaviors , such as foraging and social activities . therefore , travel distance has an important influence on individual energy expenditure and nutrient balance , and may affect survival and reproduction (\n) . an animal\u2019s home range is related to its daily travel distance . home range is the region within which animal actively carries out essential daily behaviors , such as foraging , mating and the rearing of offsprings (\n) . home range externally reflects the intensity of animals\u2019 territorial behavior . both the area of a home range and changes in the home range are important parameters for evaluating habitat quality , estimating habitat load and determining the spatial extent of habitat required to protect a minimum viable population . hence , home range is an important part in the study of animal behavior and ecology (\n) . the size of the home range of many bird species varies widely in different seasons . for instance , owing to an uneven distribution of food resources in different seasons , temminck\u2019s tragopan\ngroup formation is one of the most important behavioral adaptations in birds , especially during the entire wintering period for migratory birds . living in groups can reduce the risks from predators for individual prey , reduce their alert time and allow the individuals to spend more time on other activities to enhance their fitness for survival (\n) . the studies on animal groups usually centered on group type , group size and ecological factors influencing the group . animals may have an optimal group size in a specific environment (\n) while the area in the north of jiangxi province provides one of the main wintering grounds for this species in china . this population is mainly distributed along the xinjiang , fuhe , raohe and xiuhe rivers and their tributaries in jiangxi (\ntwo study sites were selected , one each in yihuang and wuyuan counties . yihuang county lies in the upper reaches of the fuhe river in northern jiangxi province and has a humid subtropical climate with an annual average temperature between 16 and 18 \u00b0c . the average annual precipitation is 1749 . 4 mm (\n) . wuyuan county is located in the northeastern part of jiangxi province and has a humid subtropical climate with an annual average temperature 16 . 7 \u00b0c . the average annual precipitation is 1816 mm . the second study site is along the leanhe river in wuyuan county ( n : 29\u00b09\u2019 24\u2033 ~ 29\u00b0 11\u2019 15\u2033 , e : 117\u00b050\u2019 01\u2033 ~ 117\u00b0 51\u2019 06\u2033 ) (\nlists the sympatric waterfowl species of mergansers in this region that typically feed while swimming .\nat yihuang in different time of a day from 2012 - 2013 ( unit / m ) .\nwere used to confirm the flock positions and google earth software was used to mark real - time locations and measure travel distance and river width . the travel distance was the linear distance the flock center moved every half hour . daily travel distance was the sum of the travel distances measured throughout the day (\n) . daily home range was the product of the average river width in the range of movement and the distance between the two farthest daily activity sites .\n) . the largest flock size was used to calculate the sex ratio in the current month .\n< 0 . 05 was considered significant . all statistical analyses were carried out in excel 2010 and spss 22 . 0 .\nduring the wintering period . significant differences were found in the daily home range between january and february ( f = 2 . 502 ,\n< 0 . 05 ) , and february and march ( f = 2 . 754 ,\nno significant correlation was observed between daily travel distance and home range ( r = 0 . 256 , n = 12 ,"]}
{"id": 1762, "summary": [{"text": "the amazonian hocicudo , oxymycterus amazonicus , is a species of rodent in the cricetidae family from south america .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in the amazon basin in brazil where it lives in moist lowland forest .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is a common species with a large range and is rated by the iucn as being of \" least concern \" . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "amazonian hocicudo", "paragraphs": ["oxymycterus amazonicus ( amazonian hocicudo ) oxymycterus angularis ( angular hocicudo ) oxymycterus caparoae ( mt . capara\u00f3 hocicudo ) oxymycterus dasytrichus ( atlantic forest hocicudo ) oxymycterus delator ( spy hocicudo ) oxymycterus hiska ( small hocicudo ) oxymycterus hispidus ( hispid hocicudo ) oxymycterus hucucha ( quechuan hocicudo ) oxymycterus inca ( incan hocicudo ) oxymycterus josei ( cook\u2019s hocicudo ) oxymycterus nasutus ( long - nosed hocicudo ) oxymycterus paramensis ( paramo hocicudo ) oxymycterus quaestor ( quaestor hocicudo ) oxymycterus roberti ( robert\u2019s hocicudo ) oxymycterus rufus ( red hocicudo )\nyou selected amazonian hocicudo ( english ) . this is a common name for :\nthe amazonian hocicudo , oxymycterus amazonicus , is a rodent species from south america . it is found in brazil . . . .\njanos dp , sahley ct ( 1995 ) rodent dispersal of vesicular - arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in amazonian peru . ecology 76 : 1852\u20131858\nbrown woolly monkey _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in northwest amazonian brazil , and southeast colombia , northeast ecuador , and extreme northern peru , east to the river negro and south to the river solimoes - napo , in primary rainforest ) lagothrix lagotricha the brown woolly monkey is the largest primate in amazonia , aside from man .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . collecting localities recorded so far from voucher - specimens suggest a broad distribution in the lower amazon and a high likelihood to occupy disturbed forest or secondary brush formations ( gon\u00e7alves and oliveira pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is distributed along the madeira , xing\u00fa , tocantins and tapaj\u00f3s river basins , in the brazilian states of mato grosso , rond\u00f4nia and par\u00e1 ( oliveira and gon\u00e7alves 2015 ) .\nno population estimates are available for this species , but its records suggest stable population sizes ( oliveira and gon\u00e7alves 2015 ) .\nthis species is found in lowland moist forests of the amazon river basin . it inhabits secondary growth forest and brush formations ( oliveira and gon\u00e7alves 2015 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c2a8c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c2b9b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322daf70 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322db071 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3677c1c6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\ntom orrell ( custodian ) , dave nicolson ( ed ) . ( 2018 ) . itis global : the integrated taxonomic information system ( version jun 2017 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .\nurn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 77a85e18 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626\n. if you continue to use the site we will assume that you agree with this .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\ninfonatura species index : 301 - 350 of 479 records in family muridae of order rodentia .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : data presented in infonatura at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of april 2007 . note : this report was printed on .\ntrademark notice :\ninfonatura\n, natureserve , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : \u00a9 2007 natureserve , 1101 wilson boulevard , 15th floor , arlington virginia 22209 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\ncitation : infonatura : animals and ecosystems of latin america [ web application ] . 2007 . version 5 . 0 . arlington , virginia ( usa ) : natureserve . available : http : / / infonatura . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\ncitation for bird range maps : ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\nacknowledgement statement for bird range maps :\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\ncitation for mammal range maps : patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\nacknowledgement statement for mammal range maps :\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\ncitation for amphibian range maps : iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 . global amphibian assessment . urltoken , version 1 . 1 .\nacknowledgement statement for amphibian range maps :\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with iucn , conservation international and the global amphibian assessment .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\nfeedback request : using the comment form , please note any errors or significant omissions that you find in the data . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the network of users .\nles cric\u00e9tid\u00e9s sont une famille extr\u00eamement diversifi\u00e9e de rongeurs . c\u2019est l\u2019une des plus grandes familles de mammif\u00e8res . la plupart des cric\u00e9tid\u00e9s ressemblent \u00e0 des souris ou des rats : ils ont un petit corps un peu allong\u00e9 , ils sont gris ou marron avec une longue queue , de grands yeux , de grandes oreilles et des moustaches . cependant , les formes du corps dans ce groupe varient . les cric\u00e9tid\u00e9s sont petits ( 8 g ) \u00e0 grands ( 2 kg ) . le dimorphisme sexuel varie selon les esp\u00e8ces : dans certains cas , les m\u00e2les sont plus gros que les femelles , et dans d\u2019autres cas , les femelles sont plus grandes que les m\u00e2les . certaines esp\u00e8ces ne pr\u00e9sentent pas de dimorphisme sexuel du tout . il existe diverses sp\u00e9cialisations pour les diff\u00e9rents modes de vie au sein de ce groupe , comme par exemple de longues griffes puissantes ( geoxus ) adapt\u00e9es pour creuser , alors que la partie palm\u00e9e des pattes arri\u00e8re et la queue en gouvernail des rats musqu\u00e9s sont adapt\u00e9es \u00e0 la nage .\nisthmomys flavidus ( yellow isthmus rat ) isthmomys pirrensis ( mt . pirri isthmus rat )\noligoryzomys andinus ( andean pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys arenalis ( sandy pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys brendae ( brenda\u2019s colilargo ) oligoryzomys chacoensis ( chacoan pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys delticola ( delta pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys destructor ( destructive pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys eliurus ( brazilian pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys flavescens ( yellow pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys fornesi ( fornes\u2019 colilargo ) oligoryzomys fulvescens ( fulvous pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys griseolus ( grayish pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys longicaudatus ( long - tailed pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys magellanicus ( magellanic pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys microtis ( small - eared pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys nigripes ( black - footed pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys stramineus ( straw - colored colilargo ) oligoryzomys vegetus ( sprightly pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys victus ( st . vincent pygmy rice rat )\nbienvenue dans le monde des mammif\u00e8res is proudly powered by wordpress and the theme adventure by eric schwarz entries ( rss ) and comments ( rss ) .\nnous utilisons des cookies pour vous garantir la meilleure exp\u00e9rience sur notre site . si vous continuez \u00e0 utiliser ce dernier , nous consid\u00e9rerons que vous acceptez l ' utilisation des cookies .\nwikinow lets you discover the news you care about , follow the topics that matter to you and share your favourite stories with your friends .\nurltoken - & nbspthis ; website is for sale ! - & nbspneagir ; resources and information .\na new species of litomosoides is described from sigmodontine murids occurring in the rain forests of misiones , argentina . litomosoides anguyai n . sp . , a parasite of the abdominal cavity of oxymycterus misionalis , belongs to the sigmodontis group and is closely related to l . legerae and l . oxymycteri . the new species is differentiated by the salient amphids , an asymmetrical annular thickening of the buccal capsule , by the arrangement of the head and tail papillae , and the shape and size of the microfilaria .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\nchitwood , b . c . ( 1938 ) some nematodes from the caves of yucatan .\ncrespo , j . ( 1982 ) ecolog\u00eda de la comunidad de mam\u00edferos del parque nacional iguaz\u00fa , misiones .\nn . sp . de la cavidad peritoneal de la rata de los ca\u00f1averales de tabacal , salta .\nn . sp . from the ashy opossum in brazil ( nematoda : filarioidea ) .\n( nematoda : filarioidea ) in sigmodontines ( rodentia : muridae ) from rio de la plata marshland , argentina .\nsigmodontinae is the second - largest subfamily of muroid rodents , with 377 species and 74 genera in eight tribes . members of this group , the new world rats and mice , display a vast array of habits and physical characteristics that is surpassed in scope only by the\nmusser , g . , m . carleton . 2005 . superfamily muroidea . d wilson , d reeder , eds . mammal species of the world . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .\nsigmodontines range from tierra del fuego north throughout south america , central america , and mexico , and into the united states as far north as nebraska and new jersey . they are also found on the galapagos islands .\nnowak , r . 1999 . walker ' s mammals of the world , vol . ii . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .\nsigmodontines are small to medium - large muroid rodents - - head and body length ranges from 62 to 360 mm , tail length ranges from 30 to 330 mm , and they weigh 7 to 455 grams . they are extremely diverse in body form , resembling\n, which has the formula 1 / 1 , 0 / 0 , 0 / 0 , 2 / 2 = 12 . the\n) . each molar has a longitudinal enamel crest ( mure or murid ) . the molars range from\n, and the third molars are usually smaller than the second molars . sigmodontine skulls generally have flat\nis of parallel construction . all other sigmodontine skull characteristics vary widely . a skeletal characteristic shared by most sigmodontines is the presence of a prominant neural spine on the second thoracic vertebra . finally , sigmodontines have one - or two - chambered stomachs , and the tongue bears a single circumvallate papilla .\ncarleton , m . , g . musser . 1984 . muroid rodents . pp . 289 - 379 in d wilson , d reeder , eds . orders and families of recent mammals of the world . new york : john wiley and sons .\nsigmodontines live in a wide range of habitat types , including grasslands , deserts , wet and dry forests , scrub forests , savannahs , steppes , agricultural areas , marshes , swamps , streams , sandy coastlines , barren highlands , alpine meadows , and human habitations . they live at elevations from sea level to over 5 , 500 meters .\nthese rodents are herbivorous , omnivorous , or carnivorous . foods consumed by the group as a whole include : grasses , seeds , fruit , berries , fungi , lichen ,\nsigmodontines are primary and higher - level consumers , and they are food for a wide range of other animals . some species are commensal with humans , depending on human food stores or agriculture to survive . others take advantage of burrows made by other animals , such as armadillos (\n. some , as mentioned in the previous section , rely on other animals to help them avoid predation . finally , sigmodontines may be important dispersers of mycorrhizal fungi ( mangan and adler 2000 ) .\nmangan , s . , g . adler . 2000 . consumption of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi by terrestrial and arboreal small mammals in a panamanian cloud forest . journal of mammalogy , 81 ( 2 ) : 563 - 570 .\n. the neutral - colored coats of sigmodontines may help them blend in with their background . most species are vigilant and agile , helping them to avoid predation . semiaquatic species avoid predation by quickly diving into the water when threatened . one sigmodontine species ,\nsigmodontines perceive their environment using vision , hearing , touch , smell , and taste . hearing and olfaction may be especially important , as auditory and chemical cues are often used for communication . sigmodontines make a variety of squeaking sounds in social contexts , and they can detect and produce ultrasounds . territorial males use their urine and feces to scent - mark their domains .\nsigmodontines have short lives . most do not make it past their first birthday . in captivity , some species have lived as long as five years .\nmost sigmodontines have a promiscuous mating system . during mating , a copulatory plug forms and seals the female ' s reproductive tract , preventing subsequent males from successfully fertilizing the female ' s eggs .\nmany rodents are prolific breeders and sigmodontines are no exception . they breed year round or seasonally , and during a year or season females often have two to three , or even six to seven litters . ovulation is spontaneous , and females of many species have a postpartum estrus , becoming pregnant again just a few hours after giving birth . in some species , the embryos do not implant until the current litter is weaned ; gestation after implantation occurs usually lasts 20 to 30 days . some species can have as many as 13 young in a litter , although many have just three to five . the young are altricial and open their eyes anywhere from 1 to 11 days after birth . they are weaned as early as five and as late as 30 days . female sigmodontines reach sexual maturity several weeks before males do . some have been known to give birth at just four weeks of age . other species mature much later , and do not reproduce until they are at least four months old .\nsigmodontine females generally do not have any help in caring for their young . most build nests out of plant material where they raise their babies . the young are altricial , and they nurse for 5 to 30 days . in a few species , the young remain with the mother for a few days after weaning is complete .\n) sigmodontine species on the iucn ' s red list of threatened species . in addition , three species are lacking sufficient data to be assessed , and five species have gone extinct recently ( both\niucn , 2004 .\n2004 iucn red list of threatened species\n( on - line ) . accessed june 29 , 2005 at urltoken .\nseveral sigmodontine species are considered household or agricultural pests . they raid buildings , gnawing on and destroying household goods and food stores , and they damage crops . some also carry diseases such as haemorrhagic fever .\nsome sigmodontines are used in laboratory disease research . others are trapped for their fur .\nas part of a larger definition of sigmodontinae . when those genera are included , the species count numbers at least 508 . their distribution includes much of the\nsigmodontines proceeded to diversify explosively in the formerly isolated continent . they inhabit many of the same\nthe\nthomasomyini\nfrom the atlantic forest of brazil are generally thought to be not especially related to the\nreal\nthomasomyini from the northern andes and amazonia . the genera wiedomys and sigmodon are generally placed in their own tribe , and the\nphyllotines\nirenomys , punomys , euneomys , and reithrodon are considered incertae sedis .\nd ' el\u00eda , g . ; luna , l . ; gonz\u00e1lez , e . m . ; patterson , b . d . ( february 2006 ) .\non the sigmodontinae radiation ( rodentia , cricetidae ) : an appraisal of the phylogenetic position of rhagomys\n. molecular phylogenetics and evolution ( elsevier ) 38 ( 2 ) : 558\u2013564 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2005 . 08 . 011 . pmid 16213166 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbrazil , par\u00e1 state , right bank lower rio tapaj\u00f3s , fordl\u00e2ndia ; 03\u00ba40\u2032s , 55\u00ba30\u2032w .\nlower amazon basin , south of the rio amazonas between the rios tocantins and madeira , c brazil , as least as far south as nw mato grosso ( per additional localities reported by musser et al . , 1998 : 239 ) .\nconsidered a small size - class species , principally compared with o . nasutus ; sister species to o . delator according to phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome b data ( hoffmann et al . , 2002 ) .\nat present , 4 , 700 species of extant mammals are recognized in the world , 1 , 100 of which occur in south america . bolivia is home to one third of all south american mammal fauna . to date , 319 species of native mammals have been recorded ; this number is expected to continue to increase in the future . new species and genera are still being described . consequently , a complete picture of bolivia\u2019s mammal fauna is not yet available . a summary of current knowledge is presented .\nactualmente est\u00e1n reconocidas en el mundo 4 , 700 especies de mam\u00edferos vivientes , de las cuales 1 , 100 se registran en suram\u00e9rica . bolivia sirve de hogar a una tercera parte de toda la fauna de mam\u00edferos suramericana . hasta la fecha se han registrado 319 especies de mam\u00edferos aut\u00f3ctonos y se espera que dicha cifra siga aumentando en el futuro . nuevas especies y g\u00e9neros est\u00e1n siendo descritos , por lo que a\u00fan no es posible ofrecer una imagen completa de la fauna de mam\u00edferos de bolivia . se presenta un resumen de los conocimientos acumulados hasta ahora .\nanderson s ( 1985 ) lista preliminar de mam\u00edferos bolivianos . cuadernos vi , zoolog\u00eda 3 : 5\u201316\nanderson s ( 1991 ) a brief history of bolivian chiropterology and new records of bats . bull amer mus nat hist 206 : 138\u2013144\nanderson s ( 1993 ) los mam\u00edferos bolivianos : notas de distribuci\u00f3n y claves de identif\u00efcaci\u00f3n . instituto de ecolog\u00eda , colecci\u00f3n boliviano de fauna . la paz\nanderson s ( 1997 ) mammals of bolivia , taxonomy and distribution . bull amer mus nat hist 231 : 1\u2013652\nanderson s , koopman kf , creighton gf ( 1982 ) bats of bolivia : an annotated checklist . amer mus novit 2750 : 1\u201324\nanderson s , riddle br , yates tl , cook ja ( 1993 ) los mamiferos del parque nacional ambor\u00f3 y la regi\u00f3n de santa cruz de la sierra , bolivia . special publication , the museum of southwestern biology 2 : 1\u201358\nanderson s , webster dw ( 1983 ) notes on bolivian mammals 1 : additional records of bats . amer mus novit 2766 : 1\u20133\nanderson s , yates tl , cook ja ( 1987 ) notes on bolivian mammals 4 . the genus\n( rodentia : ctenomyidae ) in the eastern lowlands . amer mus novit 2891 : 1\u201320\ncole fr , reeder dm , wilson de ( 1994 ) a synopsis of distribution patterns and the conservation of mammal species . j mamm 75 : 266\u2013276\ncook ja , anderson s , yates tl ( 1990 ) notes on bolivian mammals 6 . the genus\n( rodentia , ctenomyidae ) in the highlands . amer mus novit 2980 : 1\u201327\neisentraut m ( 1983 ) im land der chaco - indianer . biotropic - verlag , baden - baden\nergueta p , de morales c ( eds ) ( 1996 ) libro rojo de los vertebrados de bolivia . centro de datos para la conservaci\u00f2n , la paz\nglanz we , anderson s ( 1990 ) notes on bolivian mammals . 7 . a new species of\n( rodentia ) and relationships of the abrocomidae . amer mus novit 2991 : 1\u201332\n( cebidae , platyrrhini ) , a preliminary taxonomic review . fieldiana zool ns 55 : 1\u2013109\ngardner and creighton , 1989 ( marmosidae , marsupialia ) : a taxonomic review with notes on general morphology and relationships . fieldiana zool ns 79 : 1\u201356\n( sigmodontidae , muroidea ) , with a critical review of the generic content . fieldiana zool ns 79 : 1\u201343\nfrom isla mocha , chile ( mammalia : octodontidae ) . z s\u00e4ugetierkunde 59 : 27\u201341\nhutterer r ( 1995 ) unbekannte s\u00e4ugetierwelt : \u00fcbersicht der seit 1985 beschriebenen arten . tier und museum ( bonn ) 4 : 77\u201388\nhutterer r ( 1997 ) archaeozoological remains ( vertebrata , gastropoda ) from prehispanic sites at pail\u00f3n , bolivia . beitr allgemein vergl arch\u00e4ol 17 : 325\u2013341\niba\u00f1ez c ( 1985 ) notas sobre distribuci\u00f3n de quiropteros en bolivia ( mammalia , chiroptera ) . hist nat argentina 5 : 329\u2013333\niba\u00f1ez c , cabot j , anderson s ( 1994 ) new records of bolivian mammals in the collection of the estaci\u00f3n biol\u00f3gica de donana . donana , acta vertebrata 21 : 79\u201383\niba\u00f1ez c , ochoa g j ( 1989 ) new records of bats from bolivia . j mamm 70 : 216\u2013219\nmorell v ( 1996 ) new mammals discovered by biology\u2019s new explorers . science 273 : 1491\nfrom the cloud forest of eastern cochabamba department , bolivia ( rodentia : sigmodontinae ) . occas pap mus zool univ michigan 720 : 1\u201328\n( muridae : sigmodontinae ) , with emphasis on peru and bolivia . miscell publ mus zool univ michigan 177 : 1\u2013104\n( rodentia , muridae ) and the description of a new subspecies . amer mus novit 2890 : 1\u201317\npacheco v , de macedo h , vivar e , ascorro c , arana - card\u00f3 r , solari s ( 1995 ) lista anotada de los mamiferos peruanos . occas pap conserv biol 2 : 1\u201335\npatterson bd ( 1992a ) mammals in the royal natural history museum , stockholm , collected in brazil and bolivia by a . m . ollala during 1934\u20131938 . fieldiana zool ns 66 : 1\u201342\npatterson bd ( 1992b ) a new genus and species of long - clawed mouse ( rodentia : muridae ) from temperate rainforests of chile . zool j linn soc 106 : 127\u2013145\npatterson bd , feigl ce ( 1987 ) faunal representation in museum collections of mammals : osgood\u2019s mammals of chile . fieldiana zool ns 39 : 485\u2013496\npatterson bd , pacheco v , solari s ( 1996 ) distributions of bats along an elevational gradient in the andes of south - eastern peru . j zool lond 240 : 637\u2013658\npatton jl , myers p , smith mf ( 1990 ) vicariant versus gradient models of diversification : the small mammal fauna of eastern andean slopes of peru . in : peters g , hutterer r ( eds ) vertebrates in the tropics . zoologisches forschungsinstitut und museum alexander koenig , bonn , pp 355\u2013371\npine rh ( 1982 ) current status of south american mammalogy . in : mares ma , genoways hr ( eds ) mammalian biology in south america , 27\u201337 . special publ ser pymatuning lab ecol univ pittsburgh vol 6\npr\u00fcmers h , winkler w ( 1997 ) arch\u00e4ologische untersuchungen im bolivianischen tiefland . erster bericht des projektes grigot\u00e1 . beitr allgem vergl arch\u00e4ol 17 : 343\u2013393\nredford kh , robinson jg ( 1986 ) the game of choice : patterns of indian and colonist hunting in the neotropics . amer anthopol 89 : 650\u2013667\nroosevelt ac , lima da costa m , lopes machado c , michab m , mercier n , valladas h , feathers j , barnett w , imazio da silveira m , henderson a , sliva j , chernoff b , reese ds , holman ja , toth n , schick k ( 1996 ) paleoindian cave dwellers in the amazon : the peopling of the americas . science 272 : 373\u2013384\nsalazar , j , campbell ml , anderson s , gardner sl , dunnum jl ( 1994 ) new records of bolivian mammals . mammalia 58 : 123\u2013128\nstahl pw ( ed ) ( 1995 ) archaeology in the lowland american tropics . cambridge university press , cambridge\ntarifa t ( 1996 ) mamiferos . in : ergueta p , de morales c ( eds ) libro rojo de los vertebrados de bolivia , centro de datos para la conservaci\u00f2n , la paz , pp 165\u2013264\nmorgan , linares , and ray , 1988 , reported for southeastern brasil , with paleoecological comments ( phyllostomidae , desmodontinae ) . mammalia 55 : 456\u2013459\nvoss rs , emmons lh ( 1996 ) mammalian diversity in neotropical lowland rainforest : a preliminary assessment . bull amer mus nat hist 230 : 1\u2013115\nwilson de , cole fr , nichols jd , rudran r , foster ms ( eds ) ( 1996 ) measuring and monitoring biological diversity : standard methods for mammals . smithsonian institution press , washington\nwilson de , reeder da ( eds ) ( 1993 ) mammal species of the world , 2nd edition . smithsonian institution press , washington\nwilson d , salazar b j ( 1990 ) los murcielagos de la reserva de la bi\u00f3sfera \u201cestaci\u00f3n biol\u00f3gica beni\u201d , bolivia . ecologia en bolivia 13 : 47\u201356\nyensen e , tarifa t , anderson s ( 1994 ) new distributional records of some bolivian mammals . mammalia 58 : 405\u2013413\nhutterer r . ( 2001 ) diversity of mammals in bolivia . in : barthlott w . , winiger m . , biedinger n . ( eds ) biodiversity . springer , berlin , heidelberg\nspecies in this classification . to view subspecies , varieties and populations select the species .\nsome of the font group participants in september 2006 who saw the animals & birds noted above .\none - striped opossum ( t1 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in the itarare region of sao paulo ) monodelphis unistriata monodelphis unistriata is possibly extinct . it is only known from a specimen collected prior to 1842 .\nlinnaeus ' s mouse opossum ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( has been called the murine mouse opossum ( from colombia to southeast brazil , in forest , roadside brush , and gardens ) marmosa murina a linneaus ' s mouse - opossum photographed during a font tour this little animal has been in the nest of an hornero .\nmaned three - toed sloth ( t2 ) ( bre ) ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ se ( from bahia to sao paulo , in remnant patches of atlantic forest ) bradypus torquatus br : preguica de coleira a rare maned three - toed sloth . bradypus torquatus , clinging on the trunk of a cecropia tree ( photographed by marie gardner during the font march ' 08 brazil tour ) rabbits - family leporidae\nrusset rice rat _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in southern brazil , eastern paraguay , and northeast argentina ) euryoryzomys ( formerly oryzomys ) russatus what was oryzomys kelloggi , the kellogg ' s rice rat , is now part of euryoryzomys russatus . oryzomys kelloggi was said to occur in minas gerais in the region of the fazenda sao geraldo .\nbrazilian rice rat ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ hylaeamys ( formerly oryzomys ) laticeps ( change of genus for this & other species in this group in 2005 ) what was oryzomys seuanezi , the seuanez ' s rice rat , is now part of hylaeamys laticeps .\ncaparao grass mouse ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in minas gerais , on mt . caparao ) akodon mystax\ncandango mouse ( bre ) ( now extinct ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in the brasilia region ) juscelinomys candango the name for the genus juscelinomys was derived from that of the brazilian president juselino kubitschek de oliveira who created the city of brasilia , where juseclinomys candango was found in 1965 . subsequently , however , its habitat was overtaken by urban sprawl , and the species is now presumed to be extinct . two other species in the juscelinomys genus occur in bolivia , in addition to the species listed here .\n( when these photos were taken ) , but during every font tour in that area .\npantanal cat ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms ( was part of the pampas cat ) leopardus braccata br : gato palheiro the pantanal cat ( formerly part of the more - southerly pampas cat ) photographed at night during the font tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 .\nocelot ( t3 ) ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms , mt leopardus pardalis br : gato maracaja , or jaguatirica an ocelot photographed at night during the font tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 . this wonderful animal has been seen nicely during numerous font tours in that area .\ncrab - eating fox ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms , mt cerdocyon ( has previously been dusicyon ) thous ( the single member of its genus ) br : cachorro - do - mato ( or graxaim ) above & below : crab - eating foxes photographed at night during our brazil tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 . the species has been seen during every font tour in that area .\nshort - eared dog ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af atelocynus ( has previously been dusicyon ) microtis ( the single member of its genus ) br : cachorro do mato the short - eared dog is a rarely seen animal .\nthe giant otters above were photographed during a font tour in the pantanal of brazil .\ncrab - eating raccoon ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms , mt procyon cancrivorous br : mao - pelada a crab - eating raccoon photographed at night during the font brazil tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 .\nsouth american coati ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig , mn , ms , mt , se nasua nasua br : quati or quatimunde above : two photos of the south american coati below : a group of them seen during the font brazil tour in august 2008 . ( photo below courtesy of trevor & pamela sims ) sheath - tailed bats - family emballonuridae\ngreater fishing bat ( also called bulldog bat ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , ms , mt ( from mexico to southern brazil and northern argentina , in lowlands forest , and at lakes , rivers , and along coasts ) noctilio leporinus the wingspan of noctilio leporinus is a meter , or 3 feet . in flight after dark , a greater fishing , or bulldog bat ( photo by burke korol )\npied tamarin ( t1 ) ( bre ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ am ( has been called pied bare - faced tamarin ) saguinus bicolor ( now considered a distinct species ) in previous taxonomy , there were 3 subspecies of what was called the brazilian bare - faced tamarin . these were : pied bare - faced tamarin , saguinus bicolor bicolor , martin ' s bare - faced tamarin , saguinus bicolor martinsi , ochraceous bare - face tamarin , saguinus bicolor ochraceous . the pied bare - faced tamarin ( seen during the font 2005 brazil tour ) i s restricted to a 30 kilometer radius of manaus . the other 2 species ( or subspecies ) probably range between the lower rivers uatuma and cumina ( erepecuru ) ; their range limits are not precisely known . br : sauim ( or sagui de cara nua or sagi de duascores )\nwhite - tufted ( or common ) marmoset ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in northeast brazil , in piaui , ceara , paraiba , pernambuco , alagoas , and northern bahia ) callithrix jacchus the white - tufted marmoset originally occurred along the northeastern coast of brazil from the state of piaui to that of bahia . through the release of captive individuals , it also occurs now in southeastern brazil , where the first sighting in the wild in rio de janeiro was in 1929 . today it is common in the area of that city . the white - tufted marmoset was described by linnaeus in 1758 . white - tufted marmoset\nblack howler monkey ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mn , ms , mt ( in south - central brazil , and in eastern bolivia south to paraguay and northeast argentina , in forests ) alouatta caraya br : guariba or bugio ( male : black ; female : brown ) above : male black howler monkey below : female black howler monkey photographed during our tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 .\nbrown howler monkey ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mn , se ( in east - central and southeast brazil , from bahia to rio grande do sul , and in northeast argentina in misiones , in atlantic forest ) alouatta guariba ( formerly a . fusca ) br : bugio ( howler monkeys are locally called\nbarbados\n, or\nbeards\n, in minas gerais , because of the long hair covering their large throat sacs . ) above : a male brown howler monkey photographed during the font tour in minas gerais , brazil in october 2009 below : 2 brown howler monkeys during that same tour . this species is endangered , found only in remnants of the atlantic forest of southeast brazil . ( both photos by marie gardner )\nblack bearded saki ( t2 ) ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in northeast brazil in maranhao , in lowland rainforest of the amazon basin ) chiropates satanas the dark - nosed bearded sakis were split in 2003 into the following species in addition to chiropates satanas . previously these were considered subspecies .\nblack - striped capuchin ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig ( in southern brazil , and in northern argentina , paraguay , and bolivia , in forests ) sapajus ( formerly cebus ) libidinosus br : macaco prego cebus libidinosus has been called the black - striped tufted capuchin .\nsouthern muriqui ( t1 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( was called\nwoolly spider monkey\n) ( in southeast brazil , in remnants of atlantic forest in rio de janeiro and sao paulo ) brachyteles arachnoides the two former subspecies brachyteles a arachnoides & brachyteles arachnoides . hypoxanthus became two distinct species in 1995 , based on geographical distribution and morphological differences . genus lagothrix\ntucuxi ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ am ( or\ngray dolphin\n) sotalia fluviatilis br : tucuxi the tucuxi is found in south american rivers draining into the atlantic & the caribbean . it occurs throughout the entire amazon river basin , and also in coastal waters north to panama , occasionally to costa rica .\ncommon bottlenose dolphin ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ rs tursiops truncatus common bottlenose dolphins have been seen during font brazil tours from shore by a rock jetty extending about 2 miles out to sea , in rio grande do sul .\npygmy brocket ( deer ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig ( also called bororo ) mazama nana br : veado the pygmy brocket deer is rare in a small geographic range .\nsao paulo bororo ( t3 ) ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mazama bororo in 1992 , mazama bororo was reported to a be new species . that classification was predominantly based upon karyotype differences between other mazama species and the specimen found . the captive individual used for the analysis was from capao bonito , in sao paulo state . mazama bororo has a small population , and is said to be declining due to hunting and habitat loss . the total population has been estimated as 5 , 500 individuals , with mature animals being a fraction of the number . it is limited to the coastal atlantic forest in brazil . though small , the population area of mazama bororo has more than 3 , 600 square kilometers of protected areas , a number of which are connected with each other , forming one of the biggest blocks of atlantic forest in brazil .\nbrazilian tapir ( t3 ) ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , ms , mt tapirus terrestris br : anta above : a young brazilian tapir below : an adult and a young the photo below was taken at a animal scientific research facility in paraguay during a font tour ( mostly in brazil ) in august 2008 . this tapir is an endangered species in paraguay . ( lower photo by pamela sims ) manatees - family trichechidae\nwere seen by the rio cristalino ( in northern mato grosso ) during our august 1995 tour .\nboth adult and juvenile ( larger and smaller ) giant otters were seen during font tours in the rio cristalino in august 1996 , and in the pantanal in august 2003 . two giant otters were seen closely during the font brazil tour in august 2008 . they were first seen resting on the steps of a wooden dock along a river ' s edge .\nspectacled caiman ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , ms , mt , rs caiman crocodilus yacare ( including the jacare caiman subspecies in the pantanal ) a spectacled caiman photographed during our tour in mato gross do sul in september 2006 . below is a caiman in brazil vertically in the water . .\nbright green snake ( sp . ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af ( swimming across rio cristalino )\nsulphur butterfly ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af phoebis sp .\nleaf - cutter ants ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , rs , ug atta sp ."]}
{"id": 1766, "summary": [{"text": "mobula munkiana , commonly known as the manta de monk , munk 's devil ray , pygmy devil ray , or smoothtail mobula , is a species of ray in the family myliobatidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in tropical parts of the eastern pacific ocean , ranging from the gulf of california to peru , as well as offshore islands such as the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "munk 's devil ray was first described in 1987 by the italian ecologist giuseppe notarbartolo di sciara . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mobula munkiana", "paragraphs": ["( 14 ) the saw fishes anoxypristis cuspidate , pristis clavata , pristis pectinata , pristis zijsron , pristis pristis , the mobula rays mobula mobular , mobula japonica , mobula thurstoni , mobula tarapacana , mobula eregoodootenkee , mobula kuhlii , mobula hypostoma , mobula rochebrunei and mobula munkiana fall under the cfp which offers the appropriate instruments for the eu to contribute to managing their protection when adding these species to appendix i and ii to the convention .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - smoothtail mobula ( mobula munkiana )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - smoothtail mobula ( mobula munkiana )\ntitle =\narkive species - smoothtail mobula ( mobula munkiana )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnature picture library - a large group of munk & apos ; s devil / smoothtail mobula rays ( mobula munkiana ) galapagos islands , ecuador , pacific ocean - bra . . .\n6 . other parties to the convention have submitted proposals to amend appendices i and ii to the convention for the species ursus maritimus , all subspecies of the panthera leo , kobus kob , eudorcas rufifrons , otis tarda , calidris pusilla , calidris tenuirostris , cardellina canadiensis , carcharhinus falciformis , sphyrna lewini , sphyrna mokarran , anoxypristis cuspidate , pristis clavata , pristis pectinata , pristis zijsron , pristis pristis , mobula mobular , mobula japonica , mobula thurstoni , mobula tarapacana , mobula eregoodootenkee , mobula kuhlii , mobula hypostoma , mobula rochebrunei and mobula munkiana , manta alfredi and anguilla anguilla .\nhaving viewed the footage of mobula munkiana in the gulf of california , mr stewart was able to confirm that both females and males jump .\nview image of m . munkiana may jump to identify an aggregation to others ( credit : octavio aburto / ilcp )\nbentfin devil ray , lesser devil ray , smoothtail mobula , thurston\u2019s devil ray .\nbizzarro , j . j . , smith , w . d . & clark , t . b . 2005 . mobula munkiana . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 3 august 2007 .\nthe nine mobula species range in size from the largest , mobula mobular , which can reach 5 . 2 meters dw , to the smallest , mobula eregoodootenkee , which averages only 1 . 1 meters dw 10 . mobulas can be found in temperate and tropical waters worldwide . some mobula species are range restricted , such as mobula kuhlii and mobula eregoodootenkee , found only in the indian and western pacific oceans respectively . other species , such as mobula tarapacana and mobula thurstoni , are thought to be circumglobal 2 , 11 . since information on the distribution of this genus is based on sparse records and misidentification is common , the estimated ranges of individual species , and even some species classifications , will likely change in the coming years .\nall mobula are likely to be at risk of over - exploitation by both targeted and artisinal fisheries , due to their similar biological and behavioural characteristics . the lack of specific records of mobula landings at the species level , mainly as a result of the difficulty in distinguishing between the different mobula in the field makes assessment of the conservation status of individual mobula species extremely difficult .\n10 - bizzarro , j . j . , smith , w . d . & clark , t . b . 2006 . mobula munkiana . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . .\ntw3621 - d . smoothtail mobula rays ( mobula munkiana ) , an aggregation of hundreds of the 2 to 3 foot wide rays are feeding on plankton at night . also called munk\u00f5s devil ray and pygmy devil ray . baja , mexico , sea of cortez , pacific ocean . photo copyright \u00a9 brandon cole . all rights reserved worldwide . urltoken\ntw3621 - d - brandon _ cole - mobula _ rays _ at _ night _ photo . jpg\nmobula munkiana , the manta de monk , munk ' s devil ray , pygmy devil ray , or smoothtail mobula , is a species of fish in the myliobatidae family . it is found in colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , and peru . its natural habitats are shallow seas and subtidal aquatic beds .\nsoaring high above the waves as easily as a bird , mobula rays appear perfectly designed for this astonishing aerobatic display .\nhis team has also uncovered what is thought to be a m . munkiana nursery ground , where juveniles were feeding along the shore , close to where the aggregations and jumping typically happen .\na revisionary study of the genus mobula rafinesque , 1810 ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) , with the description of a new species .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - smoothtail devil ray ( mobula thurstoni )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - smoothtail devil ray ( mobula thurstoni )\ntitle =\narkive species - smoothtail devil ray ( mobula thurstoni )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nnotobartolo - di - sciara , g . ( 1987 ) natural history of the rays of the genus mobula in the gulf of california . fishery bulletin , 86 ( 1 ) : 45 - 66 .\n\u201calong these lines , we ' re thinking that the m . munkiana may be jumping to identify the aggregation to other nearby individuals . in theory , this would increase the density and overall number of individuals , providing a higher mate choice ability and increasing the likelihood that any one individual gets to mate . \u201d\nthe smoothtail mobula occurs in coastal waters of the eastern pacific , from the gulf of california , mexico , south to peru , and inclusive of the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo islands ( 1 ) .\n\u201cbecause of this , we know that the mobula aggregations in the gulf of california are extremely vulnerable to human impacts , and the greatest threat is most likely bycatch in drift gill net fisheries , \u201d says mr stewart .\nmobula rays can reach heights of more than two metres ( 6ft 6ins ) , remaining airborne for several seconds , but their landings are much less graceful , creating a loud bang as they belly - flop back into the sea .\n2 - notarbartolo di sciara , g . 1987 . a revisionary study of the genus mobula rafineque , 1810 ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) with the description of a new species . zoological journal of the linnean society , 91 : 1 - 91\n11 - clark , t . b . , smith , w . d . & bizzarro , j . j . 2006 . mobula thurstoni . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . .\nnotarbartolo - di - sciara , g . ( 1987 ) a revisionary study of the genus mobula , rafinesque , 1810 ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) with the description of a new species . zoological journal of the linnean society , 91 : 1 - 91 .\nmore research is vital to determine the impact of target and non - target fisheries on the smoothtail mobula . it is thought likely that the availability of additional fisheries information will reveal an urgent need for conservation measures including restrictions on harvest and trade ( 1 ) .\nwhat is known about mobula rays is that they reach sexual maturity late and their investment in their offspring is more akin to mammals than other fishes , usually producing just a single pup after long pregnancies , all of which makes them extremely vulnerable to commercial fishing .\nas large species which feed low in the food chain , mobula can be viewed as indicator species for the overall health of the ecosystem . studies have suggested that removing large , filter - feeding organisms from marine environments can result in significant , cascading species composition changes .\nmobula rays\u2019 elusive nature and skittish behaviour in front of divers has made them difficult to observe in the wild , except when they breach the water . mr stewart explains that even large aggregations , like the one in the gulf of california , can sometimes be hard to find , as they can occur in different locations and at slightly different times of the year .\nrecent research has revealed that manta and mobula rays have the highest brain mass to body mass ratio of all elasmobranchs , comparable to some birds and mammals . they exhibit high maneuverability , and increased social and cognitive abilities 16 . divers cite numerous examples of manta rays cooperating and accepting help when entangled in lines , and many report that injured manta rays even seem to seek assistance .\nthe smoothtail mobula is thought to commonly forage along the seafloor , with mysid shrimp being its main prey , but more research is needed to assess feeding behaviour and dietary preferences ( 1 ) . likewise , very little is known about its migratory habits , other than that it is common in the gulf of california over winter , when other mobulid species are rare or absent ( 6 ) . it reproduces ovoviviparously , with each mature female producing just a single pup per litter ( 1 ) .\nthe seas surrounding the arabian peninsula , including the red sea , the gulf of aden , the gulf of oman and the arabian / persian gulf , contain very important habitat for these fascinating and vulnerable species , and a better understanding of their ecology and status is urgently needed to secure their survival . a description of the biology , ecology and conservation status of devil rays found in the seas of arabia is ongoing . this also includes the re - description of a little - known species , mobula kuhlii .\nowing to its schooling behaviour and apparent benthic feeding habit , the smoothtail mobula is highly vulnerable to gillnet fishing . as may be expected of a highly mobile schooling species , large numbers are caught episodically in traditional fisheries in the gulf of california . although there is no fishery information outside of mexico , there is also a high possibility that it is caught as bycatch in numerous other fisheries throughout its range . consequently , there is great concern that catch rates may be unsustainable , particularly given this species\u2019 low reproductive output ( 1 ) .\nthe group of cartilaginous fish in the family mobulidae ( mobulid rays ) consists of two genera , manta and mobula , with two and nine species respectively 1 , 2 . all mobulid rays have diamond shaped bodies , wing - like pectoral fins used for propulsion , and five pairs of gill slits . they usually inhabit pelagic zones 3 , 4 . mobulids are often called \u201cdevil rays\u201d because of the cephalic fins on the front of their heads that resemble \u201chorns\u201d . the cephalic fins unfurl and help guide water into their mouths , and modified gill features filter zooplankton and small fish , their primary food sources 5 - 7 .\nin common with other species in the mobulidae family , the smoothtail mobula has long , pointed , pectoral fins which it strokes up and down , like wings , for propulsion ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . on either side of the head , and in front of its prominent eyes , are two fleshy lobes that project forward to funnel food into the mouth ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the dorsal fin is small , and the tail is long , flattened and spineless . the upper surface of its body is generally dark purplish to mauve - grey , while the underside is white , becoming blue - grey towards the \u2018wing - tips\u2019 ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nhaving only been discovered as recently as 1988 , information on the biology of the smoothtail mobula is still relatively fragmentary ( 1 ) . however , it is well known for forming large schools , appearing as conspicuous dark patches slowly cruising along the shallow coastline . typically , its occurrence in any particular location is unpredictable , with large numbers sometimes gathering in an area for a few days , before disappearing for weeks or even months ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . another remarkable feature of this species is the frequency with which individuals breach the water\u2019s surface , often simultaneously . the breaching behaviour is characterised by a variety of acrobatic manoeuvres , including head over tail somersaulting and high vertical leaps , followed by loud belly slaps ( 6 ) .\nmarine ; pelagic - oceanic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 58018 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 220 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 28023 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9256 )\npelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools ( ref . 12951 ) . feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans , but also takes small schooling fishes ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) .\nmceachran , j . d . and g . notarbartolo di sciara , 1995 . mobulidae . mantas , diablos . p . 759 - 764 . in w . fischer , f . krupp , w . schneider , c . sommer , k . e . carpenter and v . niem ( eds . ) guia fao para identification de especies para los fines de la pesca . pacifico centro - oriental . 3 vols . fao , rome . ( ref . 9256 )\n) : 22 . 2 - 28 . 5 , mean 23 . 5 ( based on 368 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5005 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 8 \u00b10 . 60 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 56 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe relatively recent description of this species and similarity of morphology among mobulids may account for common misidentifications of this ray .\nkyne , p . m . , notarbartolo - di - sciara , g . , fowler , s . l . & compagno , l . j . v . ( shark red list authority )\neastern pacific from the gulf of california , m\u00e9xico to peru , including the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo islands ( robertson and allen 2002 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nbenthic the lowermost region of an aquatic habitat , the bottom . bycatch in the fishing industry , the part of the catch made up of non - target species . dorsal fin in fish , the unpaired fin ( s ) found on the back of the body . ovoviviparously ovovivipary is a method of reproduction whereby the egg shell is weakly formed and young hatch inside the female ; they are nourished by their yolk sac and then \u2018born ' live . pectoral fins the pair of fins that are found one on each side of the body just behind the gills . they are generally used for balancing and braking .\ngrove , j . s . and lavenberg , r . j . ( 1997 ) the fishes of the gal\u00e1pagos islands . stanford university press , california .\ncampbell , a . and dawes , j . ( 2004 ) encyclopedia of underwater life . oxford university press , oxford .\nurltoken urltoken inc . 77 - 6425 kuakini hwy . ste c2 - 200 kailua kona , hi 96740 usa info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nnotarbartolo - di - sciara , 1987 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 271482 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\neschmeyer , w . n . ( 1990 ) . catalogue of the genera of recent fishes . california academy of sciences , san francisco , california .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nlike other rays , the smoothtail devil ray has a distinctive disc - like body with large , triangular pectoral fins that function like \u2018wings\u2019 , propelling it swiftly through the water column ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the mouth is located on the underside of the head , while the front of the head is equipped with two distinctive paddle - shaped lobes that channel food towards the mouth . the moderately long tail is flattened towards the base , and lacks the barbed spine exhibited by some ray species . above , this devil ray is dark blue to black , while the underside is white , becoming silvery towards the tips of the \u2018wings\u2019 ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nchupa sangre , chupasangre , diablo , diablo chupasangre , diablo manta , manta , muci\u00e9lago .\nin common with many other mobulid species , there is a dearth of information on the natural history of the smoothtail devil ray . based on studies in the gulf of california , mexico , this devil ray appears to have a highly specialised diet , with euphasiid shrimp and , to a slightly lesser extent , mysid shrimp being the main prey items . it is not known to form large schools , a behaviour exhibited by some of its close relatives , but instead is usually observed solitarily or in small groups of two to six ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nin common with many elasmobranchs , mating , birthing and juvenile life predominately take place in shallow waters . it reproduces ovoviviparously , with each female producing just a single pup per litter , which develops within an egg inside the mother ' s body but emerges alive after hatching . the gestation period is around 12 months ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nthe smoothtail devil ray is currently known from scattered locations in the indian , pacific , and atlantic oceans , but is probably circumglobal in tropical and sub - tropical waters ( 1 ) ( 5 ) .\noccurs along coastlines , to depths of less than 100 metres ( 1 ) .\nthe smoothtail devil ray is taken as both a target species and as bycatch in fisheries in mexico , indonesia and the philippines , and is almost certainly landed in other countries across its range . the greatest concern is in southeast asia , where catches and demand are increasing , owing in particular to a rise in the value of gill - rakers in the asian medicinal market . given its low reproductive potential , this species is unlikely to be able to tolerate the current levels of exploitation ( 1 ) .\nit is crucial that additional research is carried out to establish the true impact of target and non - target fisheries on the smoothtail devil ray . unfortunately , elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged in most regions within this species range . furthermore , in some areas fishing regulations are poorly enforced , such as in the philippines where mobulids are still being caught illegally despite a ban put in place in 1998 . in the long run , the development and implementation of international management plans may be vital for the survival of the smoothtail devil ray and other mobulids ( 1 ) .\nbycatch in the fishing industry , the part of the catch made up of non - target species . elasmobranch subclass of cartilaginous fish that includes sharks , skates and rays . gill - rakers a series of bony , comb - like projections located along the front edge of the gill arch . mobulid species within the modbulidae family ovoviviparously ovovivipary is a method of reproduction whereby the egg shell is weakly formed and young hatch inside the female ; they are nourished by their yolk sac and then \u2018born ' live . pectoral fins the pair of fins that are found one on each side of the body just behind the gills . they are generally used for balancing and braking .\nallen , g . r . and robertson , d . r . ( 1994 ) fishes of the tropical eastern pacific . crawford house press , bathhurst , uk .\nmanta trust catemwood house corscombe dorchester dorset dt2 0nt united kingdom info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nnotarbartolo di sciara , 1987 : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018\n. pelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools\nhost - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !\npelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools ( ref . 12951 ) . feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans , but also takes small schooling fishes ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .\neastern pacific from the gulf of california , mxico to peru , including the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo islands ( robertson and allen 2002 ) .\npelagic - oceanic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; marine ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 58018 )\noceanodromous . migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas , as tunas do . migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km .\npelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools ( ref . 12951 ) . feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans , but also takes small schooling fishes .\nexhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) .\ndevil rays ( batoid species belonging to the family mobulidae ) are highly evolved elasmobranchs that have abandoned life on the sea bottom to swim in the water column and near the surface , where they feed on small fishes and zooplankton . some ( e . g . , manta rays ) have reached a very large body size .\nliaising with the manta trust , an ngo dedicated to mobulid science and conservation , and actively participating to the drafting of a global strategy for the conservation of mobulid rays ( work in progress ) .\n, and probably endemic to the region . considering the extremely low reproductive potential of the species , its limited range , and threats deriving from both directed and accidental captures in fisheries , giant devil rays were assessed as endangered in iucn\u2019s\nfor giant devil rays seasonally gathering off gaza ( palestinian territories ) in late winter , a collaborative work was started in 2015 with professor mohammed abudaya , an ichthyologists from the local university with the support of the mava foundation , to study the phenomenon , suggest mechanisms for impact mitigation on this endangered species , and satellite tag some individual rays to study their migratory behaviour within the mediterranean .\ng . , lauriano g . , pierantonio n . , ca\u00f1adas a . , donovan g . , panigada s . 2015 . the devil we don\u2019t know : investigating habitat and abundance of endangered giant devil rays in the north - western mediterranean sea . plos one 10 ( 11 ) : e0141189 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0141189 open access\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the \u2018correct annotation\u2019 for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the < a href =\nurltoken\n> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : \u2018name\u2019 , \u2018synonyms\u2019 , \u2018ordered locus names\u2019 and \u2018orf names\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the \u2018taxonomic identifier\u2019 or \u2018taxid\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018sequence\u2019 section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nkm364948 genomic dna translation : aiz03095 . 1 km364949 genomic dna translation : aiz03096 . 1 km364950 genomic dna translation : aiz03097 . 1\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( \u2018last modified\u2019 ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =\nurltoken\n> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe genus manta includes the larger manta birostris ( oceanic manta ) , the smaller manta alfredi ( reef manta ) , and a possible third species , manta . cf birostris 1 both m . birostris and m . alfredi are circumglobal in overall range , and overlap in some locations 8 . m . cf birostris , is likely limited to the gulf of mexico and western caribbean 1 . manta birostris has a maximum wingspan ( disk width , or dw ) of seven to nine meters 1 , 3 . manta alfredi has a maximum 4 to 5 meter disk width 9 , and usually occupies tropical areas .\nall mobulids are aplacental , viviparous species , meaning that they give birth to fully developed live young 4 , 7 , 12 , and typically bear only a single pup with each pregnancy 12 , 13 . while the lifespan and age at sexual maturity are not yet known for many mobulid species , long - term studies of m . alfredi populations in various locations indicate a life history incompatible with targeted commercial fishing .\nfor example , female m . alfredi are believed to reach maturity at 8 - 10 years 9 , however female m . alfredi in an extensively studied population in the maldives showed no mating scars and did not become pregnant for a number of years after reaching mature size . these observations indicate that female m . alfredi in some subpopulations may not mate until an age of 15 years or more 14 .\nm . alfredi near a mozambique study site and in maui had a biennial reproductive period with some females pupping in consecutive years 13 , while in the maldives , the reproductive cycle appears to be significantly slower , with female m . alfredi giving birth on average to only one pup every five years 14 . m . alfredi have been confirmed to live at least 30 years 17 and both manta species are believed to live 40 years and possibly longer 9 , 15 .\n1 \u2013 marshall , a . d . 2009 . biology and population ecology of manta birostris in southern mozambique . phd thesis , university of queensland\n3 - compagno , l . j . v . 1999 . checklist of living elasmobranchs . in : hamlett , w . c . ( ed ) . sharks , skates , and rays : the biology of elasmobranch fishes . maryland : john hopkins university press . p 471\u2013498\n4 - deakos , m . h . 2010a . ecology and social behavior of a resident manta ray ( manta alfredi ) population off maui , hawai\u2019i . phd thesis , university of hawai\u2019i , manoa , hawai\u2019i .\n5 - maigret , j . and ly , b . 1986 . . les poissons de mer de mauritanie . science nat . , compi\u00e8gne .\n6 - notarbartolo di sciara , g . and hillyer , e . v . 1989 . mobulid rays off eastern venezuela ( chnodrichthyes , mobulidae ) . copeia , 3 : 607 - 614 .\n7 - compagno , l . j . v . and last , p . 1999 . mobulidae . in : capenter , k . e . and niem , v . h . ( eds ) , fao species identification fuide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific ( volume 3 . batoid fishes , chimeras and bony fishes . part 1 ( elopidae to linophymidae ) ) . rome : fao .\n8 - kashiwagi , t . marshall , a . d . , bennett , m . b . , and ovenden , j . r . 2011 . habitat segregation and mosaic sympatry of the two species of manta ray in the indian and pacific oceans : manta alfredi and m . birostris . marine biodiversity records : 1 - 8 .\n9 - marshall , a . , bennett , m . b . , kodja , g . , hinojosa - alvarez , s . , galvan - magana , f . , harding , m . , stevens , g . & kashiwagi , t . 2011 . manta birostris . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . .\n12 - marshall , a . , ishihara , h . , dudley , s . f . j . , clark , t . b . , jorgensen , s . , smith , w . d . , and bizzarro , j . j . 2006 . manta birostris . in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species , version 2010 . 4 www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded 12 february 2011 .\n13 - marshall , a . d . and bennett , m . b . 2010 . reproductive ecology of the reef manta ray manta alfredi in southern mozambique . journal of fish biology , 77 ( 1 ) : 169 - 190 .\n14 - anderson , r . c . , adam , m . s . , kitchen - wheeler , a . , and stevens , g . 2010 . extent and economic value of manta ray watching in maldives . tourism in marine environments , 7 ( 1 ) : 15 - 27 .\n15 - marshall , a . d . , dudgeon , c . l . and bennett , m . b . 2011 . size and structure of a photographically identified population of manta rays manta alfredi in southern mozambique . marine biology , 158 ( 5 ) : 1111 - 1124 .\n16 - ari , c . 2011 . encephalization and brain organization of mobulid rays ( myliobatiformes , elasmobranchii ) with ecological perspectives . the open anatomy journal , 3 : 1 - 13 .\n17 - clark , t . b . 2001 . population structure of manta birostris ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) from the pacific and atlantic oceans . ms thesis , texas a & m university , galveston , tx\ndiamond - shaped bodies and wings aren ' t the only things that [ . . . ]\nshark savers is a program of wildaid , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization . copyright \u00a9 2018 wildaid . all rights reserved .\nclosely related to sharks but with long , flat bodies and wing - like pectoral fins , they are ideally suited to swooping through the water yet seem equally at home in the air , so much so that they have earned the name \u201cflying rays\u201d .\nthis behaviour - filmed in the gulf of california , mexico , as part of a new bbc / discovery coproduction television series - can last for 24 hours and happens as many hundreds of rays shoal together to form huge aggregations .\n\u201csitting in a boat in the midst of these aggregations is akin to sitting in a pot of popcorn as the kernels explode into the air . everywhere you look mobulas are leaping out of the water and landing with a loud smack , sometimes just a couple of meters from you , \u201d says joshua stewart , from the gulf of california marine program at scripps institution of oceanography , who studies rays in mexico and across the world .\n\u201cthe mobulas launch themselves straight up out of the water at top speed , and most often they land flat on their belly . however , sometimes they seem to lose control and do flips and twists before reconnecting with the water . \u201d\nin order to shed some light on these animals mr stewart applies some of his findings from his research into the larger manta rays he completed with the manta trust . for example , he knows that manta rays have to start their leaps fairly deeply , in order to build up enough speed to leave the water .\n\u201cas far as we can tell , all mobulid rays jump , as do their myliobatid ( eagle rays ) cousins . many theories have been suggested [ as to why they jump ] , from feeding , courting , communicating , and ridding themselves of parasites , \u201d he says .\n\u201cwhile the jumping behaviour may occur during feeding or courting events , we believe that the most likely purpose of the jumping behavior is communication , which could have a variety of applications in different behavioral scenarios . however it is very likely that mantas , mobulas and eagle rays jump for a variety of reasons . \u201d\n\u201cthere\u2019s some evidence to suggest that females mate immediately after giving birth , \u201d says stewart .\n\u201cthis is pure speculation , but it ' s possible that the females could give birth in the nursery habitat and then mate shortly thereafter in the same area . \u201d\nin the maldives reef mantas ( manta alfredi ) have been observed jumping at the beginning of a feeding frenzy .\n\u201cwe believe that they ' re jumping to inform other mantas in the area that food is available , and using the jumping as a sort of signal to aggregate , \u201d mr stewart says .\nas a species that likes to come together , they are an easy target for fishermen and many rays can be caught in a single attempt . fishing spawning aggregations of other species is known to cause numbers to plummet .\n\u201chuge numbers of these animals are moving through relatively constricted geographic areas and just a few large catches could have dramatic negative impacts on their populations . \u201d\nmr stewart is now planning research to confirm the reasons behind the aggregating behaviour in the gulf of california and how many of the population is represented , as well as further work on seasonal locations and habitat use .\nin the uk you can watch episode two of ' shark ' on thursday 14th may at 21 : 00 bst , on bbc one . it will be broadcast at a later date in other countries .\nthis photo is not free . it is not in the public domain . this photo is a copyrighted work , registered with the us copyright office . rights to reproduction of photograph granted only with prior written permission , issuance of a valid license , and payment i\nall text and images copyright \u00a9 brandon cole . all rights reserved worldwide . no image is to be downloaded , copied , duplicated , modified , sampled , redistributed , archived , etc . , in whole or in part , without the express prior written authorization of brandon cole . these images are not free . please contact us to arrange an appropriate usage fee : tel 509 - 535 - 3489 ; e - mail : brandoncole @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nlast , p . , white , w . , de carvalho , m . , s\u00e9ret , b . , stehmann , m . and naylor , g . 2016 . rays of the world . csiro publishing , clayton .\nwith a circumglobal distribution , the bentfin devil ray is found in tropical , subtropical , and temperate waters of the pacific , atlantic , and indian oceans ( couturier et al . 2012 ) . this species probably occurs in many other locations from which it has not yet been identified . it was documented in australian waters from a few sightings off mackay and port douglas ( queensland ) and at ningaloo reef ( western australia ) from where it was previously unconfirmed ( last and stevens 2009 ) .\nthere are no historical baseline population data and global population numbers are unknown for any devil ray species . however , regional , genus - wide declines are inferred based on catch landings , trawl - survey indices , and diver sightings ( couturier\ndevil rays have population sizes likely one or two orders of magnitude greater than manta rays , have larger geographic ranges , and larger migratory movements . this makes devil rays more challenging to assess than manta rays . by comparison , manta rays can be easily locally depleted because they appear to be restricted geographically , and hence declines are likely to be genus - wide . the bentfin devil ray is less frequently encountered in catches compared to other species of devil ray , which makes this species particularly difficult to assess compared to devil rays that are more frequently encountered ( e . g . , the chilean devil ray ) . given the paucity of data across the entire\ngenus , most population trend data for devil rays are not species - specific . hence , most of the decline rates in this assessment were necessarily inferred from these genus - wide declines . local population trend data are available from market landings , a trawl survey index , and diver surveys .\ngiven the patchy nature of the bentfin devil ray\u2019s occurrence , its range has been divided into seven regions for the purpose of this assessment : indo - west pacific , central pacific , eastern pacific , western atlantic , eastern atlantic , indian ocean , and australia . next , the status of this species in each of these regions was considered , before drawing these together into a global estimate of population reduction .\nin indonesia , catches of the bentfin devil ray were recorded in the country\u2019s three largest devil ray landing sites ( tanjung luar , lombok ; lamakera , solor ; cilacap , west java ) . landed mobulid ( devil and manta ray ) catch was estimated to have declined by 77\n. 2015 ) . local population depletions can be inferred from an increase in the number of operating fishing vessels concurrent with these landed catch declines . the number of vessels catching devil rays from tanjung luar has increased since 2014 but any longer - term trend is unquantifiable owing to a lack of effort data . from lamakera however , the number of vessels fishing devil rays has approximately doubled since 2001 ( s . lewis , unpublished data ) . although this species is suspected to be naturally rare compared to its congener the chilean devil ray ( compagno 1999 ) based on catch proportions , in tanjung luar it was the most commonly caught devil ray species from 2013\u201314 , making up 49 % of total catch ( lewis\nthere appears to have been a recent expansion and collapse of devil ray fisheries due population depletion in bohol , philippines . historically , from the 1900s to 1960s the devil ray fishing grounds were inshore ( within five km of shore ) , but subsequently expanded to offshore waters extending over the jurisdiction of municipal waters ( 15 km from the coastline ) following fleet modernization in the 1970s . by 2014 , the devil ray fishing grounds had contracted to a smaller area in the northeast of the bohol sea , suggesting a decrease in devil ray fishing effort led by several factors including a possible depletion of fishing grounds and decrease in financial viability of the fishery , compared to historical records ( j . acebes and a . ponzo , unpublished data ) .\ninterviews with fishermen in the philippines indicate villages take as many as 1 , 000 devil rays per year , and the number of villages and fishermen participating in the fishery expanded through 2002 . this is concurrent with declines in catch rates , therefore local population declines can be inferred but not quantified ( alava\npopulation reductions can be suspected or inferred from three forms of data : ( i ) diver sightings from cocos island , ( ii ) bycatch rates in tuna purse seine fleet , and ( iii ) fisheries landings in peru .\n. 2015 ) . over this time period , devil rays were generally rare and seen on only 7 % of dives . while species - level identifications were not available in this study , area dive operators report the chilean devil ray as the species generally sighted ( e . herreno , pers . comm . 2012 ) , so it is unclear whether the bentfin devil ray occurs in lower numbers or not at all . the degree to which this index reflects wider population reduction remains to be fully understood , however , the cocos island is one of the world\u2019s oldest marine protected areas , and lies within the area of activity of the eastern tropical pacific tuna purse seine fisheries , which take large numbers of devil rays as incidental catch ( croll\n. 2015 ) . fishing effort and species - specific data from this region are currently unavailable for quantification of declines .\nthe inter - american tropical tuna commission ( iattc ) catch and bycatch data for devil rays from purse seine fisheries in the eastern pacific between 1998 and 2009 show a significant increase from < 1t in 1998 to > 80t in 2006 , and a subsequent decline over three years until 2009 , where the reported catch was 40t ( hall and roman 2013 ) . while population trends cannot be directly taken from grouped species bycatch data such as these , this pattern may be indicative of overall devil ray population declines following overexploitation in the region , depending on the corresponding trajectory of fishing effort .\nalready in the early 1980s concern existed over the sustainability of bentfin devil ray catch in the gulf of california ( mexico ) . growth overfishing may have been occurring as 72 % of individuals caught were immature ( notarbartolo di sciara 1988 ) . since this study in the 1980s , however , no data have been published on the bentfin devil ray in these waters , so it is impossible to determine catch trends over time .\n. 2010 ) , to 135t in 2013 ( imarpe 2014 ) , although reported devil ray landings fluctuate considerably from year to year . llanos\n. ( 2010 ) describe all the devil rays landed as the bentfin devil ray , but these statistics probably also include the chilean devil ray . this is likely , as a more recent fishery survey found mobulid landings in tumbes between 2013 and 2014 to consist mainly of the spinetail devil ray ("]}
{"id": 1773, "summary": [{"text": "marstonia scalariformis , previously known as pyrgulopsis scalariformis , common name the moss pyrg , is a species of freshwater snail with a gill and an operculum , aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family hydrobiidae . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "marstonia scalariformis", "paragraphs": ["clade hypsogastropoda clade littorinimorpha | superfamilia = rissooidea | familia = hydrobiidae | subfamilia = nymphophilinae | genus = marstonia | species = m . scalariformis | binomial = marstonia scalariformis | binomial _ authority = ( wolf , 1869 ) | synonyms = pyrgula scalariformis wolf , 1869 pyrgulopsis scalariformis ( wolf , 1869 ) pyrgula scalarif . . .\nsmallest species of freshwater snail known from the tennessee river system rivaled in its small size among eastern snails only by marstonia agarhectra and marstonia castor . features of shell shape similar to marstonia scalariformis , which is a much larger species ( thompson , 2004 ) .\npyrgulopsis agarhecta ( f . g . thompson , 1969 ) - ocmulgee marstonia - marstonia agarhecta f . g . thompson , 1969\npyrgulopsis castor ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - beaverpond marstonia - marstonia castor f . g . thompson , 1977\npyrgulopsis halcyon ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - halcyon marstonia - marstonia halcyon f . g . thompson , 1977\npyrgulopsis pachyta ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - armored marstonia - marstonia pachyta f . g . thompson , 1977\npyrgulopsis arga ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - ghost marstonia - marstonia arga - f . g . thompson , 1977\nthe genus marstonia was formerly relegated to the synonomy of pyrgulopsis by hershler and thompson ( 1987 ) , but thompson and hershler ( 2002 ) later re - evaluated eastern north american species assigned to pyrgulopsis and recognized them as distinct species of the genus marstonia .\neastern north american species of pyrgulopsis are considered to be in separate genus marstonia according to the thompson and hershler ( 2002 ) .\npyrgulopsis hershleri f . g . thompson , 1995 - coosa pyrg - marstonia hershleri ( f . g . thompson , 1995 )\npyrgulopsis ogmoraphe ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - royal springsnail - marstonia ogmorhaphe ( f . g . thompson , 1977 )\nthompson , f . g . 2005 . two new species of hydrobiid snails of the genus marstonia from alabama and georgia . the veliger 47 ( 3 ) : 175 - 182 .\nthompson , f . g . and r . hershler . 2002 . two genera of north american freshwater snails : marstonia baker , 1926 , resurrected to generic status , and floridobia , new genus ( prosobranchia : hydrobiidae : nymphophilinae ) . the veliger , 45 ( 3 ) : 269 - 271 .\nindex to vols . 1 - 5 . by w . j . mcgee\n: v . 5 , p . 281 - 370\nthere are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\n) . this webpage should not be considered an official source . please check with the alabama department of conservation and natural resources for an official copy of the regulation .\nit shall be unlawful to take , capture , kill , or attempt to take , capture or kill , possess , sell , trade for anything of monetary value , or offer to sell or trade for anything of monetary value , the following invertebrate species ( or any parts or reproductive products of such species ) without a scientific collection permit or written permit from the commissioner , department of conservation and natural resources , which shall specifically state what the permittee may do with regard to said species .\nin addition , any required federal permits for federally protected species must be obtained .\nreturn to : top of page alabama mollusks : overview , endangered and candidate species north alabama shell club page curator : deborah wills ( dwills @ hiwaay . net ) this page has been accessed times since 23 december 1998 . last revised : 23 december 1998\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nall information found on this site falls under the inhs ' s internet license agreement . ( note : illinois specific lists are marked with )\nkevin s . cummings , mollusk curator - homepage rachel vinsel , collection manager ( data requests ) jeremy tiemann , malacology staff sarah douglass , malacology staff alison p . stodola , malacology staff chris phillips , terrestrial gastropods\nover 99 % have been identified to species and the names referenced to a literature source . all of the catalogued lots have been databased and 90 % have been geo - referenced ( assigned latitude and longitudinal coordinates ) . there are about 400 type lots : 200 freshwater gastropods , 150 terrestrial gastropods , and 50 freshwater bivalves . over 40 , 000 soft parts of more than 200 species have been preserved ( approximately half in ethanol ) and available for study . about 12 , 000 lots were collected from 1850 - 1950 and 46 , 500 from 1950 - present . we have a backlog of about 5 , 000 lots . we are in the process of imaging the specimens and 4000 lots have been photographed to date . ( july 2017 )\nillinois natural history survey prairie research institute 1816 south oak street , mc 652 champaign , il 61820 217 - 333 - 6880 contact webmaster \u2022 sign in terms of use . email the web administrator with questions or comments . \u00a9 2018 university of illinois board of trustees . all rights reserved . for permissions information , contact the illinois natural history survey\nturgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .\napparently it has been collected alive recently only from meramec river , missouri ; shoal creek , lauderdale county , alabama ( where it is likely extirpated ) ; and flint river , madison county , alabama ; also round island creek and piney creek in limestone co . , alabama ( clark , 2007 ) . the subfossil record is much more extensive with shell material from illinois , indiana , and iowa . the extremely limited distribution ( range less than 20 square km ) , declining population trend ( 30 - 50 % recently , 75 - 90 % historically ) , and vulnerability to habitat degradation make the species vulnerable to extinction .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\nappears to have been widely distributed in the mississippi , ohio , and tennessee river systems , at least prehistorically , and was described from pleistocene deposites in illinois . also fossil material below davenport , iowa ( hershler , 1994 ) . burch ( 1989 ) cites shoal creek , near florence , alabama ; illinois river , tazewell co . , and rock river , rock island co . , illinois , as pleistocene fossils . however , apparently has been collected alive only from meramec river , missouri ; shoal creek , lauderdale county , alabama ; and flint river , midson county , alabama ; also round island creek and piney creek in limestone co . , alabama ( clark , 2007 ) . shoal creek population appears extirpated ( hershler , 1994 ; mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\nrecently , apparently has been collected alive only from meramec river , missouri ; shoal creek , lauderdale county , alabama ; and flint river , madison county , alabama ( mirarchi , 2004 ) . shoal creek population appears extirpated ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) . recently , three new populations were found ; in the flint river at the hayes nature reserve in madison co . , round island creek in limestone co . , and piney creek in limestone co . ( clark , 2007 ) . wu et al . ( 1997 ) list only a single site on the meramec river in crawford co . , missouri .\nthe terrain surrounding the flint river is primarily used for agriculture , but is currently under threat of increasing residential use , as suburbs of huntsville expand eastward . additionally , a golf complex was recently constructed to a reach of creek where the species occurs . it is also susceptible to introduction of pesticides and fertilizers as well as excessive irrigation and sedimentation ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\nalthough still declining , most declines occurred historically ( hershler , 1994 ) although the shoal creek , lauderdale co . , alabama ( hershler , 1994 ) , population appears to be extirpated .\naccording to hershler ( 1994 ) , it was widely distributed in the mississippi , ohio , and tennessee river systems , at least prehistorically and was described from illinois pleistocene deposits . it was described from empty shells along the tazewell shore of the illinois river in illinois and is also known as dead shells from near the mouth of the rock river below davenport , iowa ( as pyrgulopsis mississippiensis ) and the wabash river at the chains in posey co . , indiana ( as pyrgulopsis wabashensis ) ( hershler , 1994 ) . it was once widespread in alabama but has been reduced to one population in the flint river ( mirarchi , 2004 ) and two in two creeks in limestone co . ( clark , 2007 ) ; plus one population on the meramec river in missouri ( wu et al . , 2007 ) .\nthe flint river population should be monitored periodically and habitat degradation identified and mitigated .\na survey of potential reintroduction sites should be conducted , and a captive propagation and reintroduction program should be considered . if deemed necessary , augmentation of existing populations should also be considered ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) appears to have been widely distributed in the mississippi , ohio , and tennessee river systems , at least prehistorically , and was described from pleistocene deposites in illinois . also fossil material below davenport , iowa ( hershler , 1994 ) . burch ( 1989 ) cites shoal creek , near florence , alabama ; illinois river , tazewell co . , and rock river , rock island co . , illinois , as pleistocene fossils . however , apparently has been collected alive only from meramec river , missouri ; shoal creek , lauderdale county , alabama ; and flint river , midson county , alabama ; also round island creek and piney creek in limestone co . , alabama ( clark , 2007 ) . shoal creek population appears extirpated ( hershler , 1994 ; mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\nit primarily occurs in submerged masses of tree rootlets and bryophytes along steep banks adjacent to flowing water in rivers of all sizes ( mirarchi et al . , 2004 ) .\noccurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .\nseparation barriers are largely based on permanent hydrological discontinuity between water bodies , with distances of 30 meters or greater between maximum high water marks constituting a separation barrier . additional barriers are chemical and / or physical and include any connecting water body ( regardless of size ) with one or more of the following on a permanent basis : no dissolved calcium content , acidity greater than ph 5 , lack of dissolved oxygen , extremely high salinity such as that found in saline lakes and brine waters , or temperature greater than 45 an additional physical barrier , particularly for flowing water , is presence of upland habitat between water connections . high waterfalls and anthropogenic barriers to water flow such as dams are barriers as they limit movement in an upstream direction .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nburch , j . b . 1989 . north american freshwater snails . malacological publications : hamburg , michigan . 365 pp .\nhershler , r . 1994 . a review of the north american freshwater snail genus pyrgulopsis ( hydrobiidae ) . smithsonian contributions to zoology , 554 : 1 - 115 .\nhershler , r . and f . g . thompson . 1987 . north american hydrobiidae ( gastropoda : rissoacea ) : redescription and the systematic relationships of tryonia stimpson , 1865 and pyrgulopsis call and pilsbry , 1886 . the nautilus , 101 ( 1 ) : 25 - 32 .\nmirarchi , r . e . , j . t . garner , m . f . mettee , and p . e . o ' neil . 2004b . alabama wildlife . volume 2 . imperiled aquatic mollusks and fishes . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . xii + 255 pp .\nmirarchi , r . e . , m . a . bailey , j . t . garner , t . m . haggerty , t . l . best , m . f . mettee , and p . o ' neil . 2004d . alabama wildlife . volume four : conservation and management recommendations for imperiled wildlife . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa , alabama . 221 pp .\nmirarchi , r . e . , et al . 2004a . alabama wildlife . volume one : a checklist of vertebrates and selected invertebrates : aquatic mollusks , fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , and mammals . university of alabama press : tuscaloosa , alabama . 209 pp .\nwu , s . - k . , r . d . oesch , and m . e . gordon . 1997 . missouri aquatic snails . natural history series , no . 5 . missouri department of conservation : jefferson , missouri . 97 pp .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\n- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .\ndata and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .\n> stream x\u009c\u0095z\u00fb\u0092\u00fb\u00b8\u0011 } \u009f\u00af\u00f0\u00f3\u0096 ] e # \u0004x\u00df7\u00fb\u00eb [ * v \\ \u00f6\u00ec\u00e6e ^ ( \u001a ! \u0091h \u00a4f , \u007f } \u009ad\u0083\n\u0081\u0006\u00e5\u00f4v\u00ed\u00f6\u00ee\u00f4\u00e0\u00f2 } \u00fat\u009f\u0006\u00df\u00fe\u00df\u00f1u\u0000\u00ff\u00f0\u0095\u0010\u0019\u0013\u00f1 * \u00e9s\u0096d\u00ab\u00fb\u00e3\u00fd\u00df > \u00f0u\u00be\u00ba\u00df\u00fd \u00ab\u00fb\u00fa . \u00efy \u00af\u00ee\u007f\u00fd\u00bd\u00f8rl\u00e5\u00eb\u00f5\u00fd\u00bf\u00ef\u00b2\u0098 \u00f0\u00bb _ \u00ab\u0017 + \u00fd\u00ff9\u00e3\u00a27qe\u00ff\u0003 . \u00b2\u00f1\u00af\u00f3\u0098\u0005a\u00ff\u00eb ? 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\u0015\u00a6\u0092jh\u00f5 ~ \u0090\u00ee\u00aa\u00efn\u00e2v\u00ec\u00fbl ' gic ) \u00fb8\u0090\u00e8\u00fb\u00ef\u00ba > * \u00eai ) \u00ef\u00e8\u00fd\u0012\u00be\u0092 j\u0098 & l ; \u0099l\u00ee\u0086\u00ea\u009elasi\u00e44\u00fbo\u00ea\u0016\u008ai ) \u00e9\u00ef\u00fa\u00b7 ^ m\u00a2\u00e7\u0017\u00876 # k \b\u00f9 - d\u0092ijy\u00fdc\u00a2\u00b3\u00ab42\u00e2\u00e0\u0001\u009fi\u0089\u00f8\u00e8v\u0082i ) \u00a7\u0099\u00f2\u00f9\u0097w \u00e9\u00fb\u0000h ` \u00e8\u0083\u00f1z } \u0016\u00f6 \\ c\u008c\u009d\u00e4\u007f\u0000\u0016\u008c\u00eat\u0094\u00e5\u00df\u00f5v\u00ab\u00ad\u0017\u00e1\u000f \u00bab ~ * \u00een\u00133xk\u00b0kj : i ) \u00a7\u00f2\u00faszk60\u0092 & } \u00e6tj\u00e8\u00b5ui\u00bc7\u00f4\u0087\u0097i\u00ef\u00e50\u00af $ \u0092\u009ay\u00fd & \u00bc\u00e8 / \u00e1\u00f4 \\ 4 ! o\u001b \u00f13\u00b9\u00ee\u00fe\u00b1\u0095e $ \u0094\u00a4\u0092i % 9\u009do\u00ea\u00e5 = m\u00e1\u00f6\u0082h\u00e3\u00fc\u00e1 u\u009c\u00be\u0099 ^ ] ~ \u0093\u00e4\u00b7o\u00e3\u00edzi % 5\u0099\u0080\u00f6w\u00e8\u0089 \u008d\u00bc\u0099\u008f\u008a\u0007j\u00e8ut\u00a9\u00f4\u0081\u0001\u00fc\u0089 $ ~ + a $ \u0094\u00e7s\u00f0 * \u00a6\u00e3\u0090\u00f0 } c2d\u00f7\u00f2vr\u00b0y\u0095\u001b\u00e4\u0091\u00e1\u00ee > \u0005xi % 5\u007fg0\u0090\u00e7k\u0088\u00e3q\u0098v\u0092i % 5\u007ff\u00d7\u00ea\u00fa\u00f1\u00ef\u008d\u00bb\u00bc\u0092\u00ec\u00e9\u00b5\u00e6m64\u0012\u00f3 - v\u0092ijx\u00f4 } v\u00a6\u009b } q\u00bb | \u00ef\u00f2 [ $ \u00a7 ; \u00abt\u001a\u00ba\u00ae\u00dft\u0013\u00b7\u00880\u00af\u00b1\u0081\u0080\u0001\u00e0\u00f0 ) $ \u0092\u0094\u00a9\u00e6\u00f4\u00e6\u00e6\u0010 \\ n\u009caw\u0012ik5\u00bbd , \u00ec\u009f\u00ab\u0098\u00f9o\u00f5 \u00e9q\u00fc\u00e9w\u00f7\u00ad $ \u0092s _ + \u0005\u0099l\u00f4\u00fe % \u00be\u0012tz\u007fl\u00af\u00a7\u008d\u00b5 \u00eb\u0012o\u00e5 * \u00f2\u008e\u00e1\u00e2js\u00f0\u00fe\u00ae\u00f1\u0086\u00ff\u0000v\u00b6c\u00ec\u00fb\u00a4\u00f7\u00e7\u00bal\u00bf\u00ab\u00b4\u00e6y\u00ebz \u0088\u0003h $ \u00edlx\u0000\u00b4\u00f2ihr\u00f0\u00f9\u0096\u00f2\u00eb\u0000sob\u00aa\u00e3\u00f4v\u00e3\u00e0k\u009f\u0003\u0086\u00ee\u00f1h $ \u0092\u0090\u00e5\u00e2\u00b7 - \u0086\u00b7\u00fd\u0017\b * \u00a7k\u00e8\u0014\u00f4\u00b2mm\u0082d\u0013 $ \u00ef\u00fev\u008ai ) \u00a9\u00f4\u00bau } i\u00bb - \u0004\u00b7\u0098\u00fc\u00e1\u00f9\be\u00e4\u00e4n\u001b\u0005u\u0088kd\u0001\u00ef\u00e5fi % 9y\u00bfv\u00a9\u00ebw\u00a9\u0005\u00ae < \u0096\u00f7\u00f8\u00ab\u00b8\u00b8 \u00e6n\u00e6\u008d\u000f = \u00e7\u00e2\u00ac $ \u0092\u009clo\u00aax\u00f8\u00ee / kt ? \u009b > \u00f4l ? \u00ab\u0094a\u00f8n\u00ad\u00bb ^ | \u008d | \u00b8zi $ \u00a7 # \u00ea\u00a6 > e\u009e\u00b3\u009aw\u00ee\u00e9\u00fc\u00ee ~ \u00f5s\u00a9t\u00aa\u00fa\u0093vz $ l\u00f8 + \u0089 $ \u00a4x\u00f8\u00ed\u00e7hc\u00044\b\u0001\u0011 % \u001b , \u0015\u0089q\u0000\u000e\u00e5 % ! \u00ee\u00e1fs v ia\u00e9\u00bd \u00ae\u009a\u00e3 ] b\u001ay\u00f6u\u00e6\nknown only from the paint rock river from north of estillfork near the tennessee border , south to butler mill , near the tenenssee river , alabama ( thompson , 2005 ) . range has recently been expanded a few km up the paint rock river ( jackson co . ) due to new discoveries ( clark , 2007 ) . threat and trend information is lacking .\nknown only from the paint rock river from north of estillfork near the tennessee border , south to butler mill , near the tenenssee river , alabama ( thompson , 2005 ) . range has recently been expanded a few km up the paint rock river ( jackson co . ) due to new discoveries ( clark , 2007 ) .\n( < 100 square km ( less than about 40 square miles ) ) known only from the paint rock river from north of estillfork near the tennessee border , south to butler mill , near the tenenssee river , alabama ( thompson , 2005 ) . range has recently been expanded a few km up the paint rock river ( jackson co . ) due to new discoveries ( clark , 2007 ) .\ndistinguished by its minute size , slender , elongate in shape with an aperture that is less than half the length of the shell , and flatted whorls that are bordered at the periphery by a distinct angle or cord . the penis bears a terminal small apocrine gland , and has a long slender filament that is about half the length of the penis ( thompson , 2004 ) .\nriver section where the river passes through a narrow gap between limestone outcrops . snails found only on aquatic bryophytes growing on limestone in the faster current ; previously overlooked because small ( thompson , 2005 ) .\nclark , s . a . 2007 . preliminary survey of the hydrobiidae of alabama . final report prepared for alabama department of conservation and natural resources , wildlife and freshwater fisheries division , montgomery , alabama . unpaginated .\npyrgulopsis is a genus of freshwater snails with a gill and an operculum , aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family hydrobiidae .\ngeneric characters of the genus pyrgulopsis are : the shell is minute , conically turreted , somewhat elongated , imperforate and unicarinate . the apex is acute . the aperture is ovate . the peritreme is continuous .\nthe operculum is ovate , thin , corneous and spiral , with polar point well forward and approximating the columella .\nthe radula is like this : odontophore with teeth are arranged in transverse rows , according to the formula 3 + 1 + 3 . formula for denticles of rhachidian :\nthe distribution of the genus pyrgulopsis includes western and south - western united states .\nsnails of species in the genus pyrgulopsis occur in fresh water and in brackish water .\npyrgulopsis is the largest genus of freshwater gastropods in the north america . in 2010 , 133 species were recognized in this genus .\npyrgulopsis pilsbryana ( j . l . baily & r . i . baily , 1952 ) - bear lake springsnail\n\u00a9 university of florida george a . smathers libraries . all rights reserved . terms of use for electronic resources and copyright information powered by sobekcm\nthe following lists were compiled by kevin cummings , jeremy tiemann , alison stodola , and rachel vinsel ( aquatic mollusca ) and chris phillips ( terrestrial mollusca ) . references are cited at the beginning of each list . because of our poor html skills , we have made no effort to show taxonomy using differential tabs , but we have indicated membership of all clades above the superfamily level . note that the membership contains only those clades with illinois species . for information on taxonomy of mollusca , see our phylogenetics of mollusca page .\ndistributional data taken from cummings ( 1991 ) , cummings and mayer ( 1992 ) , tiemann and cummings ( 2010 ) , tiemann and cummings ( 2013 ) , johnson et al . ( 2013 ) , and stodola et al . ( 2014 ) . taxonomy for mussels follows graf and cummings ( 2007 ) , except for gulf mapleleaf , which was not recognized by the authors but later determined to be a valid species ( williams et al . 2008 ) . also , since graf and cummings ( 2007 ) , the gender agreement for\nlilliput , lilliput , and texas lilliput have changed ( williams et al . 2008 ) . common names taken from turgeon et al . ( 1998 ) . scientific and common names for snails follows\ndistributional data taken from range maps of hubricht ( 1985 ) and state lists of perez and cordeiro ( 2008 ) . nomenclature to family level according to bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) . common names according to turgeon et al . ( 1998 ) .\ncatinella exile ( leonard , 1972 ) - not listed in turgeon et al . , 1998 1\ncatinella parallela franzen , 1979 - listed in turgeon et al . , 1998 as \u201cclassification uncertain\u201d 1 , 2\noxyloma deprimidum franzen , 1973 - listed in turgeon et al . , 1998 as \u201cclassification uncertain\u201d\ncochlicopa morseana ( doherty , 1878 ) - appalachian pillar ; not known from il , but extreme sw in re : hubricht , 1985 .\nplanogyra asteriscus ( e . s . morse , 1857 ) - eastern flat - whorl\ncolumella simplex ( gould , 1841 ) 4 - listed in turgeon et al . , 1998 as \u201cclassification uncertain\u201d\npupoides albilabris ( c . b . adams , 1841 ) - white - lip dagger\nvertigo ventricosa ( e . s . morse , 1865 ) - five - tooth vertigo\nstriatura milium ( e . s . morse , 1859 ) - fine - ribbed striate\ndiscus macclintocki ( f . c . baker , 1928 ) - pleistocene disc fe , se\nhelicodiscus parallelus ( say , 1821 ) - compound coil \u2013 date incorrect in turgeon et al . , 1998\nhelicodiscus singleyanus ( pilsbry , 1880 ) - smooth coil\u2013 date incorrect in turgeon et al . , 1998\n1 perez and cordeiro ( 2008 ) listed this species as occurring in illinois .\n2 listed in hubricht ( 1985 ) as a synonym of catinella avara , but turgeon et al . ( 1998 ) listed c . avara as a species dubium being based on a juvenile shell and most specimens referred to as c . avara are actually referable to c . vermeta .\n3 turgeon et al . ( 1998 ) cited a . s . kennard ( 1942 . proc . malac . soc . london 25 : 111 - 118 ) to justify the use of cionellidae and cionella instead of cochlicopidae and cochlicopa .\n4 listed in hubricht ( 1985 ) as a valid species citing hubricht ( 1971 . sterkiana 42 : 45 ) .\nbouchet & rocroi , 2005 . classification and nomenclature of gastropod families . malacologia 47 : 1 - 397\ncummings , k . s . 1991 . the aquatic mollusca of illinois . pp . 429 - 439 in l . m . page and m . r . jeffords , eds . our living heritage : the biological resources of illinois . illinois natural history survey bulletin 34 ( 4 ) : 357\u2013477 .\ncummings , k . s . and c . a . mayer . 1992 . field guide to freshwater mussels of the midwest . illinois natural history survey , manual 5 . 194 pp .\ngraf , d . l . and k . s . cummings . 2007 . review of the systematics and global diversity of freshwater mussel species ( bivalvia : unionoida ) . journal of molluscan studies 73 : 291 - 314 .\nhubricht , l . 1985 . the distributions of the native land mollusks of the eastern united states . fieldiana , zoology , n . s . 24 : 1 - 191 .\njohnson , p . d . , a . e . bogan , k . m . brown , n . m . burkhead , j . r . cordeiro , j . t . garner , p . d . hartfield , d . a . w . lepitzki , g . l . mackie , e . pip , t . a . tarpley , j . s . tiemann , n . v . whelan , and e . e . strong . 2013 . conservation status of freshwater gastropods of canada and the united states . fisheries 38 : 247 - 282 .\nperez , k . e . and j . r . cordeiro , eds . 2008 . a guide for terrestrial gastropod identification . marla l . coppolino , illus . american malacological society . carbondale , il .\nstodola , a . p . , s . a . douglass , and d . k . shasteen . 2014 . historical and current distributions of freshwater mussels in illinois . illinois natural history survey technical report 2014 ( 37 ) . 82 pp .\ntiemann , j . s . and k . s . cummings . 2010 . new record for the freshwater snail lithasia geniculata ( gastropoda : pleuroceridae ) in the ohio river , illinois , with comments on potential threats to the population . southeastern naturalist 9 : 171 - 176 .\ntiemann , j . s . , k . s . cummings , and j . e . schwegman . 2013 . first occurrence of the bankclimber plectomerus dombeyanus ( valenciennes , 1827 ) ( mollusca : unionidae ) in illinois . transactions of the illinois state academy of science 106 : 1 - 2 .\nturgeon , d . d . et al . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . second edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 . pp . 526 .\nwilliams , j . d . , a . e . bogan , and j . t . garner . 2008 . freshwater mussels of alabama & the mobile basin in georgia , mississippi & tennessee . university of alabama press , tuscaloosa 908 pp .\n\u00a9 2018 university of illinois board of trustees . all rights reserved . for permissions information , contact the illinois natural history survey .\ncall r . e . & pilsbry h . a . ( 1886 ) . on pyrgulopsis , a new genus of rissoid mollusk , with descriptions of two new forms . proceedings of the davenport academy of natural sciences . 5 : 9 - 14 , pl . 2 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 13 , pl . 2 figs 14 - 16 [ details ]\necho\ntesting that php is running ok . . . success !\n; ?\ncommittee chairs : nathan whelan and jeremy tiemann click here to join fmcs and this committee you can also download a searchable pdf of the document below by clicking here .\nil , mi , mn , ny , oh , vt , wi . canada , on , qc .\nia , mi , mn , ny , oh , vt , wi . canada , mb , on , qc .\nid , mt , or , ut , wa , wy . canada , bc .\nar , ca , co , id , ks , mn , mo , mt , ne , or , sd , tx , ut , wa . canada , ab , bc , mb , sk .\naz , id , ne , nm , sd , tx , wa . canada , ab , bc .\naz , il , in , ks , mi , mn , mo , mt , nd , ne , ny , oh , pa , sd , tx , va , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , on , sk .\nal , ct , ia , id , il , in , ky , ma , me , mi , mn , mo , ny , oh , or , pa , tn , va , wa , wi , wv . canada , mb , on , qc .\nct , me , mi . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , nu , on , qc , sk .\nky , md , me , mo , nc , nj , ny , oh , pa , sc , va . canada , on , qc , pe .\nak , al , az , ca , ct , fl , ia , id , il , in , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nd , ne , nh , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sd , tn , tx , ut , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , ns , nt , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nak , al , ar , az , ca , co , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , mb , nf , ns , nt , sk .\naz , co , ct , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , mt , nd , ne , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , pa , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , nu , on , qc , sk .\nco , ct , il , in , ks , ma , me , mi , mo , ne , nm , ny , pa , ut , vt , wv . canada , ab , mb , ns , nt , nu , on , sk .\nar , az , ca , ks , la , mo , ne , nm , nv , ok , tx , ut . canada , ab , bc .\nak , ca , co , ia , id , il , in , ky , me , mi , mn , mt , nd , ny , oh , or , pa , sd , ut , vt , wa , wi . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nb , nf , nt , nu , on , qc , sk , yt .\nal , ar , az , ca , ct , fl , ga , hi , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , nc , nh , nj , nm , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sc , tn , tx , va , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , ns , on , qc .\nid , mi , mn , mt , nd , or , sd , wa , wi , wy . canada , bc , on .\nak . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nf , nt , nu , on , qc , sk , yt .\nak , al , ca , co , ia , id , il , in , ma , md , me , mn , mo , mt , nd , ne , nm , nv , ny , oh , or , pa , sd , tx , ut , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , on , sk , yt .\nct , ia , il , in , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mt , nd , nh , nj , ny , oh , or , pa , ri , sd , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , nt , ns , on , pe , qc , sk .\nak , ca , co , ct , ia id , il , in , ky , ks , ma , me , mi , mn , mo , mt , ne , nd , nh , nm , nj , ny , oh , or , pa , ri , sd , ut , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nb , nf , ns , nt , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nia , me , mi , mn , nh , ny , nt , oh , pa , vt , wi . canada , nb , on , qc .\nia , il , in , ks , mi , mn , oh , wi . canada , ab , mb , on , qc , sk .\nid , mt , nv , ut , wy . canada , ab , bc .\nca , id , mt , or , ut , wa , wy . canada , ab , bc .\nil , in , mi , mn , ny , wi . canada , mb , on .\nak , co , ct , dc , ia , id , il , in , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mt , nd , ne , nh , nv , ny , oh , or , pa , sd , ut , va , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , ns , nt , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nak , id , mn , mt , nd , wy . canada , bc , mb , nt , nu , on , qc , sk , yt .\nco , id , mt , or , ut , wa , wy . canada , ab , bc , sk .\nak , co , ct , ia , id , il , ma , mi , mn , mt , nd , ne , nv , ny , oh , pa , ri , sd , ut , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , on , qc , sk , yt .\nct , ma , mi , ny , oh , pa , ri . canada , on , nf .\nct , ma , me , mi , mn , nh , nj , ny , oh , pa , ri , va , vt , wi , wy . canada , nb , nf , qc .\nak , al , ar , az , ca , co , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , nu , on , qc , sk , yt .\nal , ar , co , ct , fl , ga , ia , il , in , ks , ky , ma , md , me , mo , nc , nh , nj , ny , oh , pa , ri , sc , tn , tx , va , vt , wi , wv , wy . canada , bc , nb , nf , ns , pe , qc .\nco , ia , il , in , ky , mi , mn , nd , ny , oh , pa , sd , tn , tx , vt , wi , wv , wy . canada , bc , mb , on , qc .\nca , id , mi , mt , nv , or , ut , wa , wi . canada , bc .\nca , id , mt , nv , or , ut , wa , wy . canada , bc .\nal , ar , az , ca , co , ct , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mo , ms , mt , nc , ne , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , sc , sd , tn , tx , va , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , on , qc .\nal , ar , az , ca , co , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , nf , ns , on , pe , qc , sk .\naz , ca , co , ct , id , in , ks , ma , mi , mn , mt , nd , ne , nh , nm , ny , oh , or , pa , sd , ut , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , ns , nt , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nak , ca , id , me , mi , mn , mt , nd , nm , ny , or , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , on , qc , sk .\nak , ct , ia , id , il , in , ky , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , ny , oh , pa , sc , sd , va , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nb , nf , ns , nt , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nak , al , ar , az , ca , co , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nb , nf , nt , ns , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nak , al , ar , az , ca , co , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , tx , va , vt , wa , wi , wv , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , nt , ns , on , pe , qc , sk , nu .\nal , ar , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , mn , mo , ms , nc , nj , ny , oh , ok , pa , ri , sc , tn , tx , va , vt , wi , wv . canada , on , qc .\nak , ca , id , mt , or , ut , wa . canada , ab , bc .\nal , ar , ca , ct , fl , ga , ia , il , in , ky , la , ma , md , me , mo , ms , nc , nh , nj , ny , oh , ok , pa , ri , sc , tn , tx , va wv . canada , ns , on .\nct , ia , il , in , ma , me , mi , mn , nd , ny , oh , pa , vt , wi . canada , mb , nb , nf , ns , on , pe , qc , sk .\nma , mi , mn , mt , nd , ny , oh , pa , wi . canada , ab , mb , on , nb , qc , sk .\nak , ca , co , id , mn , mo , mt , nd , nm , nv , or , sd , ut , wa , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , nu , on , sk , yt .\nak , al , ar , ca , co , ct , de , fl , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , ny , oh , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , vt , wi , wv , wy . canada , mb , nb , nf , ns , nu , on , pe , qc , sk .\nal , ar , ct , fl , ga , ia , il , in , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , ny , oh , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , va , vt , wi . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , nt , ns , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nmt , nd , nm , sd , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nt , on , sk , yt .\nak , ar , az , ca , co , ct , ga , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , ma , me , mi , mn , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , sd , tn , tx , ut , va , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , nt , ns , nu , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nak , ca , co , id , il , in , ks , mn , mt , nd , ne , nm , nv , ny , oh , ok , or , pa , sd , ut , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , on , sk .\nal , ar , ct , ga , ia , il , in , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , ms , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , ny , oh , ok , pa , ri , sc , tn , tx , va , vt , wi , wv . canada , mb , nb , ns , on , qc .\nal , ar , ct , fl , ga , ia , il , in , ky , la , ma , md , mi , mn , mo , ms , nc , nj , ny , oh , pa , sc , tn , va , vt , wi . canada , on , qc .\nal , ar , co , ct , ia , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , nh , nj , nm , ny , oh , ok , pa , ri , sc , sd , tn , ut , va , vt , wi , wy . canada , ab , mb , nb , ns , on , pe , qc , sk , lb , nf .\nal , ct , ga , ma , md , ms , nc , nj , ny , pa , sc , va , vt . canada , nb , ns .\nmi , mn , ny , oh , pa , vt , wi . canada , qc , mb , on .\nct , fl , ma , md , me , nh , nj . canada , nb .\nal , ar , ia , il , in , ga , ky , mi , mn , mo , ms , ny , oh , pa , tn , vt , wi , wv . canada , mb , on , qc .\nal , ar , il , in , ks , ky , la , me , md , mi , mn , mo , ms , nd , ne , ny , oh , ok , pa , sd , tn , tx , va , vt , wi . canada , mb , on , sk .\nia , il , in , ma , me , mi , mn , ny , oh , pa , vt , wi . canada , mb , on , nt , qc , nb .\nal , ar , ia , il , in , ks , ky , la , me , mi , mn , mo , ms , mt , nc , nd , ne , ny , oh , ok , pa , sd , tn , tx , wi . canada , ab , mb , nt , nu , on , qc , sk .\nmd , nc , nj , ny , pa , sc , va , vt , wv . canada , on .\nia , il , in , ky , mi , ny , oh , pa , vt , wi . canada , on , qc .\nar , ia , il , in , ks , ky , la , mi , mn , mo , ms , ne , ny , oh , pa , tn , vt , wi , wv . canada , on , qc .\nal , ar , ct , de , ga , fl , ia , il , in , ks , ky , la , ma , md , mi , mn , mo , ms , nc , nj , nm , ny , oh , ok , pa , sc , sd , tn , tx , va , wi , wv . canada , on , qc .\naz , ca , co , id , mt , nv , or , ut , wa , wy . canada , bc .\nak , ia , in , me , mi , mn , mt , ny , vt , wa , wi . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nb , nf , ns , nt , on , pe , qc , sk , yt .\nil , in , mi , ny , oh , pa , wi . canada , on .\nak , co , ct , ia , id , il , in , ma , me , mi , mn , mt , nc , nd , nh , ny , pa , sd , vt , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , lb , mb , nt , nu , on , qc , sk , yt .\nar , ct , ia , id , il , in , ks , ky , ma , md , me , mi , mn , mt , nd , ne , nh , nj , ny , oh , pa , ri , sd , va , vt , wa , wi , wy . canada , ab , bc , mb , nb , nt , on , qc , sk .\nspecies in this classification . to view subspecies , varieties and populations select the species ."]}
{"id": 1776, "summary": [{"text": "cyatta is a genus of ant in the subfamily myrmicinae containing the single species cyatta abscondita .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is considered the most recent ancestor of all fungus-farming ants and a living fossil . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "cyatta", "paragraphs": ["richness of cyatta species ( countries with darker colours are more species - rich ) . for a list of species and subspecies see the checklist of cyatta species or for valid names only see cyatta species .\ncyatta sosa - calvo , schultz , brand\u00e3o et al . , 2013 : 4 . type - species : cyatta abscondita , by original designation .\nthe new species of fungus - growing ant from brazil has been named cyatta abscondita .\nchamber with a fungus garden grown by cyatta abscondita . image credit : ted schultz / smithsonian .\nexpansion of the geographic range of cyatta abscondita sosa\u2011calvo et al . , 2013 ( hymenoptera : formicidae )\ncyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil .\ncyatta abscondita is considered to be a \u2018living fossil , \u2019 which can reveal ways in which early attini ants may have lived .\nexpansion of the geographic range of cyatta abscondita sosa\u2011calvo et al . , 2013 ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) | ramos | check list\nnew distribution records of the savanna specialist fungus - farming ant cyatta sosa - calvo et al . ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmicinae )\ncyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . - pubmed - ncbi\nnew distribution records of the savanna specialist fungus - farming ant cyatta sosa - calvo et al . ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmicinae )\nan excavated cyatta fungus garden , showing the cultures suspended from a chamber ceiling . ( modified from sosa - calvo et al 2013 fig . 6 ) .\nholotype worker ( usnment00758173 ) ( a , c , e ) and paratype gyne ( usnment00758174 ) ( b , d , f ) of cyatta abscondita .\ntaxonomic treatments database ( 2012 ) . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . checklist dataset\ncensus records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your cyatta ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .\nbut cyatta is not just another trachymyrmex . this new ant occupies an unusual space in the attine tree . cyatta , along with its sister kalathomyrmex , doesn\u2019t share recent ancestry with other attines , instead tracing its origin to near the origin of the whole tribe . as such , it will provide another perspective from which to triangulate our inferences of how ant agriculture developed .\ncyatta abscondita was first recognized by jeffrey sosa - calvo and his colleagues as a single misidentified specimen in 2003 in the collections of the museum of zoology at the university of sao paulo in brazil .\ncensus records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your cyatta ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .\nthe ghost ant , formally cyatta abscondita , is considered a living fossil , the most recent ancestor of all fungus farming ants , that researchers hope will unveil new clues about how early attine ants may have lived .\nuse census records and voter lists to see where families with the cyatta surname lived . within census records , you can often find information like name of household members , ages , birthplaces , residences , and occupations .\nsosa - calvo j et al . 2013 . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 ; doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498\nurltoken on the basis of the extreme amount of morphological divergence and the outcome of the divergence relationship explanations ( see below ) , we have chosen to describe cyatta like a new genus in place of to describe it as a variety within the genus kalathomyrmex discovery history .\nthe genus name , cyatta , is a neologism constructed in part from the brazilian tupi language word cy , meaning \u2018sister , \u2019 and the name of the ant genus atta . the specific name , abscondita , means \u2018hidden ant\u2019 and refers to the exceedingly secretive nature of the new species .\nan unusually short lifespan might indicate that your cyatta ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .\ncyatta is a neologism constructed in part from the brazilian tupi language word cy , meaning\nsister ,\nreferring to its status , along with the genus kalathomyrmex , as the sister clade to the remaining genera of the informal clade neoattini , to which the genus atta , the most conspicuous member of the neoattini , belongs .\nted schultz , curator of ants at the national museum of natural history , studies the nest and behavior of the newly discovered fungus - farming ant species , cyatta abscondita , in brazil . the new species is a \u2018living fossil\u2019 which can help scientists reveal the way in which the first fungus - farming ant may have lived .\n( a , b ) fazenda agua limpa ( faz ) . ( a ) excavation of nest jsc100412 - 01 in dormitory garden area . ( b ) cerrado senso stricto , where colonies were found on the side of the road . ( c , d ) nest entrance of cyatta abscondita ( white arrows ) . ( c ) worker entering nest . ( d ) nest entrance of cyatta abscondita , consisting of an inconspicuous ~ 1mm diameter hole in the ground . ( e ) chamber with pendant fungus garden . ( f ) excavation of nest 4 ( jsc110920 - 01 ) . black bars indicate two chambers , the lower one 104 cm below the surface .\nsosa - calvo j , schultz tr , brand\u00e3o crf , klingenberg c , feitosa rm , et al . ( 2013 ) cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498\nsosa - calvo j , schultz tr , brand\u00e3o crf , klingenberg c , feitosa rm , et al . ( 2013 ) cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498\nfor example , cyatta gardens resemble those of kalathomyrmex and mycocepurus , strengthening our inference that simple suspended gardens were the form used by the ancestor of all neoattines . and the presence of larval anchor hairs employed in other genera to hang larvae along the sides of the nest chamber ( see clint penick\u2019s research ) , suggests that brood - hanging may have been present in the early attines but was subsequently lost .\n@ misc { sosa - calvo _ cyattaabscondita : , author = { jeffrey sosa - calvo and ted r . schultz and carlos r . f . br and christiana klingenberg and rodrigo m and christian rabeling and maur\u00edcio bacci and cau\u00ea t . lopes and heraldo l . vasconcelos } , title = { cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil } , year = { } }\nmost notably , cyatta differs from all other attine genera and species by the following autapomorphies : ( i ) mandible of the worker and gyne with four teeth ; ( ii ) in ventral view , metapleura of the worker and gyne with two piniform processes between the mid and hind coxae , apparently absent in the male ; ( iii ) apical margin of the pygidium medially emarginate , v - shaped ; and ( iv ) forewing of the male with a closed discal cell .\nsosa - calvo , j . , t . r . schultz , c . r . f . brand\u00e3o , c . klingenberg , r . m . feitosa , c . rabeling , m . m . jr . bacci , c . t lopes and h . l . vasconcelos . 2013 . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498\nthe genus cyatta shares with other members of the neoattine clade : ( i ) the antennal scape of the male long , longer than the sum of the length of antennal funicular segments i\u2013iii ; ( ii ) the first funicular segment ( pedicel ) of the antenna of the male longer than second funicular segment ; ( iii ) the petiole in workers somewhat sessile ; ( iv ) the lack of hypostomal teeth in workers and gynes ; and ( v ) the maxillary palp of the larva widely removed laterad from the galea .\nthis dataset contains the digitized treatments in plazi based on the original journal article jeffrey sosa - calvo , ted r . schultz , carlos r . f . brandao , christiana klingenberg , rodrigo m . feitosa , christian rabeling , mauricio bacci jr . , caue t . lopes , heraldo l . vasconcelos ( 2013 ) : cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : 1 - 20 , doi : doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498\nsosa - calvo , j . , schultz , t . r . , brand\u00e3o , c . r . f . , klingenberg , c . , feitosa , r . m . , rabeling , c . , bacci , m . jr . , lopes , c . t . , heraldo , l . vasconcelos , h . l . 2013 . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498 .\ncyatta shares with its sister genus , kalathomyrmex , ( i ) the lack of a tubercle or spine on the inferior lateral margin of the pronotum , a symplesiomorphy shared with the paleoattine clade ; ( ii ) the clypeus with a pair of lateral transverse carinae , each extending from the frontal lobe to the mandibular insertion and each medially developed into a lamella perpendicular to the clypeal face , thus forming a wall that divides the clypeus laterally into anterior and posterior areas ; and ( iii ) the mandibles of the male with three teeth , of which the apical and preapical teeth are the largest and have a multidentate ( sawlike ) margin .\ncyatta differs from its sister genus kalathomyrmex , however , by ( i ) having , on the forewing of the male ( forewing of gyne unknown ) , a closed marginal cell ( open in the forewings of both the male and gyne of kalathomyrmex [ klingenberg and brand\u00e3o , therein as radial cell ] ) ; ( ii ) the mesoscutum of the male with strongly impressed notauli ( absent in the male of kalathomyrmex ) ; ( iii ) the pronotum of the male with lateral pronotal tubercles present , pyramidal ( the pronotum in the male of kalathomyrmex lacks any tubercles ) ; and ( iv ) the psammophore absent in the worker , the gyne , and the male .\nthe ghost ant , a new genus and species described in the journal plos one reveals clues about one of the world ' s earliest agricultural specialists .\nscientists know of more than 240 ants in the group attine that evolved more than 50 million years ago , capable of growing elaborate fungal gardens as a source of food within nests for their colonies .\nthe c . abscondita was first recognized in 2003 , when researchers working with a museum species collection in sao paulo , brazil realized it was a misidentified species . based on where this misidentified species was located , the researchers traced it back to two biomes : caatinga , an under explored desert - like region populated widely by small thorny vegetation , and cerrado , a tropical savanna region known among experts as a biodiversity hotspot .\nit took years of work and numerous large holes for the researchers to confirm the ghost ant was indeed a new species . the work to identify the ants by their intricate nests required the researchers to dig holes as deep as two meters in the ground .\nthe ghost ants grow fungus gardens on the walls of chambers in their nest . while the fungus may not require the ants to survive , it ' s clear the ants depend on the fungus for their own survival .\nyou must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .\ngyne . preocular carina absent . mandible 4 - toothed , apical tooth nearly twice as long as preapical tooth . parapsidal lines inconspicuous .\nmale . mandibles broadly triangular with apical and subapical teeth present . anterior margin of clypeus ( clypeal apron ) convex , projecting over mandibles , and with a long median seta . discal cell present in forewing .\nantweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and\nfrom urltoken\nin the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .\nantweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 1\nan international group of entomologists has described a new genus and species of fungus - farming ant from brazil .\nfungus - growing ants ( tribe attini ) make up a group of more than 240 species . they evolved more than 50 million years ago , growing elaborate fungal gardens as a source of food within nests for their colonies .\nthese ants are nocturnal and forage for organic debris to grow their fungus gardens , which hang in curtain - like columns from the ceilings of their hidden underground chambers .\nthe fungi that the attini ants cultivate are probably not completely dependent upon their ant partners to survive and reproduce ; they may be capable of surviving independently . the ants , however , are obligatorily dependent on the fungi for their survival .\nwhile theories about the origin of attini ants\u2019 relationships with fungi remain a topic of debate , entomologists generally support the hypothesis that ants first began to interact with fungi by sharing overlapping habitats .\nbased on where the specimens had been collected , the entomologists traced the location of the species to two separate , highly threatened , biomes in brazil : caatinga , an underexplored desert - like region populated widely by small thorny vegetation , and cerrado , a tropical savanna region known among experts as a biodiversity hotspot .\n\u201cafter discovering such an informative species in caatinga and cerrado , we are very excited to return to these regions to learn more about this fascinating group of ants , \u201d said study second author dr ted schultz of smithsonian\u2019s national museum of natural history .\n\u201cwith the majority of the world\u2019s invertebrates still waiting to be identified , the age of discovery is only just beginning . \u201d\n\u201cbrazil is a key steward in understanding our planet\u2019s incredible natural history and biodiversity , and it plays a vital role in making findings like this possible , \u201d dr schultz concluded .\njuvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows\n\u00a9 2011 - 2018 . sci - news . com . all rights reserved . | back to top\nthis page was last modified on 20 january 2014 , at 06 : 27 .\nsosa - calvo , schultz , brand\u00e3o , klingenberg , feitosa , rabeling , bacci , lopes & vasconcelos 2013 . yes , that\u2019s the full name . modified from sosa calvo et al 2013 figure 1 .\nfigure 7 from sosa - calvo et al 2013 . this phylogeny is based on 4 nuclear protein - coding genes .\none final gripe - because i always have a gripe - is that all authors of the paper are also listed as authors of the genus and species . this makes the formal name for the new ant an impressive :\nthis moniker will be a handful for people who handle taxonomic databases , or for taxonomists who will need to write about this ant . i doubt all authors contributed equally to the written description embedded in the paper ; surely a separate , smaller authorship for the description would have made for a less cumbersome name .\nin that vein , does anyone know if there is a longer authorship for any animal species ? this is the largest i\u2019ve seen .\nall text and images appearing on myrmecos . net , except where indicated , are copyrighted \u00a9 2002 - 2018 alexander wild . image use policy copyright infringement policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nby jeffrey sosa - calvo , ted r . schultz , carlos r . f . br , christiana klingenberg , rodrigo m , christian rabeling , maur\u00edcio bacci , cau\u00ea t . lopes , heraldo l . vasconcelos\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nthe website you are about to visit is progenealogists \u00ae , operated by tgn services , llc , a subsidiary of ancestry .\nthis page needs javascript enabled in order to work properly . click here for instructions on how to enable it in your browse\nhistorically , surnames evolved as a way to sort people into groups - by occupation , place of origin , clan affiliation , patronage , parentage , adoption , and even physical characteristics ( like red hair ) . many of the modern surnames in the dictionary can be traced back to britain and ireland .\na monotypic genus closely allied with the attine genus kalathomyrmex . the single known species is a fungus growing ant .\nspecies richness by country based on regional taxon lists ( countries with darker colours are more species - rich ) . view data\nthe following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .\nunless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .\npreocular carina absent . mandible 4 - toothed , apical tooth nearly twice as long as preapical tooth . parapsidal lines inconspicuous .\nmandibles broadly triangular with apical and subapical teeth present . anterior margin of clypeus ( clypeal apron ) convex , projecting over mandibles , and with a long median seta . discal cell present in forewing .\nthis page was last modified on 26 june 2017 , at 18 : 40 .\na couple weeks ago a media guy from our college of natural sciences , thomas swafford , stopped in to shoot a short piece promoting the insect collection . have a look !\ni have never been more pleased to report a taxonomic name change than this one . long called \u201c tetramorium caespitum\u201d , then \u201c tetramorium species e\u201d once it became clear the eurasian t . caespitum was a complex of cryptic forms , the pavement ant has spread across the world and is now among most common urban ants in north america . after decades of confusion , herbert wagner has published a fine monograph on the taxonomy of the species complex . among wagner\u2019s many discoveries was that santschi\u2019s 1927 \u201c immigrans\u201d was valid for this world - traveller . an apt change , and a fine resolution of a long - standing problem .\nwagner , h . c . et al ( 2017 ) . light at the end of the tunnel : integrative taxonomy delimits cryptic species in the tetramorium caespitum complex ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) \u201d . myrmecological news 25 : 95 - 129\nconcluding , among many results , that a slate of socially parasitic genera had evolved from within their host genera . the names of parasitic genera were subsequently sunk . inclusion of derived groups in their parent genera has been standard practice for decades as a way to keep names consistent with ancestry .\nwe contend that banning all paraphyletic groups while simultaneously executing binominal linnaean nomenclature results in a taxonomy going off the rails .\nstill , given the volumes of vituperative ink spilled a half - century ago in the cladism wars , and the weight of the pro - monophyly consensus among all biologists , i suspect this renegade group of ant scientists will be fighting an uphill battle .\ndisclosure : i eclosed as a myrmecologist from phil ward\u2019s lab , so of course i am not without my allegiances .\nsources : seifert , b . et al 2016 . banning paraphylies and executing linnaean taxonomy is discordant and reduces the evolutionary and semantic information content of biological nomenclature . insectes sociaux doi : 10 . 1007 / s00040 - 016 - 0467 - 1\nward , p . s . et al 2015 . the evolution of myrmicine ants : phylogeny and biogeography of a hyperdiverse ant clade ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . systematic entomology , 40 : 61\u201381 . doi : 10 . 1111 / syen . 12090\n, an australian myrmicine . the narrow , two - segmented waist is characteristic of this subfamily .\nwe\u2019re only halfway through the year , but already 2014 will be remembered as pivotal for studies of ant evolution and classification . following right on the heels of schmidt & shattuck\u2019s massive ponerine revision comes\nfrom the ant tree of life group . ward , brady , fisher , and schultz ( 2014 ) have reconstructed the first thorough genus - level phylogeny of the great ant subfamily myrmicinae .\nroughly half of all ants are myrmicines , both in abundance and in species diversity . their numbers include fire ants , harvester ants , leafcutter ants , big - headed ants , acrobat ants , and so on , to the tune of some 6 , 000 + species .\nso\u2026 boom ! suddenly , we\u2019ve been given a detailed picture of the evolution of half the ants . this is big . it is so big i cannot cover the paper in detail . instead , i\u2019ll just give a few preliminary thoughts , as follows :\nthe myrmicine big picture . ( sharpie on office paper , 2014 , limited edition print available , unless i recycle it ) .\ndistressingly , fuzzy resolution in a data set with this many markers and taxa means achieving proper resolution , if at all , will likely be expensive . myrmicines may have speciated so explosively that we may never be able to reconstruct what happened with confidence .\n4 . the authors correct a few of the more obvious instances of paraphyly . notably , the new world \u201c\nmost of the identified problems - such as what to do with monomorium and aphaenogaster \u2013 were left for targeted future research .\n5 . remember the dispute over pyramica vs . strumigenys ? the argument was fundamentally over how ant mandibles evolve . apparently , high energy trap - jaws arise easier than anyone imagined . according to ward et al , not only is the assemblage of trap - jaw ants formerly included in dacetini a polyphyletic splatter , even within the genus strumigenys the trap jaw has arisen at least twice .\n, modified from figure 1 in ward et al 2014 , showing strong support for the parallel evolution of trap - jaws in the genus .\nof the neotropics , sitting on a distant branch of the ant tree . peas in a poneromorph pod\u2026\nultimately , ward et al have crafted a sobering view of how little we still know about ant evolution , and how much remains to be done .\n. systematic entomology , online early . doi : 10 . 1111 / syen . 12090\ndisclosure : i received my ph . d . from phil ward\u2019s lab where much of this study was completed , and i contributed a few of the samples , but i was long gone by the time the study was initiated and have had no other involvement with the research .\na monumental day for ant taxonomy ! the mythical schmidt & shattuck ponerine revision , long rumored to be in the works , has emerged from the mists of legend and lore . it\u2019s real ! all 242 pages are in\nyou might think such large changes would invite controversy , but i anticipate that the new scheme will be widely accepted and largely stable .\nin the big picture , schmidt & shattuck have put this important group of ants on a stronger taxonomic foundation . in the small picture , we are faced with the mundane realities of re - memorization .\npachyondyla apicalis ? no longer . get used to neoponera apicalis . pachycondyla stigma ? nope . it\u2019s pseudoponera stigma . plus , there\u2019s brachyponera , pseudoneoponera , mesoponera\u2026\nsource : schmidt , ca , shattuck , so ( 2014 ) the higher classification of the ant subfamily ponerinae ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , with a review of ponerine ecology and behavior . zootaxa 3817 ( 1 ) : 001\u2013242 .\nurban ant collectors across temperate north america are undoubtedly familiar with the pavement ant tetramorium caespitum * . this small brown insect is as common as dirt along sidewalks .\nthe pavement ant is not native here . rather , it is a european species that proliferates in the novel habitats where americans added cement and paving stone to previously uncapped , pavement - free soils . since we love our sidewalks and our asphalt , we have created a lot of ant habitat and a lot of pavement ants .\nthis diagnosis failed in the 1980s when an extremely similar species was introduced to st . louis . the newcomer , the japanese pavement ant\n. on average , the new introduction is slightly smaller and with slightly larger propodeal spines . your chances of nailing the id based on a single worker aren\u2019t great .\nthere is one easy identification trick that works pretty well at low magnification in the field , though . the trick is worth learning , because tetramorium tsushimae appears to be more aggressively invasive than the common pavement ant and may become more common as it spreads from missouri and illinois .\ncolonies of the japanese pavement ant usually host a great deal more color variation in the workers .\nwhile older t . tsushimae are uniformly dark , the same as their european counterparts , younger workers are strongly bicolored , with a light thorax , giving colonies a more varied appearance . this difference should be visible in the photograph above .\nnow that you can spot the difference , keep an eye out for t . tsushimae . it could show up many places where t . caespitum is currently king .\n* sometimes called \u201c tetramorium sp . e . \u201d , for reasons too lengthy to discuss here .\nsource : steiner , florian m . , birgit c . schlick - steiner , james c . trager , karl moder , matthias sanetra , erhard christian , and christian stauffer . 2006 . tetramorium tsushimae , a new invasive ant in north america . biological invasions 8 ( 2 ) : 117 - 123 .\nthis book is not a book . it\u2019s an unpublished student thesis from the university of texas at el paso .\napparently bibliogov , a publishing company that scrapes state websites and repackages content to sell to unsuspecting buyers , has picked up the deposited thesis and is printing it on demand . the research was not completed to the point of submission to a peer - reviewed journal , and neither the student nor her adviser intended to publish the work . at least , not in the current form . the thesis was merely filed as a requirement for the student to graduate .\nthis sort of robo - publishing would not normally be a problem but for the legalistic nature of how taxonomic names are regulated . publishing is a formal act that makes taxonomic names available . third party printing potentially legitimizes taxonomic proposals never intended for release . not good . taxonomy already has enough chaos without robots jumping the gun .\nshould the practice of scraping and publishing theses become common , either the international commission on zoological nomenclature will have to adopt a set of rules suppressing involuntary publication , or students of taxonomy should be uniquely exempt from filing dissertations with unpublished results .\n[ update : to clarify , these robo - books don\u2019t automatically make a name available under iczn rules . a couple other conditions about the timing and deposition of the content must be met that may or may not be the case . ]\nif you\u2019re going to fail at taxonomy , you may as well fail big .\nsnelling , borowiec , and prebus 2014 from jasper ridge biological reserve , california , usa .\nwith the humous assistance of matt prebus and marek borowiec . the paper provides an illustrated key to species , range maps , and descriptions of ten new taxa . among the newbies is\nthat nests in trees\u201d . at last ! a real name . the etymology of this entomology is given as :\nwhen hern\u00e1n cort\u00e9z was conquering central mexico , the nahua speaking people related to him tales of a fabulous land , ruled by women , far to the northwest that was rich in gold and gems . they named this land \u201ccaguat\u00e1n\u201d , the land of women . this tale presumably inspired cort\u00e9z and other avaricious conquistadors to search for this marvelous land , ultimately leading the spaniards to the californias .\nif you\u2019ve ever wondered why no single easy reference book exists for identifying north america\u2019s ants , this is the reason . the state of taxonomy remains more rudimentary than you\u2019d think , with many species still nameless or poorly understood . a few dozen more studies like roy\u2019s and someone will finally be able to give our ants a decent guide .\nsource : snelling r , borowiec m , prebus m ( 2014 ) studies on california ants : a review of the genus temnothorax ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . zookeys 372 : 27 - 89 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 372 . 6039\nthe most infamous ant in the world is surely the tropical american bullet ant , paraponera clavata . this conspicuous insect is known for an unusually painful sting . it is not the only big rainforest ant , however , and other species are frequently mistaken for it .\nhere is how to make sure that big ant you saw was really a bullet ant .\n1 . check your location : in the wild , bullet ants are only found in low - elevation forests from honduras south to paraguay . if you are not in central or south america , you don\u2019t have a bullet ant . ( source )\n2 . check the size : bullet ants are not just large , they are massive \u2013 over an inch long . they look like plastic toy ants brought to life .\n3 . check for the characteristic thoracic horns . bullet ants have a pair of blunt horns on the first segment of the thorax . no other ant its size has the horns .\n4 . check the shape of the petiolar node . the waist of the bullet ant has a sharp , forward - leaning triangular node .\nsouth america ? check . massive ? check . horns ? check . forward - pointing waist segment ? check .\nis an ubiquitous big rainforest ant with a shape confusingly similar to that of the bullet ant . but\nis too small , as are the horns , and the waist segment is the wrong shape .\nis common and also packs a painful sting , but this large species is not big enough to be a bullet ant and it lacks the horns .\nleafcutter ant soldiers are big and even have the thoracic horns , but they aren\u2019t big enough , they lack the right waist shape , and are their overall body proportions are different .\nblack turtle ants are common and conspicuous , but they are much smaller than bullet ants and have sharp spines rather than blunt horns .\nis not quite big enough , its horns are more forward on the thorax , and it doesn\u2019t have the right waist shape .\nwith any luck , you should now be able to check the identification of your purported bullet ant without having to run a sting test .\nbaudoin m ( 1975 ) host castration as a parasitic strategy . evolution 29 : 335\u2013352\nbolton b ( 2014 ) an online catalog of the ants of the world .\nboomsma jj , nash d ( 2014 ) evolution : sympatric speciation the eusocial way . curr biol 24 : r798\u2013r800\nboomsma jj , husz\u00e1r db , pedersen js ( 2014 ) the evolution of multiqueen breeding in eusocial lineages with permanent physically differentiated castes . anim behav 92 : 241\u2013252\nbourke afg , franks nr ( 1991 ) alternative adaptations , sympatric speciation and the evolution of parasitic , inquiline ants . biol j linn soc 43 : 157\u2013178\nbourke afg , franks nr ( 1995 ) social evolution in ants . princeton university press , princeton\nbrand\u00e3o crf ( 1991 ) adendos ao cat\u00e1logo abreviado das formigas da regi\u00e3o neotropical ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . rev brasil entomol 35 : 319\u2013412\nbrown wl jr ( 1973 ) a comparison of the hylean and congo - west african rain forest ant faunas . in : meggers bj , ayensu es , duckworth wd ( eds ) tropical forest ecosystems in africa and south america : a comparative review . smithsonian institution press , washington dc , pp 161\u2013185\nbruch c ( 1928 ) estudios mirmecol\u00f3gicos . anales del museo nacional de historia natural buenos aires 34 : 341\u2013360\nforel ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) in laboratory colonies . neotrop entomol 31 : 469\u2013473\nbuschinger a ( 1986 ) evolution of social parasitism in ants . trends ecol evol 1 : 155\u2013160\nbuschinger a ( 2009 ) social parasitism among ants : a review ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . myrmecol news 12 : 219\u2013235\ncabrera al , willink a ( 1980 ) biogeograf\u00eda de am\u00e9rica latina . segunda edici\u00f3n . monograf\u00eda 13 , serie biolog\u00eda . programa regional de desarrollo cient\u00edfico y tecnol\u00f3gico , organizaci\u00f3n de los estados americanos , p 122\ncaldera e , poulsen m , suen g , currie cr ( 2009 ) insect symbioses\u2014a case study of past , present , and future fungus - growing ant research . environ entomol 38 : 78\u201392\ncalero - torralbo m , valera f ( 2008 ) synchronization of host - parasite cycles by means of diapause : host influence and parasite response to involuntary host shifting . parasitology 135 : 1343\u20131352\n( roger , 1863 ) and other congeneric species : taxonomic implications . plos one 8 : e59784\nsp . n . ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : a new social parasite of leaf - cutting ants in brazil . insect sci 14 : 251\u2013257\nforel 1893 , em cacauais ( formicidae , myrmicinae , attini ) . anais da sociedade entomolocica do brasil 18 : 193\u2013197\nem ilh\u00e9us , bahia : primeiro registro para os tr\u00f3picos . paper presented at the iv international symposium on pest ants and xi encontro de mirmecologia , belo horizonte , minas gerais , brazil\ndella lucia tmc ( 2011 ) formigas cortadeiras : da bioecologia ao manejo . editora da ufv , vi\u00e7osa\nforel , 1893 ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . anais da sociedade entomolocica do brasil 15 : 377\u2013378\nfowler hg ( 1981 ) on the emigration of leaf - cutting ant colonies . biotropica 13 : 316\ngallardo a ( 1916 ) notes syst\u00e9matiques et \u00e9thologiques sur les fourmis attines de la r\u00e9publique argentine . anales del museo nacional de historia natural buenos aires 28 : 317\u2013344\ngotwald wh ( 1969 ) comparative morphological studies of the ants , with particular reference to the mouthparts ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . memoirs of the cornell university agricultural experiment station 408 : 1\u2013150\nherre ea , knowlton n , mueller ug , rehner sa ( 1999 ) the evolution of mutualisms : exploring the paths between conflict and cooperation . trends ecol evol 14 : 49\u201353\nh\u00f6lldobler b , wilson eo ( 1990 ) the ants . harvard university press , cambridge\nh\u00f6lldobler b , wilson eo ( 2010 ) the leafcutter ants\u2014civilization by instinct . w . w . norton & company , new york\n( pergande ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . j kansas entomol soc 66 : 127\u2013128\n( l . ) ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) from laboratory cultures . entomol mon mag 113 : 97\u201398\nkempf ww ( 1972 ) cat\u00e1logo abreviado das formigas da regi\u00e3o neotropical . studia entomologica 15 : 3\u2013344\nn . gen . ( formicidae : myrmicinae : attini ) . zootaxa 2052 : 1\u201331\nkusnezov n ( 1954 ) phyletische bedeutung der maxillar - und labialtaster der ameisen . zool anzeig 153 : 28\u201338\nkutter h ( 1950 ) \u00fcber eine neue , extrem parasitische ameise . mitteilungen der schweizerischen entomologischen gesellschaft 23 : 81\u201394\nkutter h ( 1969 ) die sozialparasitischen ameisen der schweiz . neujahrsblatt der naturforschenden gesellschaft in z\u00fcrich 171 : 1\u201362\nlambardi d , dani fr , turillazzi s , boomsma jj ( 2007 ) chemical mimicry in an incipient leaf - cutting ant social parasite . behav ecol sociobiol 61 : 843\u2013851\nmayh\u00e9 - nunes aj ( 1995 ) filogenia de los attini ( hym . , formicidae ) : un aporte al conocimiento de las hormigas fung\u00edvoras . universidad sim\u00f3n bol\u00edvar , caracas , venezuela , p 274\nmayh\u00e9 - nunes aj , jaff\u00e9 k ( 1998 ) on the biogeography of attini ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . ecotropicos 11 : 45\u201354\nm\u00f6ller a ( 1893 ) die pilzg\u00e4rten einiger s\u00fcdamerikanischer ameisen . botanische mittheilungen aus den tropen 6 : 1\u2013142\nmueller ug , gerardo nm , aanen dk , six dl , schultz tr ( 2005 ) the evolution of agriculture in insects . ann rev ecol evol syst 36 : 563\u2013595\nnash dr , boomsma jj ( 2008 ) communication between hosts and social parasites . in : hughes dp , d\u2019ettorre p ( eds ) sociobiology of communication : an interdisciplinary perspective . oxford university press , oxford , pp 55\u201379\nnonacs p , tobin je ( 1992 ) selfish larvae : development and the evolution of parasitic behavior in the hymenoptera . evolution 46 : 1605\u20131620\npagnocca fc , masiulionis ve , rodrigues a ( 2012 ) specialized fungal parasites and opportunistic fungi in gardens of attine ants . psyche j entomol . doi :\nrabeling c , bacci m ( 2010 ) a new workerless inquiline in the lower attini ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , with a discussion of social parasitism in fungus - growing ants . syst entomol 35 : 379\u2013392\nrabeling c , schultz tr , pierce ne , bacci m jr ( 2014b ) a social parasite evolved reproductive isolation from its fungus - growing ant host in sympatry . curr biol 24 : 2047\u20132052\nsavolainen r , veps\u00e4l\u00e4inen k ( 2003 ) sympatric speciation through intraspecific social parasitism . proc natl acad sci usa 100 : 7169\u20137174\nants are social parasites that attack old host colonies . j evol biol 27 : 2396\u20132407\nschmid - hempel p ( 2011 ) evolutionary parasitology : the integrated study of infections , immunology , ecology , and genetics . oxford university press , new york\nschultz tr , brady sg ( 2008 ) major evolutionary transitions in ant agriculture . proc natl acad sci usa 105 : 5435\u20135440\nschultz tr , meier r ( 1995 ) a phylogenetic analysis of the fungus - growing ants ( hymenoptera : formicidae : attini ) based on morphological characters of the larvae . syst entomol 20 : 337\u2013370\nnew species : an incipient social parasite of fungus - growing ants . insect soc 45 : 457\u2013471\nschultz tr , mueller ug , currie cr , rehner sa ( 2005 ) reciprocal illumination : a comparison of agriculture in humans and ants . in : vega f , blackwell m ( eds ) ecological and evolutionary advances in insect - fungal associations . oxford university press , new york , pp 149\u2013190\nseifert b ( 2010 ) intranidal mating , gyne polymorphism , polygyny , and supercoloniality as factors for sympatric and parapatric speciation in ants . ecol entomol 35 : 33\u201340\n: number , relatedness and longevity of reproducing individuals . j evol biol 7 : 71\u201395\n: taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498\nsumner s , hughes woh , boomsma jj ( 2003a ) evidence for differential selection and potential adaptive evolution in the worker caste of an inquiline social parasite . behav ecol sociobiol 54 : 256\u2013263\nsumner s , nash dr , boomsma jj ( 2003b ) the adaptive significance of inquiline parasite workers . proc r soc lond ser b biol sci 270 : 1315\u20131322\nleaf - cutting ants : a test of emery\u2019s rule . insect soc 51 : 37\u201342\ntschinkel wr ( 1996 ) a newly - discovered mode of colony founding among fire ants . insect soc 43 : 267\u2013276\nwcislo wt ( 1987 ) the roles of seasonality , host synchrony , and behaviour in the evolutions and distributions of nest parasites in hymenoptera ( insecta ) , with special reference to bees ( apoidea ) . biol rev 62 : 515\u2013542\nweber n ( 1957 ) dry season adaptations of fungus - growing ants and their fungi . anat rec 128 : 638\nweber na ( 1972 ) gardening ants : the attines . memoirs of the american philosophical society , philadelphia\nwheeler wm ( 1907 ) the fungus - growing ants of north america . bull am mus nat hist 23 : 669\u2013807\n, with an analysis of the anatomical parasitic syndrome ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . insect soc 31 : 316\u2013334\nyek sh , boomsma jj , poulsen m ( 2012 ) towards a better understanding of the evolution of specialized parasites of fungus - growing ant crops . psyche . doi :\nsantschi , 1925 ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . revista de biolog\u00eda del uruguay 1 : 151\u2013165\n( emery , 1887 ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . revista de biolog\u00eda del uruguay 2 : 37\u201357\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n\u201cthrough our dna analysis , we learned that the new species is very closely related to the first ant ancestor that began growing fungal gardens , \u201d said sosa - calvo . \u201cgiven this relationship , we can infer that some of c . abscondita \u2019s unique physical and behavioral characteristics hint at what the first agricultural ants and their predecessors looked and acted like . \u201d\nthe discovery of the new species entailed a multiyear excavation of intricate nests , delving down to a maximum of two meters beneath the surface . these nests were made up of a network of fragile tunnels and chambers that could be less than a millimeter in diameter .\nghost ants are nocturnal and forage for organic debris to grow their fungus gardens , which hang in curtain - like columns from the ceilings of their hidden underground chambers . the fungi that the ghost ants cultivate are probably not completely dependent upon their ant partners to survive and reproduce ; they may be capable of surviving independently . the ants , however , are obligatorily dependent on the fungi for their survival .\nwhile theories about the origin of attine ants\u2019 relationships with fungi remain a topic of debate , scientists generally support the hypothesis that ants first began to interact with fungi by sharing overlapping habitats . over the course of millions of years , this coincidental overlap between the two species developed into a tentative partnership ; a relationship in which the fungi and the ants could both survive and reproduce without closely interacting with each other . since its origin 50 million years ago , this relationship between fungi and ants has become obligatory in many attine species : neither the fungal species nor the ant species in the relationship can live without the other . this complex process of one organism evolving in concert with another is called coevolution .\nunderstanding how attine ants developed their agricultural relationship with fungi could be extrapolated to improve human farming activities , including sustainable agriculture efforts and crop disease or pest management .\nthe publication is the result of an international collaboration amongst research institutions based in the u . s . , brazil and germany .\nwhat did the t . rex say when challenged to an arm - wrestling contest ?\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nwe moved to illinois from tucson in 2008 . the naturalist in me cringed at the relocation . tucson is surrounded by rich natural deserts , national parks , and state forests . champaign - urbana is buried in a monotony of industrial corn / soy production . illinois nature was more than 90 % plowed under years ago and hasn\u2019t returned .\nyet the midwest has its buggy bright points . what\u2019s left of the local ant fauna remains mostly native and hosts an array of fascinating social parasites . the famous 13 - year periodical cicadas emerged again in 2011 . and the fireflies ! the common eastern firefly photinus pyralis launches a tremendous show in june and july . western fireflies for the most part don\u2019t glow as adults . i missed them when i live in arizona .\ni\u2019d been telling mrs . myrmecos every year since the move , \u201cthis is the summer i finally shoot the fireflies ! \u201d and then , for various reasons , i fail to follow through . for a specialized insect photographer to not have photographs of the most spectacular local insect phenomenon was getting ridiculous .\nmy schedule this past summer finally conspired to allow plenty of evening firefly time , though , so i went at them with a vengeance . if you haven\u2019t seen the results , i\u2019ve uploaded them here :\nlearning to shoot fireflies on the wing wasn\u2019t easy , but i can distill the strategy down to one key point : spend a few evenings watching the animals behave . each species has a particular courtship pattern , this pattern is predictable , and if you learn it you\u2019re much more likely to know where to put the camera and when to time the shot . photinus pyralis males have a six - second cycle : swoop upward while lit , hover for a couple seconds to watch for a female return signal , the fly forward a few feet to begin the next run .\nafter some practice hand - holding a pre - focused camera rig and flash , i was able to not only get a flying firefly in focus , i was able to plan for particular backdrops . the photograph above shows a male at the height of his ascent , watching for females .\nif you\u2019d like a print , this photograph is one of 30 i\u2019ve included in the holiday print sale , running until january 1 .\ncanon ef 50mm f / 1 . 4 usm & 12mm extension tube on a canon eos 6d\nthe next series of posts - behind the photo \u2013 will feature the stories behind images i\u2019ve included in this year\u2019s print sale . first up : the brutish male dung beetles in this 2009 creation .\nthese insects were given to me by biologist emilie snell - rood , who at the time was working in armin\u2019s moczek\u2019s evo - devo lab , with the hope that i might photograph live animals of different shapes and sizes for use in moczek lab papers , web pages , and talks . live photos make compelling stories , after all , and onthopagus taurus has an especially interesting one . it\u2019s about how new body parts evolve .\nmales of this species employ varying strategies to reach females . the larger ones sport horns and fight over mates , while the smaller hornless ones bear a striking enough resemblance to females to slip past their rivals unrecognized as males . since beetles that are otherwise genetically identical either sprout horns as they develop or don\u2019t , they\u2019ve become a fantastic model for questions about why and how new structures form . biologists can watch the horns grow , or not grow , all within a single sex of a single species . they can also examine the process in related beetles , and make comparisons that allow inferences about how ecology interacts with genomes to produce new horns . if you\u2019re intrigued , you can catch up with the research\nmy photograph of the dueling male beetles is not a natural scene , of course . wild beetles fight in underground tunnels , face - to - face , not in the gleaming open air of a photography studio , so this scene is less documentation of real world behavior that a stylized illustration of male variation .\nthe challenge of taking this photograph was two - fold . first , dung beetles are shiny . to capture the subtleties of texture on such a reflective animal , i needed extremely soft lighting . so i fired an upward - facing flash off in a white box . a white box is what it sounds like - a box that\u2019s all white on the inside . the box i used for the above photo is pictured at left , an old toilet paper box with printer paper taped to the inside .\nthe second challenge was the hyperactivity of the beetles themselves . getting two feisty insects to perform for a well - composed shot took a long time and a lot of attempts . here is a sample of mostly throwaways from the session :\nif you\u2019d like to purchase a print , the dueling beetles photograph is one of 30 i\u2019ve included in the holiday print sale , running until january 1 . i have reprocessed the image up from the original raw file just for this event .\ncanon 100mm f / 2 . 8 macro lens on a canon eos 20d .\nvelvet ant ; 12\u00d718\u2033 print on a 3 / 4\u2033 standout mount . sale price $ 15 . 99 / $ 42 . 99 unmounted / mounted . ( regular $ 60 / $ 120 )\ni am pleased to announce the return of the holiday print sale ! this year\u2019s selection features 30 favorite photographs reduced up to 70 % off regular pricing . have a look :\nusing high - quality papers and archival photo inks . these are not simple posters ! bay photo will also custom mount , mat & frame images if you choose \u201cadd frames & more\u201d when you check out .\nwhy the sale ? i know a portion of my photos go to biology students looking for something buggy to hang on their walls , and to parents of budding young entomologists , and these folks are not in the demographic that typically plays in the fine art market . so i\u2019ve assembled an affordable gallery of some of my best known and biologically informative natural history images priced near cost . an 8\u00d712\u2033 print , for example , is just $ 9 . 99 . i hope you enjoy them !"]}
{"id": 1815, "summary": [{"text": "the brazilian three-banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus ) is an armadillo species endemic to brazil , where it is known as tatu-bola ( [ t\u0250\u02c8tu \u02c8b\u0254l\u0250 ] , lit . ball armadillo ) .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is one of only two species of armadillo ( the other is the southern three-banded armadillo ) that can roll into a ball .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it has suffered a 30 % decline in population in the last 10 years . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "brazilian three - banded armadillo", "paragraphs": ["two species of three - banded armadillos are recognized : the brazilian three - banded armadillo ( t . tricinctus ) , and the southern three - banded armadillo ( t . matacus ) . three - banded armadillos are the only armadillo species that can roll into a ball .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo occurs in the cerrado biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . 2005 ) .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus ) and the southern three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes matacus ) are the only species who can roll themselves into a ball .\nhabitat brazilian three - banded armadillos are endemic to brazil , south america . subspecies there are no subspecies of the brazilian three - banded armadillo . interesting facts the word armadillo is spanish for\nlittle armored one\nin brazil they are known as tatu - bola . the southern three - banded armadillo and the brazilian three - banded armadillo are the only two species of armadillo that can completely roll themselves into a ball to defend themselves from predators . similar animals southern three - banded armadillo\nrodrigo castro coordinates the brazilian three - banded armadillo project at the caatinga association and is passionate about the species .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\narmadillos belong to the dasypodidae family . there are 20 species of armadillos , including the nine - banded armadillo , the giant armadillo , the common long - nosed armadillo , and the brazilian three - banded armadillo .\npictures : brazilian three - banded armadillo ( 85 kb jpeg ) ( armad . online ) , related species - southern three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes matacus ) ( 40 kb jpeg ) ( terrambiente )\nthe fact that the three - banded armadillo is a vulnerable species is very fitting .\nthe mascot of the 2014 fifa world cup \u2013 the brazilian three - banded armadillo \u2013 remains vulnerable as its population continues to decline .\nde oliveira , t . g . 1995 . the brazilian three - banded armadillo tolypeutes tricinctus in maranh\u00e3o . edentata 2 : 18 - 19 .\nthe three - banded armadillo is the only species that can roll into a ball for protection .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo , also called the la plata three - banded armadillo , is an armadillo species from south america . it is native to parts of northern argentina , southwestern brazil , paraguay and bolivia .\nit\u2019s official ! the brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus ) is the mascot of the 2014 fifa world cup which will take place in brazil .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo mainly occurs in caatinga habitat , but it is also found in the eastern parts of cerrado habitat ( iucn 2006 ) .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo is listed as a vulnerable species and is the basis of the fuleco mascot that will feature on official merchandise and souvenirs .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus )\ntitle =\narkive species - brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\naccording to our latest research in the brazilian market fuleco is known by 95 % of the brazilian population .\nthe three - banded armadillo , named for the three distinctive bands on its shell and found in northeastern brazil , was introduced as the mascot in september .\nover the last 10 - 12 years , the brazilian three - banded armadillo has declined due to heavy hunting , range loss , and habitat loss and degradation ( iucn 2006 ) .\nalthough the brazilian three - banded armadillo was listed as vulnerable by the iucn ( the international union for conservation of nature ) almost two decades ago , its situation is even more desperate now .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is indigenous to central south america , ranging between argentina , brazil , paraguay , and bolivia .\n\u201cthe fact that the three - banded armadillo is a vulnerable species is very fitting , \u201d said fifa secretary general jerome valcke .\nmarinho , j . , m . marques guimar\u00e3es , et al . 1997 . the discovery of the brazilian three - banded armadillo in the cerrado of central brazil . edentata 3 : 11 - 13 .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo occurs in central and northeastern brazil . it has been recorded from the states of bahia , cear\u00e1 , pernambuco , alagoas , sergipe , piaui , mato grosso ( extreme east central ) , goias , the federal district , minas gerais ( extreme northwest ) , tocantins . paraiba and rio grande do norte . the brazilian three - banded armadillo has probably disappeared over much of its range , and it occurs at very low population densities . the brazilian three - banded armadillo is estimated to have experienced a population decline of more than 30 % over the last 10 - 12 years . ( iucn 2006 )\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo gave life to fuleco , but fuleco has achieved very little for the three - banded armadillo . we hope that millions of people watching the matches will become aware of the plight of this animal and that the world cup will have an impact on the fate of the species ,\nrodrigo castro told the bbc .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo is easily captured and is hunted for food . its habitat is naturally fragmented and threatened by agricultural development , cutting for charcoal and mining for the underlying calcareous deposits . ( nowak 1999 )\nsouthern three - banded armadillos are the only armadillo species that can roll up into a ball , enclosing its vulnerable parts inside its shell . baby southern three - banded armadillos are born blind and can ' t roll up like this at first .\nthe 9 - banded armadillo has 4 identical pups in every litter , either all male or all female , and the 7 - banded armadillo produces between 8 and 15 identical offspring .\nfifa says more than 1 . 7 million people in brazil took part in the vote to select the name for the three - banded armadillo .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo is found in dry , open country . it is believed to feed mainly on termites , but it may also eat other invertebrates and fruit . it obtains its insect prey by probing into the ground , under bark , and into nests with its powerful forelegs and claws . the brazilian three - banded armadillo occurs in central and northeastern brazil . this armadillo has probably disappeared over much of its range , and it occurs at very low population densities . its population has declined more than 30 % in recent years . the brazilian three - banded armadillo is easily captured and is hunted for food . its habitat is naturally fragmented and threatened by agricultural development , cutting for charcoal and mining .\nlike most armadillos , the southern three - banded is covered in plates of leathery armor that protect it from predator s . but what makes this armadillo special is its ability to roll completely into a ball . the neighboring brazilian three - banded armadillo is the only other armadillo with this adaptation . the adaptation works well in the wild\u2014only jaguars , alligators , and pumas are powerful enough to punch through the protective plates .\n1 . the nine - banded armadillo is the only species found in the u . s .\nyes , they can ! three - banded armadillos tolypeutes sp . ( cingulata : dasypodidae ) dig their own burrows\nuntil its rediscovery in the early 1990s , it was believed that the brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus ) had become extinct ( 1 ) . this species can be distinguished by its blackish - brown armour plating , which covers the body , head and tail . the plating on the body forms two domed shells , separated by three armoured bands which are joined together by flexible bands of skin . these flexible regions allow the brazilian three - banded armadillo to roll into a ball , thereby protecting its vulnerable underparts . it is one of only two species , the other being the southern three - banded armadillo , capable of this remarkable feat . other distinctive features of the brazilian three - banded armadillo are the second , third and fourth toes of the hind feet , which are fused into a hoof - like claw . by contrast , the fore feet have five separate digits each bearing sharp , powerful claws ( 2 )\nthe three - banded armadillo is among the most poorly known species of armadillo , and is a priority for research , especially in its ecology , conservation , population genetics , reproduction , and threats .\nscientists have called on fifa and the brazilian government to designate parts of the armadillo ' s dry forest habitat as protected areas .\nearlier this month the brazilian environment ministry invited a group of over 30 scientists , including miranda and castro , to meet for a week in the natural reserve of serra das almas , in the northeastern state of ceara , to help draw up a five year national action plan for the conservation of the brazilian three - banded armadillo .\nthe outcome depends to a great extent on fifa . we still hope it will understand this is the first ever world cup that could leave a lasting legacy for biodiversity , helping to save the brazilian three - banded armadillo from extinction\n.\nsao paulo ( ap ) \u2014 brazilians have selected the name\nfuleco\nfor the three - banded armadillo mascot for the 2014 world cup after a three - month voting process that was derided by fans as undemocratic .\nsanborn cc ( 1930 ) distribution and habits of the three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes ) . journal of mammalogy 11 : 61 - 69 . [ links ]\nbrazilian ngo , associa\u00e7\u00e3o caatinga , led the campaign to make the brazilian three - banded armadillo the mascot of the 2014 fifa world cup . the iucn ssc anteater , sloth and armadillo specialist group , along with the nature conservancy , have now joined associa\u00e7\u00e3o caatinga as partners in the next stage of the campaign to increase awareness of this wonderful species and generate additional funding for conservation .\nthree - banded armadillos are blackish brown in color . most animals have three moveable bands , although some possess only two , and others may have four . members of the genus\nthe official 2014 world cup mascot , the brazilian three - banded armadillo ( the tolypeutes tricinctus ) , a creature that is indigenous to brazil , is seen in this undated handout image released to reuters september 16 , 2012 . reuters / fifa / handout\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - southern three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes matacus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - southern three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes matacus )\ntitle =\narkive species - southern three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes matacus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ndiet in zoo : the three banded armadillo is fed a diet of insectivore pellets ( moistened in water ) as well as vegetables / fruit and super worms daily .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo can be found in a number of locations including : south america . find out more about these places and what else lives there .\nthe three - banded armadillo , which is in danger of extinction , rolls up into the shape of a ball when threatened and is commonly found in northeastern brazil .\ncardoso da silva , j . m . and d . c . oren . 1993 . observations on the habitat and distribution of the brazilian three - banded armadillo tolypeutes tricinctus , a threatened caatinga endemic . mammalia 57 ( 1 ) : 149 - 152 .\nfifa and the local organising committee ( loc ) are excited to introduce one of the most high - profile ambassadors of the 2014 fifa world cup\u2122 : a unique brazilian three - banded armadillo ( the tolypeutes tricinctus ) , a creature that is indigenous to brazil .\nthree - banded armadillos can roll completely into a ball . can you think of other animals that have evolved defensive adaptations ?\nsanborn , c . c . ( 1930 ) distribution and habits of the three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes ) . journal of mammalogy , 11 : 61 - 69 .\nbernier d ( 2003 ) north american regional studbook for the southern three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes matacus ) . chicago , lincoln park zoo , 49p . [ links ]\nthe mascot was officially launched as part of brazilian broadcaster tv globo\u2019s weekly fant\u00e1stico entertainment show , where he was welcomed by brazilian football legend and member of the loc management board , ronaldo .\nin the last evaluation of the brazilian list of endangered species last year , the three - banded armadillo moved from ' vulnerable ' to ' in danger ' because it lost nearly 50 % of its habitat in the last 15 years ( three generations for the animal ) ,\nsaid flavia miranda , deputy chair of the anteater , sloth and armadillo specialist group at the iucn .\nsanborn , c . c . 1930 . distribution and habits of the three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes ) . journal of mammalogy 11 ( 1 ) : 61 - 69 .\nfifa said the mascot , unveiled by former brazil striker ronaldo during a television programme late on sunday , represented the three - banded armadillo , an endangered species indigenous to brazil .\nthe following habitats are found across the southern three - banded armadillo distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo faces the dual threats of heavy hunting pressure and habitat loss . this species\u2019 habit of rolling into ball when threatened means that it is easily caught for food , and it has therefore suffered heavy losses throughout its range ( 1 ) ( 3 ) . in addition , its habitat has been degraded and destroyed by expanding agriculture , mining and charcoal harvesting ( 2 ) . with a low reproductive rate , the brazilian three - banded armadillo is unable to tolerate the overexploitation that is occurring and has been driven to extinction in several localities ( 3 )\nhabitat loss is a challenge for many species , including the southern three - banded armadillo . during the 20 th century , the rich rio de la plata river basin underwent agricultural development ; the habitat changed from a flood plain to cultivate d fields of crop s such as soy and sorghum . today , the southern three - banded armadillo is classified as a near threatened species .\nthe name armadillo is spanish and means \u2018little armoured one\u2019 . the most common and populated armadillo is the nine - banded armadillo ( dasypus novemcinctus ) who has extended its range in central america due to lack of natural predators .\n* * * the brazilian three - banded armadillo and its close relative tolypeutes matacus are the only two armadillos that can completely enclose themselves by rolling into a ball . there is considerable space in its shell into which it can fit its head , legs , and tail when it rolls up .\nbut fifa and the brazilian government were less committed . pressed by an international news agency , fifa declared that fuleco \u201chelped to raise awareness in brazil about the three - banded armadillo and its status of vulnerable species\u201d , but said that the mascot is not being \u201cused to promote specific environmental messages\u201d .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo is threatened by heavy hunting pressure and habitat loss . one of the main causes of deforestation in the caatinga - one of the areas this species of armadillo is found - is the extraction of native forest for the production of firewood . plantations of biofuel crops and cattle ranching are additional problems that significantly affect its habitat .\nanother growing threat to all armadillos is habitat destruction : all species except the nine - banded armadillo dasypus novemcinctus are decreasing in population . five armadillo species are classified as vulnerable .\n\u201cwe are sure that the fact that a threatened species is featured in such an important event will not only trigger conservation initiatives to save the brazilian three - banded armadillo from extinction , but also help increase awareness for biodiversity conservation in general , \u201d said dr mariella superina , chair , iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) anteater , sloth and armadillo specialist group .\nbrazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus ) \u2013 endemic to brazil , south america . one of only 2 species of armadillo that can roll itself into a ball . preferred habitat is savannas and dry woodland . main diet includes ants and termites . also eats mollusks , worms , fruit and carrion . it has a long sticky tongue to lap up ants .\nof the 20 varieties of armadillo , all but one live in latin america . the familiar nine - banded armadillo is the only species that includes the united states in its range .\nthis unique defensive strategy helped the three - banded armadillo survive 140 million years of evolution but it makes it vulnerable to human beings , because when it rolls into a ball it remains still\n.\nthis poorly known species , which is found only in brazil , is listed as vulnerable on the iucn red list of threatened species\u2122 . it was believed to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1988 in a handful of locations . the brazilian three - banded armadillo is quite unique as when threatened , it rolls up into an almost impenetrable ball with its ears tucked into the shell and the head and tail interlocked to seal the shell completely . it is one of only two species of armadillo ( the other is the southern three - banded armadillo ) that can roll into a ball .\ndue to the fact that the southern three - banded armadillo does not dig a burrow , it is easier to hunt than other armadillo species , and faces high - levels of hunting pressure across its range ( 1 ) ( 5 ) . this threat is compounded by the conversion of large amounts of its species ' habitat to agricultural land . as a result , the southern three - banded armadillo is undergoing a significant decline and may soon warrant threatened status ( 1 ) .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo is the only armadillo species endemic to brazil . while this species has probably disappeared from much of its historical range , it has been recorded in the states of bahia , cear\u00e1 , pernambuco , alagoas , sergipe , piau\u00ed , mato grosso , goi\u00e1s , the federal district , minas gerais , tocantins , para\u00edba and rio grande do norte ( 1 ) .\n\u201cthe mascot will play a key ambassadorial role in the next two years , \u201d said ronaldo , who played in three world cups and was an unused squad member in 1994 , on brazilian television .\nthe topeka zoo is excited about the arrival of their newest southern three - banded armadillo . the spherically prone boy was born may 5 th and is the third offspring of mom , \u2018erin\u2019 , and dad , \u2018mulligan\u2019 .\nthis iucn red list update also includes the re - assessment of the 2014 fifa world cup mascot , the brazilian three - banded armadillo tolypeutes tricinctus . the species is believed to have declined by more than a third over the last 10 to15 years due to a 50 % loss of its dry shrubland caatinga habitat . its status remains vulnerable .\nnine - banded armadillos are known for often giving birth to four identical pups .\nbrazilians choose name for 2014 world cup mascot fifa says more than 1 . 7 million people in brazil took part in the vote to select the name for the three - banded armadillo . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\ngestation for an armadillo lasts 60 to 120 days , depending on the species . some species , such as the southern three - banded armadillo , will have litter sizes that range from one to eight . the young are born with soft , leathery skin , which hardens within a few weeks . they reach sexual maturity in three to 12 months , depending on species .\nthe species , along with the brazilian three - banded armadillo , is the only armadillo capable of rolling into a complete ball for defense and protection . the three characteristic bands that cover the back of the animal allow it enough flexibility to fit its tail and head together , allowing it to protect its underbelly , limbs , eyes , nose and ears from predators . the shell covering its body is armored and the outer layer is made out of keratin , the same protein that builds human fingernails .\nmarinho - filho , j . , guimar\u0103es , m . m . , reis , m . l . , rodrigues , f . h . g . , torres , o . and de almeida , g . ( 1997 ) the discovery of the brazilian three - banded armadillo in the cerrado of central brazil . edentata , 3 : 11 - 13 .\ndue to the fact that the southern three - banded armadillo does not dig a burrow , and has the habit of rolling into a ball when threatened , it is easier to hunt than other armadillo species , and faces high - levels of hunting pressure across its range ( 1 ) ( 5 ) . this threat is compounded by the conversion of large amounts of its species\u2019 habitat to agricultural land . as a result , the southern three - banded armadillo is undergoing a significant decline and may soon warrant threatened status ( 1 ) .\nwhile the three - banded armadillos might be cute , they are just like every animal and part of a food web . historically , this armadillo has been hunted for food and for sale to either zoos or the exotic pet market .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo occurs in two distinct regional ecosystems , the cerrado region in central brazil , characterised by savanna and dry - forest ( 3 ) ; and the caatinga region in north - east brazil , characterised by dry shrubland and thorn forest ( 4 ) . both regions have well defined dry and wet seasons ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\narmadillos are classed as a \u2018threatened\u2019 species except for the nine - banded armadillo whose population is expanding . major threats are habitat loss and over - hunting . armadillo flesh is consumed in the americas by some cultures .\nbut three years after the announcement of the mascot we were disappointed to see that not a single action specifically focused on protecting this endangered species or its habitat had been put into practice by fifa and the brazilian government .\nthe final mascot design was chosen after fifa and the loc had analysed 47 different proposals created by six different brazilian agencies . the designs were further analysed through extensive research carried out amongst its primary target audience , brazilian children between the ages of five and twelve , with the favourite being the armadillo , created by 100 % design .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is commonly found in the most arid parts of the gran chaco ( 1 ) , but also occurs in areas of grassland and marshland between scattered forests in the state of mato grosso , brazil ( 3 ) .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is commonly found in the most arid parts of the gran chaco ( 1 ) , but also occurs in areas of grassland and marshland between scattered forests in the state of mato grosso , brazil ( 3 ) .\nthese days , the san diego zoo and san diego zoo safari park have three - banded armadillos that serve as excellent animal ambassadors , meeting guests up close and making television appearances .\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo ( tolypeutes tricinctus ) can roll itself into a ball so tight that only a puma ' s claws can penetrate its protective shell . but this evolutionary advantage hasn ' t done much to protect the species from humans , who have turned savannah habitats into inhospitable cattle ranches and soybean plantations . once found throughout brazil , the armadillos\u2014one of 20 armadillo species that live through much of north and south america\u2014are now restricted to several shrinking pockets of habitat . scientists estimate that the brazilian species ' s population has dropped by as much as 30 percent in the past decade .\ncuellar e ( 2002 ) census of the three - banded armadillo tolypeutes matacus using dogs , southern chaco , bolivia . mammalia 66 : 448 - 451 . doi : 10 . 1515 / mamm . 2002 . 66 . 3 . 439 [ links ]\nfinally , we asked that the brazilian government to accelerate the completion of the armadillo\u2019s species conservation plan . for 20 years the armadillos have been listed as vulnerable , without any formal plan to improve their status .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is found in a number of protected areas , which provide a refuge from the habitat destruction that is occurring within its range . in addition , a captive population of this species is maintained in north america ( 1 ) .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is found in a number of protected areas , which provide a refuge from the habitat destruction that is occurring within its range . in addition , a captive population of this species is maintained in north america ( 1 ) .\nthe three - banded armadillo has a long , sticky , straw - like pink tongue that allows it to gather up and eat many different species of insects , typically ants and termites . in captivity , armadillos also eat foods such as fruits and vegetables .\nthe remaining forested regions are intensely used as sources of both industrial and domestic fuelwood and extensive livestock ranching . more than 20 million people live within the caatinga , most among the poorest in brazil , boosting the hunting pressure on the three - banded armadillo .\ncontrary to popular belief , not all armadillos are able to encase themselves in their shells . in fact , only the three - banded armadillo can , curling its head and back feet and contorting its shell into a hard ball that confounds would - be predators .\nthe female brazilian three - banded armadillo produces only a single young in each litter , which is born extremely well - developed , having the appearance of a miniature version of the adult . the young is almost immediately able to walk and roll into a ball , but remains with the parent until weaned at around 72 days old . sexual maturity is reached at around 9 to 12 months ( 2 ) .\nconservation message : the biggest threat to their species is hunting pressures . humans find them easy to catch and kill . another major threat to the brazilian three banded armadillo is habitat destruction from both mining ( charcoal ) and agricultural developments in their native ranges . the two things most frequently grown in their home ranges are sugar cane and soybean plantations . other large plots of land are being cleared to house livestock .\nbolkovic ml , caziani sm , protomastro jj ( 1995 ) food habits of the three - banded armadillo ( xenarthra : dasypodidae ) in the dry chaco of argentina . journal of mammalogy 76 : 1199 - 1204 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1382612 [ links ]\nwhat lives in brazil and looks like a football ? brazil\u2019s official world cup mascot . the three - banded armadillo is a mammal native to brazil\u2019s dry tropical forests , and rolls into a ball when threatened . but nearly half of the armadillos\u2019 habitat has been cleared .\nbaby armadillos are called pups . according to the san diego zoo , twin births are common . nine - banded armadillos have four identical pups of the same gender in every litter , and the seven - banded armadillo has eight to 15 identical pups at one time .\nthree - banded armadillos live mainly in brazil\u2019s arid northeast and are threatened by habitat destruction . they are unusual among armadillos in that they can roll up into a ball to defend themselves from predators .\njudging by the many cartoonish depictions of armadillos curling up into tight balls and rolling away , you ' d assume that most species would be capable of this defense mechanism . but the only armadillos equipped with this adorable ability are the two species belonging to the tolypeutes genus , also known as the brazilian and southern three - banded armadillos . all other armadillo species have too many plates , making this kind of flexibility impossible .\nbut then the brazilian government , perhaps worried about its image abroad , finally announced on may 22 , the publication of the species\u00b4 conservation action plan .\nfrom the 11 armadillo species found in brazil , only two have the ability to roll into a ball : the one that inspired the mascot , which is endemic to brazil , and another species , the southern three - banded armadillo , tolypeutes matacus , that can be found not only in southwestern brazil but also in argentina , paraguay and bolivia\n.\nthe southern three banded armadillo is remarkable for being one of the few armadillo species capable of rolling into a ball ( 2 ) . the armour - plating that covers the body is divided into two domed shells , with three armoured bands in between , joined by flexible bands of skin . these flexures allow the body to bend in the middle , snapping the lower edges of the two body shells together , thereby forming an impregnable ball ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . other distinctive features of the southern three - banded armadillo are the second , third and fourth toes of the hind feet , which are fused into a hoof - like claw . by contrast , the fore feet have four separate digits each bearing sharp , powerful claws ( 3 )\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is found from eastern bolivia and south - western brazil , south through the gran chaco region of paraguay , to the province of buenos aires in argentina . it is known to occur from sea level up to elevations of 770 m ( 1 ) .\nbolkovi\u0107 , m . l . , caziani , s . m . and protomastro , j . j . ( 1995 ) food habits of the three - banded armadillo ( xenarthra : dasypodidae ) in the dry chaco , argentina . journal of mammalogy , 76 : 1199 - 1204 .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is found from eastern bolivia and south - western brazil , south through the gran chaco region of paraguay , to the province of buenos aires in argentina . it is known to occur from sea level up to elevations of 770 m ( 1 ) .\nfifa has not responded directly to the challenge set in biotropica magazine , but in a statement sent to the bbc , it said that choosing fuleco as the official mascot\nhas helped to raise awareness in brazil around the three - banded armadillo and its status as a vulnerable species .\nover the next several weeks , hundreds of millions of people around the world will sit and cheer in front of their televisions and computer screens as the 2014 fifa world cup takes place in brazil . some of the world ' s top athletes will be on display during the month - long soccer competition that runs from june 12 through july 13 \u2014 and so will the world cup mascot , a brazilian three - banded armadillo named fuleco .\nthere are 20 armadillo species in the americas ; most live in central or south america . only the nine - banded armadillo is native to the united states . as body size and food sources vary , so do the home range and habitat of each armadillo species . in fact , everything varies when you ' re talking about armadillos !\ngestation period lasts 120 days after which a single , blind infant is born . infants are able to roll into balls within a few hours of birth . infants are weaned at 10 weeks and reach sexual maturity at 9 \u2013 12 months . life span is up to 15 years in the wild . brazilian three - banded armadillos are classed as a \u2018vulnerable\u2019 species .\nwhile these peculiar creatures spend the majority of their time eating or sleeping , armadillos have also been known to get silly from time to time . in the video above , a southern three - banded armadillo named rollie plays with a toy bear at a zoo in green bay , wisconsin .\nthe screaming hairy armadillo gets its name from the sound it makes when threatened .\nthe armadillo mascot for the brazil 2014 world cup poses for photographs in october .\nblackish - brown in coloration , the three banded armadillo can reach between 218 and 273mm in length and weigh 1 . 0 - 1 . 5 kg . it\u2019s shell is comprised of two dome halves that are separated by three individual bands of shell . all of the shells moving pieces are connected by flexible skin . the brazilian and the southern three banded armadillos are the only two species to be able to curl into a complete ball . their tails fit along side their heads perfectly to close any gaps that might allow predators access . both the front and back feet on this armadillo have five toes . in the back , the middle three toes grow together but are separate from the outer toes . in the front , however , all five toes are separate . the front toes each have a long claw on which the animal travels ( he does not actually place his foot on the ground ) . these claws are very powerful and are used to dig .\nover the course of the world cup , it seems obvious that more people will see fuleco than will see actual brazilian three - banded armadillos . the rare animals , which live only in western brazil , were thought to be extinct until they were rediscovered in a few remote locations in the 1990s . today they are considered vulnerable to extinction , mostly due to habitat loss .\nscientific projects aimed at the long - term conservation of the brazilian three - banded armadillo resulting from this funding will be coordinated by the deputy chair of the iucn ssc anteater , sloth and armadillo specialist group , dr fl\u00e1via miranda . projects will include ; scientific research ; campaigns to raise awareness for conservation issues among the general public , especially , the local population ; the creation of protected areas ; and other actions that will help reduce the pressures on the brazilian three - banded armadillo , known locally as \u201ctatu - bola\u201d . found mainly in dry thorn scrub of north - eastern brazil , but also in bush savannah in central brazil , this species of armadillo does not dig holes but instead lives in abandoned burrows . measuring about 27cm , it is nocturnal and feeds on ants and termites as well as any grubs or spiders it encounters . it finds food by shuffling slowly along with its nose to the ground . when it detects prey , it frantically digs a hole and thrusts its nose into it , using its long , sticky tongue to lap up any food it finds .\ndesigners focused on the armadillo ' s cutest qualities to create fuleco the fifa mascot . ( photo of armadillo : heather paul / flickr ; fuleco courtesy of fifa )\nthree - banded armadillos may be found at densities of up to 7 animals per square kilometer . they are primarily solitary , although groups of up to 12 have been observed sharing the same den site during cold spells .\nall armadillos live in central and south america , except for one species . the nine - banded armadillo ranges from argentina to the southern united states , according to the animal diversity web ( adw ) at the university of michigan . since the mid - 19th century , nine - banded armadillos have expanded northward . they have been seen in florida and are now common in missouri . in 2000 , the body of a nine - banded armadillo was found in central illinois , according to adw .\nan armadillo ' s armor is made up of overlapping plates covering the back , head , legs and tail . the number of armored bands identifies the different species , according to the san diego zoo . only one species , the three - banded armadillo , can roll itself into a hard armored ball to defend itself against predators . other armadillo species simply dig a hole quickly and hunker down so that their tender stomach is protected and their armor is the only thing visible .\nalthough all armadillo species originate from south america , only the nine - banded armadillo ( dasypus novemcinctus ) has made it far enough north into the united states . if you happen to live in the south , it ' s not uncommon to find these critters rooting around in your backyard ( or sadly , on the side of the road ) . this is especially true in hot , rainy environments like texas , which named the nine - banded armadillo its state small mammal .\nthe armadillo , which is in danger of extinction , rolls up into the shape of a ball when threatened . the mascot carries the colors of the brazilian flag \u2014 the armadillo is yellow , with green shorts and a blue shell and tail . it is dressed in a white shirt with the words\nbrazil 2014\nwritten on it .\ntolypeutes comprises tolypeutes matacus ( desmarest , 1804 ) and tolypeutes tricinctus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , both species with the unique ability to roll into an almost perfect ball as a defense mechanism ( eisenberg & redford 1999 , wetzel et al . 2008 ) . these armadillo species have an average head plus body length of 25 cm and an average weight of 1 . 1 kg ( eisenberg & redford 1999 ) . the southern three - banded armadillo , t . matacus , is found primarily in the dry forests of the central region of south america , including western brazil , eastern and southern bolivia , western and northern paraguay , and northern argentina . the brazilian three - banded armadillo , t . tricinctus , occurs exclusively in the semi - arid scrub forests and savannas of the northeastern and central regions of brazil ( wetzel et al . 2008 , feij\u00f3 et al . 2015 ) .\nthe fact that the three - banded armadillo is a vulnerable species is very fitting ,\nfifa secretary general jerome valcke said in a statement .\none of the key objectives through the 2014 fifa world cup is to use the event as a platform to communicate the importance of the environment and ecology .\nthe southern three banded armadillo is remarkable for being one of the few armadillo species capable of rolling into a ball ( 2 ) . the armour - plating that covers the body is divided into two domed shells , with three armoured bands in between , joined by flexible bands of skin . these flexures allow the body to bend in the middle , snapping the lower edges of the two body shells together to form a sphere , with the bony plates covering the head and tail neatly slotting together into a gap between the adjoined body shells , thereby closing it off completely ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . other distinctive features of the southern three - banded armadillo are the second , third and fourth toes of the hind feet , which bear hoof - like claws , while in contrast , the fore feet possess sharp , powerful claws ( 3 ) .\nin order to stop its rapid decline , the brazilian three - banded armadillo requires urgent conservation action . it has been recommended that reintroduction programs be implemented to restore this species to areas of its former range , along with the provision of educational materials to highlight its plight and reduce hunting pressure ( 3 ) . it is uncertain if this species is found in any protected areas , although it hoped that a population might occur in grande sert\u00e3o veredas national park in northern minas gerais ( 1 ) .\nthe caatinga dry forest once covered nearly 845 , 000 square km or about 11 % of the brazilian territory , but has now been reduced to half of its original area .\nowing to its scarcity , relatively little is known about the biology of the brazilian three - banded armadillo ( 2 ) . like other armadillos , the diet of this species is likely to comprise invertebrates , particularly termites and ants , which are obtained by using its powerful fore claws to tear open mounds ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . it does not appear to seek refuge in burrows , and instead relies upon its ability to roll into an impregnable ball when threatened ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nsmith p ( 2007 ) southern three - banded armadillo tolypeutes matacus ( desmarest , 1804 ) . in : smith p ( ed . ) fauna paraguay : handbook of the mammals of paraguay . vol . 2 . available online at : available online at : urltoken [ accessed : 08 / 08 / 2016 ] [ links ]\nthe giant armadillo can have up to 100 teeth , according to the san diego zoo .\na cute armadillo stands on its hind legs . ( photo : ondrej prosicky / shutterstock )\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is typically yellow or brownish in color . they are among the smaller armadillos , with a total body length of about 8 . 7 to 10 . 6 inches ( 22 to 27 cm ) and a weight of between 2 . 2 and 3 . 5 lbs ( 1 and 1 . 6 kg ) .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo has an interesting mode of locomotion , walking on its hind - legs with the tips of the foreclaws touching the ground ( 3 ) . although when threatened this species is capable of running remarkably quickly to escape , more commonly it curls into a ball , which even strong - jawed predators such as dogs are unable to break open ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . as an additional defence , while curled up , the southern three - banded armadillo will leave a small gap between the edges of the body shells open . when the predator inserts a claw or snout into this gap in an attempt to reach the soft body parts , the armadillo quickly closes it , causing pain and possibly injury to the predator ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nin related news , the southern three - banded armadillo ( t . matacus ) will be the mascot for the 2014\nsport your trainers\ncampaign , where people in scotland will pledge to wear sneakers (\ntrainers\n) in support of that year ' s commonwealth games . that mascot won ' t be a cartoon , though : a real armadillo named dillon , a resident of the edinburgh zoo , will fill the role .\nfifa said the three options were chosen by a\nhigh - profile judging committee\nthat included former brazil player bebeto and brazilian celebrities and politicians . organizers said it wouldn ' t have been feasible to allow fans to send in suggestions because the names needed to fulfill several legal requirements involving trademarks and other rights .\nan armadillo ' s hard shell is simply modified skin that serves as one way this unusual animal protects itself . when an armadillo feels threatened , it usually runs , digs , or presses its body down in the dirt to keep from getting flipped over . the three - banded armadillo is the only species that can roll up into a ball for protection : its teardrop - shaped head plate seals the opening so there are no chinks in the armor . threats to armadillos include domestic dogs , wild cats , birds of prey , and humans .\nfifa said studies showed that the top terms used by the public to describe fuleco included\nbrazilian ,\n' ' nature ,\n' ' friendly\nand\npassion for football .\nwhile nature\u2019s version is light brown in colour , fifa\u2019s mascot is yellow with green eyes and a blue shell , the colours of the brazilian flag , and will be holding aloft a football .\nthe armadillo was named as brazil\u2019s world cup mascot in an attempt to draw attention to its plight , but the brazilian government has been slow to take action . so , could football protect a species ? we thought so , and the results , if not exactly a goal , are hopeful .\nin the looks department , the nine - banded armadillo appears naked , while the pink fairy armadillo is mostly furry and has little shell . in fact , it looks like a mole wearing a fancy , armored headdress and cape ! in the size department , armadillos range in length from the pink fairy armadillo at 3 inches ( 8 centimeters ) to the giant armadillo , which can be up to 5 feet ( 1 . 5 meters ) long from head to tail and weigh up to 132 pounds ( 60 kilograms ) .\nfirst , we asked the brazilian government to fulfil its commitment to the world cup parks project . announced in late 2011 , the brazilian government promised us $ 275 million in infrastructure investments in 26 federal and 21 state and municipal protected areas . but two years later the number of protected areas that received the benefit was reduced to 16 and less than 2 % of the original money was effectively granted .\nwe were able to record other animals visiting the burrows built by t . matacus . we have recorded small rodents , small lizards and teju lizards entering and / or exiting the burrow . hence , three - banded armadillos burrowing habits could be potentially benefiting other species .\nthe southern three - banded armadillo is peculiar amoung armadillos for its rolling behavior . it can completely close its shell around its entire body . usually it leaves a small space between a section of its armor , which it forcefully closes on the hand , finger , or paw of a would - be predator . this shell is also very efficient at trapping air , which is warmed by body heat , and thus conserves heat loss . three - banded armadillos are usually solitary but occasionally group together during cold weather . they do not dig burrows of their own but use abandoned anteater burrows , or they make their dens under dense vegetation .\nfunding the soon - to - be - created park would be good . how ? by donating part of the world cup legacy trust , a multi - million dollar charity fund which will be created after the tournament in brazil , to truly protect the three - banded armadillo and its habitat . that would really be the golden goal of the world cup in brazil .\nphotos : mascot via fifa . armadillo by chris stubbs via wikimedia commons , used under creative commons license\nthe brazilian three - banded armadillo\u2014one of just two armadillo species that can roll into a complete ball\u2014was thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in the 1990s . it now exists only in scattered locations , mostly in the eastern portion of the country . in addition to habitat loss , the species is also classified as\nvulnerable to extinction\nbecause of subsistence hunting , according to the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources , and climate change , according to a paper published in august in biological conservation . the paper , by scientists from university of brasilia and the jaguar conservation fund , looked at three different climate change scenarios and found that for all of them the armadillo ' s arid habitats would become unsuitable by the year 2050 . the authors concluded that existing protected habitats in brazil will fail to preserve the species from climate change\nunder any scenario\nand called for the creation of additional reserves .\nthat brings us back to fuleco . a team of scientists recently called for fifa to do more to protect the brazilian three - banded armadillo . specifically , they have called for fifa to protect 1 , 000 hectares ( about 4 square miles ) of the armadillo ' s critical habitat in the caatinga ecosystem for every goal scored over the course of the world cup .\nprotecting the remaining caatinga is extremely urgent ,\njos\u00e9 alves siqueira of the federal university of the valley of s\u00e3o francisco said in a news release in may .\nwe want the choice of one of the caatinga ' s most iconic species as the world cup mascot to be more than just a symbolic one .\nthree - banded armadillos principally eat beetle larvae , although ants and termites are an important portion of the diet during the dry season ( july to november ) . insects are obtained by burrowing into ground nests or under the bark of rotting trees . the animals also include a significant amount of fruit in their diet during the wet season . three - banded armadillos may be found at densities of up to 7 animals per square kilometer . they are primarily solitary , although groups of up to 12 have been observed sharing the same den site during cold spells .\nthis species of armadillo is easily caught by hand . its genetic makeup is very different from most armadillos .\ndescription : three - banded armadillos are typically a yellow or brownish color ranging in size from about 9 - 13 in . when full grown , weighing from 2 - 3 . 5lbs . they have a long , sticky , pink tongue to gather up their food . they have very poor eyesight , and rely on their sense of smell to hunt . just like the nine - banded armadillo can have 8 - 10 bands , they can have 2 - 4 bands . their 2nd , 3rd , and 4th toes on their hind feet are fused together , similar to a hoof . when they walk , they use the tips of their fore claws , even when they are running . they have long powerful forelimbs and claws to help them dig into termite mounds . three - banded armadillos are the only species of armadillo that can roll itself into a ball . they will roll into a ball when they feel threatened ."]}
{"id": 1848, "summary": [{"text": "jameson 's mamba ( dendroaspis jamesoni ) is a species of quick , highly arboreal and highly venomous snake of the family elapidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the species is endemic to africa . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "jameson ' s mamba", "paragraphs": ["common name ( s ) : traill\u2019s green mamba , east african jameson\u2019s mamba , jameson\u2019s blacktail mamba .\n: traill ' s green mamba , east african jameson ' s mamba , jameson ' s blacktail mamba .\ncommon names traill ' s green mamba , western green mamba , jameson ' s green mamba , jameson ' s mamba ( d . j . jamesoni ) , east african jameson ' s mamba ( d . j . kaimosae )\nthere are four species of mamba : the eastern green mamba , western green mamba , jameson\u2019s mamba and black mamba and are found across africa .\nmattias klum - i photographed this jameson ' s mamba killing . . . | facebook\nmechanism of action of jameson ' s mamba venom on the superior cervical ganglion of cat .\njameson ' s mamba are mostly occurs in kenya , nigeria , congo , uganda , etc .\nyep , the atheris is cool but i really like that jameson ' s mamba . all are nice additions .\nmechanism of action of jameson ' s mamba venom on the superior cervical ganglion of cat . - pubmed - ncbi\njameson ' s mamba was first described in 1843 by thomas traill , a scottish physician , zoologist and scholar of medical jurisprudence . in 1936 , arthur loveridge described two subspecies , the nominotypical\nd . jamesoni jamesoni\nand\nd . jamesoni kaimosae\n; the latter is commonly referred to as eastern jameson ' s mamba or the black - tailed jameson ' s mamba .\nin the event of an actual or probable bite from a jameson ' s mamba , execute the following first aid measures without delay .\n: jameson ' s mamba ( dendroaspis jamesoni ) is distributed from the western coast to the central parts of equatorial africa . the subspecies\njameson ' s mamba will chase prey , similar to other mamba species . when prey is caught , jameson ' s mamba will strike until the prey dies . since this species is arboreal , birds make up a large portion of their diet . small mammals such as mice , rats , and bats and small lizards are also preyed upon .\nyeah i ' m not a big elapid fan either but those are some choice specimens . i love the scalation of the jameson ' s mamba .\nsmell is detected by the use of mamba ' s tongue , which picks up vibrations . vibrations can also be picked up from the ground through the mamba ' s body .\njameson\u2019s mamba has short fangs at the the front of the skull , and requires the snake to hold down for a short period of time , though this mamba strike repeatedly to get the same effect .\nlocal symptoms : local tissue damage appears to be relatively infrequent and of minor severity in most cases of jameson ' s mamba envenomation . edema is typically minimal .\n\u2026of east and south africa , jameson\u2019s mamba ( d . jamesoni ) of central africa , and the west african green mamba ( d . viridis ) are all more timid than the black mamba and have not been reported to attack humans . like the black mamba , they will flatten their necks into a narrow hood as\u2026\nfound in primary and secondary rainforests , woodland , forest - savanna and deforested areas at elevations up to high . jameson ' s mamba is an adaptable species , found in areas where there has been extensive deforestation and human development . they are often found around buildings , town parks , farmlands and plantations . jameson ' s mamba is a highly arboreal snake , more so than its close relatives the eastern green mamba and western green mamba , and significantly more so than the black mamba .\nthe double mamba ( rarely known as the twin mamba ) was a development of the armstrong siddeley mamba with two mambas driving contra - rotating propellers through a combining gearbox .\nthe three green mamba species are smaller ( 1 . 5\u20132 metres , maximum 2 . 7 metres ) and are usually found in trees . the east african green mamba ( d . angusticeps ) of east and south africa , jameson\u2019s mamba ( d . jamesoni ) of central africa , and the west african green mamba ( d . viridis ) are all\u2026\ncarri\u00f3n , pere mart\u00ednez 2002 . dendroaspis jamesoni jameson ' s mamba ( traill , 1843 ) . reptilia ( gb ) ( 21 ) : 39 - 42 . - get paper here\nthe bite of jameson ' s mamba with envenomation can be rapidly fatal ( as early as 30 to 120 minutes ) . please read the attached medical management protocol and respond appropriately .\nfour species of mamba are currently recognized by the scientific community . they include : the black mamba , the east african green mamba , the west african green mamba , and the jameson ' s mamba . all species of mambas live in africa . the black mamba is widely recognized as the most dangerous of all african snake species to encounter in the wild . the black mamba is capable of reaching lengths of over 9 feet and will travel both on the ground as well as in the trees . all species of mambas are egg - layers\nvaz pinto , pedro and william r . branch . 2015 . geographic distribution . dendroaspis jamesoni thrail , 1843 , jameson ' s mamba . african herp news ( 62 ) : 45 - 47\nthe mac mamba , mamba range is an australian two - seat light aircraft designed and built by the melbourne aircraft corporation .\nthe\nblack mamba\nreference in its title is an allusion to the black mamba snake . according to the author :\nblaylock , r . s . : ( to the editor ) black mamba envenomation . s . afr . med . j . , 68 : 293 , 1985 .\na deadly green mamba , one of the world\u2019s most venomous snakes , has slithered into britain on a cargo ship .\nthere are four species of mambas : the black mamba ( dendroaspis polylepis ) , eastern green mamba ( dendroaspis angusticeps ) , western green mamba ( dendroaspis viridis ) , and jameson ' s mamba ( dendroaspis jamesoni ) . like chance mentioned , the jameson ' s mamba has two valid subspecies , ( d . j . jamesoni , and d . j . kaimosea ) . the nominate subspecies has a yellow tail with black - edged scales , while d . j . kaimosea , ( also known as the black - tail mamba ) , has a black tail as the name suggests . the two subspecies also have several differences in scalation . hope this helps , bryan\ndendroaspis viridis\nwas first described by the american herpetologist and physician edward hallowell in 1844 . in addition to being called the western green mamba , this species is also commonly known as the west african green mamba or hallowell ' s green mamba .\nmake sure that at least 10 vials of south african institute for medical research ( s . a . i . m . r ) polyvalent antivenom are present with the patient . this anti - antivenom contains the appropriate fractions necessary to neutralize jameson ' s mamba venom .\nmambas have scales on their bodies . the green in the mamba ' s body is used to help hide it from its enemies while resting in the trees . the mamba ' s jaw is adapted for feeding , with the snake ' s skin being elastic and it being able to dislocate . that is why the mamba can swallow prey up to four times the size of its head .\nclinical differences between the common ( dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni ) and the east african ( dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae ) jameson ' s mambas have not been described or recorded .\njameson\u2019s mamba is a long , slender snake with a tapering tail that can make up to 25 % percent of its total length . they grow from 1 . 5 - 2 . 2 meters ( or 4 . 9 - 7 . 2 feet ) . their backs are a dull green , which pales to a lighter green , yellow , or even cream belly . like all mambas , jameson\u2019s mamba , when threatened , can flatten its neck , much like a cobra .\nnephrotoxicity : acute renal failure has been reported in a few cases of black mamba bites in humans as well as in animal models . it has not yet been reported in jameson ' s mamba envenomations . oliguria or anuria with possible changes in urinary composition will herald the development of renal shutdown . dialysis is advised .\nl . luiselli and others ,\nlarge elapids and arboreality : the ecology of jameson ' s green mamba ( dendroaspis jamesoni ) in an afrotropical forested region\n, contrib zoo , 69 ( 3 ) , 2000 , pp . 147 - 155\nmamba is a steel hypercoaster designed by steve okamoto and manufactured by d . h . morgan manufacturing . mamba is located at worlds of fun in kansas city , missouri . mamba opened in 1998 at a cost of 10 million usd .\na black mamba (\ndendroaspis polylepis\n) , is a venomous snake .\njameson\u2019s mamba will chase its prey , and once it catches it , it will strike repeatedly until the prey is dead , and then consume it . it\u2019s prey of choice is usually birds ( since , y\u2019know , they live in trees ) , but they will eat other animals such as mice , lizards , and bats .\nit is not advisable to utilize subcutaneous or intra - dermal testing for sensitivity to equine products in that such testing may be unreliable , and may unneces - sarily delay antivenom therapy which must be used if any signs of jameson ' s mamba envenomation are present .\nthe mamba is a semi - automatic pistol developed in rhodesia and later produced in south africa , intended for military and police duty . it is named after the mamba .\nthe black mamba is much more terrestrial than the other three species of mamba , but it readily takes to the trees in search of prey and to bask or seek shelter .\nsome properties and the complete primary structures of two reduced and s - carboxymethylated polypeptides ( s5c1 and s5c10 ) from dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae ( jameson ' s mamba ) venom .\njoubert f . j . , taljaard n . biochim . biophys . acta 579 : 228 - 233 ( 1979 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\n: jameson ' s mamba venom is dangerous and potentially lethal . the venom is principally neurotoxic because of the action of dendrotoxins and fasciculins . local effects include swelling and severe pain . possible systemic effects are headache , vomiting , abdominal pain , diarrhea , nausea , collapse or convulsions .\ncrisp , n . g . : ( to the editor ) black mamba envenomation . s . afr . med . j . , 68 : 293 , 1985 .\nthe genus dendroaspis contains all the species of mambas . there is the eastern green mamba (\nwestern green mambas are more alert , more poisonous then eastern green mamba and very quick .\nthe mamba\u2019s major predators are birds of prey such as the congo serpent eagle ( pictured ) . other predators are the honey badger , other snakes , and the mongoose .\nsnake venom toxins . the amino acid sequences of two toxins from dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae ( jameson ' s mamba ) venom .\nstrydom a . j . c . biochim . biophys . acta 328 : 491 - 509 ( 1973 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nsign up for a new account in our community . it ' s easy !\nthe primary structure of a short neurotoxin homologue ( s4c8 ) from dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae ( jameson ' s mamba ) venom .\njoubert f . j . , taljaard n . int . j . biochem . 12 : 567 - 574 ( 1980 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]\nsymtoms of envenomation : jameson\u2019s mamba venom is dangerous and potentially lethal . the venom is principally neurotoxic because of the action of dendrotoxins and fasciculins . local effects include swelling and severe pain . possible systemic effects are headache , vomiting , abdominal pain , diarrhoea , nausea , collapse or convulsions . neurotoxic paralysis is common .\nantivenom therapy is the mainstay of treatment for jameson ' s mamba envenomation . many of the symptoms are ameliorated or entirely eliminated by the antivenom alone . other symptoms will require additional therapeutic modalities . local symptoms may take several days to weeks to completely resolve ; their progression , however , may be controlled with antivenom therapy .\nfor a key to species abbreviations . comparisons between means were made using student ' s\nin july 2012 , mamba changed its name to wamba in order to keep expanding into new markets with a unified name . in many countries the domain \u201c mamba \u201d was already taken by storck , a producer of chewy sweets , so \u201c mamba \u201d had to create a new brand for the international market .\n: the jameson ' s mamba is a large species and adults reach a total length of 180 to 250 cm . the tail makes up approximately 25 % of the total lengh . these snakes have relatively long and narrow heads . the eyes are medium sized with a round pupil . dorsal scales are narrow , smooth and oblique .\ngeneral shape : the jameson\u2019s mamba is a large species and adults reach a total length of 180 to 250 cm . the tail makes up approximately 25 % of the total lengh . these snakes have relatively long and narrow heads . the eyes are medium sized with a round pupil . dorsal scales are narrow , smooth and oblique .\na graduate of the university of santo tomas , secretary mamba is a physician by profession . he is currently the presidential legislative liaison officer , with cabinet rank and a member of the cabinet . he is a son of the late congressman francisco k . mamba and mrs . estela novena mamba . he is married to attorney mabel villarica - mamba , a member of the board of directors of the philippine charity sweepstakes office .\nthe three species of green mambas are arboreal , whereas the black mamba is largely terrestrial . all four species are active diurnal hunters , preying on birds , lizards , and small mammals . at nightfall some species , especially the terrestrial black mamba , shelter in a lair . a mamba may retain the same lair for years .\nthe specific name\nangusticeps\nis derived from the latin word\nangustus\n, which means\nnarrow\nand\n- ceps\nis also latin and is derived from the word\ncephalicus\nwhich means\nhead\nor\nof or relating to the head\n, calling attention to the long narrow head of this species . in addition to being called the eastern green mamba , this species is also commonly known as the common green mamba , east african green mamba , white - mouthed mamba , or just simply the green mamba .\nis commonly known as the black mamba . you can learn more about this venomous snake as you read more !\ninhabits the eastern parts of the range . the species occur in angola , burundi , cameroon , cabinda , central african republic , democratic republic of congo , equatorial guinea , gabon , ghana , kenya , nigeria , rwanda , sudan , togo and uganda . jameson ' s mambas are usually found from sea level to altitudes of 2200 metres above the sea . jameson ' s mambas inhabits rainforests , woodlands and thickets . according to local people these mambas are quite often found near towns , within city parks and farms .\n? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )\nscottish spca chief inspector john carle said : \u201cthe green mamba snake is one of the most deadly snakes in the world .\nmamba bites may happen unnoticed , a swift contact is enough . bite victim may feel no pain , bite marks sometimes not even visible . if a mamba touched you with the head you should immediately get medical help ! venom can kill in minutes .\nreproduction : jameson\u2019s mambas are oviparous and the clutch consists of 6 - 17 eggs . males are known to combat , pressing each other onto the ground . combats may last for several hours . the actual mating takes place in trees with both male and female tails hanging down .\n: jameson ' s mambas are oviparous and the clutch consists of 6 - 17 eggs . males are known to combat , pressing each other onto the ground . combats may last for several hours . the actual mating takes place in trees with both male and female tails hanging down .\nclassification is organized into tiers , with each descending category becoming more specific to the organism . this is the classification for the black mamba :\n= 7 ) and nigeria ( mean = 86 . 7 % , s . d . = 8 . 03 ,\n= 7 ) and nigeria ( mean = 79 . 2 % , s . d . = 9 . 71 ,\nhematological symptoms may present as a disseminated intravascular coagulopathy , and are treated as are other dics . this , however , is rare with mamba envenomation .\nspawls , s . , branch , b . 1995 . the dangerous snakes of africa . blandford , london , 192 pp .\njameson\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s mamba is a swift , tree - dwelling predator that actively pursues small animal prey by day . it has been known to drop from a higher branch onto unsuspecting prey perched below , often falling to the ground with it . it kills its prey with venom before eating it .\ngoldberg , s . r . 2009 . dendroaspis jamesoni ( traill , 1843 ) reproduction . african herp news ( 50 ) : 27\nsee today ' s front and back pages , download the newspaper , order back issues and use the historic daily express newspaper archive .\nmambas are another group of snakes , they are more deadly , more venemous and swift - moving snakes then any other species . mambas are of four different types they are black mambas , eastern green mambas , western green mambas and the jameson ' s mambas . mambas are thin , terrestrial and light weighted snakes . mambas are mostly in green , brown and black in colour . mambas are mostly available in the continent of africa . mambas have higly toxic poison which can kill any large prey in few seconds , a mamba ' s bite can be very dangerous for human beings as it ' s poison mostly affects the heart and lungs of human beings . mambas mostly like to live in stems of trees and also in other places such as dense forests , rocky lands and in deserts .\nendemic to africa , jameson ' s mamba is mostly found in central and west africa , but it can be found in some areas of east africa . here , it lives in rainforests , woodland , forest - savannah , and deforested areas at elevations up to 2 , 200 meters ( 7 , 200 feet ) ! it is arboreal , more so than all the other mambas . however , it is very adaptable , and is often found in parks , buildings , farmlands , and generally anywhere there are people .\nthe american heritage\u00ae stedman ' s medical dictionary copyright \u00a9 2002 , 2001 , 1995 by houghton mifflin company . published by houghton mifflin company .\nchevy : you seem to have misread parts of c . j . p . ionides book ` ` mambas and man - eaters . ` ` he does mention orange and coral colored snakes , but he is talking about cobras , not mambas when he states this . we have to remember that he was working in africa between 1945 and 1965 , so all the modern sub - specific designations of the mambas were not known to him . he says on page 159 ` ` the three mambas i know , namely the black , the green and jameson ` s are all arboreal . ` ` he makes no distinction between the greens of east or west africa . later in the book he says ` ` the green is a beautiful mamba with an iridescent green back and a distinctly yellowish - green belly . for coloring and grace second only to the jameson ` s which is a wonderful velvety blue with dark green interspersed with black on the anterior portions and a black tail . ` ` this would seem to explain the blue mamba you mentioned . hope this helps johnz\nrenal symptoms are uncommon in mamba envenomation , but may complicate the situation , and if severe ( i . e . , acute renal failure ) may necessitate peritoneal dialysis .\nthe venom of jameson\u2019s mamba is highly neurotoxic , the main neurotoxins being dendrotoxins , but also contains cardiotoxins , hemotoxins , and myotoxins . symptoms of envenomation include but are not limited to : respiratory paralysis , drowsiness , restlessness , sudden loss of consciousness , vertigo , limb paralysis , ataxia ( sudden loss of control of body movement ) , shock , hypotension , nausea , vomiting , epistaxis ( bleeding from the nose ) , and a plethora of other things you really don\u2019t want to have ( and would take up too much space here ) .\nthe largest venomous snake is king cobra and the most venomous is a species of sea krait . they are closely related to the more tree - dwelling green mamba , which is just as deadly . both types of mamas are rear - fanged . rear - fanged snakes cannot fold their fangs back like rattlesnakes and others . the fangs are fixed much like those of a coral snake ; however , the black mamba ' s fangs are located in the rear of the mouth not the front .\nsaunders , c . r . : report on a black mamba bite of a medical colleague . cent . afr . j . med . , 26 : 121 , 1980 .\n= 0 . 022 ) between the mean decline of females ( mean = 81 . 2 % , s . d . = 8 . 071 ,\n= 0 . 045 ) between that of males from europe ( mean = 57 . 2 % , s . d . = 18 . 80 ,\nwith the nearest anti - venom for the green mamba bite in london , and no secure facilities available the decision was to put the animal down due to \u201chealth and safety concerns\u201d .\npitman , c . r . s . 1974 . a guide to the snakes of uganda . codicote , wheldon & wesley , l . , 290 pp .\n: mamba bites can cause severe , even lethal systemic ( paralytic ) effects . they require urgent assessment & treatment . admit at least overnight . instant antivenin therapy is the most important treatment .\n< p > this section provides information on the disease ( s ) and phenotype ( s ) associated with a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / pathology _ and _ biotech _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n( yes , there\u2019s so much i need another slide , that\u2019s how bad it is . ) after being bitten , death can occur 30 and 120 minutes , but may take up to six hours or more , for untreated bites . the mortality rate for untreated bites is unknown , but is said to be very high .\naeberhard , r . 2008 . dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae - haltung und erste erfahrungen mit der vermehrung von jamesons mamba . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 13 ( 70 ) : 31 - 36 - get paper here\ntreatment summary mamba bites can cause severe , even lethal systemic ( paralytic ) effects . they require urgent assessment & treatment . admit at least overnight . urgent antivenom therapy is the most important treatment .\ntreatment : mamba bites can cause severe , even lethal systemic ( paralytic ) effects . they require urgent assessment & treatment . admit at least overnight . instant antivenin therapy is the most important treatment .\n= 10 , range : 69 . 5\u201396 . 0 % ) and males ( mean = 63 . 8 % , s . d . = 19 . 22 ,\nlillywhite , harvey b . 2014 . how snakes work : structure , function and behavior of the world ' s snakes . oxford university press , new york , 256 pp\n= 0 . 243 ) between the magnitude of the decline of females from europe ( mean = 78 . 9 % , s . d . = 7 . 39 ,\nit ' s a dog eat dog world , take a look at these amazing cannibal animals , from a snake swallowing a kangaroo to a seagull eating a fellow bird .\na bright green coloration helps the animal to hide in the foliage of its native africa . an egg layer , the green mamba , has been observed feeding on birds , mammals , and the occasional reptile . once anti - venom was produced , the death rate from mamba bites has gone down but still remains a serious threat to humans as this animal and the growing human population come into contact with each other .\neach vial of s . a . i . m . r . polyvalent antivenom is packaged as a pepsin - digested purified liquid form , and is ready for immediate use .\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthe bite of the black mamba is deadly and will kill a human around 4 hours after receiving the bite . the venom is neurotoxic and cardiotoxic . if not treated the symptoms are but not limited to : the tightening of the chest muscles , blurred vision , mental confusion , and an overall feeling of great discomfort . biting and the threat display will only occur if the snake is not able to escape . an example of this would be a snake caught in someone ' s house with the owner trying to remove it with a broom . before antivenin was available the bite of a black mamba was always fatal .\nthe black mamba is in the kingdom animalia which contains all eukaryotic organisms that lack a cell wall , can\u2019t produce their own food , are motile at some point in their life cycle , and have flat mitochondrial cristae .\npauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . 2008 . les reptiles du gabon . smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp . - get paper here\n1 . it is possible for a jameson ' s mamba to deliver more than one bite in a single attack , and thus may inject a larger volume of venom . if there is evidence that such an attack occurred ( i . e . , history or multiple bite sites ) , the initial dose of antivenom should be 8 vials ( 80 mls ) given by direct intravenous infusion . give the antivenom at a rate of 1 vial ( 10 mls ) per 2 minutes . watch closely for signs of allergic response . give all subsequent antivenom doses in one vial incre - ments at a rate of 1 ( 10 mls ) vial per 5 minutes as necessitated by the presence of continued signs and symptoms of envenomation .\n< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nbandage and immobilize the bitten limb with crepe bandages and splint as described in the immediate first aid section . rest this extremity below the level of the patient ' s heart ( if practical ) .\nthey are aggressive snakes that spring up to strike so when someone gets bitten , it ' s usually on the head . black mambas also go after birds - and they ' re good at it . one mamba even had a parrot inside its stomach . after biting their prey , black mambas leave it to die . the venom is strong enough to kill prey in a matter of minutes so the snakes don ' t have to wait long for their meal .\nhave the south african institute for medical research ( s . a . i . m . r . ) polyvalent antivenom ready for the emergency crew to take with the victim to the hospital . give them the following :\ntraill , t . s . 1843 . description of the elaps jamesoni , a new species of serpent from demerara . edinburgh new . phil . j . , 34 ( 67 ) : 53 - 55 - get paper here\nkeep the victim calm and reassured . allow him or her to lie flat and avoid as much movement as possible . if possible , allow the bitten limb to rest at a level lower than the victim ' s heart .\nrain forest facts : one of the most feared snakes in africa , the green mamba , is capable of delivering a powerful neurotoxic venom to both prey items and would - be predators . this highly arboreal animal is thinly built to allow for ease of movement in the trees .\nvery slowly begin to remove the bandages and splint watching carefully for any changes in the patient ' s status . if any changes occur , assume the patient has been envenomed and prepare to give antivenom immediately ( as directed below ) .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\n: jameson ' s mambas are supposed to be quite nervous in captivity but the pair i have are relatively docile . however , they are very alert and will follow every movement . my mambas are active during they day and i often find them moving about in the branches . at night they hide in the trap boxes or plants . due to their agility and speed mambas can be a handful to handle . i use trap boxes when i need to move my individuals . if necessary i use tongs and / or hooks to maneuver them . captive breeding seems to be very rare . as far as i know only a few successful breedings have been recorded in europe .\ncarlino , p . & pauwels , o . s . g . 2015 . an updated reptile list of ivindo national park , the herpetofaunal hotspot of gabon . bull . chicago herp . soc . 50 ( 3 ) : 25 - 39 - get paper here\nwithdraw the contents of 4 vials of south african institute for medical research ( s . a . i . m . r . ) polyvalent antivenom . administer the antivenom i . v . piggyback at a rate of 1 vial ( 10 mls ) per minute .\ncaptivity behaviour and handling : jameson\u2019s mambas are supposed to be quite nervous in captivity but the pair i have are relatively docile . however , they are very alert and will follow every movement . my mambas are active during they day and i often find them moving about in the branches . at night they hide in the trap boxes or plants . due to their agility and speed mambas can be a handful to handle . i use trap boxes when i need to move my individuals . if necessary i use tongs and / or hooks to manoeuvre them . captive breeding seems to be very rare . as far as i know only a few successful breedings have been recorded in europe .\nneurological symptoms ( especially respiratory obstruction or failure ) tend to predominate the clinical picture in cases of mamba envenomation , and are usually the most immediate cause of dangerous problems . often , these are improved by the antivenom . if breathing becomes impaired , provide respiratory assistance . secretions may become copious necessitating suctioning or even intubation .\nnaja nigricollis has an extreme geographic range within africa . the morph we maintain and breed is the black , red bellied with a skin texture of a silky matt finish similar to that of a boelen ' s python . it should be understood that these snakes rarely spit .\nafter the first four vials ( 40 mls ) of antivenom have been administered , the splint and the bandages may be removed . this should be done very slowly over a period of five minutes to prevent a bolus release of venom . if the patient ' s condition worsens :\nenclosure : i recommend that jameson\u2019s mambas are kept in large spacious enclosures which have been equipped with branches and live plants . a few hidingplaces , such as trap boxes are required . i keep my pair in an enclosure 240cm wide , 120cm high and 80cm deep . i use two trap boxes , one in each side of the enclosure ( cold and warm ) . i\u2019ve never seen my mambas drink from the water bowl i keep on the floor in the terrarium . instead they drink water that has collected in their coils after they have been sprayed . the temperature during the day is 32\u00b0c on the warm side and 26\u00b0 c on the cold side and at night around 24\u00b0c . i keep the relative humidity at 75 - 85 % .\npauwels , o . s . g . ; kamdem toham , a . & chimsunchart , c . 2002 . recherches sur l\u2019herp\u00e9tofaune du massif du chaillu , gabon . bull . inst . roy . sci . nat . belgique ( biologie ) 72 : 47 - 57 - get paper here\nspawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here\n< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nas the name indicates , this is a nocturnal snake , which rests up under logs and in termitaria during the day . it has poor eyesight and hunts mainly by smell . although this snake is poisonous , it ' s venom is not very potent and causes mainly pain and swelling . there are no recorded deaths caused by this snake .\nblack mambas are snakes eight to ten feet in length . they are not actually black but more of an olive to a gray color . the ' black ' part of the name comes from the color of the inside of the snake ' s mouth , which is a purple black color . their belly color is normally gray or light green .\nimmediately wrap a large crepe bandage snugly around the bitten limb starting at the site of the bite and working proximally up the limb ( the full length if possible ) . the bandage should be as tight as one might bind a sprained ankle . ( see the attached copy from\nfirst aid for snakebite\n, by dr . s . k . sutherland . )\nthey can grow up to 14 feet ( 4 . 3 meters ) long , another reason why this reptile isn ' t something to mess with . the snake races along with its head held high and about one - third of its body off the ground . that can be up to four feet ( 1 . 2 meters ) off the ground - about chin level for some people . the black mamba is the most respected and feared snake in africa .\nthe fastest land snake in the world is the aggressive black mamba found in the southern part of tropical africa . you might have heard stories about this snake overtaking people on galloping horses but although these snakes are fast , they aren ' t that fast . they can reach top speeds of 10 - 12 mph ( 16 - 19 km / h ) in short bursts over level ground - good luck trying to outrun one of these snakes if you tick it off !\n< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the \u2018protein existence\u2019 evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this subsection of the < a href =\nurltoken\n> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nit is important to keep venom neutralization current and continuous . the best method to accomplish this is to keep a close watch on the patient ' s status . if the present condition does not improve , or should it worsen for any reason , additional antivenom should be administered . the antivenom should always be given by intravenous infusion at a rate of one vial per 5 minutes . give all additional antivenom in unit ( one vial ) doses .\nthe main importance of these findings is that snakes are top predator within the habitats they are found in and as such play a potentially important role in the functioning of many ecosystems ,\nsaid chris reading of the uk ' s centre for ecology and hydrology , who led the research .\nfor example they play an important role in pest control \u2013 small rodents [ like ] rats and mice - in areas such as paddies and sugar cane plantations .\nreticulated python is the world ' s largest reptile specie and also the longest snake ever existed . as it ' s a python it is non - venomous and it does not have fangs . these snakes grow upto 22 feet and weighs upto 75 kilograms . these monster snakes are found in the southeastern asia that is singapore , thailand , india , etc . these snakes mostly live in dense forests , swamp places and in the tropical areas these pythons are also good swimmers they can stay underwater for more than an hour . reticulated python mostly feed on rats , small birds , street dogs , chickens , cats and also human beigns . these snakes can even eat a healthy sized deer very easily and they mostly don ' t attack humans but they can eat them very easily . reticulated pythons squeeze their preys until they are dead due to suffocation . pythons can ' t move fast due to their heavy weight . these snakes have life - span upto 20 years .\n< p > this subsection of the \u2018entry information\u2019 section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called \u2018primary ( citable ) accession number\u2019 . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nin the snake world , the king cobra is one of the poisonous snakes . it ' s maximum size is upto 19 feet and weighs upto 5 - 6 kilograms whereas it is also one of the longest deadly snake . king cobras are mostly found in deep forests of south asian continent and in large numbers in india . king cobras are fearless and fast species compared to other snakes in the world . king cobra has multiple different types of shiny colours of scales the most common is olive green colour and the other colours are black , reddish and grey . the lower part of king cobras is mostly light yellowish colour . king cobras have excellent sensing power and they mostly attack their preys in day time . cobras mostly make the small preys as their food such as the rodents ( rats ) , small birds and lizards , some large cobras can even eat a prey double of their size . king cobras venom is very poisonous it ' s venom can kill an average sized human being in less than an hour .\n< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =\nurltoken\n> length < / a > and < a href =\nurltoken\n> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =\nurltoken\n> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\nthe snake study , published in the royal society journal biology letters , is the latest in growing number of research papers warning of widespread biodiversity loss in the uk and around the world . the international union for the conservation of nature has said that one third of amphibians and fish , one fifth of mammals and more than one in ten birds is threatened with extinction , and described the rate of loss as one of the great extinctions \u2013 the last being the events that wiped out dinosaurs 65m years ago . natural england , the government ' s countryside agency , reported in march that on average more than two species are becoming extinct in england every year .\nfunding was provided by naoc , aquater snamprogetti , t . s . k . j . , eni , chelonian research foundation , turtle conservation fund and conservation international ( nigeria ) , gran sasso - monti della laga national park , romanatura ( italy , cg79 , cnrs ( france ) , arc and dep ( australia ) . permits were issued by natural england ( uk ) , gran sasso - monti della laga national park ( italy ) and the federal department of forestry ( nigeria ) . field co - workers included f . m . angelici , c . anibaldi , d . capizzi , m . capula , e . a . eniang and o . lourdais , as well as many students and volunteers who cannot be cited .\n< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =\npublication\n> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =\nurltoken\n> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >\nelaps jamesoni traill 1843 : 53 dendraspis angusticeps dum\u00e9ril 1856 : 558 ( non smith ) dendraphis jamesoni g\u00fcnther 1858 dendraspis welwitschii g\u00fcnther 1865 : 97 dinophis fasciolatus fischer 1885 : 111 dendraspis jamesonii \u2013 boettger 1888 dendraspis welwitschii \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1895 : 529 dendraspis jamesonii \u2013 boulenger 1896 : 436 dendraspis angusticeps \u2014 boulenger 1897 : 280 dendraspis neglectus barboza du bocage 1903 : 44 dendroaspis jamesoni \u2014 schmidt 1923 : 131 dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni \u2014 loveridge 1936 : 64 dendroaspis jamesonii jamesonii \u2013 mertens 1941 : 280 dendroaspis jamesoni jamesoni \u2014 broadley 1991 : 527 dendroaspis jamesoni \u2014 welch 1994 : 55 dendroaspis jamesoni \u2014 chirio & ineich 2006 dendroaspis jamesoni \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 222 dendroaspis jamesoni \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 562 dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae loveridge 1936 dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae \u2014 pitman 1974 dendroaspis jamesoni kaimosae \u2014 dobiey & vogel 2007\nkaimosae : w kenya , uganda , rwanda , adjacent zaire ; type locality : kaimosi forest , near the friends\u2019 africa mission , kakamega district , nyanza province , kenya colony .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\ntype : bmnh 1946 . 1 . 20 . 43 ( and possibly additional specimens ) . type : mcz , nairobi museum , usnm , fmnh [ kaimosae ]\nvenomous ! synonymy ( partly ) after a . schmitz ( pers . comm . ) . has been reported from sao tome but records neen confirmation ( sch\u00e4tti & loumont 1992 ) . not in benin fide ullenbruch et al . 2010 . type species : elaps jamesoni traill 1843 is the type species of the genus dendroaspis schlegel 1848 .\naeberhard , r . 2008 . beobachtungen zum verhalten der gr\u00fcn gef\u00e4rbten mambas ( dendroaspis viridis , d . angusticeps und d . jamesoni kaimosae ) im terrarium . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 13 ( 70 ) : 26 - 30 - get paper here\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nbocage , barboza du 1903 . g . a . boulenger - batraciens nouveaux et reptiles nouveaux . j . sci . math . phys . nat . lisboa : 7 ( 2 ) : 62 - 64\nbocage , j . v . du b . 1866 . lista dos reptis das possess\u00f5es portuguezas d ' africa occidental que existem no museu lisboa . jorn . sci . math . phys . nat . lisboa 1 : 37 - 56\nboettger , o . 1888 . materialien zur fauna des unteren congo . ii . reptilien und batrachier . ber . senck . ges . 1887 : 3 - 108 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1897 . a list of reptiles and batrachians from the congo free state , with the description of two new snakes . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 19 : 276 - 281 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum , vol . 3 . london ( taylor & francis ) , xiv + 727 pp . - get paper here\nbroadley , d . g . 1991 . the herpetofauna of northern mwinilunga distr . , northw . zambia . arnoldia zimbabwe 9 ( 37 ) : 519 - 538\nbroadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]\nburger , m . ; branch , w . r . & channing , a . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of monts doudou , gabon : species turnover along an elevational gradient . california academy of sciences memoir 28 : 145\u2013186\nchifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .\nchirio , l . & lebreton , m . 2007 . atlas des reptiles du cameroun . mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .\nchirio , laurent and ivan ineich 2006 . biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 . - get paper here\ndobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here\ndoucet , j . 1963 . les serpents de la republique de cote d ' ivoire . acta tropica ( basel ) 20 : 201 - 259 , 297 - 340 .\ndum\u00e9ril , a . h . a . 1856 . note sur les reptiles du gabon . revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliqu\u00e9e , paris , ( 2 ) 8 : 369 - 377 , 417\u2013424 , 460\u2013470 , 553\u2013562 - get paper here\nfischer , j . g . 1885 . ichthyologische und herpetologische bemerkungen . v . herpetologische bemerkungen . jahrb . hamburg . wiss . anst . 2 : 82 - 121 - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1865 . fourth account of new species of snakes in the collection of the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 15 : 89 - 98 . - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1895 . notice of reptiles and batrachians collected in the eastern half of tropical africa . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 15 : 523 - 529 . - get paper here\nherrmann , hans - werner ; schmitz , andreas ; herrmann , patricia a . & b\u00f6hme , wolfgang 2007 . amphibians and reptiles of the tchabal mbabo mountains , adamaoua plateau , cameroon . bonner zoologische beitr\u00e4ge 55 ( 1 / 2 ) : 27 - 35 - get paper here\nhofer , d . 2002 . the s\u00e3o tom\u00e9 and princip\u00e9 handbook . d . hofer verlag , bern , 152 pp .\nhughes , b . 2013 . snakes of be\u0301nin , west africa . bull . soc . herp . france 144 : 101 - 159\njacobsen , n . h . g . 2009 . a contribution to the herpetofauna of the passendro area , central african republic . african herp news ( 47 ) : 2 - 20\nloveridge , a . 1936 . african reptiles and amphibians in the field museum of natural history . zool . ser . field mus . nat . hist . , chicago , 22 ( 1 ) : 1 - 122 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1936 . new tree snakes of the genera thrasops and dendraspis from kenya colony . proc . biol . soc . washington , 49 : 63 - 66 - get paper here\nloveridge , arthur 1929 . east african reptiles and amphibians in the united states national museum . bull . us natl . mus . ( 151 ) : 1 - 135 - get paper here\nmertens , r . 1941 . zur kenntnis der herpetofauna von fernando - poo . zool . anz . 135 : 275 - 281\nnagy , z . t . , d . adriaens , e . pauwels , l . van hoorebeke , j . kielgast , c . kusamba & k . jackson 2013 . 3d reconstruction of fang replacement in the venomous snakes dendroaspis jamesoni ( elapidae ) and bitis arietans ( viperidae ) . salamandra 49 ( 2 ) : 109 - 113 - get paper here\nota , h . & hikida , t . 1987 . on a small collection of lizards and snakes from cameroon , west africa . african study monographs 8 ( 2 ) : 111 - 123 - get paper here\nreading , c . j . ; l . m . luiselli , g . c . akani , x . bonnet , g . amori , j . m . ballouard , e . filippi , g . naulleau , d . pearson , l . rugiero 2010 . are snake populations in widespread decline ? biol . lett . 2010 6 777 - 780 ; doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2010 . 0373 - get paper here\nschatti , b . , & loumont , c . 1992 . [ a contribution to the herpetofauna of sao tome ( gulf of guinea ) ( amphibia & reptilia ) ] . zool . abhandl . staatl . mus . f\u00fcr tierkunde , dresden , 47 : 23 - 36\nschlegel , h . 1848 . over elaps jamesonii traillust . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 1 : 5\nschmitz a . , euskirchen , o . & b\u00f6hme w . 2000 . zur herpetofauna einer montanen regenwaldregion in sw - kamerun ( mt . kupe und bakossi - gergland ) . iii . einige bemerkenswerte vertreter der familien lacertidae , scincidae , varanidae , elapidae und viperidae . herpetofauna 22 ( 124 ) : 16 - 27 - get paper here\nsegniagbeto glazcano . h . , trape j . f . , david p . , ohler a . , dubois a . & glitho i . a . 2011 . the snake fauna of togo : systematics , distribution and biogeography , with remarks on selected taxonomic problems . zoosystema 33 ( 3 ) : 325 - 360 . doi : 10 . 5252 / z2011n3a4 - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\ntrape , j . f . & r . roux - est\u00e8ve 1995 . les serpents du congo : liste comment\u00e9e et cl\u00e9 de d\u00e9termination . journal of african zoology 109 ( 1 ) : 31 - 50\ntrape , jean - fran\u00e7ois & cellou bald\u00e9 2014 . a checklist of the snake fauna of guinea , with taxonomic changes in the genera philothamnus and dipsadoboa ( colubridae ) and a comparison with the snake fauna of some other west african countries . zootaxa 3900 ( 3 ) : 301\u2013338"]}
{"id": 1850, "summary": [{"text": "the eastern spiny mouse or arabian spiny mouse ( acomys dimidiatus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "they have a wide range , having been found in middle eastern deserts , as well as being prevalent in riverine forests in africa .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "this is the only species of spiny mouse which may have black coloration .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "their diet is similar to other species of spiny mouse , consisting mostly of seeds . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "eastern spiny mouse", "paragraphs": ["the eastern spiny mouse in captivity may have a lifespan of between 3 and 5 years .\nthe arabian spiny mouse is found in south - western parts of asia and north - eastern africa ( 1 ) .\ncairo spiny mice are also known as egyptian spiny mice , arabian spiny mice , greater wilfred ' s mice , or northeast african spiny mice .\nif it looks like a mouse , behaves like a mouse , walks like a mouse and eats like a mouse , it must be . . . a gerbil ! or at least , a close relative .\nbehavior / temperament : the domesticated eastern spiny mouse has a reputation for being docile and easy - to - handle . they rarely bite unless hurt or very frightened : the most common cause of biting is improper handling . a well - socialized eastern spiny mouse may enjoy climbing and exploring on their owner , though unfortunately they can\u2019t be \u201chousetrained\u201d and may urinate and defecate when being handled .\nomnivorous , it feeds on insects , spiders , snails and various plant materials and seeds . where its range overlaps with that of the golden spiny mouse ( acomys russatus ) , the two species may exploit the same food sources , with the cairo spiny mouse feeding during the night , and the golden spiny mouse , during the day .\nthe basics : named for the course , spine - like hairs on its back , the eastern spiny mouse is a unique option for those fancying a more exotic rodent pet . like the more common fancy mouse , the eastern spiny mouse is curious , dynamic , and interactive . they don\u2019t require a lot of room and are relatively easy to care for . they\u2019re a bit larger than the common mouse and less inclined to quick , darting movements , potentially making them a better option for older children who can handle them gently .\nas well as the spiny fur , which can act as a deterrent to potential predators , the arabian spiny mouse can easily shed its tail , either whole or in part , with no great impact on the mouse , a remarkable feature that can aid the mouse\u2019s escape from a predator ( 2 ) .\nthe eastern spiny mouse has the additional benefit of being a desert species \u2013 they drink less water and their urine may have a less pungent odor than other mice . in the wild , they can be found throughout africa , india , and the middle east . wild animals should never be taken as pets , so it\u2019s important to find a responsible breeder of domestic eastern spiny mice .\nin developing arid regions , the golden spiny mouse has become a small nuisance to agricultural fields that use drip irrigation . in particular ,\nthe egyptian spiny mouse usually produce two litters a year . gestation is about thirty five days and they may produce from 1 to 4 offspring .\nthe egyptian spiny mouse is a small rodent that has a possum - like face and a calm temperament . they are a golden brown color with light patches underneath their eyes and behind their ears . their spines can be black or tan . the overall size for a spiny mouse is 5 to 7 inches . spiny mice may live up to 5 years in captivity .\nthe gray mouse lemur , microcebus murinus , occurs mainly in dry forests in western madagascar , but its distribution extends into humid littoral forests in the south - eastern anosy region . we sequenced the mitochondrial hypervariable region 1 for 282 m . murinus individuals from 13 south - eastern study sites . the spatial distribution of mitochondrial haplotypes and the varying genetic distances within two haplotype clades indicated a trend of decreasing genetic diversity towards the south - eastern margin of the range . rufous mouse lemurs , microcebus cf . rufus , have a complementary distribution in south - eastern madagascar which does not overlap with that of m . murinus . taken together , the spatial distribution of genetic diversity within m . murinus and the distinct ranges of the two species could indicate a recent expansion of gray mouse lemurs into littoral forests in south - eastern madagascar .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - arabian spiny mouse ( acomys dimidiatus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - arabian spiny mouse ( acomys dimidiatus )\ntitle =\narkive species - arabian spiny mouse ( acomys dimidiatus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nfossil evidence suggests that the cairo spiny mouse ' s ancestors first appeared in africa , in the late miocene epoch about 5 to 11 million years ago .\npopulations are slowly increasing as human progress advances further into deserts and arid regions . this is because human habitation supplies additional food sources for the golden spiny mouse .\nthe cairo spiny mouse , which occurs across much of northern and eastern africa and the middle east , occupies the widest range of all the spiny mouse species . it favors arid rocky canyons and cliffs and gravel plains . it has also adapted well to human settlements , making its home in building crevices , rock walls , date groves and gardens . it appears to relish high temperatures , ranging from the mid 80 ' s to over 100 degrees fahrenheit .\nnote : care should be taken when handling a spiny mouse as the tail is very fragile and can be shed . once lost , it will not grow back .\ncommunication : the animal apparently relies heavily on chemical releases that serve as a primary communication cues for identification of littermates , weaning of offspring and interactions with other spiny mouse species .\nthe golden spiny mouse is a non - aggressive rodent . when in danger or alarmed , it outwardly projects its bristly spines in order to make itself appear larger to a predator .\nhaim , a . , f . rozenfeld . 1998 . spacing behaviour between two desert rodents , the golden spiny mouse acomys russatus and the bushy - tailed gerbil sekeetamys calurus . .\ncairo spiny mouse source : picture taken by olaf leillinger on 2005 - 08 - 13 license : cc - by - sa - 2 . 0 / de and gnu fdl . wikimedia .\ngolden spiny mice live in arid regions consisting of deserts and savannas dominated by rocky crevices .\nthe eastern spiny mouse is nocturnal and is an omnivore ( eats both animals and plants ) , specializes in eating hard - shell snails . it can often be found by the big pile of white empty snail shells it leaves on a rock - shelf or under a bush . an interesting mechanism , perhaps used for defense , is the ability to lose the skin tissue that connects the tail to the body and by that , lose the tail . as opposing to some lizards that do that , the spiny mouse cannot grow\nspiny mice can be housed in a wire cage or an aquarium . the floor of the cage should have a deep bed of shavings in which they can hide and nest . nestboxes or hide boxes may be used to create a suitable environment for a spiny mouse . spiny mice also enjoy playing on exercise wheels . spiny mice require a warmer temperature than most other mice because they have heat resistant fur that is not built to keep them warm in colder temperatures .\nthe cairo spiny mouse breeds throughout the seasons , with the female delivering several litters of two or three pinkies over a year ' s time . extremely maternal , especially just before delivering a litter , she has been known to steal another mouse ' s baby and to groom and nurse it . if she doesn ' t have a baby , she may try to groom an adult mouse .\nscientists at princeton university say the cairo spiny mouse may look like an old world mouse or rat , but it resembles a mongolian gerbil at the molecular level .\nfor mammals ,\nsay the scientists ,\nthis is the largest discrepancy known between a morphological and a molecular classification .\naside from full or partial tail detachment , the eastern spiny mouse has no specific health concerns . they may be susceptible to the same issues that fancy mice do , including respiratory infections ( from drafty situations ) , occlusion ( from overgrowth of teeth ) , bacterial infections ( from unsanitary conditions ) , and diarrhea ( from diet or stress ) .\ndifferent authorities classify african spiny mice into as few as 14 species and as many as 19 . the\ncharacterized by the harsh , inflexible spiny hairs of their upperparts . african spiny mice have large eyes and ears and scaly , nearly bald tails that are shorter than or about as long as the body . the\nappearance / health : the eastern spiny mouse is a small - to - medium sized rodent with an average length of 5 to 7 inches . their bodies are covered in short fur which , when stroked against the direction of the hair follicles , feels coarse and quill - like . their long , slender tails look bare but are actually covered in short bristles \u2013 and be careful : the eastern spiny mouse\u2019s tail can easily detach , an adaptation developed to escape predators . the have a long , pointed snout , large , black eyes , and large oval - shaped ears . the coat is a dark tan with black or grey tips , and white underside . there may be white patches on the backs of the ears . the tail is greyish - brown or buff .\nif attacked by a carnivore such as a caracal or a fennec fox , the cairo spiny mouse may readily forfeit quills and skin patches , and its tail - - the price it pays for escape . if captured , it makes the attacker pay a price for the meal . its spiny hairs are difficult to swallow and irritating to the throat of its predator .\n, but analyses of dental and molecular data suggest that the african spiny mice form a distinctive and separate subfamily , acomyinae . other african rodents proved to be close relatives of african spiny mice and were also reclassified in this subfamily ; these are\nback the tail and will remain with no tail for the rest of its life . the eastern spiny mouse is abundant all around the middle - east from sinai peninsula and arabia in the south to syria and lebanon in the north and south pakistan and iran in the east . it can be found both in the mediterranean and the desert habitats in rocky landscapes . it is less common to find it near human presence although it is not obligatory .\nvegetation changes throughout this region , from east to west , resulting in vegetation communities with varied appearance throughout the spiny thicket . parts of the spiny thicket are completely lacking in species of didiereaceae . alluaudia procera and a . ascendens dominate the eastern portions of the ecoregion . to the west , in the north , there are no emergent alluaudia spp . , but instead this area is dominated by didierea madagascariensis , dwarf baobabs adansonia fony , the very large pachypodium geayi , and delonix spp .\ngolden spiny mice are popular pets in parts of the middle east and can be a food source for pet snakes . spiny mice are easy to maintain and breed in the laboratory ( nowak 1999 ) . this has led to extensive biological and cancer research with these mice .\nthe arabian spiny mouse is thought to be present in a number of protected areas across its range , such as ein gedi nature reserve in israel ( 1 ) , but there are currently no known specific conservation actions in place for this species as it is not considered threatened at this time .\nthe cairo spiny mice eat nearly everything , even fiber mats . they are reported to have dined on the mummies in the tombs of egypt .\nhapke a . , andrianaivo t . b . d . , gligor m . , razafimahatratra e . ( 2012 ) range shifts of mouse lemurs in south - eastern madagascar : evidence from mitochondrial genetic data . in : masters j . , gamba m . , g\u00e9nin f . ( eds ) leaping ahead . developments in primatology : progress and prospects . springer , new york , ny\nis one of the smallest , with a body up to 10 cm long and a tail of less than 2 cm . depending upon the species , fur covering the upperparts may be gray , grayish yellow , brownish red , or reddish . black ( melanistic ) individuals occur in populations of the golden spiny mouse and the\nyoder ad , burns m - m , genin f ( 2002 ) molecular evidence of reproductive isolation in sympatric sibling species of mouse lemurs . int j primatol 23 : 1335\u20131345\neastern spiny mouse has coarse , dark tan and spine - like fur on the upperparts of the body extended from behind the shoulder onto rump . body color varies from pale - brown to brown in color on the upperparts especially mid - dorsum while the underparts and feet white . the ear is large with white patches . whitish suborbital region . tail long , slender , hairless except on closer inspection has short bristles , shorter than the head and body length , upper surface of the tail pale grayish brown and buff or white on the ventral surface . palm and sole of the feet buff and without hairs . claws whitish .\na new species of spiny mouse of the genus acomys ( rodentia , murinae ) is described . this species is distinguished from the three other palearctic species of acomys by its black coloration and in that the baculum terminates distally in a completely cartilaginous trifid rather than a bony or partly bony trifid as in the other species . a key to these species of acomys is provided .\nhousing : eastern spiny mice are best housed in glass aquariums with a mesh cover . as a desert animal , they thrive in warmer temperatures ( around 81 degrees f ) and if kept in a cooler environment , may benefit from the addition of a red heat lamp . the cage should be kept in an area free of drafts or direct sunlight . keep in mind that mice are nocturnal , so keeping their cage in a bedroom might result in unrestful sleep for the human occupants !\nweisrock dw , rasoloarison rm , fiorentino i , ralison jm , goodman sm , kappeler pm , yoder ad ( 2010 ) delimiting species without nuclear monophyly in madagascar\u2019s mouse lemurs . plos one 5 : e9883\nhead and face : the cairo spiny mouse has a sharply - pointed snout , large and erect rounded ears , and prominent black eyes . like all rodents , it has sharp chisel - like teeth - - especially the continuously - growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws - - that are well adapted for gnawing . around its nose and mouth , it has long tactile hairs which it uses to detect objects in darkness .\n. they are also found in southern turkey and on the islands of cyprus and crete . living in rocky , partially vegetated deserts , savannas , and dry woodlands , they den in rock crevices , termite mounds , or other rodents\u2019 burrows . the cairo spiny mouse has the most extensive distribution , extending from northern africa to the indus river ; it lives near or with humans in some parts of its range . the most restricted is\ntype for acomys kempi catalog number : usnm 182901 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : female ; adult preparation : skin collector ( s ) : a . percival year collected : 1911 locality : mount marsabit , n slope , eastern province , kenya , africa elevation ( m ) : 1402\nthe cairo spiny mouse , a social creature , lives in a familial group that often has a dominant male that fights for control . it ' s called by a number of names : a newborn or juvenile may be a\npup ,\nkitten\nor\npinkie ;\nthe female , a\ndoe ;\nthe male , a\nbuck ;\nand the group , a\nhorde ,\na\ncolony ,\na\nnest ,\nor a\nmischief .\nthis species has been recorded from northeastern tanzania ( amani ) and east central tanzania ( kilosa and morogoro regions ) , southeastern democratic republic of the congo , zambia , malawi ( on the nyika plateau ) , zimbabwe , eastern botswana , central mozambique and northern and northwestern south africa ( limpopo province , north - west province , gauteng and mpumalanga ) . it occurs up to 1 , 800 m asl .\nfossils of extinct species trace the ancestry of african spiny mice to the late miocene epoch ( 11 . 2 million to 5 . 3 million years ago ) in africa , where they probably lived in habitats not unlike the dry savannas in which existing species are found .\nhide - aways such as cardboard shelters and wood boxes should be provided for seclusion and privacy . toys such as obstacle courses and wheels are also recommended to keep the mice stimulated and active . wheels should have a solid floor and be big enough that your mouse can run with back straight .\nafter some five and a half weeks of pregnancy , she gives birth - - with no nest - - while she stands , often with the help of another female . the helper mouse may nurse the new mother ' s brood along with her own , an unusual behavior in animal species .\nmice enjoy chewing , and should always be provided with items to gnaw on to prevent tooth overgrowth . acorns , walnuts , and other hard nuts are acceptable for dental health and as a treat . the wood from fruit trees or wood sticks from the pet store are an option that won\u2019t add excess calories to your mouse\u2019s diet .\nall mice are naturally active and inquisitive , and a well - socialized mouse can be gentle and affectionate . they like to run , jump , and climb . they are primarily nocturnal , though they may wake during the day to forage and exercise . they are social creatures and are best kept in pairs or groups brought together while juvenile .\nmost information regarding reproduction in spiny mice has been discovered through studies carried out in captivity , as they can be hard to locate and study in the wild ( 2 ) . females give birth to a litter of up to five young following an approximate six week gestation period ( 3 ) , and it is not unknown for one female to help another with tasks such as cleaning and nursing ( 5 ) . the young are weaned after two weeks and may reach sexual maturity within two months ( 5 ) . spiny mice have a life expectancy of around five years in captivity , but in the wild this may be reduced to around three years ( 2 ) .\n\u2026old world rats and mice , african spiny mice , platacanthomyines , zokors , blind mole rats , and bamboo rats ) . other groups , however , cannot be classified with certainty and may or may not be a hodgepodge of unrelated genera and species ( new world rats and mice , dendromurines , and malagasy rats and mice ) . also unresolved\u2026\ntake up residence in terrain consisting of dried up river beds and hillsides strewn with boulders ( kronfeld et al . 1994 ) . here , they can squeeze between crevices and remain protected from predators . the color of their pelage further aids in blending into the arid landscape . spiny mice don ' t typically have a family home , but live in a small community with other\nyoung spiny mice are born in the presence of numerous females . these females will help the mother by licking and cleaning the newborn and disconnecting the umbilical cord . other lactating females will attempt to steal and adopt these young as their own . no fighting occurs , and this\npolicy\nseems to be understood within the species . thus in essence , newborns are the\nproperty\nof all nursing females within a community ( grzimek 1990 ) . the male ' s role is not significant . he can be found guarding a nest site and finding food during the first few post - natal weeks . parental care mainly occurs by the mother ( s ) in charge . within 3 months the newborns are on their own and sexually mature . typical lifespan is around 3 years .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nthis species lives in semi - arid or dry habitats including rocky and hilly areas , dry deciduous forest and scrub forests . it has also been found in agricultural land and even houses ( 1 ) .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthere are no known significant threats to this species , which is currently considered to not be at risk of extinction ( 1 ) .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ngenus a category used in taxonomy , which is below \u2018family\u2019 and above \u2018species\u2019 . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a \u2018binomial\u2019 latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . nocturnal active at night . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) . walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the john hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\nvarty , n . ( 1990 ) ecology of the small mammals in the riverine forests of the jubba valley , southern somalia . journal of tropical ecology , 6 ( 2 ) : 179\u2013189 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsee musser and carleton ( 2005 ) for details concerning the relationship between acomys dimidiatus and acomys cahirinus .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis widely distributed species ranges from the sinai peninsula of egypt , lebanon , syria , jordan and israel , through much of the arabian peninsula , southern iraq and iran to southern pakistan ( baluchistan and sindh at 300 to 1 , 200 m asl ) in the east of its range .\nthis species is common in parts of its range ( eg . israel and jordan ) . it was considered to be ' near threatened ' in the united arab emirates by hornby ( 1996 ) .\nthis species has been recorded from several semi - arid or dry habitats , including rocky areas and hilly soils in mediterranean woodland , dry deciduous forest and scrub forests . in egypt the species invades human habitations , and it can also be encountered in agricultural areas .\nit is presumably present in protected areas over much of the species range ( eg . ein gedi nature reserve , israel ) .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t136471a115208221 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\narmour jal , neumann r , gobert s , jeffreys aj ( 1994 ) isolation of human simple repeat loci by hybridization selection . hum mol genet 3 : 599\u2013605\n( rodentia : muridae ) in africa and asia . israel j zool 40 : 199\u2013214\n) from four montane wadis in the st katherine region of the sinai peninsula in egypt . parasitology 129 : 379\u2013398\ndawson da , horsburgh gj , k\u00fcpper c et al ( 2010 ) new methods to identify conserved microsatellite loci and develop primer sets of high utility\u2014as demonstrated for birds . mol ecol res 10 : 475\u2013494\nglenn tc , schable na ( 2005 ) isolating microsatellite dna loci . methods enzymol 395 : 202\u2013222\nkalinowski st , taper ml , marshall tc ( 2007 ) revising how the computer program cervus accommodates genotyping error and increases success in paternity assignment . mol ecol 16 : 1099\u20131106\nmyers p , espinosa r , parr cs , jones t , hammond gs , dewey ta ( 2006 ) family muridae . the animal diversity web .\nraymond m , rousset f ( 1995 ) genepop ( version 1 . 2 ) : population genetics software for exact tests and ecumenism . j hered 86 : 248\u2013249\nrousset f ( 2008 ) genepop \u2032007 : a complete re - implementation of the genepop software for windows and linux . mol ecol res 8 : 103\u2013106\nroyle nj , hill mc , jeffreys aj ( 1992 ) isolation of telomere junction fragments by anchored polymerase chain reaction . proc r soc lond b 247 : 57\u201361\nrozen s , skaletsky hj ( 2000 ) primer3 on the www for general users and for biologist programmers . in : krawetz s , misener s ( eds ) bioinformatics methods and protocols : methods in molecular biology . humana press , totowa , pp 365\u2013386\nalfadala , s . , dawson , d . a . , horsburgh , g . j . et al . conservation genet resour ( 2013 ) 5 : 519 . urltoken\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbedding or nesting material is essential . aspen shavings , corn cob bedding , or commercially available paper products are preferred , though paper strips , paper towels , cotton , tissue paper , and rags can provide additional bedding or nesting material . cedar and pine shaving volatile aromatic oils that can cause damage and irritation to the respiratory system , and should not be used .\nthe cage should be cleaned often to minimize exposure to ammonia and waste products . the frequency of cleaning will depend on the bedding used and the number of mice . to prevent disease , the entire enclosure should be disinfected at least twice a month .\nfresh water should always be available and best provided in hanging gravity bottle feeders .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nadult size and weight : typically , the animal ' s head and body measure roughly five inches in length and its tail , about four and a half inches ; its weight equals about one and a quarter to one and a half ounces .\ncolor and coat : its back is covered with a grayish brown coat and hedgehog - like bristles , and its belly , with light gray to white softer hairs . its coat helps dissipate heat and regulate body temperatures . its scaly tail has few hairs . threatened , the animal may spread its quills , making it appear larger and more formidable for an adversary .\nbody and legs : it has a plump body , short forelegs and long and powerful hind legs , which it uses for scurrying , hopping and climbing . it has dexterous forepaws , which it uses much like hands , facilitating its mobility .\nunlike most rodents , the newborn , weighing about two - tenths of an ounce , arrives active , fully furred and open eyed . growing rapidly , it will be weaned within about two weeks . it will reach sexual maturity and begin reproducing within some eight and a half weeks . it will continue growing for perhaps three years , and it may live for as long as five years , with males generally living longer than females .\nif the animal evades capture by sacrificing quills and skin patches or its tail , its blood clots exceptionally rapidly , minimizing losses and facilitating healing . however , its tail , which breaks off easily and painfully , never grows back .\nburton , m . , & burton , r . ( 1980 ) the new international wildlife encyclopedia ( purnell ) .\ndesertusa newsletter - - we send articles on hiking , camping and places to explore , as well as animals , wildflower reports , plant information and much more . sign up below or read more about the desertusa newsletter here . ( it ' s free . )\ndesertusa is a comprehensive resource about the north american deserts and southwest destinations . learn about desert biomes while you discover how desert plants and animals learn to adapt to the harsh desert environment . study desert landscapes and how the geologic features unique to the desert regions are formed . find travel information about national parks , state parks , blm land , and southwest cities and towns located in or near the desert regions of the united states . access maps and information about the sonoran desert , mojave desert , great basin desert , and chihuahuan desert , which lie in the geographic regions of arizona , california , new mexico , nevada , texas , and utah in the united states and into mexico .\ndesertusa is a comprehensive resource about the north american deserts and southwest destinations . learn about desert biomes while you discover how desert plants and animals learn to adapt to the harsh desert environment . find travel information about national parks , state parks , blm land , and southwest cities and towns located in or near the desert regions of the united states . access maps and information about the sonoran desert , mojave desert , great basin desert , and chihuahuan desert .\ncopyright \u00a9 1996 - 2018 urltoken and digital west media , inc . - -\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nis brittle and breaks off readily either as a whole or in part . the\n, is one of the largest , with a body up to 25 cm ( 9 . 8 inches ) long and a shorter tail of up to 7 cm . the\n) , possess the ability to slough off patches of skin when attempting to escape capture from predators . the wounds that remain , which may be painful in appearance , may shrink dramatically within the first 24 hours after the injury . they are covered over by new skin at a rate roughly twice as fast as for wounds of similar size and shape that might occur in adult rats .\nrodent , ( order rodentia ) , any of more than 2 , 050 living species of mammals characterized by upper and lower pairs of ever - growing rootless incisor teeth . rodents are the largest group of mammals , constituting almost half the class mammalia\u2019s approximately 4 , 660 species . they are indigenous to every land area except antarctica , new zealand , \u2026\nasy\u016b\u1e6d , capital of asy\u016b\u1e6d mu\u1e25\u0101fa\u1e93ah ( governorate ) and one of the largest settlements of upper egypt . it lies on the west bank of the nile river , almost midway between cairo and asw\u0101n . the irrigated nile river valley is about 12 miles ( 20 km ) wide at that\u2026\nmiocene epoch , earliest major worldwide division of the neogene period ( 23 million years to 2 . 6 million years ago ) that extended from 23 million to 5 . 3 million years ago . it is often divided into the early miocene epoch ( 23 million to 16 million years ago ) , the middle miocene epoch ( 16 million\u2026\nwe welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles . you can make it easier for us to review and , hopefully , publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind .\nencyclop\u00e6dia britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience .\nyou may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered .\nat the bottom of the article , feel free to list any sources that support your changes , so that we can fully understand their context . ( internet urls are the best . )\nyour contribution may be further edited by our staff , and its publication is subject to our final approval . unfortunately , our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions .\nour editors will review what you ' ve submitted , and if it meets our criteria , we ' ll add it to the article .\nplease note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors , and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ncorrections ? updates ? omissions ? let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article ( requires login ) .\nif you prefer to suggest your own revision of the article , you can go to edit mode ( requires login ) .\nour editors will review what you\u2019ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article .\nthis ecological site is preferred habitat for the threatened desert tortoise ( gopherus agassizii agassizii ) . creosote bush shrublands provides a home for an abundance of specialist insect species , for example , creosote bush flowers provide nutrition for over twenty species of bees , and the creosote bush grasshopper ( bootettix argentatus ) feeds solely on creosote leaves ( pavlik 2008 ) . a diverse assemblage of reptiles and mammals are likely to be found in this site . these may include ( based on habitat preferences ) :\nthis site may be used for hiking , wildflower viewing , and aesthetic enjoyment .\ncreosote bush is an important medicinal plant for native americans . it has a very wide range of uses from treatment for consumption , bowl complaints , and menstrual cramps , to induce vomiting , relief for arthritis , rheumatism , aching bones and sprains , congestion and cold , as an antiseptic and disinfectant , dandruff , antispasmodic , to induce urination , gonorrhea , and to cancer treatment . ( this list is not exhaustive ) . urltoken\ncreosote bush stems are used to make weapons , digging tools , and basket handles , and creosote gum is used for knife and awl handles . creosote bush branches are used as thatch in dwelling construction . urltoken\nthere are two major rock types in the ecoregion ; the tertiary limestone of the mahafaly plateau and the unconsolidated red sands of the central south and southeast . this geology corresponds to a major division in the habitat ( du puy and moat 1996 ) . the taller , dense , dry forest on the sandy soils is dominated by didieria madagascariensis , and the more xeric adapted vegetation on the calcareous plateau around lake tsimanampetsotsa is characterized by dwarf species .\nbiodiversity features the ecoregion has the highest percentage of plant endemism in madagascar ( jolly et al . 1984 , davis et al . 1994 , phillipson 1996 ) . forty - eight percent of the genera and 95 percent of the species occurring in the ecoregion are endemic to the island . some of the dominant forest species belong to the endemic family didiereaceae . there are 11 species and 4 genera ( didierea , alluaudia , alluaudiopsis and decaryia ) in this family . some of the endemic plants are extremely rare due to restricted ranges , such as aloe suzannae ( liliaceae ) and the palm , dypsis decaryi , as well as tiny euphorbia herbs , pachypodium spp . , and hibiscus shrubs exploited for the ornamental and nursery trades .\nthe harsh , drought - prone environment has produced extreme adaptations among the plants found here . woody species have long tap roots , swollen storage organs , and waxy caducus leaves . pachycaulous stems are common amongst the succulents , seen in adansonia , pachypodium , and moringa spp . spines are abundant among many plants , including the genera allaudia , pachypodium , mimosa , and didierea , and serve several functions . they protect the plants from moisture seeking animals and combine with large terminal leaves to reduce surface area and moisture loss . in fact , several euphorbia spp . have no leaves and conduct photosynthesis and respiration from the trunk and stems alone . other techniques used to deal with unpredictable rainfall include drying and reviving , toxic sap , and precocial flowering .\nthe red - shouldered vanga and long - tailed ground roller are recorded as\nvulnerable\nspecies on the recent iucn red list of threatened species ( iucn 2000 ) .\nas is the case in many reserves in madagascar , the reserves themselves are not well managed or protected . for example , cattle and goat grazing continues in the fragile coastal habitats of cap st marie , an area of heavy exploitation by succulent plant collectors . a priority - setting workshop held in 1995 identified the following sites as in need of immediate conservation : the region around lake tsimanampetsotsa , fiherenana region , cap st . marie , and the mahafaly plateau ( ganzhorn et al . 1997 ) .\ninvasive plant species , such as prickly pear ( opuntia spp . ) and the rubber vine ( cissus spp . ) , which is only a threat in gallery forest , have increased the degradation of the habitats , especially in disturbed forest areas . as in other regions of madagascar , the collection of endemic species of plants and animals for international trade poses a threat to the integrity of the habitats . illegal collection is a particularly significant threat for the populations of the two endemic species of tortoises and various species of succulent endemic plants .\nreferences cornet , a . 1974 . essai de cartographie bioclimatique \u00e0 madagascar . notice explicative no 55 , orstom , paris .\ndavis , s . d . , v . h . heywood , and a . c . hamilton . 1994 . centres of plant diversity , a guide and strategy for their conservation . wwf and iucn , oxford , uk .\ndonque , g . 1972 . the climatology of madagascar . in biogeography and ecology of madagascar , eds . r battistini , and g . richard - vindard , pp . 87 - 144 . the hague , junk .\ndu puy , d . j . , and j . moat . 1996 . a refined classification of the primary vegetation of madagascar based on the underlying geology : using gis to map its distribution and to assess its conservation status . in w . r . louren\u00e7o ( editor ) . biog\u00e9ographie de madagascar . pp . 205 - - 218 , + 3 maps . editions de l\u2019orstom , paris .\nganzhorn , j . u . , b . rakotosamimanana , l . hannah , j . hough , l . iyer , s . olivieri , s . rajaobelina , c . rodstrom , g . tilkin . 1997 . priorities for biodiversity conservation in madagascar . primate report 48 - 1 , germany .\ngoodman , s . m . 1996 . a subfossil record of galidictis grandidieri ( herpestidae : galidiinae ) from southwestern madagascar . mammalia 60 : 150 - 151 .\ngoodman , s . m . , a . f . a . hawkins , and c . a . domergue . 1997 . a new species of vanga ( vangidae ) from southwestern madgascar . bulletin of the british ornithologists\u2019 club 117 : 5 - 10 .\nhawkins f . , m . rabenandrasana , m . c . virginie , r . o . manese , r . mulder , e . r . ellis and r . ramariason . 1998 . field observations of the red - shouldered vanga calicalicus rufocarpalis : a newly described malagasy endemic . bulletin of the african bird club 5 ( 1 ) : 30 - 32 .\nhumbert , h . 1955 . les territoires phytog\u00e9ographiques de madagascar . in . colloques internationaux du c . n . r . s . , 59 : les divisions \u00e9cologique du monde . moyen d\u2019expression , nomenclature , cartographie . paris , juin - juillet 1954 . ann\u00e9e biologique , 3e s\u00e9rie , 31 : 439 - 448 .\njolly , a . , p . oberl\u00e9 , and r . albignac . 1984 . key environments : madagascar . pergamon press , oxford .\nlangrand , o . 1990 . guide to the birds of madagascar . yale university press , new haven .\nlowry , p . p . ii , g . e . schatz , and p . b . phillipson . 1997 . the classification of natural and anthropogenic vegetation in madagascar . pp . 93 - 123 in : s . m . goodman and b . d . . patterson ( eds . ) . natural change and human impact in madagascar . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c .\nmittermeier , r . a . , i . tattersall , w . r . konstant , d . m . meyers , and r . b . mast . 1994 . lemurs of madagascar . conservation international , washington , d . c .\nmorat , p . 1973 . les savanes du sud - ouest de madagascar . m\u00e9moires orstom 68 : 1 - 236 .\nmorris , p . , and f . hawkins . 1998 . birds of madagascar : a photographic guide . yale university press , new haven .\nnicoll , m . e . , and o . langrand . 1989 . madagascar : revue de la conservation et des aires prot\u00e9g\u00e9es . world wide fund for nature , gland , switzerland .\nphillipson , p . b . 1996 . endemism and non - endemism in the flora of south - west madagascar . pp . 125 - 136 in . w . r . louren\u00e7o ( ed . ) . biog\u00e9ographie de madagascar . editions de l\u2019orstom , paris .\nrakotomalaza , p . j . , and n . messmer . 1999 . structure and floristic composition of the vegetation in the r\u00e9serve naturelle int\u00e9grale d\u2019andohahela , madagascar . in a floral and faunal inventory of the r\u00e9serve naturelle int\u00e9grale d\u2019andohahela , madagascar : with reference to elevational variation . fieldiana : zoology , new series , 94 : 51 - 96 .\nstattersfield , a . j . , m . j . crosby , a . j . long , and d . c . wege . 1997 . endemic bird areas of the world . priorities for biodiversity conservation . birdlife conservation series no . 7 . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .\nsussman , r . w . , g . m . green , and l . k . sussman . 1994 . satellite imagery , human ecology , anthropology , and deforestation in madagascar . human ecology 22 : 333 - 334 .\nudvardy , m . d . f . 1975 . a classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world . iucn occasional paper no . 18 . international union of conservation of nature and natural resources , morges , switzerland .\nwhite f . 1983 . the vegetation of africa , a descriptive memoir to accompany unesco / aetfat vegetation map of africa . unesco , paris .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nthese communities are not evenly distributed , but located near food sources . in areas where human habitation exists ,\ncommunities are dense , especially due to agricultural food sources ( haim and rozenfeld 1998 ) . it has been suggested that , since\nare passive , through time they have been forced into living in arid environments due to competition / exclusion by other more dominant rodents ( kronfeld et al . 1994 ) .\nare light golden brown in appearance on the dorsal surface . the ventral side is white in color however , the entire pelage of this species is bristly with individual , non - prickly spines covering the animal . the bristles tend to be thicker and more abundant dorsally . the ends of the spines are black or grey which gives this species a more light brown appearance instead of bright gold . a single white patch is found below each eye and behind each ear . the dorsal sides of each limb contain a small white patch as well . average body and tail lengths are 7 - 15cm . and 4 - 13cm . , respectively ( grzimek 1990 ) . there is slight sexual dimorphism in size ."]}
{"id": 1856, "summary": [{"text": "wattebledia is a genus of freshwater snails with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family bithyniidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the generic name wattebledia is in honor of french malacologist gustave-\u00e9duard joseph wattebled ( 1844-1886 ) . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "wattebledia", "paragraphs": ["bithyniidae \u00bb wattebledia crosseana , id : 724133 , shell detail \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .\nwattebledia is a genus of freshwater snails with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family bithyniidae .\nwattebledia crosseana is a species of freshwater snail with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family bithyniidae .\n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : wattebledia crosseana ( g . e . j . wattebled , 1886 ) - id : 5202000097\nthe genera wattebledia and bithynia formed monophyletic clusters as well , but gabbia did not . the selection of neotricula aperta gamma strain ( in the same superfamily ) from genbank as the outgroup appeared legitimate as it clustered separately from other snails in family bithyniidae . increased taxon , geographic , and gene sampling would be worthwhile to further explore the two \u2018barcode outliers\u2019 and the ability of coi to infer geographic provenance and phylogenetic affinities in this group .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncitation : kulsantiwong j , prasopdee s , ruangsittichai j , ruangjirachuporn w , boonmars t , viyanant v , et al . ( 2013 ) dna barcode identification of freshwater snails in the family bithyniidae from thailand . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e79144 . urltoken\ncopyright : \u00a9 2013 kulsantiwong et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : the study was supported by the higher education research promotion and national research university project ( nru ) of thailand , and the office of the higher education commission , ministry of education of thailand and through the health cluster ( shep - gms ) , khon kaen university , thailand . jutharat kulsantiwong thanks the office of the higher education commission for supporting her phd program ( che ) in the department of parasitology , faculty of medicine , khon kaen university , thammasat university , and udonthani rajabhat university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nmolecular taxonomic methods have been used extensively to complement morphological approaches for species identification , and for establishing phylogenetic relationships [ 1 - 10 ] . particularly , species identification through dna barcoding has seen rapid adoption over the past decade . prior dna barcode studies have clearly established their effectiveness in the delimitation of animal species , and also contributed several advantages [ 11 - 13 ] . the ability of dna barcoding to identify all life stages has particular importance in medical parasitology , where it is not only important to identify the parasite and its final host , but also all its life stages and its intermediate hosts . thus , a multidisciplinary method of classification that includes morphological , molecular and distributional data is an essential prerequisite for understanding the epidemiology of any parasite - induced disease [ 7 ] .\nthe present study is the first to explore the application of dna barcoding in species identification in the family bithyniidae . we analyzed variation of the coi barcode region within 10 species / subspecies of bithyniidae using pairwise sequence comparisons . we then examined the effectiveness of dna barcoding in differentiating among these species .\neach snail was subsequently examined for trematode infections by testing for cercarial shedding twice within a week . prior to cercarial shedding , the snails were cleaned with dechlorinated tap - water . shedding was induced under 25 w electric light bulbs for 2 hours at room temperature during the day . for species that shed cercaria at night , black covers were used to achieve total darkness and snails were allowed to shed overnight . uninfected snails were soaked in phosphate buffered saline ( pbs ) containing antibiotics ( 200 unit / ml of penicillin and 100 \u00b5g / ml of streptomycin ) for 3 to 4 hours before extraction of dna to ensure that bacterial contamination was minimized .\neach snail was dissected to remove its soft body parts , and kept at - 20 \u00b0c until further analysis . each specimen was labeled , databased and imaged . all specimen records are in the project \u2018jut - mitochondrial dna barcodes identification for snail in family bithyniidae in thailand\u2019 on bold , the barcode of life data systems [ 38 ] .\ntotal genomic dna was extracted from whole snail tissue using methods similar to those in winnepenninckx et al . [ 39 ] . snail tissue was first homogenized in lysis buffer ( 2 % w / v cetyltri - ammonium bromide ; ctab , 1 . 4 m nacl , 0 . 2 % v / v \u03b2 - mercaptoethanol , 20 mm edta , 100 mm trishcl ph 8 , 0 . 2 mg / ml proteinase k ) , and then incubated at 55 \u00b0c for 6 hours . subsequently , proteins were precipitated using phenol / chloroform ( 1 : 1 ) once , followed by phenol / chloroform / isoamylalcohol ( 25 : 24 : 1 ) , centrifuged at 13 , 000 g for 10 min ( 4 \u00b0c ) twice , and finally washed with chloroform ( 1 : 1 ) . the upper aqueous layer was removed , and dna was precipitated in isopropanol ( 2 : 3 v / v ) , mixed gently by inverting the tube a few times , put on ice for 15 min , and then spun in a microcentrifuge at 13 , 000 g for 5 min . after centrifugation , the supernatant was discarded ; the dna pellets were washed in 75 % absolute ethanol , and centrifuged at 13 , 000 g for 5 min . after air - drying , the dna pellet was re - suspended in te buffer ( 10 mm tris , 1mm edta , ph 8 . 0 ) and stored at - 20 \u00b0c until analysis . the dna concentration and purity were estimated by spectrophotometer ( nanovue , ge healthcare uk limited , buckinghamshire , uk ) at an absorbance of 260 and 280 nm wavelengths . the extracted genomic dna was then diluted to a working concentration of 10 ng / \u00b5l .\nforward and reverse dna sequences were assembled , and edited using chromas version 2 . 23 [ 46 ] , bioedit v . 5 . 0 . 6 [ 47 ] and codoncode v . 3 . 01 ( codoncode corporation , dedham , ma ) . alignment and homology analysis were performed using clustal x v . 1 . 8 [ 48 ] and mega 4 [ 49 ] with pairwise nucleotide sequence divergences calculated using the kimura 2 - parameter ( k2p ) model [ 50 ] . base composition and distance summaries were obtained using the tools provided on the bold workbench ( www . boldsystems . org ) [ 38 ] , but only sequences \u2265 350 bp were included in the analysis . a neighbour - joining ( nj ) tree was also created using bold to provide a preliminary display of the sequence divergences .\npairwise distances ( k2p ) for coi sequences from snail species in the family bithyniidae separated into two categories : ( a ) intraspecific ; ( b ) interspecific .\nthe high intraspecific divergences in w . crosseana and g . wykoffi could indicate the presence of previously unrecognized cryptic species . dna barcoding has proven invaluable at detecting cryptic species , which in many cases , are subsequently corroborated by life history , morphological or other character sets [ 51 - 54 ] . for these two snail species , the clusters represent allopatric populations with no apparent morphological differences , so it is currently unclear if they represent merely isolated populations or separate entities with differences yet to be revealed . conversely , the sharing of identical barcode sequence in g . pygmaea and one northern thailand population of g . wykoffi may be indicative of introgressive hybridization , incomplete lineage sorting , misidentification , or a previously unrecognized synonymy . further investigations into these groups are necessary to untangle and confirm these predictions and the use of more holistic approaches to delimit species boundaries will be beneficial .\nan important finding in the present study is that the three first intermediate hosts ( b . s . siamensis , b . s . goniomphalos and b . funiculata ) of southeast asian liver fluke can all be distinguished by coi barcodes . all three taxa of bithynia sp . form monophyletic clusters , with 1 . 5 % divergence between the two subspecies of b . siamensis and both subspecies had 7 . 1 % divergence from b . funiculata ( table 3 ) . because the two subspecies of b . siamensis are morphologically indistinguishable , the capacity of dna barcoding to discriminate them is significant . moreover , morphological similarity has created taxonomic confusion and difficulties in the accurate identification of b . s . siamensis and b . s . goniomphalos which are currently believed to be distributed in the north , central , south and northeast of thailand [ 26 , 29 , 36 - 38 ] . as well , the capacity to rapidly diagnose all stages of the host\u2019s life cycle is essential for better understanding of the epidemiology of this parasite - induced disease .\nneighbour - joining tree ( k2p ) for 10 species / subspecies of snails in the family bithyniidae .\nthe number of individuals for each branch is given in parentheses . a detailed version of this tree , including locality information , is provided in figure s1 .\nsimilar studies which have also been reported in other organisms [ 52 - 59 ] , yet over all dna barcoding has proven reliable in identifying species in more than 90 % of the organisms investigated [ 60 ] . the neighbour - joining tree and me analysis also revealed that in general , individuals tended to cluster in accordance with collection localities ( supporting information , figure s1 , s2 ) . the results from me analysis were very similar to the neighbor - joining analysis so the latter was used to generate diagrams .\nin summary , the present study has studied genetic - variation in ten species / subspecies of bithyniidae from thailand using coi . sequence divergences were lower for intraspecific than congeneric comparison . using coi , 80 % of the studied snail taxa could accurately identified . in comparison with other methods for identifying snails in this family , dna barcoding is quicker , easier and more applicable , it is suitable for young snail identification which will be beneficial for understanding the epidemiology of opisthorchiasis transmission .\nneighbour - joining tree ( distance model : kimura - 2 - parameter ) of profile and test taxa ; includes a list of bold with process id , taxa names , length of sequence and locality .\nminimum evolution tree ( me ) of 218 coi sequences of 10 species / subspecies of snails in the family bithyniidae . the number of individuals for each branch is given in parentheses .\nwe thank the staffs of the biodiversity institute of ontario , university of guelph , ontario , canada , especially mr . sean prosser for providing technical advice . dr . jeff webb aided with data analysis , while dr . jeremy r . dewaard provided valuable comments on the manuscript . we also thank assistant professor dr . pairat tarbsripair , the malacologist who confirmed our identification species of the specimens . fieldwork that provided the basis for this work would not have been completed without the gracious support from dr . pairat tarbsripair , dr . supawadee piratae , dr . panita khampoosa , chalermlap donthaisong , patpicha arunsan , dr . apiporn suwannatrai , and kulwadee suwannatrai .\nconceived and designed the experiments : jk st wr tb vv jr . performed the experiments : jk . analyzed the data : jk sp jr tb pp . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : jk sp pp pdnh . wrote the manuscript : jk st vv pp pdnh . collected specimens : sp . commentation : wr tb .\nthomas w , davis gm , chen ce , zhou xn , zeng px et al . 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( 1994 ) parasite - associated morbidity : liver fluke infection and bile duct cancer in northeast thailand . int j parasitol 24 : 833 - 843 . doi :\nvatanasapt v , parkin dm , sriamporn s ( 2000 ) epidemiology of liver cancer in thailand . in : v . vatanasaptb . sripa . liver cancer in thailand : epidemiology , diagnosis and control . khon kaen , thailand : siriphan press . pp . 3 - 6 .\nwatanapa p , watanapa wb ( 2002 ) liver fluke - associated cholangiocarcinoma . br j surg 89 : 962 - 970 . doi :\nhonjo s , srivatanakul p , sriplung h , kikukawa h , hanai s et al . ( 2005 ) genetic and environmental determinants of risk for cholangiocarcinoma via\nin a densely infested area in nakhon phanom , northeast thailand . int j cancer 117 : 854 - 860 . doi :\nbrandt ram ( 1974 ) the non - marine aquatic mollusca of thailand . archiv mollusken 105 : 1 - 423 .\ntropmed technical group ( 1986 ) snails of medical importance in southeast asia . southeast asian j trop med public health 17 : 282 - 322 . pubmed :\nsri - aroon p , butraporn p , limsomboon j , kerdpuech y , kaewpoolsri m et al . ( 2005 ) freshwater mollusks of medical importance in kalasin province , northeast thailand . southeast asian j trop med public health 36 : 653 - 657 . pubmed :\nrollinson d , stothard jr , jones cs , lockyer ae , de souza cp et al . ( 1998 ) molecular characterization of intermediate snail hosts and the search for resistance genes . mem inst oswaldo cruz 93 : 111 - 116 . doi :\n( motschulsky ) ( coleoptera : dytiscidae ) . syst entomol 30 : 499 - 509 . doi :\nrojo s , stahls g , perez - banon c ( 2006 ) testing molecular barcodes : invariant mitochondrial dna sequences vs . the larval and adult morphology of west palaearctic\nspecies ( diptera : syrphidae : paragini ) . eur j entomol 103 : 443 - 458 .\npuillandre n , strong ee , bouchet p , boisselier mc , couloux a et al . ( 2009 ) identifying gastropod spawn from dna barcodes : possible but not yet practicable . mol ecol resour 9 : 1311 - 1321 . doi :\nshufran ka , puterka gj ( 2011 ) dna barcoding to identify all life stages of holocycliccereal aphids ( hemiptera : aphididae ) on wheat and other poaceae . ann entomol soc am 104 : 39 - 42 . doi :\nchitramvong yp , upatham es ( 1989 ) a new species of freshwater snail for thailand ( prosobranchia : bithyniidae ) . walkerana 3 : 179 - 186 .\nchitramvong yp ( 1991 ) the bithyniidae ( gastropoda : prosobanchia ) of thailand : comparative internal anatomy . walkerana 5 : 161 - 206 .\nchitramvong yp ( 1992 ) the bithyniidae ( gastropoda : prosobranchia ) of thailand : comparative external morphology . malacol rev 25 : 21 - 38 .\nsri - aroon p , butraporn p , limsoomboon j , kaewpoolsri m , chusongsang y et al . ( 2007 ) freshwater mollusks at designated areas in eleven provinces of thailand according to the water resource development projects . southeast asian j trop med public health 38 : 294 - 301 . pubmed :\nupatham es , sornmani s , kitikoon v , lohachit c , burch jb ( 1983 ) identification key for the fresh - and brackish - water snails of thailand . malacol rev 16 : 107 - 132 .\nratnasingham s , hebert pdn ( 2007 ) bold : the barcode of life data system . retrieved onpublished at whilst december year 1111 from .\nwinnepenninckx b , backeljau t , de wachter r ( 1993 ) extraction of high molecular weight dna from mollusks . trends genet 9 : 407 . doi :\ncanadian centre for dna barcoding ( ccdb ) ( 2008 ) advancing species identification and discovery . available :\nfolmer o , black m , hoeh w , lutz r , vrijenhoek r ( 1994 ) dna primers for amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i from diverse metazoan invertebrates . mol mar biol biotechnol 3 : 294 - 299 . pubmed :\nivanova nv , zemlak ts , hanner rh , hebert pdn ( 2007 ) universal primer cocktails for fish dna barcoding . mol ecol notes 7 : 544\u2013548 . doi :\nivanova nv , dewaard jr , hajibabaei m , hebert pdn ( 2005 ) protocols for high volume dna barcoding . available :\nivanova n , grainger c ( 2006 ) pre - made frozen pcr and sequencing plates . ccdb advances , methods release no . 4 . available : .\n. ca / pa / ge / research / protocols / ccdb - advances . accessed 30 nov 2008 .\n. ccdb advances , methods release . retrieved onpublished at whilst december year 1111 from .\n. retrieved on . published at whilst december year 1111 from / pa / ge / research / protocols / ccdb - advances . accessed 30 nov 2008 .\nhall t ( 2008 ) bioedit sequence alignment editor for windows 95 / 98 / nt / xp . available : .\nlarkin ma , blackshields g , brown np , chenna r , mcgettigan pa et al . ( 2007 ) clustal w and clustal x version 2 . 0 . bioinformatics 23 : 2947 - 2948 . doi :\ntamura k , dudley j , nei m , kumar s ( 2007 ) mega4 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis ( mega ) software version 4 . 0 . mol biol evol 24 : 1596 - 1599 . available :\nkimura m ( 1980 ) a simple method for estimating evolutionary rates of base substitutions through comparative studies of nucleotide sequences . j mol evol 16 : 111 - 120 . doi :\n. proc natl acad sci u s a 101 : 14812 - 14817 . doi :\nsmith ma , rodriguez jj , whitfield jb , deans ar , janzen dh et al . ( 2008 ) extreme diversity of tropical parasitoid wasps exposed by iterative integration of natural history , dna barcoding , morphology , and collections . proc natl acad sci u s a 105 : 12359 - 12364 . doi :\n( robertson ) species group ( hymenoptera , halictidae ) . zootaxa 2032 : 1 - 38 .\noxidase i and internal transcriber spacer sequences . int j parasitol 40 : 333 - 343 . doi :\nmeyer cp , paulay g ( 2005 ) dna barcoding : error rates based on comprehensive sampling . plos biol 3 : e422 . doi :\nmeier r , shiyang k , vaidya g , ng pkl ( 2006 ) dna barcoding and taxonomy in diptera : a tale of high intraspecific variability and low identification success . syst biol 55 : 715 - 728 . doi :\n( diptera : calliphoridae ) . proc r soc lond b 274 : 1731 - 1739 . doi :\nlinares mc , soto - calder\u00f3n id , lees dc , anthony nm ( 2009 ) high mitochondrial diversity in geographically widespread butterflies of madagascar : a test of the dna barcoding approach . mol phylogenet evol 50 : 485 - 495 . doi :\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\n( of bithynia crosseana wattebled , 1884 ) wattebled g . ( 1884 ) . description de mollusques in\u00e9dits , recueillis par m . le capitaine dorr , en cochinchine . journal de conchyliologie . 32 : 125 - 131 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 127 , pl . 6 fig . 4 [ details ]\nbrandt r . a . m . ( 1974 ) . the non - marine aquatic mollusca of thailand . archiv f\u00fcr molluskenkunde . 105 : i - iv , 1 - 423 . page ( s ) : 64 , pl . 5 , figs . 66 - 67 [ details ]\nabbott r . t . ( 1948 ) . handbook of medically important mollusks of the orient and the western pacific . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard college . 100 ( 3 ) : 245 - 328 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 281 [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndyer , e . , soulsby , a . - m . , whitton , f . , mcguinness , s . , de silva , r . , milligan , h . t . , kasthala , g . , herdson , r . , thorley , j . , mcmillan , k . & collins , a .\nthis species is known from several irrigation canals and reservoirs in thailand , including the lam ta khong reservoir in nakhon ratchasima ( tesana , 2002 ) and paddy fields and canals of several locations in chiang mai province ( ngern - klun 2006 ) , khon kaen province ( kittivorachate and yangyuen 2004 ) . further limited populations have also been found in nakorn sri thammarat province ( manning 1970 ) , surin province , and sriracha province . the species is also reported from close to the myanmar and cambodian borders , suggesting this species may also be found within these countries ( brandt 1974 ) , and there is a record from perlis state , northern peninsular malaysia ( malacology collection , academy of natural sciences , philadelphia ) .\n, including this species , was found to be the third most abundant mollusc in khon kane reservoir , with the highest populations occurring in june ( kittivorachate 2004 ) . in addition , this species was found to be one of the dominant species of mollusc at depths of around 8 m ( kittivorachate 2004 ) .\nfurther mollusc collections in chiang mai province found this species to be the second most abundant during the rainy season ( ngern - klun 2006 ) .\nthis species was collected from artificial reservoirs at a benthic depth range of 0 . 5 - 8 m ( kittivorachete 2004 ) . it has been found in cargo shipments to the usa , but has not become established ( perez\n2004 ) . a general molluscan survey of lam ta khong reservoir across three seasons found an extremely low density of this species ( tesana , 2002 ) .\nthere are no species - specific conservation measures in place . further research on this species is recommended to clarify its abundance , distribution , life history and ecology and threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nshell gallery view \u00ab shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . \u00bb conchological megadatabase on mollusks\nthe star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :\nwe want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .\nenter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .\ne - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .\nclick on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 2 . 636 seconds . )\nthailand . ban houy near udorn thani . ex coll . r . brandt . 12 october 1963 .\n\u00a9 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use this site you agree to our use of cookies . to find out more , see our\nj . nucl . energy , part c plasma phys . ( 1959 - 1966 )\nj . opt . a : pure appl . opt . ( 1999 - 2009 )\nj . opt . b : quantum semiclass . opt . ( 1999 - 2005 )\nj . phys . c : solid state phys . ( 1968 - 1988 )\n1 department of biology , faculty of mathematics and natural sciences , bogor agricultural university , indonesia .\nw priawandiputra et al 2017 iop conf . ser . : earth environ . sci . 58 012007\ncontent from this work may be used under the terms of the creative commons attribution 3 . 0 licence . any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author ( s ) and the title of the work , journal citation and doi .\nthis site uses cookies . by continuing to use this site you agree to our use of cookies .\nthe specific name crosseana is in honor of french conchologist joseph charles hippolyte crosse .\nbouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nabbott r . t . ( 1948 ) . handbook of medically important mollusks of the orient and the western pacific . < em > bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard college . < / em > 100 ( 3 ) : 245 - 328 ."]}
{"id": 1858, "summary": [{"text": "pao baileyi , the hairy puffer , is a species of pufferfish usually found in the rocky habitats , including rapids , of the mekong mainstream and its larger tropical freshwater tributaries . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "pao baileyi", "paragraphs": ["the following term was not found in genome : pao baileyi [ orgn ] .\nhow can i put and write and define pao baileyi in a sentence and how is the word pao baileyi used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528pao baileyi\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528pao baileyi\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528pao baileyi\u9020\u53e5 , pao baileyi meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\norigin of pao is from the local name of pufferfishes in thai and lao languages , pla pao and pa pao , respectively , with pla and pa meaning fish , and pao meaning purse .\npao baileyi is very aggressive against conspecifics . so one should keep these puffers solitary and put pairs together only for breeding purposes . the hardness and ph of the water is of no meaning , but this puffer needs clean , oxygen - rich water .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 12 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 43281 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 . head and body usually sparsely or densely covered with epidermal outgrowths or cirri ( may be missing in specimens smaller than 3 cm sl ) ; body entirely without scales ; abdomen of live fish golden or orange with no other markings ( ref . 47661 ) .\nfound mainly in rocky habitats including rapids of the mekong mainstream and its larger tributaries ( ref . 27661 ) .\nroberts , t . r . , 1998 . freshwater fugu or pufferfishes of the genus tetraodon from the mekong basin , with descriptions of two new species . ichthyol . res . 45 ( 3 ) : 225 - 234 . ( ref . 27661 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5001 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02754 ( 0 . 01256 - 0 . 06040 ) , b = 2 . 88 ( 2 . 70 - 3 . 06 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njuffe bignoli , d . , parenti , l . & vidthayanon , c .\njustification : this species is found in the mekong basin in lao pdr and thailand where it covers a wide geographic range . current population trends is unknown . planned dams in the mainstream may pose a threat to this species in the future . however , based on current available information it is listed as least concern .\n1997 , roberts 1998 , kottelat 2001 ) . it is also possibly present in cambodia as it has been collected near the cambodia border ( m . kottelat pers . comm . 2011 ) ; vidthayanon ( 2005 ) shows presence in cambodia in the mekong above phnom penh , without details .\nthis species inhabits rocky rapids of the mekong mainstream and its larger tributaries . the species is elusive and may be under - reported .\narrive at khone falls at start of hydrological year ( oct - nov ) ( baran et al . 2005 ) .\nplanned dams in the mainstream of the mekong , as well as existing and proposed dams on many of its tributaries within the species range , are potential threats to this species . this will cause habitat degradation , disruption of the natural flood / drought cycle of the river , and changed levels of sedimentation and dissolved oxygen . pollution from a range of sources may also impact the species in parts of its range .\nthe species has been assessed as ' endangered ' in thailand due to habitat loss ( vidthayanon 2005 ) . jenkins\n( 2011 ) considered the species ' vulnerable at the global scale due to population declines inferred from habitat loss .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis variability is connected with the unique lifestyle of the fish . they imitate stones ! the puffer sucks with its belly to the ground . now the function of the beard becomes obvious : this beard imitates algae growing on a stone ! if a fish or a shrimp comes along and tries to feed aufwuchs or algae from the surface of that \u201cstone\u201d , it becomes prey of the pufferfish . so a comparably bad swimmer like a pufferfish can survive in the strong current of rapids with a minimum of energy .\nfor our customers : the animals have code 461254 on our stocklist . please note that we exclusively supply the wholesale trade . available in limited numbers only !\nas each month we present the top 5 fish imports sponsored by aquarium glaser ! first place - paracaridina zijinica for the first time we can offer the very pretty , black - and - white\nmustang shrimp\n. the dwarf shrimps belong - according to the . . . read the full article . . .\nurltoken offers up - to - date information and background reports about aquaristics , terraristics , vivaristics .\nas known from world ' s famous aqualog and terralog reference books , our goal is to offer a photo and information about the care and breeding of every tropical fish . in close co - operation with the highly renown wholesaler aquarium glaser , we always extend and update our ornamental fish lexicon with new varietys , rarities und imports .\nour blog features many exciting news ; natural habitats as well as respective biotope tanks and aquarium plants will be presented . in additon , we cover topics for experts such as biology , technology and how to breed all kind of species .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nwelcome to our website . if you continue to browse and use this website you are agreeing to comply with and be bound by the following terms and conditions of use . 1 . the content of the pages of this website is for your general information and use only . it is subject to change without notice . 2 . neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy , timeliness , performance , completeness or suitability of the information and materials found or offered on this website for any particular purpose . you acknowledge that such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law . 3 . the fish photos in this website are all under the cc ( creative commons ) license . you should denote\nurltoken\nif you use our photos in your books , websites , etc .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nwords showing in red are transliteration ( naqal e hurfi - \u0646\u0642\u0644 \u062d\u0631\u0641\u06cc ) of your search .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhead and body usually sparsely or densely covered with epidermal outgrowths or cirri ( may be missing in specimens smaller than 3 cm sl ) ; body entirely without scales ; abdomen of live fish golden or orange with no other markings ( ref . 47661 ) .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 17 . 10 . 00 , php script by rolavides , 13 / 03 / 08 , last modified by sortiz , 06 . 27 . 17"]}
{"id": 1863, "summary": [{"text": "epicephala mirivalvata is a moth of the gracillariidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in fujian and hainan , china .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the larvae feed on breynia fruticosa and breynia rostrata . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "epicephala mirivalvata", "paragraphs": ["statistics of eggs laid by epicephala mirivalvata on breynia female flowers at three locations .\nepicephala mirivalvata zhang , hu , wang & li , 2012 , sp . nov . - plazi treatmentbank\nannual fruit stage of breynia fruticosa and life history of epicephala lativalvaris and e . mirivalvata in yingge mountain of hainan , china .\nannual fruit stage of breynia fruticosa and epicephala rostrata , and life history of e . lativalvaris and e . mirivalvata in tianzhu mountain and wanshi botanical garden of xiamen , china .\nstatistics of oviposition scars made by epicephala lativalvaris on breynia fruits at five locations .\nepicephala moths sucking nectar on female flowers of breynia fruticosa ( a ) and b . rostrata ( b ) .\nin hainan , b . fruticosa has six fruit periods per year , lasting from the first period in early january to the sixth period in late november . epicephala lativalvaris and e . mirivalvata have six generations correspondingly , lasting from the first generation in middle january to the sixth generation in late december ( table s1 ) .\na single larva of both e . lativalvaris and e . mirivalvata needs to consume all six seeds within a fruit to develop into maturity . mature larvae ( the last instar ) gnawed a hole in the fruit wall and exited , then produced cocoons and turned into pupae on leaves of hosts or the ambient plants . pupal stage of e . lativalvaris lasted 9\u201315 days , and pupal stage of e . mirivalvata lasted 9\u201312 days . adults of both epicephala species could survive 3\u20135 days by sucking nectar for nutrition ( figure s1 ) .\nepicephala lativalvaris collecting pollen grains on male flower of breynia fruticosa ( a ) and actively pollinating for breynia fruticosa ( b ) and b . rostrata ( c ) . e . lativalvaris inserting ovipositor through calyx lobe and ovary to lay eggs on b . fruticosa ( d ) and b . rostrata ( e ) . ( f ) egg of e . lativalvaris . e . mirivalvata laying eggs between ovary and calyx lobe on b . fruticosa ( g ) and b . rostrata ( h ) . ( i ) egg of e . mirivalvata . ( e ) egg .\nwe analyzed the coi genes of e . lativalvaris and epicephala sp . ex b . fruticosa [ 11 ] , and found that the pairwise distance between them is 0 . moreover , epicephala sp . ex b . fruticosa would leave scars on host flowers after ovipositing , which is similar to e . lativalvaris . based on the above information , we could conclude that the epicephala species pollinating b . fruticosa in kawakita and kato [ 11 ] is e . lativalvaris .\n( a ) e . lativalvaris with spine - shaped apex . ( b ) e . mirivalvata with blunt apex . ( o ) ovipositor . ( a ) antrum . ( db ) ductus bursae . ( cb ) corpus bursae .\nepicephala lativalvaris li , wang & zhang , 2012 and e . mirivalvata li , wang & zhang , 2012 are two small nocturnal moths that are distinctly different in morphology [ 17 ] . females have a different oviposition mode due to having a differently shaped ovipositor ( figure 5 ) . however , they obligately and jointly pollinated b . fruticosa in hainan and fujian , and pollinated b . rostrata in fujian .\nfigures 1 \u2013 6 . adults of epicephala spp . 1 , e . lanceolaria sp . nov . , paratype 3 ; 2 , e . lativalvaris sp . nov . , paratype 3 ; 3 , e . mirivalvata sp . nov . , paratype \u01a5 ; 4 , e . vitisidaea sp . nov . , paratype \u01a5 ; 5 , e . bipollenella sp . nov . , paratype \u01a5 ; 6 , e . eriocarpa sp . nov . , paratype \u01a5 .\nzhang , jing , hu , bingbing , wang , shuxia & li , houhun , 2012 , six new species of epicephala meyrick , 1880 ( lepidoptera : gracillariidae ) associated with phyllanthaceae plants , zootaxa 3275 , pp . 43 - 54 : 48 - 49\nfigures 7 \u2013 12 . male genitalia of epicephala spp . 7 , e . lanceolaria sp . nov . , paratype , slide no . bhy 08332 ; 8 , e . lativalvaris sp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 10007 ; 9 , e . mirivalvata sp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 10080 ; 10 , e . vitisidaea sp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 10041 ; 11 , e . bipollenella sp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 10056 ; 12 , e . eriocarpa sp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 11038 .\ncitation : zhang j , wang s , li h , hu b , yang x , wang z ( 2012 ) diffuse coevolution between two epicephala species ( gracillariidae ) and two breynia species ( phyllanthaceae ) . plos one 7 ( 7 ) : e41657 . urltoken\nepicephala adults repeatedly rubbed proboscis against stigma to deposit pollen grains on all stigmas ( figure 2 : b , c ) . they would pace back and forth to pollinate all flowers on one branch , and female flowers were pollinated in this way as to pollinate most efficiently .\n( a ) the maximum - parsimonious tree of epicephala moths ( length , 486 ; ci = 0 . 519 ; ri = 0 . 518 ) . ( b ) the maximum - likelihood tree of epicephala moths ( - ln likelihood = 1628 . 20777 ; transition / transversion ratio = 2 ; empirical frequencies : a = 0 . 29923 , c = 0 . 16930 , g = 0 . 14101 , t = 0 . 39046 ) . numbers above branches are bootstrap values . red branches refer to the species involved in this study .\nwe observed epicephala moths during full anthesis and recorded their visiting behavior in detail , with particular attention paid to their nocturnal activities . we recorded the time that the moths spent on pollination , oviposition and pollen collection , and observed how they used their proboscis to collect pollen and pollinate flowers , and where they oviposited . we collected developing and mature fruits and put them in a cylindrical plastic box ( 8 . 5 cm\u00d712 . 0 cm ) to rear epicephala larvae . we then recorded how and when the larvae left fruits to cocoon and emerge .\nadult specimens examined in this study were collected from their hosts or reared from fruits in captivity . dissection of female flowers of breynia plants and female genitalia of epicephala moths was conducted under an olympus sz11 stereo - microscope . photographs were taken with a canon g10 digital camera in the field and the illustration of genitalia were prepared with an olympus c\u20137070 wide zoom digital camera .\nwe extracted genomic dna of epicephala moths from the fruits we reared , and extracted genomic dna of b . rostrata from silica - gel dried leaves collected in tianzhu mountain , fujian . the method of dna extraction followed the ctab procedure [ 19 ] . we pcr - amplified the coi gene fragments using primers lepf1 and lepr1 [ 20 ] , and pcr - amplified the matk gene fragments using primers 570f and 1710r [ 21 ] .\nmale flowers of b . fruticosa ( a ) and b . rostrata ( b ) with stamens concealed in calyxe which can be visited by epicephala moths only . female flowers ( c ) and fruit ( d ) of b . fruticosa with excurved stigmas and discal calyx sepals . female flowers ( e ) and fruit ( f ) of b . rostrata with stigmas erect and reflexed calyx sepals . ( cs ) calyx sepals . ( s ) stigma .\nthe presence of oviposition scars and eggs on fruits was considered to have a one\u2013to\u2013one correspondence [ 11 ] . we randomly examined 23 flowers in hainan ( yingge mountain ) and 179 flowers in fujian ( tianzhu mountain and wanshi botanical garden ) to search for eggs ( table s3 ) ; and randomly examined oviposition scars on 1162 fruits in hainan ( yingge mountain , wuzhi mountain and jianfeng mountain ) and 974 fruits in fujian ( tianzhu mountain and wanshi botanical garden ) to acquire the egg amount of epicephala moths ( table s4 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnot stated ,\ntwo perfect types\n, ansp ( busck 1903 : 191 ) ; 2 syntypes ex coll . clemens , ex coll . stainton , bmnh ; 1 syntype ex coll . chambers , ex coll . stainton , bmnh .\nclemens , b . 1859 . contribution to american lepidopterology . - no . 2 - proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia [ 1859 ] : 317\u2013328 .\nhandfield , l . 2002 . additions , corrections et radiations \u00e0 la liste des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res du qu\u00e8bec . - fabreries 27 ( 1 ) : 1\u201346 .\npohl , g . r . , landry , j . - f . , schmidt , b . c . , lafontaine , j . d . , troubridge , j . t . , macaulay , a . d . , van nieukerken , e . j . , dewaard , j . r . , dombroskie , j . j . , klymko , j . , nazari , v . & stead , k . 2018 . annotated checklist of the moths and butterflies ( lepidoptera ) of canada and alaska . - \u2014 : 1\u2013580 .\nszab\u00f3ky , c . 2014 . new data to the microlepidoptera fauna of hungary , part xvi ( lepidoptera : autostichidae , coleophoridae , gelechiidae , gracillariidae , pyralidae , tortricidae ) . - folia entomologica hungarica / rovartani k\u00f6zlem\u00e9nyek 75 : 173\u2013182 .\nbaur , h . 2005 . determination list of entomophagous insects nr . 14 . - iobc / wprs bulletin 28 ( 11 ) : i\u2013vii , 1\u201371 .\nswisslepteam 2010 . die schmetterlinge ( lepidoptera ) der schweiz . eine kommentierte , systematisch - faunistische liste . - \u2014 : 1 - 349 .\nheppner , j . b . 2013 . florida lepidoptera biodiversity : distributions and phenologies . - lepidoptera novae 6 ( 2\u20134 ) : 65\u2013128 .\ngrehan , j . r . , parker , b . l . , nielsen , g . r . , miller , d . h . , hedbor , j . d . , sabourin , m . & griggs , m . s . 1995 . moths and butterflies of vermont ( lepidoptera ) . a faunal checklist . - \u2014 : i\u2013xi , 1\u201395 .\nzeller , p . c . 1873 . beitr\u00e4ge zur kenntniss der nordamericanischen nachtfalter , besonders der microlepidopteren . zweite abtheilung . - verhandlungen der kaiserlich - k\u00f6niglichen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien 23 : 201\u2013334 , pls . 3\u20134 .\nbrower , a . e . 1984 . a list of the lepidoptera of maine , part 2 : the microlepidoptera , section 2 ; cosmopterigidae through hepialidae . - \u2014 114 : i\u2013x , 1\u201370 .\nchambers , v . t . 1878b . art . iv . tineina and their foodplants . - bulletin of the united states geological and geographical survey of the territories 4 ( 1 ) : 107\u2013124 .\nneedham , j . g . , frost , s . w . & tothill , b . h . 1928 . leaf - mining insects . - \u2014 : viii + 351 pp . .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . - memoirs of the american entomological institute 69 : 1\u2013824 .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 zhang et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nfunding : this research was supported by the national natural science foundation of china ( no . 30930014 ) . funder\u2019s website : urltoken . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nfemale flowers ( a ) and fruits ( b ) with erect stigmas and flat calyx sepals . female flowers ( c ) and fruits ( d ) with excurved stigmas and reflexed calyx sepals . ( cs ) calyx sepals . ( s ) stigma .\nwe found some plant individuals are difficult to identify , because they possess double morphological characters of both b . fruticosa and b . rostrata : three individuals ( figure 1 : a , b ) in hainan with erect stigmas ( characteristic of b . rostrata ) and flat calyx sepals ( characteristic of b . fruticosa ) ; nineteen individuals ( figure 1 : c , d ) in fujian with excurved stigmas ( characteristic of b . fruticosa ) and reflexed calyx sepals ( characteristic of b . rostrata ) .\nthe result of the hand - pollination hybridization experiment showed that there are no reproductive barriers between b . fruticosa and b . rostrata . 90 % b . fruticosa female flowers ( n = 50 ) with pollen grains from b . rostrata developed , so did 94 % b . rostrata female flowers ( n = 50 ) with pollen grains from b . fruticosa ( table s7 ) .\nplant species . ( a ) the maximum - parsimonious tree of phyllantheae plants ( length , 179 ; ci = 0 . 933 ; ri = 0 . 985 ) . ( b ) the maximum - likelihood tree of phyllantheae plants ( - ln likelihood = 2922 . 8917 ; transition / transversion ratio = 2 ; empirical frequencies : a = 0 . 30688 , c = 0 . 16491 , g = 0 . 15206 , t = 0 . 37615 ) . numbers above branches are bootstrap values . red branches refer to the species involved in this study .\ndiffuse coevolution firstly advanced and defined by janzen ( 1980 ) [ 14 ] . he defined coevolution as an evolutionary change in a trait of the individuals in one population in response to a trait of the individuals of a second population , followed by an evolutionary response by the second population to the change in the first . diffuse coevolution occurs when either or both populations in coevolution are represented by an array of populations that generate a selective pressure as a group [ 14 ] .\nbreynia fruticosa and b . rostrata are sister taxa , which suggests that the pollinators they are sharing might have pollinated their ancestor , and that this pollination system maintained after the speciation of b . fruticosa and b . rostrata .\nfrom november 2009 to september 2011 , we carried out field observations on breynia fruticosa in yingge mountain nature reserves ( alt . 200\u2013755 m , 18\u00b050\u2032\u201319\u00b012\u2032n , 109\u00b015\u2032\u2013109\u00b050\u2032e ) , wuzhi mountain national nature reserves ( alt . 512\u2013720 m , 18\u00b049\u2032\u201318\u00b059\u2032n , 109\u00b032\u2032\u2013109\u00b043\u2032e ) and jianfeng mountain national nature reserves ( alt . 807\u2013973 m , 18\u00b023\u2032\u201318\u00b052\u2032n , 108\u00b044\u2032\u2013109\u00b002\u2032e ) in hainan , china ; and on b . fruticosa and b . rostrata in wanshi botanical garden ( alt . 28\u2013201 m , 117\u00b053\u2032\u2013118\u00b025\u2032e , 24\u00b025\u2032\u201324\u00b054\u2032n ) and tianzhu mountain national forest park ( alt . 50\u2013200 m , 24\u00b035\u2032\u201324\u00b039\u2032n , 117\u00b053\u2032\u2013117\u00b057\u2032e ) in fujian , china .\nto make sure whether the hybridization could happen between b . fruticosa and b . rostrata , we performed a hand - pollination hybridization experiment in wanshi botanical garden . we respectively selected 50 non - pollinating female flowers of b . fruticosa and b . rostrata . we gathered pollen grains from male flowers of b . fruticosa and hand - pollinated female flowers of b . rostrata , and from male flowers of b . rostrata and hand - pollinated female flowers of b . fruticosa . we bagged these pollinated flowers with fine netting ( 0 . 5 mm mesh ) , and seven days later , we counted and calculated their developmental rate ( figure s2 ) .\nmaximum - parsimony and maximum - likelihood analyses of coi and matk were performed using paup v . 4 . 0 b10 [ 25 ] . both maximum - parsimony and maximum - likelihood heuristic searches were conducted with equal weight , 1000 and 100 replicates of random addition analyses respectively , and tree bisection - reconnection branch swapping . the robustness of maximum - parsimony and maximum - likelihood trees were assessed by non - parametric bootstrapping with 1000 and 100 replicates respectively .\nhand - pollination hybridization experiment of breynia fruticosa and b . rostrata . ( a ) flowers bagged with fine netting . ( b ) hand - pollinated b . rostrata with pollen of b . fruticosa . ( c ) non - pollinated female flower of b . fruticosa . ( d ) developed female flowers of b . fruticosa with pollen of b . rostrata . ( e ) non - pollinated female flower of b . rostrata . ( f ) developed female flowers of b . rostrata with pollen of b . fruticosa .\nwe appreciate fuchen shi for identifying breynia plants , to yanru yin for her assistance in the field . special thanks are given to members of tianzhu mountain national forest park and yingge mountain nature reserves for their support and kind help in the field . this research was supported by the national natural science foundation of china ( no . 30930014 ) .\nconceived and designed the experiments : hl sw . performed the experiments : jz bh xy zw . analyzed the data : jz hl . wrote the paper : jz sw hl .\njanzen dh ( 1979 ) how many babies do figs pay for babies ? biotropica 11 : 48\u201350 .\nweiblen gd ( 2002 ) how to be a fig wasp . annual review of entomology 47 : 299\u2013230 .\n( euphorbiaceae ) . proceedings of the national academy of science 100 ( 9 ) : 5264\u20135267 .\npellmyr o ( 2003 ) yuccas , yucca moths , and coevolution : a review . annals of the missouri botanical garden 90 : 35\u201355 .\nehrlich pr , raven ph ( 1964 ) butterflies and plants : a study in coevolution . evolution 18 : 586\u2013608 .\nwiebes jt ( 1979 ) co - evolution of figs and their insect pollinators . annual review ecology and systematics 10 : 1\u201312 .\npellmyr o , leebens - mack j , huth cj ( 1996 ) non - mutualistic yucca moths and their evolutionary consequences . nature 380 : 155\u2013156 .\nassociation . proceedings of the royal society b - biological sciences 276 ( 1656 ) : 417\u2013426 .\nkawakita a ( 2010 ) evolution of obligate pollination mutualism in the tribe phyllantheae ( phyllanthaceae ) . plant species biology 25 : 3\u201319 .\nmoth ( gracillariidae ) . american journal of botany 91 ( 9 ) : 1319\u20131325 .\njanzen dh ( 1980 ) when is it coevolution . evolution 34 ( 3 ) : 611\u2013612 .\nmachado ca , robbins n , gilbert mtp , herre ea ( 2005 ) critical review of host specificity and its coevolutionary implications in the fig / fig\u2013wasp mutualism . proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa . ( suppl . 1 ) 6558\u20136565 .\nli bt , gilbert mg ( 2008 ) flora of china . missouri botanical garden press . usa 11 : 635 pp .\nmeyrick , 1880 ( lepidoptera : gracillariidae ) associated with euphorbiaceae plants . zootaxa 3275 : 43\u201354 .\ncorlett rt ( 1993 ) reproductive phenology of hongkong shrubland . journal of tropical ecology 9 ( 4 ) : 501\u2013510 .\ndoyle jj , doyle l ( 1987 ) a rapid dna isolation procedure for small amounts of fresh leaf tissue . phytochemical bulletin 19 : 11\u201315 .\npark ds , suh s - j , oh hw , hebert pdn ( 2010 ) recovery of the mitochondrial coi barcode region in diverse hexapoda through trna - based primes . bmc genomics 11 : 423 .\nsamuel r , kathriarachchi h , hoffmann p , barfuss mh , wurdack kj , et al . ( 2005 ) molecular phylogenetics of phyllanthaceae : evidence from plastid\ninferred from patterns of mitochondrial dna evolution . proceedings of the national academy of sciences 91 : 6491\u20136495 .\ncaterino ms , sperling fa ( 1999 ) papilio phylogeny based on mitochondrial cytochrome i and ii genes . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 11 ( 1 ) : 122\u2013137 .\nkathriarachchi h , samuel r , hoffmann p , mlinarec j , wurdack kj , et al . ( 2006 ) phylogenetics of the tribe phyllantheae ( phyllanthaceae ; euphoriaceae sensu lato ) based on nrits and plastid\ndna sequence data . american journal of botany 93 ( 4 ) : 637\u2013655 .\nswofford dl ( 2005 ) paup * : phylogenetic analysis using parsimony ( * and other methods ) , version 4 . 0b10 . sinauer . sunderland . massachusetts . usa .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nsouth africa , transvaal [ limpopo ] , soutpansberg district , louis trichardt , 06 . vi . 1923 , leg . l . v\u00e1ri .\nv\u00e1ri , l . 1961 . south african lepidoptera . vol . i . lithocolletidae . - transvaal museum memoir 12 : 238 pp . 112 pls .\n* a large , irregular , transparent , whitish blotch - mine on upperside of leaf with greenish - brown discoloration .\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .\na ) . during pollen collection , female adults intermittently spread proboscis several times to get more pollen grains . they only collected pollen grains in one male flower each time effectively , which could pollinate more than ten female flowers in the same or different plants .\nb , c ) . they would pace back and forth to pollinate all flowers on one branch , and female flowers were pollinated in this way as to pollinate most efficiently .\nspecies exhibited similar behavior of pollen collection and pollination , but their oviposition behavior was visibly different .\nmoths often gave complementary pollination to make sure there are enough pollen grains for female flowers . on rare occasion , they would not lay eggs if disturbed .\nare closely related , their hybrid offsprings could survive and possess double characters of both species . this hypothesis is supported by the fact that some plant individuals in tianzhu mountain and wanshi botanical garden have double characters of both\n, but we did not find it in this study . we only found three individuals with characters of both\nwas either very small or has disappeared . the plants with double characters in hainan may imply that\ndoes and plays a secondary role in this mutualism . this is closely associated with female ovipositor structures and oviposition mode .\nd\u2013f ) . so the external influence imposed on egg hatching could be greatly reduced , and the newly hatched larvae could instantly feed on seeds to ensure a higher survival rate . on the contrary ,\ng\u2013i ) . so both eggs and newly hatched larvae were exposed to the influence of environmental factors . moreover , the newly hatched larvae had to bore into the ovary , which could increase the mortal hazard and eventually decrease the population size . the phylogenetic analysis of\nmoths ; female flowers bear free calyx and styles , which is likely to be accessed by other flower visitors . the two\nthis research was supported by the national natural science foundation of china ( no . 30930014 ) . funder\u2019s website : urltoken . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nsamuel r , kathriarachchi h , hoffmann p , barfuss mh , wurdack kj , et al . ( 2005 )\nkathriarachchi h , samuel r , hoffmann p , mlinarec j , wurdack kj , et al . ( 2006 )\ntype material . china : hainan province : holotype 3 , yingge mountain nature reserves ( 19 \u00b002\u02b9n , 109 \u00b0 50 \u02b9e ) , 4 . ix . 2010 , leg . bingbing hu , genitalia slide no . zj 10062 . paratypes : 3 \u01a5\u01a5 , 3\u20134 . ix . 2010 , leg . bingbing hu , 1 \u01a5 , 5 . vi . 2010 , leg . jing zhang , same locality as holotype ; 1 3 , mt . limu ( 19 \u00b0 10 \u02b9n , 109 \u00b0 46 \u02b9e ) , 700 m , 15 . iv . 2008 , leg . binbin hu & haiyan bai ( by light trap ) ; fujian province : 1 3 , mt . tianzhu ( 24 \u00b0 36 \u02b9n , 117 \u00b0 59 \u02b9e ) , xiamen , 23 . viii . 2010 , leg . jing zhang .\n) . tegumen broad ligulate . costa with basal half narrow and parallel dorsoventrally , distal half broadened gradually to rounded apex ; apex obliquely rounded ; with dense long setae near apical and ventral margins ; transtilla elongate triangular , acute at apex . sacculus shorter than costa , irregularly triangular , about 2 . 5 times as wide as costa at base , gradually narrowing towards acute apex ; dorsal margin conspicuously arched ; ventral margin nearly straight , with a broad rectangular plate along basal 2 / 5 , its outer margin incised ; distal 1 / 3 scattered with teeth , dentate ventrally . vinculum u - shaped , blunt posteriorly ; saccus slender , straight , as long as vinculum , acute at apex . phallus broad and straight , longer than costa ; cornuti consisting of six small spines at distal 1 / 3 , a dorsoapical tooth and a large ventroapical thorn ; in some individuals , phallus with some indistinct teeth and a large ventroapical thorn .\nsp . nov . in appearance , but can be separated from the latter by the forewing dorsally with a distinct broad white band , and the sacculus not very broad but quite differently shaped in the male genitalia ; and the ostium bursae anteriorly not bearing a semicircular sac and the longer antrum in the female genitalia .\netymology . the specific name is derived from the latin prefix miri - , meaning bizarre , and the word valvatus , meaning valvular , in reference to the peculiar sacculus .\nsp . nov . , paratype , slide no . hbb 10020 ; 14 ,\nsp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 10054 ; 16 ,\nsp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 10068 ; 17 ,\nsp . nov . , paratype , slide no . zj 11013 ; 18 ,\nno known copyright restrictions apply . see agosti , d . , egloff , w . , 2009 . taxonomic information exchange and copyright : the plazi approach . bmc research notes 2009 , 2 : 53 for further explanation .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link ."]}
{"id": 1883, "summary": [{"text": "the richtersveld katydid ( africariola longicauda ) is a species of katydid that is endemic to the richtersveld national park in south africa .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it occurs in semi-arid habitats of the karoo biotope .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by livestock grazing and climate change . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "richtersveld katydid", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about richtersveld katydid ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for richtersveld katydid ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nthe richtersveld katydid ( africariola longicauda ) is endemic to the richtersveld national park , northern cape province , south africa , and areas immediately adjacent to it .\nthe park boasts excellent bird watching opportunities , as well as a diverse range of animals including grey rhebok , duiker , steenbok , klipspringer , kudu , hartmann ' s mountain zebra , baboon , vervet monkey , caracal and leopard . the threatened richtersveld katydid is endemic to the area .\nthis species is known to occur only within the semi - arid habitats of nama and succulent karoo within richtersveld national park .\n) is endemic to the richtersveld national park , northern cape province , south africa , and areas immediately adjacent to it .\nno specific conservation measures are in place for this species , but it is only known to occur within a protected area , richtersveld national park .\nin june 2007 , the\nrichtersveld cultural and botanical landscape\n, just to the south of the national park and an area of equivalent size and beauty , was named a unesco world heritage site . unlike the national park , the richtersveld community conservancy , which forms the core zone of the world heritage site , is not subject to diamond mining and is as a result the more pristine of the two areas .\nwith water so scarce , life in the richtersveld depends on moisture from the early morning fog . locals call it ' ihuries ' or ' malmokkies ' and it makes survival possible for a range of small reptiles , birds and mammals .\nlocated in south africa ' s northern namaqualand , this arid area represents a harsh landscape where water is a great scarcity and only the hardiest of lifeforms survive . despite this , the richtersveld is regarded as the only arid biodiversity hotspot on earth , with an astonishing variety of plant , bird and animal life ( much of which is endemic ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe greatest threat to this species is habitat destruction caused by livestock over - grazing and climate change .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\npart of the area is inscribed on unesco ' s world heritage list due to its cultural values , but remains a favourite amongst nature travellers to south africa , the landscape is sometimes described as\nmartian\n. though barren and desolate at first glance , closer examination reveals the area to be rich in desert lifeforms , with an array of unique species specially adapted for survival .\nthe northern part of the area was proclaimed as a national park in 1991 after 18 years of negotiation with the local community , who continue to live and graze their livestock in the area . it has an area of\nhaving been recorded in mid - summer . nights are cool and bring with them heavy dew . this unique climate is what has fostered such a unique ecosystem .\nhome to c . 650 plant species , this park boasts the world\u2019s largest diversity of succulents and represents an example of one of the most interesting mega - ecosystems in the world , the karoo .\nthe area is home to a number of rather unusual plants , many of which are found nowhere else on earth . chief among these is the\nhalfmensboom\n( pachypodium namaquanum welw . ) . literally translated , this means\nhalf - person tree\nand the name comes from the tree ' s resemblance to the human form ; its top consists of a grouping of thick , crinkled leaves , generally leaning northwards , which can make it look almost like a human head .\nthese trees are revered by the indigenous nama people as the embodiment of their ancestors , half human , half plant , mourning for their ancient namibian home .\nalso found here are gnarled kokerbooms , other tall aloes , and a variety of other unusual succulents , such as aloe pearsonii .\nand is entirely responsible for management of the world heritage site . both areas are used by traditional nomadic / transhumance herders to practice their ancient lifestyle and culture . it is the last place where the traditional way of life of the\n( of whom the nama are the largest surviving clan ) who once occupied the entire south - western part of africa , survives to any great extent . the\nis declared under the cultural criteria of the world heritage convention although it is recognised that the cultural values of the community and their continued existence are intrinsically connected to the environment .\nfor official site names , see each article or the list of world heritage sites in south africa .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 3 / 3 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nthe following 157 pages are in this category , out of 157 total . this list may not reflect recent changes ( learn more ) .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; 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{"id": 1908, "summary": [{"text": "the blackburnian warbler ( setophaga fusca [ formerly dendroica fusca ] ) is a small new world warbler .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "they breed in eastern north america , from southern canada , westwards to the southern canadian prairies , the great lakes region and new england , to north carolina .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "blackburnian warblers are migratory , wintering in southern central america and in south america , and are very rare vagrants to western europe . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "blackburnian warbler", "paragraphs": ["the blackburnian warbler was named after anna blackburne , an english botanist . no other north american warbler has an orange throat .\nlawrence , l . 1953 . notes on the nesting behavior of the blackburnian warbler .\nwe only shot a blackburnian warbler , a yellow - winged ditto , and a few finches .\nthis blackburnian warbler ( dendroica fusca ) perched among apple blossoms for subscriber merv cormier of st john , new brunswick .\nmorse , d . 1994 . blackburnian warbler ( dendroica fusca ) . the birds of north america , 102 : 583 .\nebird range map - blackburnian warbler . ebird . cornell lab of ornithology , n . d . web . 20 july 2012 .\ndisplayed are dsl landscape capability ( lc ) data for the blackburnian warbler for 2010 ( dsl current ) and the . . .\ncurrently , blackburnian warbler populations are not considered threatened . however , wintering habitats are rapidly declining and they are sensitive to forest fragmentation .\nblackburnian warbler ( dendroica fusca ) . the internet bird collection . lynx edicions , n . d . web . 20 july 2012 .\nin form the song is much like that of the blackburnian warbler , but the loudness , different quality , and lower pitch distinguish it .\nlawrence , l . 1953 . notes on the nesting behavior of the blackburnian warbler . the wilson bulletin , 65 : 135 - 144 .\nhabitat : blackburnian warbler breeds in tall coniferous and mixed forests , but at the other times , it\u2019s found in a variety of woodlands and tall bushes .\nthe blackburnian warbler is a forest bird that breeds along the eastern seaboard from the maritime provinces to massachusetts and new york and west to alberta . . . .\n\u2014 blak\u02c8b\u0259rn\u0113\u0259n noun or blackburnian warbler ( \u02c8 ) \u0337 \u0337 | \u0337 \u0337 \u0337 \u0337 \u0337 \u0337 ( s ) usage : often capitalized b etymology : mrs . hugh blackburn , 18th century englishwoman + english ian : a no . american warbler ( \u2026\nwarbler of the united states ( { dendroica blackburni [ ae ] } ) . the male is\nsmall warbler with a long body . note triangular ear patch , pale eyebrow , and white wingbars .\nblackburnian warblers inhabit boreal forests , but during migration can occur in a variety of woodlands .\nthe blackburnian warbler has gray to black upperparts with long , whitish streaks , dark wings with two broad , white wing bars , a dark line through the eye , and a dark patch behind the eye .\nthe blackburnian warbler\u2019s nest is a cup of bark fibers , twigs , and grasses , and is lined with moss , lichens , and other materials . it is placed high on an outer branch of a conifer .\nsame place as previous blackburnian recording . in dense willow stand immediately adjacent to the ms river .\nbehaviour : blackburnian warbler is an active warbler of the tree canopy , conspicuously flitting , hovering and flycatching in search of insects among the outer leaves . it tends to keep high up in conifers on the breeding grounds . it gleans insects on small branches . it also hawks insects , flying from a perch to grab them in mid air .\nthe blackburnian warbler is a small songbird with a large breeding range of 1 , 910 , 000 square kilometers . it breeds in coniferous and mixed forests in southeastern canada and the northeastern united states south through the appalachians , and winters in montane tropical forests in southern central america , northern south america , and the andes . the blackburnian warbler has an estimated breeding population of 10 , 000 , 000 , and a conservation rating of least concern .\nrange : blackburnian warbler breeds from saskatchewan to western newfoundland , southward to northern minnesota and massachusetts , and in mountain southward to northern georgia . it winters in southern central america and northern south america , southward in the andes .\nblackburnian warblers inhabit deciduous and coniferous forests during the summer . they prefer coniferous forests , but will be found in spruce trees or hemlock in deciduous forests . in any forest type in their summer range , blackburnian warblers are most active foraging and vocalizing in conifers . tree species preferred by blackburnian warblers are pines\nmorse , d . 1967 . the contexts of songs in black - throated green and blackburnian warblers .\ndiet : blackburnian warbler is mostly insectivorous . it eats primarily caterpillars and beetles . it feeds on insects and spiders . it gleans insects on small branches high in tree . it will supplement its diet with fruit in the winter .\nprotection / threats / status : blackburnian warbler is an uncommon , but known , cowbird host . population\u2019s numbers of this species seems to be holding steady , despite loss of preferred habitat in some areas of breeding and wintering range .\n\u2014 rusvasis kr\u016bminukas statusas t sritis zoologija | vardynas atitikmenys : lot . dendroica fusca angl . blackburnian warbler vok . fichtenwalds\u00e4nger , m rus . \u0435\u043b\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0432\u0443\u043d , m pranc . paruline \u00e0 gorge orang\u00e9e , f ry\u0161iai : platesnis terminas \u2013\u2026 \u2026\nstephenson , t . and s . whittle ( 2013 ) . the warbler guide . princeton university press , new jersey , usa .\nsmall warbler with a long body . adult males have a brilliant orange throat and face with a black crown and triangular ear patch .\nmorse , douglass h . 2004 . blackburnian warbler ( setophaga fusca ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online : urltoken\nzerda lerner , s . , d . stauffer . 1998 . habitat selection by blackburnian warblers wintering in colombia .\nmorse , douglass h . 2004 . blackburnian warbler ( setophaga fusca ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .\nswainson\u2019s name is commemorated in three species : the widespread western raptor , swainson\u2019s hawk ; the southeastern swainson \u2018s warbler and our swainson\u2019s thrush .\ndoepker , r . v . , r . d . earle , and j . j . ozoga . 1992 . characteristics of blackburnian warbler , dendroica fusca , breeding habitat in upper michigan . can . field - nat . 106 : 366 - 371 .\nnice , m . 1926 . behavior of blackburnian , myrtle , and black - throated blue warblers , with young .\nthe blackburnian warbler does not appear to be well adapted to exploiting the periodic massive outbreaks of the spruce budworm caterpillar that occur in the north woods . some studies have indicated that breeding populations may actually fall in outbreak areas , perhaps due to competition with the cape may warbler , which along with the bay - breasted is known to actively seek out and exploit these areas , resulting in large broods and high population densities .\nnesting blackburnian warblers are very difficult to study , in part because their nests can be 80 feet up in a tree .\nblackburnian warbler : breeds from alberta east to newfoundland , south to the great lakes , southern new england , and along the appalachian mountains to northern georgia . spends winters in the tropics of south america . preferred habitats include mixed forests of hemlock , spruce , and various hardwoods .\nchipley , r . m . 1980 . nonbreeding ecology of the blackburnian warbler . pp . 309 - 317 in migrant birds in the neotropics ( a . keast and e . s . morton , eds . ) . smithson . inst . press , washington , d . c .\n8 . morse , d . h . 2004 . blackburnian warbler ( setophaga fusca ) , . the birds of north america online ( a poole , ed ) ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online : urltoken doi : 102173 / bna102 .\nfemale cerulean warblers have a unique bluish color to the upperparts . the whitish streaks on the back of blackburnian warblers are distinctive .\nalthough the blackburnian warbler is morphologically similar to many of its congeners that share these forests , it differs strikingly from them in coloration . breeding males are characterized by blazing orange plumage over much of the anterior part of their body , a color not shared by other members of this genus .\nchipley , r . m . 1980 .\nnonbreeding ecology of the blackburnian warbler .\nin migrant birds in the neotropics . , edited by a . keast and e . s . morton , 309 - 317 . washington , d . c : smithson . inst . press . close\nvoice : sounds by xeno - canto blackburnian warbler\u2019s call is a rich \u201cchip\u201d . most frequent song type is high and thin , ending in an ascending buzzy trill \u201csip - sip - sip - sip - titi - tzeeee\u201d . a variant type sound like \u201czillup - zillup - zillup - zizizizizi\u201d .\none evening i went walking along a winding lakeside path when i turned a corner and there , at eye level , was the most beautiful bird i have ever seen : a little warbler , beautiful as warblers generally are , but this one with a vivid flame - orange throat and breast that glows in memory still . such was my introduction to the blackburnian warbler ( dendroica fusca ) , the smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the \u201cspruce warblers . \u201d\nthe blackburnian warbler is a brilliantly colored neotropical migrant , one of a large group of dendroica wood warblers that coexist during the breeding season in the northeastern coniferous forests of north america . birds of this group are so similar structurally that early students of bird foraging and niche partitioning wondered how they coexisted . they are now known to separate ecologically by foraging areas ( macarthur 1958 , morse 1968 ) , the blackburnian exploiting a treetop niche .\nblackburnian warblers are more tolerant of mixed woodlands than are those two budworm specialists , breeding as far south as the smoky mountains , often in association with hemlocks . neither do blackburnian populations appear to rise and fall as much according to the fortunes of the budworm . indeed , thus far the numbers of this warbler appear remarkably stable , despite ongoing habitat destruction on the wintering grounds and widespread losses of our hemlocks to the introduced wooly adelgid insect pest .\nmorse , d . h . 1994 . blackburnian warbler ( dendroica fusca ) . in the birds of north america , no . 102 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , and the american ornithologists ' union , washington , d . c .\nwhat made you want to look up blackburnian ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .\nblackburnian warblers are insectivorous , diurnal foragers , usually gleaning insects from leaves . they also hover to capture insects from the bottom of leaves . they feed on\nmorse , d . 1967 . the contexts of songs in black - throated green and blackburnian warblers . the wilson bulletin , 79 : 64 - 74 .\nmacarthur also recorded details of the warblers ' foraging habits and discovered that they differed too . for example , the cape may warbler hawks flying insects much more often than does the blackburnian and tends to move vertically rather than horizontally ( matching its tendency to remain on the outside of the tree ) . the black - throated green hovers much more than the bay - breasted , and the more variable yellow - rumped has the most varied feeding habits . in addition , macarthur found evidence that food shortage limited the size of the warbler populations .\nblackburnian warblers live in the wild for a average of 3 to 6 years . the primary cause of death is not surviving through migration . because of poor weather or insufficient energy stores , death is more common during spring migration , especially when flying over the gulf of mexico . blackburnian warblers are not kept in captivity .\nblackburnian warblers breed in southeastern canada , the northeastern u . s . , and the appalachians . they winter mostly in south america . the population appears stable .\nblackburnian warbler , wilson\u2019s storm - petrel , swainson\u2019s thrush , lincoln\u2019s sparrow . the common names of all of these birds , common in maine , are based on a person\u2019s name . i\u2019ll bet most of these people aren\u2019t familiar to you . in today\u2019s column , i will give you a little background on the people whose names are commemorated in the bird names .\nmorse , d . h . 1967 . the contexts of songs in the black - throated green and blackburnian warblers . wilson bull . 79 : 62 - 72 .\nyoung , l . , m . betts , a . diamond . 2005 . do blackburnian warblers select mixed forests ? the importance of spatial resolution in defining habitat .\nthe most distinctive characteristics of the blackburnian warbler are its treetop ecology and the breeding male ' s color . one of a large genus of morphologically and ecologically similar warblers , the blackburnian is the only one with orange in its plumage . the male ' s striking black - and - orange pattern makes some observers think of a miniature oriole . blackburnian warblers are usually found high in trees , even during migration , and are not readily noticed in the dense foliage unless their high - pitched song announces their presence . at times they may be detected at the ends of branches , picking among leaves for bugs or caterpillars . its canopy nesting habits have defied many researchers ' efforts to study its breeding ecology .\ndisplayed are dsl landscape capability ( lc ) data for the blackburnian warbler for 2010 ( dsl current ) and the future ( dsl 2080 ) ; higher values shown in dark red . lc incorporates habitat , climate , and prevalence to estimate suitable and accessible conditions for the species . lc values can ' t be compared across species . courtesy of k . mcgarigal , umass .\nzerda lerner , s . , d . stauffer . 1998 . habitat selection by blackburnian warblers wintering in colombia . journal of field ornithology , 69 : 457 - 465 .\nnice , m . 1926 . behavior of blackburnian , myrtle , and black - throated blue warblers , with young . the wilson bulletin , 38 : 82 - 83 .\n( ) a beautiful warbler of the united states ( dendroica blackburniae ) . the male is strongly marked with orange , yellow , and black on the head and neck , and has an orange - yellow breast .\nthe wood - warblers occur throughout north america except for the far northern tundra . the many species of this family have evolved to fill a wide variety of niches including marshes ( yellowthroats ) to tree trunks ( the black - and - white warbler ) , and spruce forests ( the cape may warbler ) . several species can reside in the same area , yet avoid competition by occupying slightly different habitats or feeding in different ways .\ncurson , j . ( 2018 ) . blackburnian warbler ( setophaga fusca ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmorse , d . h . 1967c . the contexts of songs in the black - throated green and blackburnian warblers . wilson bull . no . 79 : 62 - 72 . close\nblackburnian warblers typically live in a 0 . 4 to 1 . 1 hectare area . however , they live on small islands if there are tall , mature trees and suitable food sources .\nleft to right : cape may , yellow - rumped , black - throated green , blackburnian , and bay - breasted warblers . black areas in stylized conifers show where feeding is concentrated .\nblackburnian warblers are migratory , wintering in southern central america and in south america , and are very rare vagrants to western europe . these birds were named after anna blackburne , an english botanist .\nthe wilson whose name is commemorated in wilson\u2019s storm - petrel , wilson\u2019s plover , wilson\u2019s phalarope , wilson\u2019s warbler and wilson\u2019s snipe is alexander wilson ( 1766 - 1813 ) . wilson played an important role in the development of north american ornithology .\nthe wood - warblers are known for their colorful plumages \u2013 the blackburnian warbler being one of the most striking members of this family with its deep orange - red throat that contrasts with its handsome black and white plumage . however while many species are known for their beautiful breeding plumage colors , they are also known to bird watchers as being extremely challenging to identify when in the fall they revert to their drab tan , olive , and pale colored plumages .\nlerner , s . de la zerda and d . f . stauffer . 1998 . habitat selection by blackburnian warblers wintering in colombia . j . field ornithol . no . 69 : 457 - 465 . close\nmale blackburnian warblers are easily identified by their orange throat , breast and forehead . they have a black crown and cheeks and are noted for their wing bars and tail spots . blackburnian warblers have white bars on a black back , wings , and tail . there are black streaks on a white background on the sides and flanks . the lower breast and stomach is slightly orange , fading to white towards the tail .\ndescription : blackburnian warbler adult male summer is unmistakable with its flaming orange throat and chest , and lighter orange crown centre , supercilium and sides of head . upperparts are almost blackish , and it has a huge white wing patch . in other plumages , the blackish ear - covert patch surrounded by yellow or orangey supercilium , sides of neck and throat , dark greyish upperparts , double white wing bars , pale yellowish underparts with streaked flanks , and very dark legs , are the distinctive features of this warbler . tail shows extensive white in outer feathers when spread . male is brightly coloured , female presents similar pattern , but duller . immature is similar to adult female . immature male with more yellow throat , and immature female much paler .\nhabitat fragmentation effects are also a concern as these forests are reduced in response to climate change , particularly upslope . range reduction is expected for species that inhabit montane spruce - fir forests at the southern edge of their range 10 . models of future distribution considering habitat and climate changes predicted that landscape capability ( suitable climate and habitat ) for the blackburnian warbler would decrease by 71 % of their 2010 northeastern range by 2080 2 , a loss of ~ 1 % / year .\nin summer , male blackburnian warblers display dark gray backs and double white wing bars , with yellowish rumps and dark brown crowns . the underparts of these birds are white , and are tinged with yellow and streaked black . the head is strongly patterned in yellow and black , with a flaming - orange throat . it is the only north american warbler with this striking plumage . other plumages , including the fall male and adult female , are washed - out versions of the summer male , and in particular lack the bright colors and strong head pattern . basic plumages show weaker yellows and gray in place of black in the breeding male . blackburnian warblers ' songs are a simple series of high\nthe origin of the name \u201cblackburnian\u201d will be obscure to most . in their day , though , the sibling team of ashton and anna blackburn were noted british naturalists . in the years prior to and during our revolution , austin traveled in the american colonies , collecting specimens and sending them to anna at her estate in lancashire , england . no less than seventeen type specimens of our native birds were later described from their collection , so perhaps we can forebear the blackburns their warbler .\na fiery gem of the treetops . in the northern forest in summer , the male blackburnian warbler may perch on the topmost twig of a spruce , showing off the flaming orange of his throat as he sings his thin , wiry song . the female also stays high in the conifers , and the nest is usually built far above the ground . long - distance migrants , most blackburnians spend the winter in south america , where they are often common in mountain forest in the andes .\nyoung , l . , m . betts , a . diamond . 2005 . do blackburnian warblers select mixed forests ? the importance of spatial resolution in defining habitat . forest ecology and management , 214 : 358 - 372 .\nblackburnian warbler populations are stable . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 10 million birds with 28 % spending some part of the year in the u . s , 72 % in canada , and all of them migrating through mexico on the way south to their wintering grounds . they are a u . s . - canada stewardship species and rate a 9 out of 20 on the continental concern score . they are not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top\nmale blackburnian warblers attract their mates by singing in tree tops . when a potential mate comes close , males flick their tail and peck at the branch . males defend their mate from other males by flicking their tail , pecking at branches , and occasionally fighting . blackburnian warblers , like other songbirds , are socially monogamous . males typically help raise and feed the young . in some cases they have been absent , likely due to occasional extra - pair copulations .\nblackburnian warblers are typically preyed on by larger birds of prey and some mammals . most predation is on eggs , hatchlings , and fledglings , or on adults as they watch and defend nests . hawks are the most common predators .\nblackburnian warblers are strong indicators of mixed deciduous - coniferous forests and undisturbed , mature coniferous forests . surveyors use this species to study the ecology and effect of forest fragmentation by timber harvesting . they are also important for controlling spruce budworm (\n\u2014 / blak berr nee euhn / a black and white north american wood warbler , dendroica fusca , having an orange throat and an orange and black head . [ 1775 85 , amer . ; named after mrs . hugh blackburn , 18th century englishwoman ; see ian ] * * * \u2026\nstudents of ecology may recall the classic study by macarthur ( 1958 ) wherein the foraging habits of five warblers that breed in our northern coniferous forests were compared . the study demonstrated resource partitioning , wherein the canopy was roughly divided up between species , each exhibiting different foraging preferences . along with the cape may warbler , the blackburnian foraged in the top - most branches of the canopy . between these two , cape mays more frequently went after aerial prey and foraged at the very end of branches , while blackburnians traversed the high foliage in a more methodical fashion .\nreproduction : blackburnian warbler\u2019s nest is built by female , well out from the trunk , on a horizontal branch where it\u2019s concealed by foliage or lichen . it\u2019s located from 3 to over 80 feet above the ground , but placement is extremely variable . nest is cup - shaped , densely constructed , hidden in dense vegetation . spider silk secures nest to site . sides consist of twigs , barks , plant fibres and rootlets . it\u2019s lined with lichens , mosses , fine grasses , hair , dead pine needles and sometimes , such exotic substances as string cotton , horsehair and cattail down .\nblackburnian warblers usually fly in mixed - species flocks . typically there are 1 to 2 blackburnian warblers per flock , but there can be as many as 7 . they are not very social with each other or other species other than foraging near each other . they have learned to co - exist with other species and avoid direct competition by staying in the upper third of the tree canopy and foraging and nesting on the outside of the branches , a form of niche partitioning . even in the same habitats and with similar food sources , different species of the\nblackburnian warblers are , on average , 13 cm in length with a wingspan of 21 cm . like most warblers , they have small , flattened , and short bills , and have thin , black legs with 3 toes in front and one in back ( sibley , 2001 ) .\nin most parts of its breeding range , the blackburnian warbler nests in mature coniferous and mixed forest and often occurs in highest densities in old - growth forests . coniferous trees , whether spruce , balsam fir , pine , or hemlock , are an essential habitat component throughout the species range . at the end of the breeding season , young and adults often leave the conifers to forage in food - rich paper birches . as with other warblers , it may use virtually any woody habitat , and occasionally even herbaceous habitats , during migration . in winter it is found in high - altitude forests , woodlands , plantations , and treed pastures .\nthe kirtland\u2019s warbler is an endangered species restricted to a very specific type of habitat mostly found in michigan ; jack pine forests . its habitat is managed for this species in a few national forests by ensuring that there are jack pine stands of the age and composition this species requires . brown - headed cowbird populations are also controlled on its breeding grounds .\n\u2014 warbler war bler , n . 1 . one who , or that which , warbles ; a singer ; a songster ; applied chiefly to birds . [ 1913 webster ] in lulling strains the feathered warblers woo . tickell . [ 1913 webster ] 2 . ( zo [ o ] l . ) any one of numerous species of small old\u2026 \u2026\ncape mays and blackburnians also winter in very different locales , the cape may winters primarily in the west indies whereas the blackburnian is among those few warblers which commonly travel clear to south america . wintering blackburnians were recently reported by some of our traveling local birders as far south as ecuador .\nblackburnian warblers sing at dusk and dawn in the frequency range of 4 to 12 khz . they typically sing the same song at both times . males duet during these times and sing at each other after hostile encounters with other males . males are usually stationary , perched higher in tree than females when singing . singing is used to advertise for breeding and to advertise territories . they have two distinct song types , occasionally alternating them during breeding season . they flick their tail and peck at branches while singing during breeding season . blackburnian warblers sing one song while stationary at the top of the tree and during encounters with other males . they chirp twice frequently throughout aggressive encounters with other males . the other song is primarily used while foraging and while in the presence of a female . blackburnian warblers who do not find mates sing the second song type for long periods of time .\nmembers of the parulidae are not colonial nesters but often occur in mixed flocks with other species after the breeding season . they forage in a variety of ways for invertebrates , small fruits , and nectar . while the waterthrushes forage on the ground in streams and wetlands , and the black - and - white warbler creeps along tree trunks , most wood - warblers glean the vegetation of trees and bushes and make short sallies for their insect prey .\nthe bachman\u2019s warbler is an enigmatic species considered to be extinct by most authorities although slim hopes for its continued existence are kept alive by a few possible sightings over the last thirty years . historically occurring in the southeastern united states , this little known species is thought to have been dependent upon canebrakes on its breeding and wintering grounds in cuba . although the reasons for its decline are unknown , destruction of these canebrakes is the most likely reason for its demise .\nmacarthur found that each warbler species divided its time differently among various parts of the tree . the cape may , for instance , stayed mostly toward the outside on the top , the bay - breasted fed mostly around the middle interior , while the yellow - rumped moved from part to part more than either of the other two . this is shown in the accompanying diagrams , in which the zones that contained 50 percent of the birds ' feeding activity are blackened .\nblackburnian warblers are known for their increased presence during spruce budworm ( choristoneura species ) breakouts , in which their survival and reproduction are greater because of the abundance of prey . these warblers are also well - known for interspecific niche partitioning . which is how they avoid direct competition with species of the same genus ; they coexist by using different parts of the same tree for nesting and foraging .\npopulations of this species are vulnerable owing to the loss of preferred winter forest habitat in northern south america , although breeding bird survey data suggest that their numbers remain stable . blackburnian warblers are forest - interior species , and their numbers decline in forest fragments . southerly populations breeding in eastern hemlock and fraser fir are at risk as a result of wooly adelgids responsible for heavy mortality of these trees .\nsome aspects of the blackburnian warbler ' s breeding biology are relatively well known , including foraging ( macarthur 1958 , morse 1968 ) , population dynamics ( morse 1976a ) , interspecific interactions ( morse 1976b ) , habitat selection ( morse 1976a ) , and singing behavior ( morse 1967 ) . some ecological studies have been performed on their wintering grounds in colombia ( chipley 1980 ; lerner and stauffer 1998 ) . recent studies have focused on the effect of silvicultural practices on this and other species ( e . g . , hagan et al . 1996 , meiklejorn and hughes 1999 , hobson and bayne 2000a , cumming and diamond 2002 ) . however , information on many aspects of the species ' life cycle is rudimentary . little is known of its migratory ecology . many aspects of its breeding ecology remain largely or completely unknown , in part a consequence of its treetop existence in northern forests .\nblackburnian warblers are around 11 to 13 cm ( 4 . 3 to 5 . 1 in ) long , with a 20 to 22 cm ( 7 . 9 to 8 . 7 in ) wingspan , and weigh 8 to 13 g ( 0 . 28 to 0 . 46 oz ) . the average mass of an adult bird is 9 . 7 g ( 0 . 34 oz ) . among standard measurements , the\nblackburnian warblers build a nest consisting of an open cup of twigs , bark , plant fibers , and rootlets held to branch with spider web and lined with lichens , moss , hair , and dead pine needles that ' s placed near the end of a branch . three to five whitish eggs are laid its nest which is usually placed 2\u201338 m ( 6 . 6\u2013124 . 7 ft ) above the ground , on a horizontal branch .\nblackburnian warblers are commonly found throughout southeast canada , from alberta into the great lake areas to newfoundland and into the appalachians as far south as georgia during the summer season . however , during migration , this species is seen throughout the eastern coast of north america and as far west as oklahoma . for the most part , they migrate over the gulf of mexico ; however , some fly over the eastern coast of texas . during the winter they can be found in costa rica , panama , and into peru .\nblackburnian warblers spend , on average , 22 minutes on the nest and 5 minutes off the nest after the eggs hatch . both males and females feed the young , females more so than males . males feed more than one hatchling at a time and females typically only feed one young at a time . they feed the young every 10 to 20 minutes . they take 2 to 4 weeks until the young fledge , both parents care for the young during that time . it takes several months before the young are independent of the parents .\nblackburnian warblers are solitary during winter and highly territorial on their breeding grounds and do not mix with other passerine species outside of the migratory period . however , during migration , they often join local mixed foraging flocks of species such as chickadees , kinglets and nuthatches . these birds are basically insectivorous , but will include berries in their diets in wintertime . they usually forage by searching for insects or spiders in treetops . the breeding habitats of these birds are mature coniferous woodlands or mixed woodlands , especially ones containing spruce and hemlocks . it typically winters in tropical montane forests .\nf ive species of insectivorous wood warblers - - cape may , yellow - rumped , black - throated green , blackburnian , and bay - breasted - - were the subject of a classic study of community ecology ( the science of interpreting species interactions ) . these species often share the same breeding grounds in mature coniferous forests . they had been thought by some ornithologists to occupy the same niche - - in other words , they appeared to assume identical roles in the same bird community . these five warblers would thus be an exception to the ecological rule of competitive exclusion . the rule states that two species with essentially the same niche cannot coexist because one will always out - compete and displace the other .\nclimate impacts climate - induced habitat loss may impact blackburnian warblers . for example , the eastern hemlock and fraser fir that the birds often breed in at the southern portion of their range are threatened by wooly adelgids ( adelges tsugae ) , a tree pest that appears to be increasing due to climate change 9 . the trees have already nearly disappeared from the hemlock forests of new jersey and southern new england as well as high - elevation forests in the southern appalachians because of wooly adelgids 8 . climate change may also threaten the montane spruce - fir forests that the birds use . boreal forests are expected to become less common because of climate change - possibly becoming locally extinct in the northeastern u . s . under severe climate projections 10 .\nfor his doctoral dissertation , the late robert macarthur , who became one of the nation ' s leading ecologists , set out to determine whether the five species of warblers actually did occupy the same niche . by measuring distances down from the top and outward from the trunk of individual spruce , fir , and pine trees , macarthur divided the trees into zones and recorded feeding positions of the different warblers within each . a record in zone\nt3\nindicated a bird feeding among the abundant new needles and buds of the tip of a branch , between 20 and 30 feet from the top of the tree . a record of\nm3\nsignified feeding mostly among dead needles at the same height but in the middle zone of a branch . a record of\nb2\nrepresented a warbler feeding on the bare , lichen - covered base of a branch . in all , 16 different positions were distinguished ,\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\ngreenland ; grenada ; iceland ; united kingdom ; virgin islands , u . s .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nopen cup of twigs , bark , plant fibers , and rootlets held to branch with spider web . lined with lichens , moss , hair , and dead pine needles . placed near tip of branch of conifer .\ndunn , j . l . and k . l . garrett . 1997 . a field guide to the warblers of north america . boston , ma : houghton mifflin co .\nlutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love . longevity records of north american birds . version 2015 . 2 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory 2015 .\nnorth american bird conservation initiative . 2014 . the state of the birds 2014 report . us department of interior , washington , dc , usa .\nsauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , j . e . fallon , k . l . pardieck , jr . ziolkowski , d . j . and w . a . link . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2013 ( version 1 . 30 . 15 ) . usgs patuxtent wildlife research center 2014b . available from urltoken\nsibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .\nfemales / immatures are paler and yellower overall with 2 white wingbars . note distinctive triangular ear patch and yellow eyebrow .\nhops around in vegetation and nervously looks around . this video has no audio .\nfemales / immatures lack the orange coloration , showing tones of yellow instead . note triangular ear patch , pale eyebrow , and white wingbars .\nthe brilliant orange throat and head pattern is distinctive on adult males although the intensity of orange varies among individuals .\nfemales / immatures have a distinctive dull black triangular ear patch and bold wingbars . this video has no audio .\nmales often sing from the tops of trees and branches . this video has no audio .\n: throat and upper breast deep orange . sides of neck , eyestripe , line on forecrown , and eye arc yellow - orange . face patch , crown , and back black . lower breast yellowish with black streaks on sides . belly white or yellowish . wings black with broad white wingbars that run together into a white patch . back black with two creamy white lines . tail black with large white patches in outer tail feathers .\n: similar to breeding , but oranges less intense and more yellow . olive edges to black back feathers . wingbars more distinct and less of a continuous white patch .\n: throat , upper breast , eyestripe , forecrown stripe , and sides of neck orange yellow . crown , face patch , and flank streaks greenish gray . back gray with dark and light streaking . two broad white wingbars .\n: similar to breeding , but more olive - brown above and with less white in the wing .\nimmature similar to adult female . immature male with more yellow throat , some black in eyeline , and more yellow onto flanks . immature female much paler , with yellowish throat and eyeline , blurry streaking on sides , grayer face patch and crown , and narrower wingbars .\nmay be especially vulnerable to loss of wintering habitat , with cutting of forest at mid - levels in mountains in the tropics .\nwoodlands ; conifers in summer . breeds in boreal coniferous and mixed forests , especially spruce and hemlock . in southern part of breeding range in appalachians , can inhabit completely deciduous forests . when migrating , occurs in all kinds of trees and brush . during winter in the tropics , usually in humid mountain forest .\nfeeds mostly in treetops , searching along small branches and twigs . also hovers to take insects from undersides and tips of foliage . will search dead leaf clumps ; occasionally flies out to catch flying insects . in spruce forests , males tend to forage higher than females . in winter in the andes , forages in mixed flocks with various tropical birds .\n4 , sometimes 3 - 5 . white to greenish white , with blotches of reddish brown concentrated near the larger end . only females incubate , probably 12 - 13 days . male feeds female during incubation . young : both parents feed nestlings . when the young leave the nest , the parents separate , each caring for part of the brood .\nboth parents feed nestlings . when the young leave the nest , the parents separate , each caring for part of the brood .\nmostly insects , especially caterpillars . in summer , feeds on many caterpillars , particularly those of spruce budworm ; also eats beetles , ants , flies , and many other insects , also spiders . especially during winter , will take some berries as well .\ndetails of nesting behavior not well known , partly because nests are high and hard to observe . male defends nesting territory by singing , sometimes by attacking intruding males . in courtship , male sings , and performs displays with gliding flight and fluttering wings and tail . nest : almost always placed in dense vegetation near tips of branches of conifers , and usually high , sometimes up to 80 ' above ground . nest ( probably built by female ) is cup - shaped and made of twigs , bark , and fibers ; lined with lichens , moss , grass , hair , and conifer needles .\nfrom wintering areas ( mostly in andes of south america ) , many apparently move north through central america , then fly north across gulf of mexico . fall migration may be spread out over a broader front .\nvery thin and wiry , increasing in speed and rising to the limit of hearing , sleet - sleet - sleet - sleet - sleetee - sleeeee . also tiddly - tiddly - tiddly - tiddly at same speed and pitch .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\nbuilding collisions kill hundreds of millions of birds each year . senator booker introduced a bill to reduce bird deaths caused by federal buildings .\nanimal services was able to rescue just three birds after a massive number of spring migrants hit a glass - sided tower in galveston .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\n/ * > < ! - - * / . alpha - grid - debug . container - 12 { background - image : none ; } / *\nan estimated 55 % of the species ' north american population breeds within the boreal forest .\nthis species is one of more than 30 birds selected for in - depth profiles . find out why and see all selected boreal birds \u00bb\n5\n( 13 cm ) . breeding male black and white with vivid orange throat , crown patch , and eyebrow ; and large white wing patch ; female similar , but has yellow throat . back of both sexes boldly striped . immature male similar to female .\n4 brown - spotted white eggs in a twig nest lined with lichens , mosses , and hair , usually placed high in a large conifer .\nblancher , p . 2003 . the importance of canada ' s boreal forest to landbirds . canadian boreal initiative .\nmacarthur , r . h . 1958 . population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests . ecology 39 : 599 - 619 .\nmorse , d . h . 1970 . ecological aspects of some mixed - species foraging flocks of birds . ecol . monogr . 40 : 119 - 168 .\nsauer , j . r . , j . e . hines , and j . fallon . 2004 . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966 - 2003 . version 2004 . 1 . usgs patuxent wildlife research center , laurel , md .\nbirding content provided by national wildlife federation / enature , with support from ducks unlimited / the pew charitable trusts .\nbe the first to receive news & important conservation alerts about the boreal forest .\naffinities within genus uncertain ; some suggestions that closest relative may be s . cerulea , based mainly on similarity of songs , but a molecular phylogeny recovered this species as sister to s . castanea . has hybridized with s . castanea and at least once with mniotilta varia , also possibly with s . pensylvanica and possibly with s . kirtlandii . monotypic .\ns canada ( c saskatchewan , locally from alberta , e to s newfoundland and nova scotia ) s in ne usa to c wisconsin and new england , and in appalachians to extreme n georgia . migrates to central america and nw south america , s in andes to c peru and , less commonly , c bolivia .\n13 cm ; 9\u00b77 g . male breeding has crown and ear - coverts black , orange lower eye - crescent , fiery orange forecrown patch , supercilium , neck side , throat and upper breast ; . . .\ntwo song types . type 1 song a series of thin , very high - pitched , whistled\nswee\nnotes , . . .\nfeeds mainly on insects and other arthropods ; occasionally takes berries in winter . forages mainly by gleaning in canopy , also sometimes . . .\nlong - distance migrant . leaves breeding grounds mostly during aug , moving s chiefly through . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . fairly common throughout range . breeding densities vary with habitat , with 0\u00b77\u20131\u00b71 pairs / ha in mature red spruce . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\npreviously considered to include species now separated in peucedramidae , zeledoniidae and teretistridae , as well as two genera now in phaenicophilidae . the most comprehensive molecular phylogeny of present family to date # r recovered nine principal clades ; almost all genera correspond to well - supported units , while two confined to west indies are maintained based on other characters . several traditionally recognized genera prove to be paraphyletic or otherwise unsustainable : dendroica is abandoned because setophaga is nested within it and has priority ; ergaticus is embedded within the clade occupied by cardellina ; euthlypis is subsumed within basileuterus ; oporornis is restricted to one species while its former congeners are removed to geothlypis ; parula proves to be widely paraphyletic ( two species move to setophaga , the rest to a resurrected oreothlypis ) ; phaeothlypis is indistinguishable from myiothlypis ; and the three wilsonia are more correctly placed in cardellina ( two species ) and setophaga ( one ) .\npreviously restricted to a single species ( s . ruticilla ) ; but comprehensive molecular phylogeny reveals that this species is deeply embedded within large clade that includes two species formerly in parula ( s . americana and s . pitiayumi ) and another ( s . citrina ) traditionally in wilsonia , as well as all species previously treated in dendroica # r ; catharopeza might also be subsumed into this genus # r , but better maintained as a separate monospecific genus , in view of unusual morphology and behaviour , as well as its basal position in the clade . as type species of parula , wilsonia and dendroica are all included in present grouping , these names become synonyms of oldest available name for this clade , setophaga .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down ."]}
{"id": 1920, "summary": [{"text": "parahepialus nebulosus is a species of moth of the family hepialidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by alph\u00e9raky in 1889 , and is known from the tibet autonomous region in china . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "parahepialus", "paragraphs": ["parahepialus zou & zhang , 2010 is synonymized with thitarodes viette , 1968 . thitarodes quadrata jiang , li , li , li & han , sp . n . is described from sichuan , china . illustrations of the adults and the genitalia are given for the type species of parahepialus and the new species .\nthere are different characteristics for genus identification found in the genitalia morphology of the genus hepialus insects reported in china , and most species of hepialus described by chinese scientists were transferred to thitarodes by foreign scholars . the taxonomy of the genus hepialus currently adopted in china was revised and newly divided into four genera , parahepialus gen . nov . , ahamus gen . nov . , hepialus and thitarodes viette , 1968 on the basis of the particular structure of the valve on male genitalia . 62 species belonging to the original hepialus described in china were rearranged into the four genus , 1 species of parahepialus , 1 species of hepialus , 18 species of ahamus , 40 species of thitarodes . its rationality was supported by the systemic phylogenetic tree constructed by the cytb gene of some original hepialus species collected from genbank .\nthere are other species that share similar hosts as ophiocordyceps sinensis . for example , o . crassispora and c . kurijimeansis are recorded on thitarodes baimaensis and t . armoricanus , respectively ( table 2 ) . ophiocordyceps gracilis , o . lanpingensis , and o . laojunshanensis are recorded on ahamus altaicola , a . jianchuanensis , and a . yunnanensis , respectively ( table 2 ) . ophiocordyceps gracilis is also recorded on three more hosts hepialus humuli , korscheltellus lupulina , and parahepialus nebulosus . similarly , cordyceps hepialidicola is reported on endoclita excrescens and o . ramosissimum and o . xuefengensis on endoclita nodus ( table 2 ) .\nophiocordyceps sinensis has the widest host range recorded on hepialidae , covering 55 spp . [ 95 , 96 ] . among them , thitarodes and ahamus are the two major genera ( table 2 ) . thirty - two spp . of thitarodes ( t . albipictus , t . armoricanus , t . baimaensis , t . baqingensis , t . bibelteus , t . biruensis , t . callinivalis , t . cingulatus , t . damxungensis , t . deqinensis , t . dongyuensis , t . ferrugineus , t . gonggaensis , t . jialangensis , t . jinshaensis , t . kangdingensis , t . kangdingroides , t . latitegumenus , t . litangensis , t . markamensis , t . meiliensis , t . namensis , t . namlinensis , t . oblifurcus , t . pratensis , t . pui , t . renzhiensis , t . varians , t . xunhuaensis , t . yeriensis , t . zaliensis , and t . zhongzhiensis ) and 13 spp . of ahamus ( a . anomopterus , a . gangcaensis , a . jianchuanensis , a . lijiangensis , a . luquensis , a . maquensis , a . sichuanus , a . yulongensis , a . yunlongensis , a . yunnanensis , a . yushuensis , a . zadoiensis , and a . zhayuensis ) are the host species of ophiocordyceps sinensis ( table 2 ) . the other host species are pharmacis carna , p . fusconebulosa , p . pyrenaicus , magnificus jiuzhiensis , m . zhiduoensis , bipectilus yunnanensis , endoclita davidi , gazoryctra ganna , parahepialus nebulosus , and hepialus xiaojinensis ( table 2 ) .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nshilap revista de lepidopterolog\u00eda , vol . 44 , n\u00fam . 175 , septiembre , 2016 , pp . 373 - 378\n: 411 , pl . 25 , fig . 135 , by original designation .\nchu & wang ( 2004 ) ( figs 1 , 4 ) . however , we found the figure\nwas used in chu & wang ( 2004 ) . we found that the male genitalia were broken during preparation ,\njiang , li , li , li & han , sp . n . (\nbrown ventrally . female ( fig . 3 ) . forewing length : 16 - 17 mm . essentially as described for male , except\n( figs 8 - 12 ) : uncus short and acute , strongly sclerotized . tegumen\nbroad , rounded terminally . a quadrate lobe protruding from base of vinculum with a broad and rounded\nof the zoological systematics and evolution of the chinese academy of sciences ( no . o529yx5105 ) .\ndhendup , k . , cannon , p . , hywel - jones , n . & rai , t . b . , 2010 . \u2013\nliang , x . c . , yang , d . r . , chen , f . r . , long , y . c . & yang , y . x , 1988 . \u2013 four new species of the genus hepialus ( ghost moth ) from yunnan , china . \u2013 zoological research , 9 ( 4 ) : 419 - 425 .\nueda , k . , 1996 . \u2013 a new species of thitarodes viette ( lepidoptera , hepialidae ) from japan . \u2013 bulletin of the kitakyushu museum of the natural history , 15 : 35 - 41 .\nviette , p . e . l . , 1968 . \u2013 contribution \u00e0 l ' \u00e9tudes des hepialidae ( 36\u00e8me note ) : lepidoptera hepialidae du n\u00e9pal . \u2013 khumbu himal , 3 : 128 - 133 .\none new species and one new record for the genus ninodes warren from china ( lepidoptera , geometridae . . .\na new species of the genus ninodes warren , n . quadratus sp . n . , is described from china and compared with related species , based on numerous museum specimens . n . albarius beljaev & park , 1998 , described from korea , is newly recorded for china . illustrations of external features and genitalia for each species of ninodes are presented .\nthe subfamily cyclidiinae from china is reviewed : two genera and seven species are reported from china . one new subspecies , cyclidia fractifasciata indistincta subsp . n . , is described . two new synonyms are established : cyclidia substigmaria ( h\u00fcbner , 1831 ) ( = cyclidia substigmaria brunna chu & wang , 1987 , syn . n . = cyclidia tetraspota chu & wang , 1987 , syn . n . ) . one misidentification in chu & . . . [ show full abstract ]\nallopatric divergence and secondary contact without genetic admixture for arichanna perimelaina ( lep . . .\nheterophleps inusitata , an extremely rare new moth species from western yunnan , china ( lepidoptera , . . .\nthe genus synegiodes swinhoe , 1892 is reviewed and redescribed , s . sanguinaria ( moore , 1868 ) is formally fixed as type - species according to the provisions of the international code of zoological nomenclature . seven species , including s . brunnearia ( leech , 1897 ) , are presently recognized as members of this genus and two new species from china and n . vietnam , s . expansus sp . nov . and s . . . . [ show full abstract ]\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; jiang , li , li , li & han , 2016 , shilap revta . lepid . 44 ( 175 ) : 374\n= ; jiang , li , li , li & han , 2016 , shilap revta . lepid . 44 ( 175 ) : 374\nahamus zou & zhang , 2010 ; j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116 ; ts : hepialus jianchuanensis yang\nthitarodes ( hepialidae ) ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; jiang , li , li , li & han , 2016 , shilap revta . lepid . 44 ( 175 ) : 374\narizanus ( matsumura , 1931 ) ( hepialus ) ; 6000 illust . insects japan . - empire : 1022 ; tl : japan\nthitarodes arizanus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\n= ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nthitarodes armoricanus ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 117\nthitarodes damxungensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus albipictus yang , 1993 ; acta zootax . sinica 18 : 184 ; tl : yunnan , deqin co . , renzhi snow mtn ( 28\u00b052 ' n , 99\u00b014 ' e , 4600 - 4780m )\nthitarodes albipictus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 117\nhepialus jinshaensis yang , 1993 ; acta zootax . sinica 18 : 185 ; tl : yunnan , deqin co . , baima , ( 28\u00b034 ' n , 99\u00b018 ' e , 4600m )\nthitarodes jinshaensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 117\nhepialus deqinensis liang , 1988 ; zool . res . 9 ( 4 ) : 419 , 424 ; tl : yunnan , deqin county , jiawu snow mtn\nthitarodes deqingensis [ sic , recte deqinensis ? ] ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus litangensis liang , 1995 ; zool . res . 16 : 210 , 212 ; tl : litang , sichuan\nthitarodes litangensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus baimaensis liang , 1988 ; zool . res . 9 ( 4 ) : 419 , 424 ; tl : yunnan , deqin county , baimae\nthitarodes baimaensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus meiliensis liang , 1988 ; zool . res . 9 ( 4 ) : 420 , 425 ; tl : yunnan , deqin county , meili snow mtn\nthitarodes meiliensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus callinivalis liang , 1995 ; zool . res . 16 : 209 , 212 ; tl : meili snow mtn , deqin county , yunnan\nthitarodes callinivalis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus jialangensis yang , 1994 ; zool . res . 15 ( 3 ) : 6 , 10 ; tl : xizang , zogang county , meili snow mtn ( 4000 - 4600m )\nthitarodes jialangensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus xiaojinensis tu , ma & zhang , 2009 ; entomotaxonomia 31 : 123 , 126 ; tl : xiaojin co . ( 30\u00b054 ' n , 102\u00b018 ' e , 4300 - 4800m , sichuan\nthitarodes richthofeni ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\ndierli viette , 1968 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal himalaya 3 : 132 ; tl : nepal\nthitarodes dierli ; [ nhm card ] ; ueda , 2000 , tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 74 ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\neberti viette , 1968 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal himalaya 3 : 130 ; tl : thodung , nepal\nthitarodes eberti ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; ueda , 2000 , tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 74\ndanieli viette , 1968 ; ergeb . forsch . nepal himalaya 3 : 128 ; tl : nepal\nthitarodes danieli ; [ nhm card ] ; ueda , 2000 , tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 71 ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nahamus yushuensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nahamus altaicola ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nahamus zhayuensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nahamus lijiangensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nhepialus jianchuanensis yang , 1994 ; zool . res . 15 ( 3 ) : 5 , 10 ; tl : yunnan , jianchan county , laojun mtn , 2900 - 3100m\nahamus jianchuanensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nhepialus anomopterus yang , 1994 ; zool . res . 15 ( 3 ) : 7 , 10 ; tl : yunnan , jianchan county , laojun mtn , ( 2800 - 3100m )\nahamus anomopterus ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 117\nhepialus yunnanensis yang , li & shen , 1992 ; zool . res . 13 : 245 , 249 ; tl : yunnan , laojun mtn , 26\u00b045 ' n , 99\u00b051 ' e\nahamus yunnanensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nahamus yunlongensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nhepialus yulongensis liang , 1988 ; zool . res . 9 ( 4 ) : 421 , 425 ; tl : yunnan , lijiang , yulong snow mtn\nthitarodes yulongensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nthitarodes quadrata jiang , li , li , li & han , 2016 ; shilap revta . lepid . 44 ( 175 ) : 374 ; tl : china , sichuan , xiaojin\nthitarodes sichuanus ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\n? ahamus menyuanensis [ sic , recte menyuanicus ] ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nthitarodes xizangensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nthitarodes kangdingensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes oblifurcus ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes baqingensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus ferrugineus li , yang & shen , 1993 ; acta ent . sinica 36 ( 4 ) : 495 , 496 ; tl : yunnan , baima snow mountain , 4200 - 4500m\nthitarodes ferrugineus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus gonggaensis fu & huang , 1991 ; acta ent . sinica 34 ( 3 ) : 362 ; tl : sichuan\nthitarodes gonggaensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes zhangmoensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes kangdingroides ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus markamensis yang , li & shen , 1992 ; zool . res . 13 : 246 , 249 ; tl : xizang , markam county , nimasha snow mtn , 28\u00b059 ' n 98\u00b046 ' e\nthitarodes markamensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus zaliensis yang , 1994 ; zool . res . 15 ( 3 ) : 7 , 10 ; tl : xizang , markam county , zhali snow mtn , 28\u00b058 ' n 98\u00b048 ' e , 4600 - 4900m\nthitarodes zaliensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\n= ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nthitarodes malaisei ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nsinarabesca ( bryk , 1942 ) ( hepialus ) ; ent . tidskr . 63 : 153 ; tl : kansu\nthitarodes sinarabesca ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 847 ( list )\nhepialus nebulosus alph\u00e9raky , 1889 ; in romanoff , m\u00e9m . l\u00e9p . 5 : 85 ; tl : ne . tibet\nthitarodes nebulosus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list )\nthitarodes varius ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list )\nthitarodes varians ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list )\nhepialus variabilis bremer , 1861 ; bull . acad . imp . sci . st . petersb . 3 : 478\nthitarodes variabilis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list )\nthitarodes nipponensis ueda , 1996 ; bull . kitakyushu mus . nat . hist . 15 : 35 ; tl : japan , shirakawadani , izumimura , kumanoto pref .\nthitarodes nipponensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list )\nthitarodes luteus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list )\nhepialus renzhiensis yang , shen , yang , liang , dong , chun , lu & sinaduji , 1991 ; acta ent . sinica 34 ( 2 ) : 218 , 224 ; tl : yunnan\nthitarodes renzhiensis ; [ nhm card ] ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus zhongzhiensis liang , 1995 ; zool . res . 16 : 207 , 211 ; tl : renzhi snow mtn , deqin county , yunnan\nthitarodes zhongzhiensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus yeriensis liang , 1995 ; zool . res . 16 : 207 , 211 ; tl : yeri snow mtn , deqin county , yunnan\nthitarodes yeriensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus pratensis yang , li & shen , 1992 ; zool . res . 13 : 247 , 250 ; tl : yunnan , deqin county , baima snow mtn , 28\u00b023 ' n 99\u00b001 ' e\nthitarodes pratensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus cingulatus yang & zhang , 1995 ; acta ent . sinica 38 ( 3 ) : 360 , 362 ; tl : gansu , wenxian county , 3200m\nthitarodes cingulatus ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus luquensis yang , yang & zhang , 1995 ; acta ent . sinica 38 ( 3 ) : 360 , 362 ; tl : gansu , luqu county , 34\u00b013 ' n , 102\u00b024 ' e , 4276m\nahamus luquensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 117\nhepialus xunhuaensis yang & yang , 1995 ; acta ent . sinica 38 ( 3 ) : 359 , 362 ; tl : qinghai , xunhua county , ( 35\u00b038 ' n , 102\u00b042 ' e ) , 3800m\nthitarodes xunhuaensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( list ) ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus bibelteus shen & zhou , 1997 ; acta ent . sinica 40 ( 2 ) : 198 , 200 ; tl : meidu ( 28\u00b022 ' n , 90\u00b001 ' e ) , baima snow mountain , deqing county , 4500m , yunnan\nthitarodes bibelteus ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nhepialus biruensis fu , 2002 ; acta ent . sinica 45 ( suppl . ) : 56 ; tl : xizang , biru county , 4400 - 4700m\nhepialus biruens [ sic , recte biruensis ] ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes sejilaensis zou , liu & zhang , 2011 ; pan - pacific ent . 87 ( 2 ) : 107 ; tl : mt sejila , linzhi county , tibet , 4500m , 29\u00b036 ' n , 94\u00b035 ' e\nthitarodes harutai ueda , 2000 ; tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 85 ; tl : nepal , mechi , laam pokhari , 2850m\nthitarodes jiachaensis zou , liu & zhang , 2011 ; pan - pacific ent . 87 ( 2 ) : 110 ; tl : jiancha county , tibet , 535m , 29\u00b026 . 714 ' n , 94\u00b042 . 888 ' e\nthitarodes kingdonwardi ueda , 2000 ; tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 84 ; tl : se . tibet , tsangpo valley , nyima la ( 14000ft )\nthitarodes kishidai ueda , 2000 ; tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 81 ; tl : nepal , lete nr nilgiri ( 2400m )\nthitarodes limbui ueda , 2000 ; tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 85 ; tl : nepal , mechi , khambachen ( 3950m )\nthitarodes maculatum ueda , 2000 ; tinea 16 ( suppl . 1 ) : 72 ; tl : nepal , chungbu khola ( 14500ft )\nthitarodes namnai maczey , dhendup , cannon , hywl - jones & rai , 2010 ; zootaxa 2412 : 43 ; tl : bhutan , namna , n 27\u00b044 ' 02 . 3\ne 89\u00b023 ' 32 . 2\n, 4750m\nthitarodes caligophilus maczey , dhendup , cannon , hywl - jones & rai , 2010 ; zootaxa 2412 : 47 ; tl : bhutan , namna , n 27\u00b044 ' 02 . 3\ne 89\u00b023 ' 32 . 2\n, 4750m\nthitarodes hainanensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes namensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes xigazeensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes yongshengensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes dinggyeensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes nanmlinensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nthitarodes pui ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\nahamus zadoiensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nahamus gangcaensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nahamus maquensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 116\nthitarodes yadongensis ; zou , liu & zhang , 2010 , j . hun . univ . sci . tech . 25 ( 1 ) : 118\ndongyuensis ( yang et al . , 1996 ) ( hepialus ) ; ( nom . nud . )\ndongyuensis ; nielsen , robinson & wagner , 2000 , j . nat . hist . 34 : 848 ( nom . nud . )\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nl\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res rapport\u00e9s du thibet par le g\u00e9n\u00e9ral n . m . przewalsky de son voyage de 1884 - 1885 in romanoff ,\nneue schmetterlinge aus den reichsmuseum in stockholm . nachtrag zur lepidopteren - ausbeute der sven hedinschen expedition ( 1927 - 1930 )\nentomological results from the swedish expedition 1934 to burma and british india . lepidoptera : fam . notodontidae stephens , cossidae newman und hepialidae stephens gesammelt von ren\u00e9 malaise\nzou , liu & zhang , 2011 two new species of thitarodes ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) from tibet in china pan - pacific ent . 87 ( 2 ) : 106 - 113\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncajviewer7 . 0 supports all the cnki file formats ; adobereader only supports the pdf format .\nyang darong ; yang yuexiong ( kunming institute of zoology , academia sinica kunming 650107 ) zhang sanyuan ( institute of diversified economy of lunnan district . gansu province wudu 746000 ) ; three new species of the genus hepialus from qinghai and gansu , china ( lepidoptera : hepialidae ) [ j ] ; acta entomologica sinica ; 1995 - 03\njiang shuai - shuai * , zou zhi - wen * , liu xin , zhang gu - ren * * ( state key laboratory for biological control of sun yat - sen university , guangzhou 510275 , china ) ; morphology and antennal sensilla of meteorus sp . , a parasitoid of hepialus pui larvae [ j ] ; journal of environmental entomology ; 2009 - 03\nliu xi - jin guo ying - lan ( institute of microbiology , academia sinica , beijing ) yu yong - xin ( zhejiang institute of chinese materia medico , hangzhou ) zeng wei ( sichuan institute of chinese materia medica , chongqing ) ; isolation and identification of the anamorphic state of cordyceps sinensis ( berk . ) sacc . [ j ] ; mycosystema ; 1989 - 01\nzhang - wu ; chen yong - jiu ; shen fa - rong ; yang yue - xiong ; yang da - rong ; zhang ya - ping ( laboratory of cellular and molecular evolution , kunming institute of apology , cab kunming 650223 ) ( laboratory of insect resources , kunming institute of zoology . cas kunming 6 ; study of genetic divergence in cordyceps sinensis and c . crassispora from northwest of yunnan by using rapd [ j ] ; mycosystema ; 1999 - 02\nkang ji - chuan , liang zong - qi , liu ai - ying , richard y . c . kong ( department of plant pathology , university of stellenbosch , p . bag x1 , matieland 7602 , south africa ) ( laboratory of fungus resources , guizhou university , guiyang 550025 ) ( department of biology ; molecular evidence of polymorphism in cordyceps based on 5 . 8s rdna and its2 sequences [ j ] ; mycosystema ; 2000 - 04\nli zeng - zhi ; huang bo ; fan met - zhen ( college of forest utilizatin , anhui agricultural university , hefei , anhui 230036 ) ; molecular evidence for anamorph determination ofcordyceps sinensis ( berk . ) sacc . i . relation between hirsutella sinensis and c . sinensis [ j ] ; mycosystema ; 2000 - 01\ndai jin - xia ~ ( 1 * * ) , zheng zhe - min ~ 2 ( 1 . college of life science , ningxia university , yinchuan 750021 , china ; 2 . college of life science , shaanxi normal university , xi ' an 710062 , china ) ; phylogenetic relationships of eleven species of pentatominae based on sequences of cytochrome b gene [ j ] ; entomological knowledge ; 2005 - 04\n\u00a92006 tsinghua tongfang knowledge network technology co . , ltd . ( beijing ) ( ttkn ) all rights reserved\nning ye , shuquan rao , tingfu du , huiling hu , . . . qi xu\nnozomi mihara , tadashige chiba , kosuke yamaguchi , haruka sudo , . . . kazushi imai\nglobal transcriptome analysis of halolamina sp . to decipher the salt tolerance in extremely halophilic archaea\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\n1 institute for bio - medical convergence , international st . mary\u2019s hospital and college of medicine , catholic kwandong university , incheon 404 - 834 , republic of korea 2 environmental science , ishikawa prefectural university , 1 - 308 suematsu , nonoichi , ishikawa 921 - 8836 , japan 3 mushroom research division , national institute of horticultural and herbal science , rural development administration , eumseong 369 - 873 , republic of korea 4 forest biodiversity division , korea national arboretum , pocheon 487 - 820 , republic of korea 5 college of pharmacy , chung - ang university , seoul 156 - 756 , republic of korea\ncopyright \u00a9 2016 bhushan shrestha et al . this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .\ncordyceps fr . is one of the hypocrealean genera , comprising more than 400 spp . that parasitize a wide range of insects and few fungal genera . externally , they produce clavate , cylindrical or thin filamentous , filiform stroma on the hosts . the history of exploring and identifying cordyceps fungi is long and stretches back to the 17th century [ 8 ] . one of the most popular fungi is ophiocordyceps sinensis ( syn . cordyceps sinensis ) that grows on hepialid larvae in the alpine grasslands of the himalayas and the tibetan plateau [ 9 ] . this host - fungus complex is traditionally highly revered for enhancing immunity , protecting lungs , enriching kidneys , restorative and tonic effects , treating impotence , and so forth [ 10 \u2013 13 ] .\nuntil the phylogenetic classification by sung et al . [ 14 ] , cordyceps remained a big genus placed in family clavicipitaceae of order hypocreales . however , phylogenetic studies showed that neither cordyceps nor clavicipitaceae was monophyletic [ 14 \u2013 18 ] and hence cordyceps was segregated into several phylogenetic genera within three families of hypocreales [ 14 ] . according to the phylogenetic classification , cordyceps is now restricted to the clade containing the type species c . militaris , circumscribed to cordycipitaceae [ 14 ] . newly segregated genera ophiocordyceps and elaphocordyceps were placed under another family ophiocordycipitaceae ; the other two genera metacordyceps and tyrannicordyceps remained in clavicipitaceae sensu stricto [ 14 , 19 ] .\nfollowing the recent revision in the international code of nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( icn ) , elaphocordyceps is now synonymized with tolypocladium [ 20 ] and metacordyceps with metarhizium [ 21 ] . drechmeria , podocrella , polycephalomyces , and sphaerocordyceps are other genera that consist of members that were formerly described under cordyceps . cordyceps along with the newly segregated genera is linked to many asexual insect - pathogenic genera distributed in all three families clavicipitaceae s . s . , cordycipitaceae , and ophiocordycipitaceae [ 4 , 14 , 20 ] . further synonymizations of genera are recently proposed within ophiocordycipitaceae following icn [ 22 ] .\nthe host range of cordyceps in classical sense is very broad and includes several orders ( coleoptera , lepidoptera , hymenoptera , hemiptera , orthoptera , araneae , diptera , blattodea , mantodea , dermaptera , odonata , phasmatodea , etc . ) . based on the published literature , nearly 60 % of the species of cordyceps sensu lato are recorded on two orders coleoptera and lepidoptera . the other major host orders are hymenoptera , hemiptera , orthoptera , and araneae . the majority of hosts ( more than 95 % ) in lepidoptera ( moths , butterflies ) and coleoptera ( beetle ) are larvae ; the rest are adults or pupae , making the host identification difficult . in contrast , majority of hosts in other orders are adults such as spiders ( araneae ) , fly ( diptera ) , ant , bee , and wasp ( hymenoptera ) , grasshopper , locust , and cricket ( orthoptera ) , cicada , bug , scale - insect , and coccid ( hemiptera ) , cockroach and termite ( blattodea ) , mantis ( mantodea ) , earwig ( dermaptera ) , dragonfly ( odonata ) , and stick - insect ( phasmatodea ) . why lepidopterans and coleopterans are mostly susceptible at larval stage while other orders are more susceptible at adult stage is not well understood .\ncordyceps fungi range in habitat from aerial to epigeal to subterranean ones [ 74 ] , based on their respective host species . when the host stage is adult , they grow on exposed environments such as leaf litter or are attached to some plant parts such as leaf and branch and in contrast to the larval or pupal stages that are buried in soil ( hypogeal ) or on wood up to nearly 50 cm , for example , o . longissima [ 75 ] and o . xuefengensis [ 76 ] . ophiocordyceps caloceroides that is buried in the soil more than 50 cm is exceptional which grows on adult spiders [ 77 ] .\nthe pathogenic fungi sometimes produce parasite manipulated behaviors on hosts , such as death grip or biting behavior [ 78 \u2013 80 ] . some of the parasitized ants always bite lower side veins but never the laminar blade or the upper surface [ 79 , 80 ] . similarly , some species of ants are attached to lower side of twigs whereas others are found attached to leaves [ 81 ] . in other cases , aphids , ants , grasshoppers , planthoppers , flies , and so forth shift to elevated position at the time of dying , known as summit disease [ 82 , 83 ] .\nin this review , we present brief introductions of coleoptera and lepidoptera and their major subgroups parasitized by cordyceps fungi . we hope the present review will serve as a reference for researchers and scholars to get a quick look at coleopteran and lepidopteran hosts of cordyceps spp .\nwe accumulated host information from published literature and analysed the hosts that belonged to coleoptera and lepidoptera . we found that hosts of only 60 % of cordyceps fungi are known at family or genus / species ranks ; the rest are known only at the order rank and hence no further discussions of the hosts could be done for them . hence , in this review , we dealt with only those hosts that are known at family or infrafamily ranks within coleoptera and lepidoptera and tried to analyse the major taxonomic subgroups that are associated with cordyceps fungi . we also analysed the host stage among coleopteran and lepidopteran hosts based on published literature .\ncoleoptera is currently the most species - rich group on this planet [ 84 ] . the order is classified into four suborders ( polyphaga , adephaga , myxophaga , and archostemata ) [ 85 ] . polyphaga is the largest suborder covering 90 % of total beetle species and is classified into more than 170 families . adephaga is the second largest suborder , followed by myxophaga and archostemata . all the known coleopteran hosts belong to suborders polyphaga and adephaga under 8 superfamilies and 11 families . short descriptions of host families are given below , followed by cordyceps spp . recorded on them .\nthis is one of the largest families in coleoptera and its members are commonly called scarabs or scarab beetles . scarabaeid larvae ( commonly called grubs ) are short , thick , pale yellow or white , mostly live underground or under debris , and feed on dead organic matter ( scavengers ) . twenty - seven cordyceps spp . are recorded in this family ( table 1 ) . among them , c . brittlebankii is recorded on heteronyx sp . , c . brongniartii on anomala cuprea , c . coxii on lepidiota sp . , c . pseudoinsignis and c . velutipes on melolontha sp . , ophiocordyceps aphodii on aphodius howitti and a . tasmaniae , o . melolonthae on ancyloncha puncticollis , lachnosterna fusca , and melolontha sp . , o . michiganensis on scarabaeus sp . , o . ravenelii on l . fusca , phyllophaga sp . , and rhizotrogus sp . , and o . stylophora on costelytra zealandica ( table 1 ) . other species recorded in this family are c . obliquiordinata , c . scarabaeicola , metarhizium brittlebankisoides , ophiocordyceps arbuscula , o . barnesii , o . elongatiperitheciata , o . geniculata , o . gracillima , o . highlandensis , o . konnoana , o . larvicola , o . macularis , o . neovolkiana , o . nigrella , o . superficialis , o . variabilis , and sphaerocordyceps palustris ( table 1 ) . out of 27 cordyceps spp . , 26 are recorded on larvae except c . scarabaeicola that is recorded on adult ( table 1 ) .\ntable 1 : an aggregate list of coleopteran hosts ( family / genus / species ) of cordyceps species .\nmembers of this family are commonly called earth - boring dung beetles , which mostly excavate burrows to lay their eggs . they are normally detritivores but occasionally behave as coprophagous . cordyceps geotrupis is recorded on an adult of geotrupes sp . in this family ( table 1 ) .\nmembers of this family are commonly called stag beetles . the name stag beetle is derived from the distinctive mandibles found on the males that resemble the antlers of stags . the larvae feed on rotting deciduous wood for several years before pupating . ophiocordyceps scottiana is recorded on rhyssonotus nebulosus in this family ( table 1 ) .\nmembers of this family are commonly called click beetles , elaters , snapping beetles , spring beetles , skipjacks , and so forth . the adults are typically nocturnal and phytophagous . larvae are slender , elongate , cylindrical , or somewhat flattened , with relatively hard bodies , somewhat resembling mealworms . fifteen spp . of cordyceps have been recorded from this family ( table 1 ) , all of which grow on larvae except ophiocordyceps salebrosa that grows on an adult ( table 1 ) . six spp . are recorded on larvae of the following hosts : cordyceps nirtolii on melanotus communis , c . shanxiensis on m . caudex and pleonomus canaliculatus , metarhizium campsosterni on campsosternus auratus , m . martiale on hemirhipus sp . , ophiocordyceps jiangxiensis on c . auratus and c . fruhstorferi , and o . stylophora on denticollis linearis ( table 1 ) . other spp . recorded in this family are cordyceps aurantiaca , c . huntii , c . rubra , c . velutipes , ophiocordyceps brunneipunctata , o . elateridicola , o . gracilioides , o . purpureostromata , and o . salebrosa ( table 1 ) .\nthe long - horned beetles , also known as longicorns , are cosmopolitan , typically characterized by extremely long antennae , which are often as long as or longer than the beetle\u2019s body . the larvae , called roundheaded borers , bore into wood , where they can cause extensive damage to either living trees or untreated lumber . four spp . are known from this family , all growing on larvae ( table 1 ) . they are ophiocordyceps dovei on oemona hirta , o . entomorrhiza on leptura sp . , o . larvicola on callidium sp . , and o . stylophora on phoracantha semipunctata .\nthe family , commonly known as leaf beetle , is one of the largest beetle families . adults and larvae feed on all sorts of plant tissues . most chrysomelids are conspicuously colored , typically in glossy yellow to red or metallic blue - green hues . ophiocordyceps entomorrhiza is recorded on adult of diabrotica sp . and o . superficialis on a chrysomelid larva ( table 1 ) .\nit is a family of the pleasing fungus beetles . they feed on plant and fungal matter , a few of them being notable pests . cordyceps erotyli is recorded on adult of erotylus sp . in this family ( table 1 ) .\nit is the family of the true weevils or snout beetles . weevils are almost entirely plant feeders . cordyceps militaris is recorded on larva of ips sexdentatus , ophiocordyceps curculionum on adult of heilipus celsus , o . entomorrhiza on adult of apion flavipes , and podocrella peltata on larva of cryptorhynchus corticicolus ( table 1 ) .\ntenebrionids are often referred to as darkling beetles as they have usually black or brown elytra and are nocturnal in habit . they are found worldwide though they are more diverse in semiarid and arid ecosystems . adults of most species are saprophagous while larvae are mostly detritivores ( litter feeders ) or xylophagous . five spp . are recorded on larvae of this family ( table 1 ) : c . militaris on tenebrio molitor , o . acicularis on nictobates sp . , o . entomorrhiza on meneristes laticollis , and o . larvicola on cylindronotus sp . , helops caraboides , and h . lanipes . ophiocordyceps formosana is the fifth species recorded on larva of this family .\nthe rove beetles belong to family staphylinidae , primarily distinguished by their short elytra . the group is currently recognized as the largest family of beetles . they are an ecologically and morphologically diverse group of beetles and commonly encountered in terrestrial ecosystems . cordyceps memorabilis is recorded on adult of staphylinus sp . whereas ophiocordyceps entomorrhiza is recorded on larva of ocypus sp . cordyceps staphylinidicola and o . superficialis are other spp . recorded on larvae of this family ( table 1 ) .\nit is a large , cosmopolitan family . its members are commonly known as ground beetles . they are mostly shiny black or metallic and have ridged wing covers ( elytra ) . common habitats are under the bark of trees , under logs , or among rocks or sand by the edge of ponds and rivers . six spp . are known from this family ( table 1 ) . among them , o . entomorrhiza is recorded on adults and larvae of several species such as carabus auronitens , c . coriaceus , c . glabratus , c . hortensis , c . intricatus , c . nemoralis , c . nemorensis , c . violaceus , calathus sp . , calosoma sp . , coptolabrus sp . , hadrocarabus problematicus , and pterostichus sp . ophiocordyceps volkiana is recorded on larva of eripus heterogaster . cordyceps nikkoensis , ophiocordyceps carabidicola , o . michiganensis , and o . stylophora are other species recorded on larvae of this family .\namong the coleopteran families , scarabaeidae is parasitized by the highest number of cordyceps fungi ( 27 spp . ) , followed by elateridae ( 15 spp . ) ( table 1 ) . among 55 parasitizing fungi ( table 1 ) , we found that only few parasitize more than one family . for example , ophiocordyceps entomorrhiza parasitizes 6 families , followed by o . stylophora ( 4 families ) , o . larvicola and o . superficialis ( 3 families each ) , and c . militaris , c . velutipes , and o . michiganensis ( 2 families each ) ( table 1 ) . from host range point of view , ophiocordyceps entomorrhiza shows the widest range , infecting 13 spp . in carabidae and one sp . in each cerambycidae , chrysomelidae , curculionidae , staphylinidae , and tenebrionidae ( table 1 ) . it is also exceptional in that it infects both larval and adult stages .\nas mentioned earlier , larva is the most dominant host stage susceptible to cordyceps pathogens in coleoptera , with fewer adult stages being parasitized ( table 1 ) . besides o . entomorrhiza , six other spp . are recorded on coleopteran adults . they are c . erotyli , c . geotrupis , c . memorabilis , o . curculionum , o . salebrosa , and c . scarabaeicola ; the remaining ones are recorded on larvae .\nlepidoptera is among the large orders of insects [ 121 ] . it has around 160 , 000 spp . that are classified into 4 suborders , 45 superfamilies , and 139 families [ 122 ] . out of four suborders ( aglossata , glossata , heterobathmiina , and zeugloptera ) , cordyceps and allied genera are known only from glossata . it is the largest suborder consisting of almost 99 . 9 % of all described lepidopterans [ 122 , 123 ] . it is further classified into six infraorders ( dacnonypha , acanthoctesia , lophocoronina , neopseustina , exoporia , and heteroneura ) [ 122 ] . among them , cordyceps hosts are known from two infraorders exoporia and heteroneura .\nlepidopterans have from three to more than a dozen larval instars ( caterpillars ) , often five [ 123 , 124 ] , inhabiting as root - or stem - borers or foliage eaters and leaf - miners of angiosperms , usually within narrow range of host plants . lepidopterans have distinct feeding habits , basically plant - feeding during larval stage and nectar - feeding during adult stage . exoporia and heteroneura are discussed below in short , followed by cordyceps pathogens parasitizing them .\nit is a small infraorder consisting of 636 spp . that are classified into 2 superfamilies [ 122 ] . cordyceps and allied genera are recorded only from the superfamily hepialoidea . the superfamily comprises five families that are distributed in diverse vegetation such as forest , shrubland , grassland , tundra , swamp , and bog with the most varied diet habit among moth families [ 123 , 125 ] . among the families , cordyceps spp . are recorded from family hepialidae alone ( table 2 ) .\ntable 2 : cordyceps species recorded on hepialid hosts ( lepidoptera , glossata , exoporia , and hepialidae ) .\nmany species are recorded in australia and new zealand on hepialid hosts . for instance , cordyceps cranstounii , c . hawkesii , d . gunnii , o . robertsii , and o . taylorii are recorded on abantiades labyrinthicus and other abantiades spp . , aenetus virescens , aoraia dinodes , a . ensyii , dasypodia selenophora , oxycanus dirempta , and other oxycanus spp . , trictena atripalpis and other trictena spp . , wiseana spp . , and so forth ( table 2 ) . another cordyceps sp . rarely described on hepialus is c . militaris ( table 2 ) . besides that , cordyceps cuncunae and o . emeiensis are also recorded on hepialid hosts ( table 2 ) .\nthis infraorder consists of more than 98 % of lepidopteran species [ 122 ] . nine superfamilies among more than 30 in the infraorder are recorded as hosts of cordyceps spp . among the host families , tineidae is the only microlepidopteran family ; the rest are macrolepidopterans . papilionidae and pieridae are the two butterfly families , the rest being moths . the host families are briefly described below followed by cordyceps spp . recorded on them .\n( 1 ) erebidae . it is the largest family in lepidoptera with 24 , 569 described spp . [ 122 ] . despite the high species richness , only two cordyceps spp . are recorded on this family . of them , c . militaris is recorded on calliteara pudibunda and leucoma salicis whereas c . nikkoensis is reported on a larva of the family ( table 3 ) .\ntable 3 : cordyceps species recorded on heteroneuran hosts ( lepidoptera , glossata , and heteroneura ) .\n( 2 ) noctuidae . it is commonly known as owlet moths . cordyceps militaris is recorded on 4 spp . of this family : arcte coerula , colocasia coryli , euxoa ochrogaster , and panolis flammea ( table 3 ) . ophiocordyceps elongata is recorded on acronicta americana . other species recorded in this family are cordyceps alpicola , c . bifusispora , c . bulolensis , c . cristata , and c . tuberculata ( table 3 ) .\n( 3 ) notodontidae . its members are mainly concentrated in the tropical areas . some examples of this family are puss moths . cordyceps militaris is recorded on 5 spp . of this family . they are fentonia ocypete , lampronadata cristata , phalera assimilis , p . bucephala , and syntypistis punctatella ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) limacodidae ( cochlididae ) . the members of this family are known as slug moths and are mostly tropical . ophiocordyceps cochlidiicola is recorded on larva and pupa of this family ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) cossidae . the members are known as carpenter millers and are found worldwide . four spp . are recorded in this family . of them , metarhizium indigoticum is recorded on yakudza vicarius . two recently described spp . , ophiocordyceps arborescens and o . macroacicularis , are recorded on cossus sp . ( table 3 ) . the other species recorded on this family is cordyceps bassiana .\n( 1 ) drepanidae . the members of this family have worldwide distribution . cordyceps militaris is recorded on 4 spp . of this family : achlya flavicornis , ochropacha duplaris , tethea ocularis , and tetheella fluctuosa ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) tineidae . the members are small to medium - sized moths . they are worldwide in distribution but are particularly common in the palaeartic ecozone . cordyceps cardinalis is recorded on larva of this family ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) papilionidae . it is a family of colorful swallowtail butterflies . some of the members are the largest butterflies in the world . the majority are distributed in the tropical region . cordyceps tuberculata is reported on adult of this family ( table 3 ) .\n( 2 ) pieridae . it is a large family of butterfly , mostly distributed in the tropical parts of the world . its members are mostly white , orange , or yellow in pigmentation . metarhizium taii is reported on pieris rapae in this family ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) geometridae . it is the second largest family in lepidoptera with 23 , 002 spp . [ 122 ] . it is commonly known as inch worms . some of the members are notorious pests . cordyceps militaris and c . riverae are recorded from this family parasitizing biston panterinaria , lycia hirtaria , and triphosa sp . ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) bombycidae . it is known as silkworm family . the most well - known member is bombyx mori , native to northern china . cordyceps militaris is recorded on b . mori and c . michaelisii on a species of bombyx ( table 3 ) .\n( 2 ) endromidae . this is a small family . cordyceps militaris is recorded on andraca bipunctata in this family ( table 3 ) .\n( 3 ) saturniidae . the members include giant silk moths , royal moths , and emperor moths . they are described worldwide but are particularly known from tropical and subtropical regions . some of the members are the largest moth species . cordyceps longdongensis parasitizes actias artemis whereas c . militaris parasitizes anisota senatoria ( table 3 ) .\n( 1 ) lasiocampidae . its members are known as snout moths or lappet moths . they are large in size with broad wings and are known worldwide . cordyceps militaris is reported on dendrolimus pini , d . superans , and macrothylacia rubi ( table 3 ) .\nout of 22 spp . recorded on heteroneuran hosts ( table 3 ) , c . militaris has the widest host range , extending to 2 infraorders , 6 superfamilies , 10 families , and 29 spp . ( table 3 ) . it is a cosmopolitan species , distributed from sea level to more than 2000 m above sea level [ 126 ] . probably due to its wide host range and adaptability to wider habitats , this species demonstrates rapid in vitro growth and fructifications [ 127 ] . cordyceps tuberculata is another species recorded on multiple families . larva is the most suitable host for cordyceps spp . compared to pupa and adult ( table 3 ) .\nin total , 16 families in lepidoptera ( 1 exoporian and 15 heteroneuran ) are identified as host families of cordyceps and allied genera . hepialidae , though a small family , hosts 6 cordyceps spp . , 1 drechmeria sp . , and 10 ophiocordyceps spp . ( table 2 ) . they are mostly distributed in either asia or australia / new zealand . after hepialidae , noctuidae and sphingidae are the families mostly infected by cordyceps spp . ( table 3 ) ."]}
{"id": 1935, "summary": [{"text": "brookesia stumpffi , also known as the plated leaf chameleon ( german : stachelcham\u00e4leon ) , is a species of chameleon found in some parts of madagascar .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it can be found in nosy b\u00e9 , north-west madagascar , nosy komba , and nosy sakatia . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "brookesia stumpffi", "paragraphs": ["brookesia stumpffi boettger 1894 brookesia stumpffi \u2014 glaw & vences 1994 : 236 brookesia stumpffi \u2014 klaver & b\u00f6hme 1997 brookesia stumpffi \u2014 necas 1999 : 268 brookesia stumpffi\u2014 pianka & vitt 2003 : 11 brookesia stumpffi \u2014 townsend et al . 2009\nbrookesia stumpffi has been bred for some years , although not in high amounts .\ncitation : - brookesia stumpffi . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .\nschmidt , w . 1986 . brookesia stumpffi boettger , 1894 . sauria 8 ( 2 ) suppl . : 041\u2013042 - get paper here\nremark . \u2014this species has been considered before as brookesia sp . \u201cmontagne des francais\u201d [ 7 ] and as brookesia sp . nov . [ 37 ] .\nschmidt , w . ; henkel , f . w . & b\u00f6hme , w . 1989 . zur haltung und fortpflanzungsbiologie von brookesia stumpffi boettger 1894 ( sauria : chamaeleonidae ) . salamandra 25 ( 1 ) : 14 - 20 - get paper here\nremark . \u2014this species has been considered before as brookesia sp . aff . karchei \u201cambre\u201d [ 7 ] and as brookesia sp . nov . [ 41 ] .\nthe aim of my study is to identify morphological and roosting differences in brookesia stumpffi in relation to primary , secondary , and degraded habitats . this can give implications for conservation of chameleons in madagascar and provide more of an idea about dwarf chameleons coping strategies for deforestation . my hypothesis is that brookesia stumpffi have shifted in their morphology due to a change in resources between primary , secondary , and degraded habitats . i am very excited to be conducted this exciting research project over the next six months .\nbrookesia from madagascar , and the rationale for its listing on cites appendix ii . oryx\nthe generic name brookesia is in honor of british naturalist joshua brookes . [ 1 ]\n( a ) male and ( b ) female of brookesia tristis from montagne des fran\u00e7ais ; ( c ) male and ( d ) female of brookesia confidens from ankarana ; ( e ) male and ( f ) female of brookesia micra from nosy hara ; ( g ) male and ( h ) female brookesia desperata from for\u00eat d ' ambre .\nwgetz ? [ reptilia - species : brookesia * ] [ accessed 10 august 2005 ] .\nbrookesia are easiest to find at night when they sleep on the leaves of small shrubs .\nbrygoo , e . r . & c . a . domergue 1971 . notes sur les brookesia ( cham\u00e9l\u00e9onid\u00e9s ) de madagascar . description d ' une esp\u00e9ce nouvelle , b . antoetrae n . sp . , et des h\u00e9mip\u00e9nis de b . stumpffi et b . ebenaui . remarques sur la r\u00e9partition de b . stumpffi . . bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . paris ( 2 ) 42 ( 5 ) : 830 - 838 . - get paper here\nmorphometric measurements ( in mm ) of examined type specimens of brookesia tristis and b . confidens .\nmorphometric measurements ( in mm ) of examined type specimens of brookesia micra and b . desperata .\nremark . \u2014this species has been considered before as brookesia sp . \u201cnosy hara\u201d [ 7 ] .\nfinally got our 2 . 3 group of brookesia so decided to take some video of the unboxing .\nall phylogenetic analyses included these outgroup taxa as well as all non - brookesia chamaeleonid taxa from figure 2 .\nremark . \u2014this species has been considered before as conspecific with brookesia sp . \u201cmontagne des francais\u201d [ 7 ] .\nnota bene : a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than brookesia .\nboettger , o . 1894 . eine neue brookesia ( chamaeleontidae ) aus nossib\u00e9 . zool . anz . 17 : 182\u2014185 . - get paper here\nbrookesia tristis sp . n . zoobank lsid : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 56f36d4d - 1f94 - 49c4 - ac30 - 6e894b6aa998\nbrookesia confidens sp . n . zoobank lsid : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : cb2a9146 - 0161 - 42b7 - a145 - 6ded579f1f21\nbrookesia micra sp . n . zoobank lsid : urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : d1a239d6 - 93e8 - 4c34 - a428 - f79a2c8b6405\nbrygoo , e . r . 1978 . reptiles sauriens chamaeleonidae . genre brookesia et compl\u00e9ment pour le genre chamaeleo . faune de madagascar 47 : 1 - 173 .\nyeah , it says the stumpffi like 77 to 82 degrees , but cooler and very humid under the leaves , so . . . i don ' t really see how you would keep that high without an incandescent unless you just had a hot room . but if you have a warm room , you don ' t need an incandescent .\nit has been noted that most of the 15 brookesia species in northern madagascar show a remarkable degree of microendemism [ 12 ] . the importance of northern madagascar has also been assessed based on an explicit analysis of species richness of brookesia , which was highest in this part of the island [ 14 ] . considering the novel classification and new species of the b . minima group , this trend is now even more obvious , with 21 species of brookesia being confined to northern madagascar [ 12 ] .\nbrookesia feed on small insects and reply on their cyptic coloration to evade predators . when disturbed , these chameleons will play dead in an effort to resemble a fallen leaf .\n. . . and juveniles being found lower than adults ( see razafimahatratra et al . , 2008 ) . however , even species such as brookesia stumpffi , which has relatively high roosts for a leaf chameleon ( mean height , 0 . 43 m ) , still roost 2 m lower than sympatric furcifer angeli ( carpenter and robson , 2005 ) . in two studies of leaf chameleons , no significant differences between sexes were found for roost height ( randrianantoandro et al . , 2007a ; razafimahatratra et al . , 2008 ) . . . .\ncombined mitochondrial ( nd1 / nd2 / nd4 ) and nuclear ( rag1 / cmos ) data , 12 - partition relaxed - clock bayesian ( rcb ) cladogram with maximum - likelihood ( ml ) phylogram insert . analyses included all ougroup taxa , although for clarity , most nonchameleon taxa are not shown . major clades are color coded , and major clades of \u201ctypical\u201d brookesia are numbered ( see text ) . rcb / unrooted bayesian ( ub ) pp > 95 % are denoted by asterisks ( pp between 90 % and 95 % are shown as actual values ) above branches , and ml bootstrap values > 50 % are shown below branches . black diamond indicates alternate attachment point for brookesia stumpffi clade in the ub and ml analyses . dashed terminal branches mark individuals represented by nd4 data only .\nin this study , we use brookesia to test the temporal and spatial predictions of 3 species - level diversification hypotheses for madagascar ( mr , wc , and rb ; vences et al . 2009 ) . the first step in this process is to infer a phylogeny of brookesia to identify statistically supported sister - species pairs using dna sequence data from multiple mitochondrial and nuclear protein - coding genes . next , we use divergence dating to statistically test the temporal prediction of both the mr and the wc hypotheses that recent ( pleistocene or possibly pliocene ) climatic cycles are a major force promoting brookesia species diversification .\n. . . most species of brookesia have very small distribution ranges [ 6 ] , [ 12 ] ; indeed , almost 50 % of the species are known from single localities [ 13 ] . within brookesia , both species diversity and levels of endemism are highest in northern madagascar , and are correlated with elevational and environmental heterogeneity in this area [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] . . . .\nwhen disturbed these chameleons will play dead , resembling a fallen leaf . the brookesia species are often called \u201cleaf chameleons\u201d because their small body and morphology resembling a leaf makes them highly cryptic when on the ground .\nnecas , p . & schmidt , w . 2004 . mysterious mini - dragons : the stump - tailed chameleons brookesia and rhampholeon . reptilia ( gb ) ( 35 ) : 10 - 21 - get paper here\nthe following pictures show the habitat of brookesia stumpffi at the end of the rainy season . some are even from finding places of this species . generally , this species has no high demands concerninc specialized habitats , it can cope with various environments . in ankify and ambanja , this species occurs in the thick foliage layer of coffee and cocoa plantations . on nosy be , along the coast of ankify and on nosy komba , they rather inhabit rocky environments with dense undergrowth and mossy soil areas . in contrast the habitat in ankarana is entwined undergrwoth with lots of twigs and thin branches , much foliage and small plants . the ground ist diffused with rocks and stones here , too .\nthe mrca of the b . nasus \u2013 b . lolontany clade and all other brookesia appears early in the history of the group ( although monophyly of neither brookesia nor this subclade is significantly supported ; fig . 2 ) . the remainder of the genus is clearly monophyletic and is divided into 2 well - supported clades . one of these clades corresponds to the extremely miniaturized b . minima group . the other major clade , representing the typical brookesia morphotype , consists of a series of 5 maximally supported subclades ( one of which is a single species ) whose interrelationships are strongly supported by the rcb analysis but less so by the ub and ml analyses ( fig . 2 ) .\nnecas , p . & schmidt , w . 2004 . geheimnisvolle mini - drachen : die erd - und stummelschwanzcham\u00e4leons der gattungen brookesia und rhampholeon . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 9 ( 48 ) : 18 - 27 - get paper here\ncrottini , angelica ; aur\u00e9lien miralles , frank glaw , d . james harris , alexandra lima & miguel vences 2012 . description of a new pygmy chameleon ( chamaeleonidae : brookesia ) from central madagascar . zootaxa 3490 : 63\u201374 - get paper here\none clade of malagasy leaf chameleons , the brookesia minima group , is known to contain species that rank among the smallest amniotes in the world . we report on a previously unrecognized radiation of these miniaturized lizards comprising four new species described herein .\ncarpenter , a . i . and robson , o . 2005 . a review of the endemic chameleon genus brookesia from madagascar , and the rationale for its listing on cites appendix ii . oryx 39 ( 4 ) : 375 - 380 .\nbrookesia is a smallest reptiles . members of the genus brookesia are largely brown and most are essentially terrestrial . a significant percentage of the species in the genus were only identified to science within the last three decades , and a number of species that still have not received a scientific name are known to exist . most inhabit very small ranges in areas that are difficult to access , and due to their small size and secretive nature , they have been relatively poorly studied compared to their larger relatives .\n. . . these lizards , which appear to form the sister taxon of all other chameleons ( rieppel 1987 ; townsend and larson 2002 ) , constitute one of the largest malagasy reptile groups ( raxworthy and nussbaum 1995 ; glaw and vences 2007 ) . most brookesia species have very small ranges ( raxworthy and nussbaum 1995 ; raselimanana and rakotomamalala 2003 ) , with almost half known essentially from single localities ( carpenter and robson 2005 ) . brookesia can be divided into 3 main groups based on morphology . . . .\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( genus brookesia , p . 40 ) .\nbeolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( genus brookesia , p . 40 ) .\nmost species of brookesia have very small distribution ranges [ raselimanana ap , rakotomalala d ( 2003 ) ] , [ raxworthy cj , nussbaum ra ( 1995 ) ] ; indeed , almost 50 % of the species are known from single localities [ carpenter ai , robson o ( 2005 ) ] . within brookesia , both species diversity and levels of endemism are highest in northern madagascar , and are correlated with elevational and environmental heterogeneity in this area [ townsend tm , vieites dr , glaw f , vences m ( 2009 ) ] .\n. . . the micro leaf chameleon genus brookesia displays extremes within the realm of microendemism and miniaturization , with 50 % of species in this large genus coming from single type localities and exhibiting patterns of miniaturization in proportion with range ( carpenter and robson 2005 , townsend et al . 2011 ) . as a result , many species of brookesia are listed as threatened or endangered under cites due to small ranges , preference for undisturbed habitat , and extremely specialized niche - filling ( carpenter and robson 2005 , glaw et al . 2012 ) . brookesia miniaturization is a unique trait in madagascar chameleons , mirrored by the dwarf african chameleon genus rhampholeon and rippeleon ( glaw et al . 2012 ) , and most likely developed to fulfill extremely specific niches in small habitat ranges ( gaston 1996 ) . . . .\nin my experience ( brevicaudatus ) is better indirect light of other terraium ( present in reptile room ) near pigmy tank . . . the tube on the tank produce noise for the brevicaudatus : it ' s the same for brookesia or they prefer more bright terrarium ?\nted m . townsend , david r . vieites , frank glaw , miguel vences ; testing species - level diversification hypotheses in madagascar : the case of microendemic brookesia leaf chameleons , systematic biology , volume 58 , issue 6 , 1 december 2009 , pages 641\u2013656 , urltoken\nb . stumpffi resembles the dead leaves among which they live . the head is flattened and the rear of the casque is adorned with spinose projections . the orbital crests are well developed and their edges are somewhat scalloped . a row of thorn - like projections runs down either side of the dorsum , from a few millimeters behind the casque to the proximal 1 / 4 of the tail . the basic body coloration is typically brown , gray , drab green , or rust but orange specimens are also observed on occasion . indistinct , yellowish spots are also possible . during courtship , males may adopt a mottled ,\nlichen - like\nappearance but otherwise the the color changing ability , as with most members of the brookesia , is not well developed . males may be distinguished by their more slender body shape and the appearance of a hemipenal bulge .\ngray je . 1864 . revision of the genera and species of cham\u00e6leonid\u00e6 , with the description of some new species . proc . zool . soc . london 1864 : 465 - 477 + plates xxxi & xxxii . ( brookesia , new genus , pp . 476 - 477 ) .\ntownsend , t . m . ; vieites , d . r . ; glaw , f . & vences , m . 2009 . testing species - level diversification hypotheses in madagascar : the case of microendemic brookesia leaf chameleons . systematic biology 58 ( 6 ) : 641\u2013656 - get paper here\nbrookesia chameleons are some of the world ' s smallest reptiles\u2014one species reaches a maximum length of just over an inch ( 30 mm ) . also known as stumped - tailed or leaf chameleons , these diminutive creatures are found in the leaf litter of rainforests and dry deciduous forests in much of madagascar .\nthe wc , rb , and mr hypotheses all make general predictions about relative species abundance at different altitudes . following wollenberg et al . ( 2008 ) , we divided madagascar into a coarser grid with cell sizes of 82 \u00d7 63 km = 5166 km 2 and used the arcview extension \u201cendemicity tools\u201d ( provided by n . danho ) to calculate brookesia species richness and corrected weighted endemism ( crisp et al . 2001 ) for each cell . we then tested for nonparametric correlation of these values with altitudinal range , defined as maximum\u2013minimum elevations per grid cell ( excluding grids with no occurrence of any brookesia species ) .\nmales ( left ) and females ( right ) of four brookesia species described in 2012 , all belonging to the b . minima species group : a - b b . tristis , c - d b . confidens , e - f b . micra , g - h b . desperata [ 2 ]\nmost brookesia are on cites appendix ii , the only exception being b . perarmata on appendix i ( a species also listed as endangered by iucn ) . consequently , a special permit is required to import any of the below species from their native madagascar , and typically no permit is issued for b . perarmata .\nglaw , f . ; k\u00f6hler , j . r . ; townsend , t . m . ; vences , m . ( 2012 ) . salamin , nicolas , ed .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons ( brookesia ) from northern madagascar\n.\nglaw f , k\u00f6hler j , townsend tm , vences m . ( 2012 ) .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons ( brookesia ) from northern madagascar\n. plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e31314 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0031314 .\nmadagascar ' s brookesia dwarf chameleons are believed to require relatively intact forest for survival . although they have featured in herpetological surveys , taxonomic reviews and trade assessments , very little is known about their microhabitat requirements or ecology . over a 5 night period in a deciduous forest in western madagascar we recorded the night roosting sites for three sympatric . . . [ show full abstract ]\nspecies richness of brookesia was negatively correlated with the minimum altitude ( p < 0 . 05 ) and positively correlated with the maximum altitude ( p < 0 . 001 ) in each grid cell . species richness and corrected weighted endemism of brookesia furthermore showed a significant correlation with altitudinal range per grid cell ( p < 0 . 001 and p < 0 . 05 , respectively ) . these results are not congruent with the rb and wc hypotheses , both of which predict a higher species richness and endemism at lower elevations where rivers are widest and where river basins forming coes have their headwaters . in contrast , the results are consistent with the mr hypothesis , which predicts more species will be restricted to montane regions where there is a higher probability of isolation during dry periods .\ndivergences amongst species in the b . minima group are known to be uniformly deep ( eocene or early oligocene ) [ 14 ] . although the confidens - tuberculata and tristis - desperata divergences are slightly lower than other sister - taxon divergences within the b . minima group , they are still larger than almost all sister - taxon divergences in other parts of the brookesia tree [ 14 ] .\naverage uncorrected nd2 sequence divergences amongst all lineages identified by this analysis are quite high . brookesia confidens is 20 % divergent from its sister taxon b . tuberculata , b . tristis is approximately 18 % divergent from b . desperata , and b . micra is about 23 % and 26 % divergent from b . tristis and b . desperata , respectively . the highest uncorrected pairwise divergences reaches 32 . 6 % between b . karchei and b . micra , and the smallest interspecific distance is 18 % between b . desperata and b . tristis . the largest intraspecific distances are within b . exarmata ( 3 % ) , b . tristis ( up to 2 . 6 % ) , and brookesia sp . from betampona ( 2 . 1 % ) ; all other species have maximum divergences among haplotypes \u22641 . 2 % .\nmaps illustrating ( a ) differential brookesia species diversity ( richness ) across madagascar , quantified as numbers of species present within one - quarter degree square grid cells covering the entire island and ( b ) degree of endemism in different parts of madagascar . endemism is calculated as a measure of range - size rarity , expressed as the percentage aggregated reciprocal range size for all species per one - quarter degree square grid cell .\n. . . microendemism on madagascar proper has been theorized to be the result of watershed retreat during the quaternary period ( wilm\u00e9 et al . 2006 ) , with subsequent effects of low vagility , genetic isolation , low gene flow , and small isolated land area which have been linked with miniaturization ( gaston 1996 ) . the micro leaf chameleon genus brookesia displays extremes within the realm of microendemism and miniaturization , with 50 % of species in this large genus coming from single type localities and exhibiting patterns of miniaturization in proportion with range ( carpenter and robson 2005 , townsend et al . 2011 ) . as a result , many species of brookesia are listed as threatened or endangered under cites due to small ranges , preference for undisturbed habitat , and extremely specialized niche - filling ( carpenter and robson 2005 , glaw et al . 2012 ) . . . .\nthe reduction of external morphological complexity in these miniaturized representatives of brookesia has led to considerable taxonomic confusion . citing an absence of clear external morphological differentiation , raxworthy and nussbaum [ 12 ] synonymized b . peyrierasi and b . tuberculata with b . minima , and b . ramanantsoai with b . dentata . subsequently , another species of this group was described ( b . exarmata ) [ 20 ] , and it was demonstrated that b . peyrierasi and b . tuberculata are valid species , based on differences in both external and genital morphology [ 5 ] , [ 20 ] . molecular evidence has supported monophyly of the b . minima group , albeit with the inclusion of one slightly larger species , b . karchei [ 14 ] . further , compared to species within other brookesia clades , all described b . minima group species are characterized by unusually high genetic differentiation strongly supporting their specific distinctness .\nglaw , f . ; k\u00f6hler , j . r . ; townsend , t . m . ; vences , m . ( 2012 ) . salamin , nicolas , ed .\nrivaling the world ' s smallest reptiles : discovery of miniaturized and microendemic new species of leaf chameleons ( brookesia ) from northern madagascar\n. plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e31314 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0031314 . pmc 3279364 . pmid 22348069 .\nwithin the brookesia minima group , hemipenes have been described for three species ( b . peyrierasi , b . ramanantsoai and b . tuberculata ) [ 5 ] , [ 18 ] , [ 36 ] . we herein provide data on genital morphology for the four newly described species , and for b . minima ( see species accounts below ) . hence , within the group , the genital morphology remains unknown only for b . dentata , b . exarmata and b . karchei .\nthe newly discovered dwarf chameleon species represent striking cases of miniaturization and microendemism and suggest the possibility of a range size - body size relationship in malagasy reptiles . the newly described brookesia micra reaches a maximum snout - vent length in males of 16 mm , and its total length in both sexes is less than 30 mm , ranking it among the smallest amniote vertebrates in the world . with a distribution limited to a very small islet , this species may represent an extreme case of island dwarfism .\nthe 26 currently recognized species of brookesia typically dwell and forage on the ground , often within the leaf litter on the floor of rainforest and dry deciduous forest , and climb at night to low perches in the vegetation for sleeping . they are characterized by a typically dull brown or ( rarely ) greenish colour , a short non - prehensile tail that is used as \u201cfifth leg\u201d in walking [ boistel r , herrel a , daghfous g , libourel p - a , boller e , et al . ( 2011 ) ] .\nbrookesia , calumma , and furcifer constitute the three genera of chameleons occurring on madagascar , an island which harbors almost 80 of the world ' s ca . 185 nominal chameleon species [ 6 ] \u2013 [ 8 ] ) . all three genera are endemic to madagascar , with the exception of two furcifer species on the nearby archipelago of the comoros [ 9 ] , [ 10 ] . calumma and furcifer are generally medium - sized to large arboreal chameleons ( ca . 50\u2013295 mm svl and 110\u2013695 mm tl ) , and are often vividly coloured [ 7 ] . on the contrary , the 26 currently recognized species of brookesia typically dwell and forage on the ground , often within the leaf litter on the floor of rainforest and dry deciduous forest , and climb at night to low perches in the vegetation for sleeping . they are characterized by a typically dull brown or ( rarely ) greenish colour , a short non - prehensile tail that is used as \u201cfifth leg\u201d in walking [ 11 ] , and a smaller size of ca . 15\u201365 mm svl and 25\u2013105 mm tl [ 7 ] .\nbrookesia distributions span the island , although they are absent from many large areas in the central highlands and the south . three main centers of diversity ( fig . 3a ) are found in the northeast , north , and northwest , respectively . these areas are also coes , with the highest percent values of range - size rarity ( fig . 3b ) . however , there are several areas , mainly in the west and northwest regions of the island , with a high degree of endemism corresponding to several species only known from single locality records .\nchronogram from the 12 - partition ( nd1 / nd2 , nd4 , cmos , and rag1 , each partitioned by codon position ) rcb phylogenetic analysis . time units on scale bar in millions of years ago . see supplementary materials for exact divergence time means and 95 % cis for all nodes . maps above chronogram illustrate patterns of species richness ( quantified as numbers of species present within one - quarter degree square grid cells ) for the 3 main clades ( 1 = brookesianasus group , 2 = brookesiaminima group , and 3 = \u201ctypical\u201d brookesia group ) .\nnatural history . \u2014 most individuals were found roosting at night on thin branches about 5\u201320 cm above the leaf litter in deciduous dry forest close to a small forest trail within a small area , surrounded by tsingy outcrops . at this locality , the species was relatively abundant , whereas it was not found at similar localities nearby , suggesting a patchy distribution and a preference for certain microhabitats . this hypothesis is also supported by the fact that earlier herpetological surveys in ankarana [ 38 ] , [ 39 ] , did not record any species of the brookesia minima group .\nphylograms ( 50 % majority rule consensus trees ) from bayesian inference analyses of dna sequence alignments of ( a ) the nuclear genes cmos ( 846 bp ) and ( b ) rag1 ( 1522 bp ) . ( c ) phylogram from bi analysis of concatenated dna sequences of the nuclear genes cmos ( 846 bp ) and rag1 ( 1522 bp ) , and the mitochondrial genes nd2 ( 568 bp ) and 16s ( 580 bp ) . ( d ) brookesia portion of the bayesian chronogram derived from the beast analyses of all four concatenated genes ( see supporting information s1 for full chronogram with all outgroups ) . posterior probabilities are indicated above branches , and bars represent 95 % hpds for mean date estimates . units on scale are millions of years . species of the northern clade ( b . tuberculata plus the four new species described herein ) are marked in colour . the trees were rooted with brookesia nasus , and including b . brygooi and b . superciliaris as hierarchical outgroups ( not shown ) . a , b and c refer to major clades as discussed in the text . asterisks denote posterior probabilities of 1 . 0 .\nadditional analyses using alternative calibration distributions and data sets had little effect on divergence time estimates . analyses performed with normally distributed calibrations ( with standard deviations arbitrarily set at 10 % of the mean ) gave average intrachameleon divergences about 10 % more recent than those using lognormally distributed calibrations . likewise , analyses that excluded mtdna third codon positions and all mtdna data gave respective divergence estimates on average about 15 % and 18 % more recent than the full - data analysis . in all these analyses , brookesia sister - taxon divergences remained solidly miocene in age , and thus , our above conclusions are unaffected .\nin their study of biogeographic patterns in the leaf chameleons ( genus brookesia ) of northern madagascar , raxworthy and nussbaum ( 1995 ) recognized 5 rainforest regions delimited largely by altitudinal differences and intervening dry forests and characterized by a high degree of endemism in these lizards . raxworthy and nussbaum ( 1995 ) hypothesized that pleistocene climatic fluctuations had caused fragmentation of the rainforest , resulting in multiple allopatrically distributed sister - taxon pairs ( hereafter referred to as the mountain refuge [ mr ] hypothesis ) . these conclusions were not based on explicit phylogenetic hypotheses ; sister - taxon pairs were assumed based on general morphological similarities .\nthe wilm\u00e9 et al . ( 2006 ) wc model predicts that sister species should generally occupy adjacent coes or possibly a coe and an adjacent rdw . to test the fit of our brookesia data to the spatial aspect of this model , we first plotted the distributions of all brookesia sister - species pairs identified in our phylogenetic analyses onto the wilm\u00e9 et al . ( 2006 ) watershed map ( fig . 1 ) and counted the number of pairs matching the model ' s predictions . next , we randomly assigned each species from all sister - species pairs to one of the watersheds collectively occupied by them and counted the number of pairs fitting the model ' s predictions . we repeated this 10 , 000 times to generate a null distribution of expected number of fits to the model if sister species are actually distributed randomly with respect to relative watershed positions . if less than 5 % of the simulation rounds resulted in a number of matches equal to or greater than the number of matches from the real data , we rejected the null in favor of the wilm\u00e9 et al . ( 2006 ) wc hypothesis . we repeated this analysis under the interpretation that allopatric sister species occupying the same watershed also fit the model .\nlocality data for all brookesia species of madagascar were gathered from museum data , our own global positioning system readings , and pertinent literature . single - species maps that almost fully agree with the data used herein are reproduced in glaw and vences ( 2007 ) . small sample sizes of locality records are not appropriate to obtain reliable estimates of potential distribution by modeling . for 9 species , more than 6 ( range 7\u201339 ) locality records were available . for these species , we defined distributions by potential distribution models ( pruned for overprediction ) , and for the rest of the species , we used point locality data .\nall specimens were sequenced for 2 nuclear ( rag1 , \u223c1500 bp and cmos , \u223c800 bp ) and 3 mitochondrial ( nd1 , \u223c 70 bp ; nd2 , \u223c 1035 bp ; and nd4 , \u223c 700 bp ) protein - coding genes ; we included several nd4 sequences from raxworthy et al . ( 2002 ) that expanded our taxonomic ( 3 species ) or geographic ( 6 species ) coverage . our final brookesia sampling covered approximately 28 species , including all but 2 of the named species . museum / collection and genbank numbers of specimens can be found in the online supplementary material ( available from urltoken ) .\nthe wealth of new material and the obvious morphological distinctness of some of the new specimens ( especially the nosy hara population ) prompted us to study their genetic differentiation , external morphology and genital morphology in more detail . our integrative data clearly and concordantly indicate that populations d - g listed above represent new , undescribed species , and anticipating their formal description below , we will in the following sections use the new species names erected herein : brookesia tristis ( specimens from montagne des fran\u00e7ais ) , b . confidens ( ankarana ) , b . micra ( nosy hara ) , and b . desperata ( for\u00eat d ' ambre ) .\nthis ecomorphological disparity among chameleons is also found in mainland africa , leading to use of the general terms \u201ctree chameleons\u201d and \u201cground chameleons [ 10 ] . \u201d african ground chameleons comprise the genera rhampholeon and rieppeleon , and are superficially quite similar to the malagasy brookesia ( which are often further distinguished from other ground chameleons by the name \u201cleaf chameleons\u201d ) . interestingly , neither ground chameleons as a whole , nor the african species , form monophyletic groups . in fact , rieppeleon forms the sister taxon of a tree chameleon genus ( archaius ) endemic to the seychelles islands [ 10 ] , indicating a history of multiple independent evolutionary shifts between arboreal and terrestrial chameleon ecomorphs .\nrivers appear to have played a substantial role in the diversification of several lemur groups ( pastorini et al . 2003 ; goodman and ganzhorn 2004 ; louis et al . 2005 ) , some frogs ( vieites et al . 2006 ) , and possibly even some chameleons of the genus furcifer ( raselimanana and rakotomamalala 2003 ) . however , this does not seem to be true for leaf chameleons , at least at the species level and above . it seems unlikely that individual brookesia disperse over large distances , and they certainly cannot swim across rivers . however , given their small size and leaf litter microhabitat , they could quite plausibly float across rivers on debris washed away during heavy rains .\nphylogram ( 50 % majority rule consensus tree ) from a bayesian inference analysis of the 568 bp dna sequence alignment of the mitochondrial nd2 gene showing deep divergences among and low differences within species of the b . minima group . species of the northern clade ( b . tuberculata plus the four new species described herein ) are marked in colour . the tree was rooted with brookesia nasus , and including b . brygooi and b . superciliaris as hierarchical outgroups ( not shown ) . a , b and c refer to major clades as discussed in the text . inset maps show known distribution ranges ( typically single localities ) of all species . asterisks denote posterior probabilities of 1 . 0 .\namong amniotes , the smallest species are lizards , but they are consistently larger than amphibians , suggesting that different constraints are acting on this group . the maximum recorded svl of sphaerodactylus ariasae ( 18 mm ) is below the maximum value in brookesia micra ( 19 . 9 mm ) . however if using tl as yardstick , the record of the smallest squamate and amniote in fact applies to b . micra with a maximum tl of 29 mm , given that s . ariasae has a tl well above 30 mm [ 1 ] due to its relatively longer tail . the \u2018award\u2019 for the lower size record in amniotes , as in amphibians , therefore depends on the type of measurement used for ranking .\n. . . results obtained from this project suggest that b . micra has a wider range and habitat tolerance than previously believed , indicating that b . micra could be present elsewhere on the island as well as elsewhere in the archipelago or the mainland . in addition , many behavioral aspects common to thejenkins et al . 2003 ) . carpenter and robson ( 2005 ) believe this to be because of census difficulties and overall low density of the brookesia genus . this study , however , shows that b . micra can be found in incredibly high densities . most likely , this is due to presence of good habitat all along the transect line , particularly in areas of high b . micra abundance . b . micra appears to bene . . .\nmicroendemism is widespread in malagasy animals , but there are few examples in which it is as extreme as in the miniaturized species of the brookesia minima group and in frogs of the genus stumpffia [ 49 ] . this indicates a possible body size effect on the degree of microendemism , which is consistent with the body - range size relationship previously demonstrated in the malagasy mantellid frog radiation [ 58 ] . in general , a correlated decrease in species ' ranges with decreasing body size is a recognized pattern in animals [ 59 ] . a closer analysis of this pattern in madagascar ' s biota may yield new insights and provide at least a partial explanation for the prevalence of microendemic patterns in some groups of animals and the absence of such patterns in others .\non the contrary , in several other species and species complexes of brookesia more convoluted taxonomic situations are found . the widespread eastern b . superciliaris shows strong mitochondrial divergences among populations ; however , this structuring is not mirrored by divergences in one nuclear gene studied nor in morphology , suggesting these populations are conspecific [ 42 ] . the equally widespread b . thieli as well contains several deep genealogical lineages which however do not form a monophyletic group , with the morphologically divergent b . lineata and b . vadoni clustering within the b . thieli clade [ 14 ] . finally , the two morphologically distinct species b . ambreensis and b . antakarana , both microendemic in montagne d ' ambre , do not show any consistent mitochondrial or nuclear dna differentiation [ 14 ] .\nwe were concerned about the effects that substitutional saturation at deeper levels might have on divergence time estimates , especially with regard to mitochondrial dna ( mtdna ) data ( hugall et al . 2007 ) . however , the mtdna data were needed to confidently resolve more recent branching points ( see below ) , suggesting also that branch lengths within brookesia would be better estimated by including mtdna data . we therefore conducted analyses using 1 ) all data , 2 ) nuclear data plus first and second positions from the mtdna data , and 3 ) nuclear data alone to test the robustness of our divergence time estimates . we also tested our fossil calibrations using the cross - validation method of near et al . ( 2005 ) , which identifies potentially problematic fossils that cause incongruent age estimates of other dated nodes in the tree .\nvoucher specimens were euthanized using approved methods ( anaesthesia with ketamine , followed by ketamine overdosis ) that do not require approval by an ethics committee . all specimens were fixed in 90 % ethanol . muscle tissue samples for molecular analysis were taken from all specimens and preserved in pure ethanol . definition of measurements and the description scheme of the holotypes follows previous brookesia descriptions [ 12 ] . several additional characters were also scored , and their definition follows a previous morphological revision of the b . minima group [ 5 ] . morphometric measurements were taken by mv with a digital caliper to the nearest 0 . 1 mm , following a previously published measuring scheme [ 5 ] . measurements taken include : tl ; svl ; ( these two were previously defined ) tal , tail length ; hw , maximum head width ; hh , maximum head height ; ed , eye diameter ; forl , forelimb length .\nthe 3 main clades recovered in our phylogenetic analyses ( figs . 2 and 4 ) show distinct biogeographic patterns . the basally diverging b . nasus clade contains 2 species , b . nasus in the southeast and b . lolontany in the north , suggesting an old north - south connection . the b . minima clade shows the highest degree of endemism ; most of the 11 species are restricted to very small areas in the north and north - central regions . the third and largest clade ( typical brookesia ) spans most of the island , although centers of both diversity and endemism in this clade are in the north . within this clade , b . brygooi , b . bonsi , b . decaryi , and b . perarmata ( all western species ; clade 1 , fig . 2 ) form the sister taxon of the remaining species , none of which are restricted to the western forests .\nwithin each of the ml , ub , and rcb analysis sets , phylogenetic results were broadly congruent across the different genomes and genes , with topological conflicts involving only poorly supported nodes ( i . e . , ml bootstraps < 70 % , bayesian posterior probabilities [ pps ] < 95 % ) . one exception to this pattern involves strongly conflicting nuclear and mitochondrial results for the placement of 1 specimen of brookesia brygooi . this discrepancy is probably due to ancient mtdna introgression , and the nuclear topology almost certainly reflects the true organismal history ( see online supplementary material ) . mitochondrial data for this specimen were therefore excluded in all further phylogenetic analyses . in general , the mtdna data alone gave strong support for relationships within more terminal clades , but poor support for basal nodes , and the nuclear data showed the opposite pattern . all results presented here are from analyses of the combined data set ( fig . 2 ) . this data set and trees from this study can be found at urltoken under accession number sn4455 .\nthe newly discovered species appear to be restricted to single , mostly karstic , localities in extreme northern madagascar : brookesia confidens sp . n . from ankarana , b . desperata sp . n . from for\u00eat d ' ambre , b . micra sp . n . from the islet nosy hara , and b . tristis sp . n . from montagne des fran\u00e7ais . molecular phylogenetic analyses based on one mitochondrial and two nuclear genes of all nominal species in the b . minima group congruently support that the four new species , together with b . tuberculata from montagne d ' ambre in northern madagascar , form a strongly supported clade . this suggests that these species have diversified in geographical proximity in this small area . all species of the b . minima group , including the four newly described ones , are characterized by very deep genetic divergences of 18\u201332 % in the nd2 gene and > 6 % in the 16s rrna gene . despite superficial similarities among all species of this group , their status as separate evolutionary lineages is also supported by moderate to strong differences in external morphology , and by clear differences in hemipenis structure .\nnossi be = nosy b\u00e9 , nw madagascar , nosy komba , nosy sakatia .\ntype locality : restricted to insel nossib\u00e9 ( = nosy b\u00e9 ) , off n . w madagascar\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nandreone f . , f . glaw , r . a . nussbaum , c . j . raxworthy , m . vences , and < br / > j . e . randrianirina 2003 . the amphibians and reptiles of nosy be ( nw madagascar ) and nearby islands : a case study of diversity and conservation of an insular fauna . journal of natural history 37 ( 17 ) : 2119\u20132149\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nd ' cruze , neil ; jeremy sabel , katie green , jeffrey dawson , carlie gardner , janine robinson , georgina starkie , miguel vences , and frank glaw . 2007 . the first comprehensive survey of amphibians and reptiles at montagne des francais , madagascar . herp . cons . biol . 2 ( 2 ) : 87 - 99 - get paper here\ndurkin , louise ; mark d . steer , and elise m . s . belle 2011 . herpetological surveys of forest fragments between montagne d ' ambre national park and ankarana special reserve , northern madagascar . herp . cons . biol . 6 ( 1 ) : 114 - 126 - get paper here\nd\u2019cruze , n . ; k\u00f6hler , j . ; franzen , m & glaw , f . 2008 . a conservation assessment of the amphibians and reptiles of the for\u00eat d\u2019ambre special reserve , north madagascar . madagascar conservation & development 3 ( 1 ) : 44 - 54\nglaw , f . 2015 . taxonomic checklist of chameleons ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . vertebrate zoology 65 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013246 - get paper here\nhyde roberts , s . & c . daly 2014 . a rapid herpetofaunal assessment of nosy komba island , northwestern madagascar , with new locality records for seventeen species . salamandra 50 ( 1 ) : 18 - 26 - get paper here\nm\u00fcller , r . & hildenhagen , t . 2009 . untersuchungen zu subdigital - und subcaudalstrukturen bei cham\u00e4leons ( sauria : chamaeleonidae ) . sauria 31 ( 3 ) : 41 - 54 - get paper here\nmu\u0308ller , rolf & thomas hildenhagen 2009 . zeigt her eure fu\u0308\u00dfchen - bemerkungen zu sohlen - und schwanzstrukturen bei chama\u0308leons . chamaeleo 19 ( 1 ) : 13 - 24 - get paper here\nnecas , p . 1995 . cham\u00e4leons - bunte juwelen der natur . edition chimaira bei b\u00fccher - kreth ( frankfurt / m . , germany )\nnecas , p . & schmidt , w . 2004 . stump - tailed chameleons . miniature dragons of the rainforest . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 256 pp . [ review in elaphe 14 ( 1 ) : 24 ]\nnecas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )\nrakotoarison , andolalao ; jesse erens , fanomezana m . ratsoavina , miguel vences 2015 . amphibian and reptile records from around the betsiboka delta area in north - western madagascar herpetology notes 8 : 535 - 543 - get paper here\nraxworthy , c . j . ; enrique martinez - meyer ; ned horning ; ronald a . nussbaum ; gregory e . schneider ; miguel a . ortega - huerta & a . townsend peterson 2003 . predicting distributions of known and unknown reptile species in madagascar . nature 426 : 837 - 841\nrovatsos , michail ; marie altmanov\u00e1 , martina johnson pokorn\u00e1 , petr velensk\u00fd , antonio s\u00e1nchez baca orcid and luk\u00e1\u0161 kratochv\u00edl 2017 . evolution of karyotypes in chameleons genes 8 ( 12 ) : 382 ; doi : 10 . 3390 / genes8120382 - get paper here\nschmidt , w . ; tamm , k . & wallikewitz , e . 2010 . cham\u00e4leons - drachen unserer zeit . natur und tier verlag , 328 pp . [ review in reptilia 101 : 64 , 2013 ] - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nthis species occurs in northwestern madagascar and offshore islands including nosy be , nosy komba and nosy sakatia ( andreone et al . 2003 , glaw and vences 2007 ) . this species has an elevation limit of 150 m above sea level . the lizard ' s extent of occurrence is estimated to be 61 , 884 km .\ncontinent : indian - ocean distribution : nossi be = nosy b\u00e9 , nw madagascar , nosy komba , nosy sakatia . type locality : restricted to insel nossib\u00e9 ( = nosy b\u00e9 ) , off n . w madagascar\nthis chameleon has been recorded from primary rainforest habitat , dry forests and disturbed forest areas ( glaw and vences 2007 , carpenter and robson 2005 ; durkin et al . 2011 ) . this species is terrestrial during the day , where it inhabits leaf litter , and at night it is found perched on branches approximately 30 - 80 cm above the ground ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there is 1 barcode sequence available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is the sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nlisted as least concern as it has an extent of occurrence of 61 , 884 km , appears somewhat adaptable to disturbed habitats , and there are no major threats resulting in a significant decline at present . however , as this species is used in the pet trade , and habitat loss and degradation is occurring , monitoring of harvest levels and population trends is needed .\nthis species is reported to be common in primary rainforest , dry forests and secondary vegetation ( glaw and vences 2007 ) .\nforests in this region are being lost as a result of land clearance and the effects of widespread slash - and - burn farming . however , due to this species ' relatively large distribution and broad range of known habitat types , these should not be considered major threats at this time . small numbers of this species are exported for the pet trade , though this is unlikely to be a major threat .\nthere are several protected areas within this lizard ' s range . international trade of thespecies in this genus is managed under cites appendix ii . similarly , under ec regulation no . 709 / 2010 , an amendment to ec regulation 338 / 37 ( european union wildlife trade regulation ) , species of the genus are listed in annex b . the harvest levels and population trends of this species need to be monitored .\nsix times , initially by boettger in 1894 . it was later described by glaw and vences in 1994 : 236 , klaver and b\u00f6hme in 1997 , necas in 1999 : 268 , pianka and vit in 2003 : 11 , and most recently by townsend\nglaw and veneces found the species on small islands of madagascar away from the main land mass of the country in 2007 .\ncan be found up to a height of 150 metres ( 490 feet ) above sea level , and can be found over an area of 61 , 884 kilometres ( 38 , 453 miles ) .\ncan grow up to 9 cm ( 3 . 5 in ) , and has a life expectancy of at least three years . during reproduction , this species of\nlays between three and five eggs , which hatch between 60 and 70 days later , provided they are at a temperature of 23 \u00b0c ( 73 \u00b0f ) .\n( waxworms ) , and grasshoppers . during the day , the body temperature of\nis between 22 and 25 \u00b0c ( 72 and 77 \u00b0f ) , and is 20 \u00b0c ( 68 \u00b0f ) during the night .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input ."]}
{"id": 1947, "summary": [{"text": "flockton grey was the british racehorse at the centre of one of the largest betting scandals to hit british horseracing .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the affair remains the best-known case of a corrupt trainer and owner using a ringer to race in place of another horse .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "because of the use of the ringer , flockton grey did not actually run in the race for which he became most famous . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "flockton grey", "paragraphs": ["flockton grey and good hand - the police kept flockton grey and good hand in custody until 1986 , when flockton grey was sent to the wetherby sales , and bought by trainer robin bastiman for 680gns . flockton grey never raced and , in 1989 , was sold to sharon dick , who worked at bastiman ' s yard . now 21 , flockton grey is still in dick ' s care . good hand was claimed by richardson and subsequently stabled at the aike grange stud , jill banks ' s establishment a few miles from jubilee farm .\nflockton grey ' s passport described a horse with a conspicuous scar on its off - fore leg . the grey in wiles ' s yard had no such scar .\nthe story of the flockton grey case appeared in the racing post in two parts in january 2002 . . .\ngreat racing scams : case closed , but ringer ' s trainer still a mystery : flockton grey , part 2 .\nflockton grey - two - year - old flockton grey provided trainer stephen wiles with his first flat winner when recording a 20 - length win under kevin darley at leicester in 1982 . flockton grey had been backed to win by an estimated \u00a3200 , 000 and investigators concluded that darley ' s mount was in fact a three - year - old called good hand .\ngood hand ' s physical characteristics , including the distinctive leg scar , had been recorded on the passport of the two - year - old flockton grey . but the real flockton grey had been the unscarred horse investigators saw at wiles ' s yard .\nflockton grey : two - year - old racehorse flockton grey had a 20 - length win at leicester in 1982 . horse was backed to win by # 200 , 000 . but investigators discovered horse was seasoned three - year - old called good hand .\nfor the past 20 years , flockton grey had been looked after by mary dick and her daughter sharon at their stables near worksop .\nwiles said that a horse did arrive back at his yard the following day , but that this horse was not the ' flockton grey ' he himself had stood with in the winner ' s enclosure at leicester . it was a two - year - old ' unnamed ' grey , who he later showed to investigators : the real flockton grey .\nthe trainer looked at flockton grey ' s passport and was reminded of the scar on its off - fore leg . the horse he had been sent did not have a scar . when wiles phoned mathison , he was told that flockton grey would be with them in time for it to race\u2026 flockton grey never arrived . mathison nevertheless told wiles to declare the horse for the leicester race and to book kevin darley .\nflockton grey , the horse at the centre of one of the greatest racing scandals and mysteries of the 20th century , has died aged 29 .\nridden by kevin darley , the debutant ' flockton grey ' provided trainer stephen wiles with his first winner on the flat after two years with a licence .\nsecretariat\u2019s 1973 belmont stakes win by 31 lengths was incredible , sure . but have you heard the one about flockton grey ? a british racehorse , grey , lapped the field , winning by a ludicrous 20 lengths at a 1982 race in leicester .\ndeath of flockton grey , the 20 - length maiden winner who never was ; horse at centre of one of racing ' s greatest scandals dies at age of 29 .\nmary dick said yesterday :\nflockton grey died of a heart attack on saturday . he was a gem , my favourite horse , and people often asked about him .\nanother tidbit : flockton grey ( an unwitting accomplice in the scheme ) was \u201cin custody\u201d for four years . profoundly unjust . also : how does one keep a horse in custody ?\ndeath of flockton grey , the 20 - length maiden winner who never was ; horse at centre of one of racing ' s greatest scandals dies at age of 29 . - free online library\nflockton grey ' s celebrity , or notoriety , stemmed from ' his ' unlikely 20 - length victory in a race for two - year - olds at leicester on march 29 , 1982 .\nbrowne ' s punishment is the longest period of exclusion since the owner ken richardson was warned off for 25 years in 1984 for his part in the infamous flockton grey\nringer\naffair .\nin 1984 , richardson , boddy and colin mathison , a close associate , appeared at york crown court charged with having conspired to substitute good hand for flockton grey with the intention of defrauding bookmakers .\nat the end of january 1982 , weatherbys issued a passport for flockton grey , bearing the markings of good hand but with a date of birth indicating that the horse was a two - year - old . according to wiles , mathison subsequently told him to make entries for flockton grey . he said that the\nlittle grey\nwould be sent to wiles and , a few weeks before the leicester race , a little grey did arrive at his yard . wiles testified :\ni did believe it was the horse which i had seen for an hour in the january . i thought it was the horse then named flockton grey , and then we started to canter it and found it was absolutely useless , green , nowhere near ready to race , didn ' t know how to gallop straight , nowhere near fit for entering into a race .\nfor those of a certain age , events will have revived memories of a famous gamble which took place at leicester in 1982 when flockton grey supposedly made his debut in a race for two - year - olds .\nthe most infamous race in modern annals was surely in march 1982 when flockton grey won a race at leicester by 20 lengths , . this huge margin of victory provoked suspicion of fraud and there was an investigation .\nfurther investigation , including analysis of the photographs of the leicester winner taken at the racecourse , led to the conclusion that this ' flockton grey ' was , in fact , a three - year - old called good hand .\nof course , richardson and trainer stephen wiles both put 20 , 000 pounds on the faux flockton grey : further cause for suspicion ( their \u201cwinning\u201d bets were never paid out , and each was fined 20 , 000 pounds ) .\nthe diverse list includes the arrest and background of yorkshire ripper peter sutcliffe , the flockton grey \u201cringer\u201d racehorse scandal , tracking down shamed coronation street star peter adamson in bali and going on the road with young us dance sensation fame .\nthe flockton grey scandal is the biggest british race horse scandal in history . that ' s really saying something when you consider just how easy it is to rig a race ( and how often it has happened , too ) .\nwhen george edmondson , an investigating officer , arrived at wiles ' s yard at flockton , between wakefield and huddersfield , he was shown a grey two - year - old , but wiles did not pretend it was the winning horse .\nwiles told edmondson that he thought the leicester winner was at a farm owned by ken richardson , a wealthy businessman and gambler , who had bought flockton grey as a yearling . the winner was not at the farm . he had vanished .\nflockton grey was a 10 - 1 chance for a race restricted to two - year - olds over the minimum flat racing distance of five furlongs at leicester in march 1982 , but he won by the extraordinary distance of 20 lengths . the margin did not seem quite so surprising , though , when it emerged that flockton grey was in fact good hand - who was a three - year - old , and thus enjoyed an enormous advantage against his juniors . several convictions for conspiracy to defraud duly followed .\nmla style :\ndeath of flockton grey , the 20 - length maiden winner who never was ; horse at centre of one of racing ' s greatest scandals dies at age of 29 . .\nthe free library . 2008 mgn ltd 09 jul . 2018 urltoken\nchicago style : the free library . s . v . death of flockton grey , the 20 - length maiden winner who never was ; horse at centre of one of racing ' s greatest scandals dies at age of 29 . .\nretrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\nthe previous year , good hand had been claimed out of a selling race at ripon , on richardson ' s behalf . richardson claimed that he had sold flockton grey to wiles and also arranged for wiles to take good hand away , with a view to selling him .\nflockton grey was an unremarkable two - year old horse from a relatively unsuccessful yard . when it was entered into its debut race ( a race strictly for horses its age ) the owner ken richardson and trainer stephen wiles decided to say \u201cscrew it\u201d and break the law .\nthe flockton wattle is known or predicted to occur in the following sub - regions of the sydney basin interim biogeographic regionalisation of australia .\nhe is the first trainer to receive such a sanction while holding a licence since harry bell , warned off for welfare offences in 1985 , and the first to be banned for corrupt practice since stephen wiles , who was involved in the notorious flockton grey\nringer\nscandal in 1982 .\ninstead , a three - year - old horse , good hand , deliberately ran in place of flockton grey . heavily backed , he won by 20 lengths and landed perpetrators of the scam a fortune , although their deceit was later rumbled and they were punished heavily inside and outside the law courts .\napa style : death of flockton grey , the 20 - length maiden winner who never was ; horse at centre of one of racing ' s greatest scandals dies at age of 29 . . ( n . d . ) > the free library . ( 2014 ) . retrieved jul 09 2018 from urltoken\nken richardson , flockton grey\u2019s owner , had swapped out the two - year - old gelding for a veteran three - year - old horse prior to the race . of course , nobody knew that definitively in the immediate aftermath , but the bookies were suspicious to halt payouts on the 10 - 1 winner .\nflockton grey landed a massive gamble when winning by 20 lengths at first time of asking at leicester racecourse on 29th march 1982 . as a debutant from an extremely low profile yard he was priced up at 10 / 1 and his owners placed a huge bet on him that would return & pound200 ; , 000 .\nthe investigators soon found that good hand had a scar on his foreleg ( unlike flockton grey ) and the racecourse vet also noted that the winner had teeth too developed for a two - year - old . both men were caught and charged with conspiracy to defraud . richardson was warned off by the jockey club for 25 years .\nthe plot thickened with the revelation that jo n jack , an ex - irish chesnut gelding , was bred by one of the three men involved in the notorious flockton grey ' ringer ' scandal a decade ago . but the jockey club established conclusively this week that last week ' s lingfield winner was in fact jo n jack and not a more talented substitute .\nin this region the flockton wattle - sydney basin is known to be associated with the following vegetation formations and classes . click on a name to get background information about it .\nflockton gray was ridden that afternoon by north yorkshire jockey kevin darley , who was completely unaware that there was anything untoward and was not involved in any way in the fraud .\nwiles was to state that the horse he knew as flockton grey ( good hand ) , was not in his yard , but he had been instructed to declare it for the leicester race , and to meet the horsebox at the course . peter boddy , the horsebox driver , who worked for richardson , claimed that he subsequently dropped off the leicester winner at wiles ' s yard .\ni have already indicated that even after a through search no plans of old workings in the flockton thin seam in the vicinity of south 9b district were found before or after the inrush .\nif the wileses were responsible for obtaining a fraudulent passport , bearing good hand ' s markings , why did they employ a different horse as the ringer ? even if their horsebox had broken down , would they have arranged for boddy to collect the ringer the day before the race , and take it to leicester via newmarket , requiring the horse to stand in the horsebox for 22 hours ? there was no evidence to link the wileses to a single bet on flockton grey . richardson testified that he had never known stephen wiles to have more than \u00a35 on a horse but claimed that wiles had asked him to put \u00a3100 on flockton grey for him . why did stephen and fred wiles drive 70 miles to confront richardson and mathison , demanding to know where the winner was , if they already knew ?\nstephen and elaine wiles - in 1986 , stephen wiles was banned from holding a trainer ' s licence for five years for having entered and run flockton grey , knowing that the horse had not been in his care for the 14 days preceding the race . stephen later trained point - to - pointers while elaine worked for trainer steve norton and , after his retirement , held a number of jobs within the racing industry .\nringer this means racing a horse that looks similar to another , but is in fact much better . when flockton grey was backed to win \u00a3200 , 000 at leicester in 1982 , the horse that actually won the race was in fact called good hand . trainer john bowles was banned for 20 years for a similar scam in 1978 when a horse with little form called in the money won five races . the beast that actually did the running was cobbler ' s march .\n7 ringer this means racing a horse that looks similar to another , but is in fact much better . when flockton grey was backed to win \u00a3200 , 000 at leicester in 1982 , the horse that actually won the race was in fact called good hand . trainer john bowles was banned for 20 years for a similar scam in 1978 when a horse with little form called in the money won five races . the beast that actually did the running was cobbler ' s march .\nat the subsequent trial , geoffrey rivlin qc , for the prosecution , accused boddy of\nlying through his teeth\n. his evidence was\nquite ridiculous and untrue\n. richardson was also at the moat house hotel that evening . he had dinner with allan smith , who trained for him in belgium , and made a number of phone calls , including to darley . richardson advised flockton grey ' s rider that the best piece of ground at leicester was next to the inside rail .\nhowever , they had no intention of actually running the real flockton grey in the contest and instead ran a far more physically developed three year old in his place called good hand . unfortunately for ken richardson and stephen wiles , the two behind the scam , the ' ringer ' was simply too good and won by a record winning margin . it was the size of the winning margin that caused a huge amount of suspicion and the police were soon involved as bookmakers refused to pay out .\nearly on the morning of sunday , march 28 , the day before the race , boddy arrived and told wiles he had come for the grey . later that morning , a horsebox arrived at geoff toft ' s yard at malton . according to toft , richardson had asked him to gallop a two - year - old for him . he had been told that it was a grey . andrew harrison , who rode the horse , confirmed toft ' s verdict that it was weak and backward and nowhere near ready for racing . the horse stayed at toft ' s until the day after the race - tuesday , march 30 - when the same driver arrived to take it away . the same day , the grey who had been taken from wiles on sunday was returned by boddy .\nhowever , mills said at the inquiry that had he been aware of all the information he would have been very hesitant about working coal in the low laithes area and that a considerable amount of doubt has been sown in his mind as to the flockton thin seam as a whole .\nken richardson - banned from racing , richardson turned to football , buying control of bridlington town and then doncaster rovers . colin mathison and peter boddy were ultimately installed as the sole directors of bridlington , while ken haran , richardson ' s friend who denied in court backing flockton grey for richardson , was made chairman at doncaster . in 1995 , the main stand at doncaster was burnt down . in 1999 , sheffield crown court heard that richardson had offered an ex - sas man \u00a310 , 000 to set fire to it . . . richardson , 61 , was given a four - year jail sentence .\n\u201cbye pit believed sunk to haigh moor seam at 141 yards deep and bored to silkstoone seam at 302 yards dep . flockton thin seam at 219 yards deep . \u201d it was in this form he signed the layout plan on august 4th 1971 and initiated its progress through the chain of planning responsibilities .\nat no time during the inquiry was any documentary information produced to show that workings existed in the flockton thin seam in the vicinity of south 9b face . the only plans of the area which were available were old estate plans , not certified and likely to be incomplete and unreliable . the information available , the efforts made by surveyors to find out all that they could about workings adjacent to south 9b district and the decisions which they reached are described in the following paragraphs .\non 8th october 1970 , in the course of his investigation to ensure that there was no danger from old workings , wood the colliery surveyor , made a visit to the mining records office at rawmarsh , near rotherham , to inspect abandonment plans . he inspected all available abandonment plans relative to the are of coal proposed to be worked by south 9b face and found no evidence of any workings in the flockton thin seam or of old shafts sunk below the haigh moor seam .\nmany old shafts have been completely filled with debris but are only filled above wooden platforms sited at a short distance below the surface . variations in the level of water table caused by the weather can have a considerable effect on the fill material , and in time , wooden platforms rot away . this could explain the subsidence at the bull pit in september 1972 . the flockton thin seam workings were 350 yards away at this time and would not affect the shaft or its filling .\nin reply to later questions he agreed that there were inconsistencies in the colouring of various boring and sinking sections and that he could not say with certainty where the sinking sections and the bore hole started . i find it significant however , that his impression on seeing the journal for the first time - this is , when he entered the witness box - was that the shaft was sunk to where the coloured detailed section commenced at the flockton thin seam at a horizontal depth of 218 yards .\ni find that seven men lost their lives as a result of the inrush of water at the face of south 9b district in the flockton thin seam . the conditions in the district following the incident were such that only one body could be recovered . access to the face was not possible but i am satisfied that the evidence given at the inquiry was sufficiently comprehensive to enable me to determine the causes and circumstances of the inrush . the names of the men who lost their lives in the accident are given later in this report .\nin young horses , teeth provide a remarkably accurate guide to a horse ' s age . john hickman , a veterinary surgeon , and douglas witherington , the jockey club ' s chief veterinary officer , examined blown - up photographs . they were agreed that , in racing terms , the winner was undoubtedly a three - year - old . thousands of naming forms and certificates were examined , in a search for a three - year - old grey with a scar on its off - fore leg . there were only three candidates . dick ` e ' bear and wednesday morning were quickly eliminated\u2026 that left good hand .\non the day of the race , monday , march 29 , 1982 , boddy drove a horse to leicester racecourse in richardson ' s horsebox . according to boddy , he had picked the horse up from wiles ' s yard the previous day as a favour , their horsebox having broken down . that sunday , he drove the horse to newmarket , along with another two - year - old grey from jubilee farm , which he had to deliver to pat haslam ' s yard . boddy arrived at haslam ' s pegasus stables between 6 . 30pm and 7 . 30pm . john hammond , now a leading trainer in france but then haslam ' s assistant , was there when the horsebox was opened .\ncoal was won from longwall advancing mechanised faces and the seams worked given in descending order were ; flockton thin \u2013 three working faces , eleven yards \u2013 one working face , beeston \u2013 two working faces . development was taking place in the blocking bed seam which lies between the eleven yards and beeston seams . very little water is pumped from the mine . the main make at lofthouse a and b ) shafts is from the old haigh moor workings and is between 160 and 230 gallons per minute dependent on the season . at wrenthorpe shafts there is a well shaft 63 ft deep , from which 33 to 55 gallons per minute are pumped dependent on seasonal variation . the make of water from the main shafts at wrenthorpe is only 15 gallons per minute pumped from the silkstone pit bottom .\nmembers of the jury , i am sure that you must have found in this case , as i have , that it is both curious and fascinating and you may have thought more than once , ` well , this would make a very good book , a very good detective story ' .\njudge harry bennett qc , york crown court , may 30 , 1984 .\nin 1979 , colin tinkler jnr had bought good hand as a foal for 600gns . a few months after arriving at tinkler ' s stable , good hand injured his leg on a gate . the injury left a prominent scar on the front of his off - fore leg below the knee . tinkler sold good hand to his brother nigel and , on july 22 , 1981 , the two - year - old made his debut in a selling race over five furlongs at catterick . backed from 5 - 1 to 2 - 1 favourite , good hand did well to finish third after missing the break . he was third again at thirsk later that month , and fourth at ripon in august .\nacting on ken richardson ' s behalf , his right - hand man colin mathison subsequently claimed good hand for \u00a33 , 100 , and sent him to jubilee farm . richardson was a yorkshireman with a self - made fortune founded on sacks and paper . his interest in horseracing was a gambling interest , and a highly successful one . richardson claimed that , during the late 1970s and early 1980s , he was winning between \u00a370 , 000 and \u00a390 , 000 a year .\nrichardson made it clear that the purpose of racing horses was to land gambles . in 1973 , lunness had a two - year - old filly called jubilee girl . he told richardson that jubilee girl might be good enough to win the brocklesby stakes at doncaster , the most valuable early - season two - year - old race . richardson preferred to run her in the seller . he had \u00a310 , 000 on jubilee girl , causing her price to tumble from 4 - 1 to 13 - 8 . she won by seven lengths , and later beat alexben , the winner of the brocklesby .\nat the beginning of december 1981 , the two - year - old good hand and the unnamed yearling by dragonara palace out of misippus , both greys , were at jubilee farm . according to richardson , he arranged for stephen wiles to take good hand away with a view to selling him . a busy man , richardson did not subsequently enquire about the horse and heard no more of good hand until after the leicester race . in the same month , again according to richardson , wiles bought the dragonara palace - misippus yearling . peter boddy , who often drove richardson ' s horsebox , delivered the yearling to wiles early in january 1982 .\nrichardson claimed to know nothing of the horse ' s subsequent movements . when he had asked boddy where he had taken the horse , boddy had replied that he had left it at wiles ' s yard , but both stephen and elaine wiles , and stephen pleasant , a stable lad , testified that no horse by the name of good hand , or like him , ever appeared at the stable after january 5 .\nboddy maintained that there were two horses in the box , one intended for haslam , the other for leicester , but hammond testified that there was only one , which he led out himself .\ni don ' t think i am wrong about this ,\nhe said .\nmy clear recollection is there was only one horse in this box when it arrived and that horse was delivered to us and then the box went away .\nboddy claimed that he had then driven to the nearby moat house hotel and parked the horsebox there overnight . if boddy was telling the truth , the winner of the leicester race spent about 22 hours standing in the horsebox .\nthe field was leased by sylvia jones , whose son , greg , worked for stan mellor . her husband , peter , occasionally rode in point - to - points . mrs jones stated that on march 25 , the thursday before the race , she had gone to the sales at malton , where she told several people that she was looking for a horse as a companion for a foal . subsequently , she was away from home for a few days and , when she returned , on the evening of wednesday , march 31 , her daughter romney told her that a man had phoned that afternoon and a horse had then arrived . jones assumed that someone had heard she was looking for a horse and had responded to her appeal . she did not think it strange that she had not heard from the horse ' s owner since .\njones subsequently contacted derek gardiner , the huntsman who looked after the hounds for the goathland hunt . she offered him \u00a3200 to shoot a horse . the offer made gardiner suspicious , and he told jones that he had run out of ammunition . jones denied having contacted gardiner , but when both gave evidence during an appeal hearing in 1986 , lord justice lane made it clear that he believed gardiner but not jones , whose evidence the judge described as\nincredible and untrue\n. the police found jones an unhelpful witness and , when richardson ' s trial approached , in 1984 , she disappeared .\nthe jury disagreed . by a 10 - 2 majority , they found all three defendants guilty . richardson was given a nine - month suspended and fined \u00a320 , 000 , with costs estimated at \u00a325 , 000 . mathison was fined \u00a33 , 000 while boddy escaped with a conditional discharge . richardson protested his innocence . in 1986 the court of appeal rejected his appeal and later that year the jockey club warned him off for 25 years , but he did not give up . in 1991 , richardson submitted a petition to the home secretary , kenneth baker , claiming that he was\nnow in a position to prove that the winning horse could not have been good hand\n.\nin 1995 , richardson obtained permission to apply for a judicial review of the home secretary ' s continued refusal to refer the case back to the court of appeal . finally , the home secretary , michael howard relented . in june 1995 he agreed to return the case to the court of appeal . the appeal was heard in december 1996 , when the crucial evidence was presented by dennis bellamy , and dr alfred linney , head of the medical graphics division at university college , london .\nthe passport generated by the naming exercise carried out on january 5 , 1982 showed a two - year - old gelding bearing the markings of the three - year - old good hand . it would have been bizarre for the conspirators to have presented this passport to racecourse officials , yet run a different three - year - old . two days after the race , good hand was delivered to a field leased by sylvia jones . less than eight months earlier , good hand was considered to have been worth \u00a33 , 100 . if the gelding was not the ringer , why would someone make an anonymous gift of him to a woman no - one acknowledged knowing ?\nwould make a great drama film . plot a bit complex for me though .\nhi felix , i always think that these ringer stories would make for a very good film . . . the only one i can think of that has been done was the gay future affair , my favourite i think would have to be the francasal one at bath races . just been reading about the\nking of the ringers\n, a guy named peter christian barrie aka paddy barrie . . . he was an excellent painter of horses , not so much in the style of sir alfred munnings but more a case of he painted the actual horse itself with henna dyes i . e . turning a chestnut into a bay etc ! best wishes burnsy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n2 . 1 the tables below specify the scale of weight for age for flat races for any horse which is bred in the northern hemisphere . 2 . 2 attention is drawn to the provisions of rule 29 . 2 .\n153 , entries , declarations and other race administration to be made through the racing calendar office .\nthe winner , returned at an sp of 10 - 1 , had been heavily backed , and the jockey club launched an investigation .\nin december 1982 , a reporter for the daily star received an anonymous telephone call , saying that the leicester winner was in a field near glaisdale , on the north yorkshire moors . the horse was identified as good hand .\nthe field was leased by sylvia jones , who claimed that a man had delivered the horse on march 31 . her explanation was that someone must have heard that she was looking for a horse as a companion for a foal . no - one had contacted her since . jones had offered derek gardiner , a local huntsman , pounds 200 to shoot the horse but gardiner refused .\nalthough the police failed to establish a link between jones and richardson , a link did exist through a friend of jones who had trained for richardson .\nrichardson received a ninemonth suspended sentence and a fine of pounds 20 , 000 , plus costs estimated at pounds 25 , 000 . two years later , he lost his appeal and the jockey club warned him off for 25 years .\nin 1991 , richardson submitted a petition calling for the case to be referred back to the court of appeal , on the ground that richardson could now prove that the winning horse was not good hand .\neventually , in 1995 , the home secretary agreed to another hearing , which took place in 1996 . after hearing conflicting expert evidence on the winner ' s identity , the appeal court judges dismissed the appeal .\nlord justice rose noted :\nthere was a very strong case indeed . . . not only that they had participated in a conspiracy to defraud , but also that the winner was good hand .\nrichardson was ordered to pay pounds 50 , 000 costs .\na tantalising question remains . who trained the ' ringer ' ? it wasn ' t wiles .\ncopyright 2008 mgn ltd no portion of this article can be reproduced without the express written permission from the copyright holder .\nterms of use | privacy policy | copyright \u00a9 2018 farlex , inc . | feedback | for webmasters\nyou probably never heard of the unreal performance , because , well , it wasn\u2019t real . instead of inspiring admiration , the winning margin awoke suspicion .\nthe police were involved immediately , and the official investigation showed the winning horse\u2019s teeth were far too developed to belong to a two - year old . further evidence was collected , and ken richardson was charged with conspiracy to defraud .\nrichardson was convicted in june of 1984 . in addition to the fine above , he was ordered to pay \u00a325 , 000 in costs and was hit with a ( suspended ) nine - month prison sentence . he was banned from the sport for 25 years .\ninterestingly , the jockey , kevin darley , remained above the fray . why ? well , because if he was in on the scam , he was a moron . had he known what was going on and that he was racing a superior / illegal horse , he\u2019d have pulled back on the reins and not allowed the horse to win by such a ludicrous margin .\nand if this absurd story wasn\u2019t already uncanny enough , consider richardson later became the chairman of bridlington town football club and conspired to burn down club facilities to reap an insurance windfall . he spent four years in jail .\nboredom spieth is not an alias . boredom spieth is a proud stetson - wearing texan , as you can see in his photo .\nwe use cookies to help our site work , to understand how it is used . by clicking \u201ci agree\u201d below , you agree to us doing so . you can read more in our cookie notice . or , if you do not agree , you can click\nprivacy preferences\nbelow to access other choices .\nhere you can control the cookies on the site by using the ' cookie settings ' . you can learn more about cookies in our cookie notice on the site .\n_ ga , _ gid , _ pk _ id . 4 . 4419 , ajs _ anonymous _ id , ajs _ group _ id , ajs _ user _ id ,\nenter the email address associated with your account and we ' ll email you a link to reset your password .\nthere ' s a big world out there without racing ,\ndermot browne said as he left the jockey club ' s headquarters yesterday , and now he has another 20 years to explore it .\nthe former jockey and trainer was\nwarned off\nuntil 2022 by the club ' s disciplinary committee after he admitted doping 23 horses in 1990 . but since browne , dubbed the\nneedle man\n, also claims to have passed information to the club naming several individuals who are still involved in the sport , it may be that racing has still not heard the last of him .\nbrowne has been accused of many things over the years , but a shortage of charm has never been one of them . as he spoke after yesterday ' s hearing , there were plenty of smiles mixed in with the expressions of regret . he could not have been further removed from the stereotype of a horse - doper , the grubby , shifty man with a woodbine and a syringe .\nbut that will be of little comfort to anyone who was , in effect , robbed by browne ' s actions during a seven - week doping spree in august and september 1990 .\nwhen they backed horses like bravefoot , last of five at 11 - 8 in the champagne stakes at doncaster , or hateel , third of four when 11 - 8 favourite for a race at glorious goodwood , browne and his syringe full of fast - acting sedative had already ensured that they could not win .\nhis other victims included argentum , in the group one nunthorpe stakes , the prolific and popular timeless times in a listed event at ripon , and three horses in one day at yarmouth .\nbrowne , who is 41 , was warned off for 10 years for a number of breaches of jockey club rules in october 1992 . yesterday ' s hearing , however , was the first time that he had been formally found guilty of doping offences , and beforehand there was a feeling that he was likely to be warned off for life .\nthe fact that his penalty was\nonly\n20 years may reflect his apparent willingness to assist the authorities with any further inquiries .\nit ' s more or less what i expected ,\nbrowne said .\ni came down here today to put an end to something that ' s been going on for some time .\nthere are a lot of things going on in racing , but there are a lot of very hardworking genuine people in racing as well . i got involved with some of the wrong ones . there ' s still some of them out there , they ' re still there racing now , and they ' re the ones i ' d like to see out of it as well . why don ' t they come out and admit what they ' ve done ? i ' ve left information here and i ' m sure they ' re going to take it on .\nbrowne has named the man who persuaded him to carry out the dopings as brian wright , a suspected drug - smuggler who is currently a fugitive from justice . other members of his gang are currently serving prison sentences .\ni cannot comment on specific situations referred to by dermot ,\njohn maxse , the jockey club ' s pr director , said ,\nbut we are grateful for information which would assist in investigations of breaches of the rules .\nbrowne clearly believes that more action is needed .\nif i didn ' t care about racing i wouldn ' t have come down here ,\nhe said .\npeople have said a lot of things about me , but the truth is out there and it ' s probably going to come and bite them soon .\n\u00b7 be employed in any racing stable . deal in any capacity with a racehorse , for example by selling or placing shares in a horse .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nwe are sorry , but the system was unable to process your request because your web browser did not behave as expected . cookies are required by this website in order to ensure a seamless user experience .\na group of punters behind a gambling coup on a 33 - 1 winner were last night facing the prospect of either talking to detectives from their local cid - or not being paid out .\nthe punters became a target for suspicion soon after jo n jack romped home at lingfield nine days ago leaving a number of bookmakers , particularly in the bradford area , decidedly less affluent . estimates of the winnings range from pounds 75 , 000 to double that .\nminutes after the 2 . 30 race , the betting office licencees ' association ( bola ) advised its members to withhold payment on all winning bets because of ' unusual betting patterns ' , centred on west yorkshire . bola allegations were then sent to the jockey club who , although finding that no rules of racing had been broken , passed certain information on to the police .\nwest yorkshire police have asked local radio stations and newspapers to inform the public of two bradford cid telephone numbers that jo n jack backers should ring . the punters are not exactly in hiding , but late yesterday afternoon , detective chief inspector raymond falconer of bradford cid told the independent : ' we haven ' t had a call , not one . '\nboth bola and the jockey club refused yesterday to divulge the nature of the information that has led to the police inquiry . however , it is understood that part of the basis for bola ' s concern is that most of the bets involved in the coup were ' on the nose ' , and not each - way as may have been expected for such an outsider .\nagain , most of the individual bets were for relatively small amounts , pounds 100 a time , up to a maximum of pounds 250 , with various bookies . they were placed only moments before the ' off ' , giving no time for bookmakers to use their common practice of laying off money at the course in order to shrink the odds .\nthere is , of course , nothing illegal in any of this and it appears punters were merely exploiting the system in a legitimate way . indeed , there has been no suggestion from bola that those who backed losers in the lingfield 2 . 30 should have their money returned .\nthere is concern in racing generally , including among the major bookmakers , that the issue has grown out of proportion and that bola ' s hard line , followed by police involvement , is bringing damaging publicity to the betting industry .\nthe club have also exonerated roger ingram , who trains the four - year - old at epsom , from any rule - breaking . ingram has consistently expressed astonishment at the controversy and insists he had only pounds 20 on his charge , the same bet he has on all his runners .\ndci falconer said yesterday : ' i would like the punters involved to contact us . we have an obligation to investigate a complaint and our intention is to find out if a crime has been committed . if some people have received a tip for a horse and made maximum use of the information and organised a betting coup , then that is not a criminal offence and the people involved would then be advised to contact their individual bookmakers .\n' but if it is established that this was a criminal enterprise then the matter will be vigorously pursued , ' falconer added . he declined to discuss what kind of criminal offence could be involved .\ntom kelly , director - general of bola , refused to divulge what information it has supplied . david pipe , spokesman for the jockey club , also refused to provide any details and said : ' we passed on to the police some of the information given to us by bola . it was information not directly connected with the race . it is bola ' s information , not ours . '\nfollowers of form may want to know that jo n jack comes under orders again today , in the 4 . 00 at beverley . but he is unlikely to start at 33 - 1 .\nfollow the independent sport on instagram here , for all of the best images , videos and stories from around the sporting world .\nwelcome , guest . please login or register . did you miss your activation email ?\nwelcome , guest . please login or register . did you miss your activation email ? july 09 , 2018 , 06 : 57 : 02 pm\nnever known that happen ( by accident ) before . was uncle ken involved again ? ?\nno masses o money made , the issue here was that the favourite came in second . the bookies have honoured the bets and made out 50k .\nthe bookies would rather a 50 / 1 chance win than a 4 / 6 . fair play to them for paying out on the favourite .\nbetting scams have almost as long a history as competitions they ' re attached to . here are the ten most notorious . . .\nbetting scams have almost as long a history as competitions they ' re attached to . here are the ten most notorious :\nhansie cronje : south african cronje , 32 , was banned for life for match fixing in 2000 . he bartered with a bemused nasser hussain to make a game of the rain - ruined centurion park test . his gesture to forfeit an innings was hailed as a pr masterstoke . but he was motivated by a backhander of # 5 , 000 and a leather jacket from a bookie . he died in 2002 in a plane crash .\nfixers : three malaysians fronted a far east illegal gambling syndicate . they targeted premiership football for a multi - million pound betting scam and were jailed for 12 years in 1999 . they were caught about to tamper with flood lights at charlton athletic .\nangel jacobs : in 1998 amateur jockey angel jacobs was unmasked as an ex - professional . got 10 - year world - wide ban for 21 rides he took .\ngay future : cartmel on august bank holiday monday 1974 . permit trainer anthony collins declared gay future to run in a novice hurdle . on the morning of the race , he was backed in doubles and trebles . but the other two horses were declared non - runners - in fact they had not even left for the courses . gay future won by 15 lengths at 10 - 1 .\nin the money : this horse won hatherleigh selling handicap hurdle at newton abbot in 1978 , by 20 lengths at a well - backed 8 - 1 . horse was cobbler ' s march , a five - time winner .\nfrancasal : horse ' s 10 - 1 win in the spa selling stakes at bath july 1953 was set up as a scam to make five men # 1million in bets . the conspirators replaced the moderate french horse francasal with a better horse called santa amaro . .\nfootball : in 1965 ex - england footballers tony kay and peter swan and their sheffield wednesday team - mate david layne were given life bans , jailed for four months and fined # 150 for match fixing . .\nrunning rein : lord george bentinck exposed that a four - year - old horse won the 1844 derby , a race for three - year - olds . the case was a landmark in the fight against corruption .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\none of the most famous horse racing betting scams of all involved trainer anthony collins and a horse named gay future . basically , collins plotted up a gamble on his charge for a race at cartmel on bank holiday monday . according to the form book , all of gay future ' s previous form had been moderate to say the least . however , it later transpired that collins had not run gay future in these races and had instead run a far worse horse in his place .\non the day of the cartmel race , with a string of apparently ordinary form figures by his name , gay future was sent off at 10 / 1 . collins and his syndicate protected the price of the horse by backing it in doubles and trebles with two other stablemates who were later withdrawn . in fact , they never even left the stable . all this meant that all the doubles and trebles turned into one big single bet on one of the day ' s easiest winners . gay future bolted up by 15 lengths and was returned at 10 / 1 . bookmakers became suspicious and the syndicate was later convicted of fraud and fined .\nin the money recorded an easy 20 length success in a weak selling race having been backed off the boards at big prices into 8 / 1 . it later turned out that in the money was actually a far better horse called cobbler ' s march who had already won five races before . trainer john bowles paid the price though as he was banned for 20 years ."]}
{"id": 1957, "summary": [{"text": "lampropeltis getula brooksi ( also known as brooks ' kingsnake ) is a non-venomous snake in the lampropeltis genus .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it is one of seven subspecies of lampropeltis getula .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "they are found in southern florida . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "lampropeltis getula brooksi", "paragraphs": ["coluber getulus linnaeus 1766 : 382 herpetodryas getulus \u2014 schlegel ophibolus getulus \u2014 baird & girard 1853 : 85 coronella getulus \u2014 dum\u00e9ril , bibron & dum\u00e9ril 1854 : 616 coronella getulus var . pseudogetulus \u2013 jan 1865 ophibolus getulus \u2014 cope 1875 : 11 ophibolus getulus \u2014 garman 1884 : 68 ophilobus [ sic ] getulus \u2014 cope 1892 : 335 triaeniopholis arenarius werner 1924 triaenopholis [ sic ] arenarius werner 1924 ( fide smith 1928 ) lampropeltis getula sticticeps barbour & engels 1942 lampropeltis getulus goini neill & allen 1949 : 101 lampropeltis getulus brooksi barbour 1919 lampropeltis getula floridana blanchard 1919 lampropeltis getulus sticticeps \u2014 lazell & musick 1981 lampropeltis getula \u2014 stebbins 1985 : 191 lampropeltis getula \u2014 conant & collins 1991 : 205 lampropeltis getula \u2014 liner 1994 lampropeltis getula getula \u2014 tennant & bartlett 2000 : 413 lampropeltis getula floridana \u2014 crother 2000 : 64 lampropeltis getula floridana \u2014 tennant & bartlett 2000 : 416 lampropeltis getula floridana \u2014 hallmen 2005 lampropeltis getula meansi krysko & judd 2006 lampropeltis getula meansi \u2014 skubowius 2009 lampropeltis getula \u2014 pyron & burbrink 2009 lampropeltis getula goini \u2014 renner in berg 2013 lampropeltis getula floridana \u2014 laita 2013 lampropeltis getula \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 357\nsteen , d . , l . smith . 2009 . eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) home ranges exhibit limited overlap .\nzweifel , r . 1997 . alternating use of hemipenes in the kingsnake , lampropeltis getula .\nallen , e . rross ; neill , wilfred t . 1954 . juveniles of brooks ' kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus brooksi . copeia 1954 ( 1 ) : 59 - get paper here\nwund , m . , m . torocco , r . zappalorti , h . reinert . 2007 . activity ranges and habitat use of lampropeltis getula getula ( eastern kingsnakes ) .\nleclere , jeffrey b . 1995 . lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 26 ( 2 ) : 110 - get paper here\nbrisbin , i . 1968 . evidence for the use of post anal musk as an alarm device in the kingsnake lampropeltis getula .\nkrysko , k . 2002 . seasonal activity of the florida kingsnake lampropeltis getula floridana ( serpentes : colubridae ) in southern florida .\nvan peenan , p . , t . birdwell . 1968 . coccidian parasites of the california nanded kingsnake , lampropeltis getula californiae .\nhubbs , brian 2009 . common kingsnakes , a natural history of lampropeltis getula . tricolor books , tempe az , 436 pp .\ngroves , john d . 2014 . lampropeltis getula ( common kingsnake ) diet . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 516 - 517\nschmidt , d . 2004 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getula . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 64 pp . - get paper here\nwilliams , p . , l . brisbin . 1978 . responses of captive - reared eastern kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getula ) to several prey odor stimuli .\nclark , r . 2013 . cannibalism in the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) . sonoran herpetologist 26 ( 3 ) : 55 . - get paper here\nburkett , doug ; painter , charles w . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula splendida . herpetological review 29 ( 2 ) : 113 - get paper here\nklueh - mundy , sarabeth and mirtl , jason 2016 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula nigra ( eastern black kingsnake ) herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 630\nskubowius , b . 2009 . haltung und nachzucht der kettennattern , lampropeltis getula , floridas . draco 10 ( 37 ) : 56 - 62 - get paper here\nto cite this page : bartz , s . 2012 .\nlampropeltis getula\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ncollins , joseph t . ; sapienza , david c . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula nigra . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 177 - get paper here\nmcallister , chris t . and henry w . robison . 2010 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 41 ( 3 ) : 380 - get paper here\nphillips , christopher a . ; petzing , john e . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 177 - get paper here\nyoung , cameron a . ; iverson , john b . 1997 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula nigra . herpetological review 28 ( 1 ) : 52 - get paper here\nboundy , jeff . 2011 . book review : common kingsnakes - a natural history of lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 453 - 455 - get paper here\nzweifel , richard g . 1997 . alternating use of hemipenes in the kingsnake , lampropeltis getula . journal of herpetology 31 ( 3 ) : 459 - 461 - get paper here\ncomparison with other species : the eastern apalachicola lowlands kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula meansi ) has either fewer than 26 wide crossbands , or is non - banded ( striped or patternless ) , and 21 dorsal scale rows at midbody . the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) has fewer than 19 - 32 light crossbands on the body , no lightening of the black interband scales , a lateral chain - like pattern , and usually 21 dorsal scale rows at midbody .\nrenner , d . 2013 . die gesprenkelte kettennatter , lampropeltis getula holbrooki \u2013 eine untersch\u00e4tzte sch\u00f6nheit . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 18 ( 103 ) : 60 - 64 - get paper here\nslevin , joseph r . 1950 . a remarkable concentration of desert snakes [ lampropeltis getula yumensis californiae nigrita ] . herpetologica 6 ( 1 ) : 12 - 13 - get paper here\nthums , m . 2004 . die schwarze mexiko - kettennatter ( lampropeltis getula nigrita ) im terrarium . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 9 ( 49 ) : 72 - 75 - get paper here\nmichaeli , a . s . , newman , j . c . & barrett , k . 2018 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula ( eastern kingsnake ) . herpetological review 49 : 77 .\nsmith , philip w . 1956 . a blotch - count gradient in snakes [ lampropeltis triangulum syspila calligaster getula getulus niger ] . herpetologica 12 ( 2 ) : 156 - 160 - get paper here\ndavenport , stephen r . ; stuart , james n . ; sias , don s . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula californiae . herpetological review 29 ( 1 ) : 53 - get paper here\nlazell , j . d . & musick , j . a . 1981 . status of the outer banks kingsnake , lampropeltis getula sticticeps . herpetological review 12 ( 1 ) : 7 - get paper here\npyron , r . alexander ; frank t . burbrink 2009 . lineage diversification in a widespread species : roles for niche divergence and conservatism in the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getula . molecular ecology 18 : 3443\u20133457\nrange : in florida , it is found throughout the peninsula from volusia co . south to key largo . it intergrades ( interbreeds ) with the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) from nassau co . in the northern peninsula south to pinellas co . in the central peninsula . it is not found outside of florida .\nknepton , j . 1951 . reproduction by a king snake lampropeltis getulus getulus , linneaus .\nwinne , c . , j . wilson , b . todd , k . andrews , j . gibbons . 2007 . enigmatic decline of a protected population of eastern kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula , in south carolina .\npyron , r . alexander ; frank t . burbrink 2009 . systematics of the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ; serpentes : colubridae ) and the burden of heritage in taxonomy . zootaxa 2241 : 22 - 32 - get paper here\ngodley , j . steve ; brian j . halstead , and roy w . mcdiarmid 2016 . ecology of the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) at rainey slough , florida : a vanished eden project simus , fl - get paper here\nnemuras , k . 1966 . additional records of lampropeltis getulus getulus and lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata in anne arundel county , maryland . bull . maryland herp . soc . 2 ( 3 ) : 5 - get paper here\nkrysko , k . l . ; judd , w . s . 2006 . morphological systematics of kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula complex ( serpentes : colubridae ) , in the eastern united states . zootaxa 1193 : 1 - 39 . - get paper here\nboback , scott ; link , shelly ; bergman , enoch ; hill , ben ; montgomery , chad ; hobert , justin ; mackessey , stephen p . 1996 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 27 ( 4 ) : 213 - get paper here\nbergman , enoch ; montgomery , chad ; childers , theresa ; manzer , jerry d . ; sifert , james ; hill , ben ; mackessy , stephen p . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 29 ( 2 ) : 113 - get paper here\ngodley , j . steve ; brian j . halstead , and roy w . mcdiarmid 2017 . ecology of the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) at rainey slough , florida : a vanished eden herpetological monographs 31 ( 1 ) : 47 - 68 . - get paper here\nlara - gongora , guillermo ; beaman , kent r . ; grismer , l . lee ; lawler , howard e . 1993 . lampropeltis getula californiae ( california kingsnake ) . m\u00e9xico : sonora . herpetological review 24 ( 2 ) : 67 - 68 - get paper here\nmanning , glenn j . , thomas j . belford , brad birchfield , jeremy r . sloan and james u . van dyke . 2015 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula splendida x holbrooki ( desert / speckled kingsnake intergrade ) . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 574\nprice , a . , j . lapointe . 1981 . structure - functional aspects of the scent gland in lampropeltis getulus splendida .\nkrysko , kenneth l . ; leroy p . nu\u00f1ez , catherine e . newman , brian w . bowen 2017 . phylogenetics of kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula complex ( serpentes : colubridae ) , in eastern north america . j hered . : esw086 . doi : 10 . 1093 / jhered / esw086 - get paper here\nblaney , richard m . 1973 . lampropeltis . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 150 ) : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nblom , m . 2003 . algemene verzorging en kweek van lampropeltis en elaphe soorten . lacerta 61 ( 1 ) : 32 - 39 - get paper here\nseufer , h . & jauch , h . 1980 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getulus . herpetofauna 2 ( 6 ) : 11 - 14 - get paper here\nnot every king snake found in this area is a stunning example . many specimens are average in looks and can hardly be distinguished from a typical florida king snake from further north . kings are much less commonly seen than the exotic burmese python , which now shares the same habitat . i have seen a precious few specimens in many trips to south florida in the last decade . for even the most dedicated field herper , finding a nice brooksi in the wild is a true challenge .\nthissen , r . & hansen , h . 2001 . k\u00f6nigsnattern - lampropeltis . natur und tier verlag ( m\u00fcnster ) , 172 pp . - get paper here\nthe miami rim rock and southern everglades is the historic domain of brooksi . the king snake ' s coloration in this area is thought to be an adaptation to the light oolitic limestone background . as in other areas of florida , the king snake population here has been greatly reduced . several factors contributing to this reduction have been discussed , but the exact cause is still a mystery . one thing is for sure , finding a nice brooks ' king specimen in the wild is now quite a challenge .\nseufer , h . & jauch , h . 1980 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getulus teil 2 . herpetofauna 2 ( 7 ) : 31 - 32 - get paper here\nthe specific name formerly was getulus ( see frost and collins 1988 ) . see blaney ( 1977 ) for the latest range - wide taxonomic treatment of this species . based on patterns of morphological variation , means and krysko ( 2001 ) concluded that the name l . g . goini is invalid , as is the hypothesis that apalachicola l . getula are relict populations of intergrades between l . g . getula and l . g . floridana . they believed that the polymorphic eastern apalachicola lowlands populations are most closely related to l . g . getula . see also crother et al . ( 2000 ) for further brief discussion of taxonomic issues involving this species .\nmeierkord , r . 2010 . haltung und zucht der kalifornischen kettennatter , lampropeltis californiae . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 15 ( 82 ) : 52 - 55 - get paper here\nblanchard , frank n . 1932 . a clutch of eggs of the speckled king snake , lampropeltis getulus holbrooki ( stejneger ) . copeia 1932 ( 2 ) : 98 - get paper here\nhoser , r . t . 2012 . a three - way division of the new world genus lampropeltis fitzinger , 1843 . australasian j . herpetol . 12 : 54\u201357 . - get paper here\nneill , wilfred t . ; allen , e . ross 1949 . a new kingsnake ( genus lampropeltis ) from florida . herpetologica 5 ( 5 ) : 101 - 106 - get paper here\nblanchard , frank n . 1919 . two new snakes of the genus lampropeltis . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 70 ) : 1 - 11 - get paper here\nconant , roger 1934 . observations on the eggs and young of the black king snake , lampropeltis getulus nigra ( yarrow ) . copeia 1934 ( 4 ) : 188 - 189 - get paper here\nblaney , richard m . 1977 . systematics of the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus ( linnaeus ) . tulane studies in zoology and botany 19 ( 3 - 4 ) : 47 - 103 - get paper here\nblanchard , frank n . 1920 . a synopsis of the king snakes : genus lampropeltis fitzinger . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 87 ) : 1 - 7 - get paper here\ndessauer , herbert c . & pough , f . h . 1975 . geographic variation of blood proteins and the systematics of kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getulus ) . comp . biochem . physiol . 50b : 9 - 12\nlazell , james d . , jr & musick , j . a . 1973 . the kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus sticticeps , and the ecology of the outer banks of north carolina . copeia 1973 ( 3 ) : 497 - 503 - get paper here\nzweifel , r . g . and norris , k . s . 1955 . contributions to the herpetology of sonora , mexico : descriptions of new subspecies of snakes ( micruroides euryxanthus and lampropeltis getulus ) and miscellaneous collecting notes . american midland naturalist 54 : 230 - 249 - get paper here\naustin , james d . ; gregory , patrick t . 1999 . relative roles of thermal and chemical cues in the investigative behavior of prey in colubrid ( elaphe guttata and lampropeltis getulus ) and boid ( python regius ) snakes . herpetological natural history 6 ( 1 ) : 47 - 50 [ 1998 ]\noviparous . kreutz ( 2005 ) reports hybrids between elaphe ( = pantherophis ) guttata and lampropeltis getulus californiae , between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . pyromelana , between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . triangulum sinaloae / nelsoni , and between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . zonata !\ncommon kingsnakes are one of the only kingsnake species found throughout most of north america . there are seven subspecies of\n( eastern kingsnake ) is found on the east coast of north america from southern new jersey and southeast pennsylvania to the eastern parts of west virginia , southwest to mobile bay , alabama , and east through northern florida .\n( florida kingsnake ) is found on the peninsula of florida south to dade county .\n( speckled kingsnake ) is found in southwestern illinois , eastern iowa , and south central alabama .\n( black kingsnake ) is found west of the appalachian mountains and east of the mississippi river ; this includes the region from west virginia to southern ohio , southeastern illinois , and northern alabama .\n( outer banks kingsnake ) is found only in north carolina from cape hatteras to cape lookout .\n( black desert kingsnake ) can be found in southern arizona and northwestern mexico . subspecies overlap and interbreed in several different regions across north america .\n( bartlett and bartlett , 2005 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mitchell , 1994 ; wright and wright , 1957 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )\n( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mattison , 1995 ; wright and wright , 1957 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )\nvaries so greatly across subspecies , each will be described in turn . one measure they all share is the length of hatchlings : 20 to 28 cm at hatching . adult eastern kingsnakes (\n) can reach a length of 61 to 153 cm . they are large , solid , glossy black snakes with yellow ( sometimes white ) crossbars extending the length of the snake . the head is solid black with several yellow or white spots decorating the head scales . speckled kingsnakes (\n) can reach a length of 51 to 132 cm as adults . they are black with yellow \u201cspecks\u201d on and throughout its scales . the underside is pale yellow to white with some of the black scales curling around the sides . california kingsnakes (\n) can reach lengths of 91 to 106 cm . they have white crossbars intercepting black patches along the length of the back . the head is normally white with a black top and a few black scales on the side . adult florida kingsnakes (\n) can be 106 to 138 cm long . the only major difference between florida kingsnakes and eastern kingsnakes has 60 crossbands , whereas eastern kingsnakes have only 30 . the underbelly is pale yellow with alternating patterns of black scales in a \u201czigzag\u201d pattern . black kingsnakes (\n) , reach 91 to 122 cm and are rarely totally black . they normally have traces of approximately 50 to 95 faint crossbars of yellow or white spots . outer banks kingsnakes (\n) can reach 123 to 153 cm . they can be easily mistaken for other subspecies including eastern , speckled , and florida kingsnakes . they have yellow crossbars and yellow \u201cspecks\u201d between the crossbars , as well as a mostly pale yellow underbellies with some black scales extending to the sides . black desert kingsnakes (\n) can reach lengths of 106 to 132 cm . they are black and glossy with approximately 75 thin yellow crossbars . this subspecies also has yellow spots on the black scales that extend to the sides of the snake .\nsnake eggs have a large amount of yolk that contains the fats and the carbohydrates necessary for embryo development . towards the final stages of development , the fetal snake absorbs the yolk . additionally , some of the calcium for the egg\u2019s shell is extracted by the embryo and is used to form its skeleton . after the skeleton is formed , the shell becomes thinner and more flexible . oxygen exchange decreases over time , which in turn urges the hatchling to break out of the egg , using the deciduous egg\ntooth\non the nose .\nafter common kingsnakes hatch , they stay in the nest until they shed their skin for the first time . this normally takes about a week . the hatchlings then disperse . information about post - hatching is scarce . common kingsnakes reach sexual maturity at approximately half their potential maximum size from 60 to 92 cm . in captivity , they can reach sexual maturity much sooner because of an abundant food source and limited parasites and disease .\nmale common kingsnakes compete for females . if two males are in the same area they will both raise their heads , necks , and fore parts of their bodies and entwine them . males then try to press each other to the ground . the losing male will retreat and lay coiled in a prone position with his head flat to the ground . the victorious male will return to the female who waits nearby and copulate . males are able to find females through pheromone trails . when mating , males lie atop females and bite their necks . males then coil their tails under the females until their cloacas align . the male uses his hemipenis to enter the females\u2019 cloacae . copulation can last for several minutes to several hours .\ncommon kingsnakes mate in the spring , allowing females time to lay their eggs when the weather is still warm enough for proper incubation . their gestation period is about 60 days . in warmer climates ( e . g . florida ) , courtship can begin as early as march . in northern portions of the range , courtship is delayed until april or may .\na female may produce a single clutch from multiple mates . females may also produce more than one clutch per season as a result of more than one mating . the female chooses the nesting site , which can include rotting logs and stumps , as well as sawdust piles . common kingsnakes breed yearly and have been known to produce more than one clutch per season . the breeding season is between march and august . the average number of offspring is 10 eggs per clutch ( range 3 to 24 ) . average gestation period for female kingsnakes is 60 to 62 days ( range 50 to 80 days ) . hatchlings can weigh between 9 and 14 grams . females reach sexual maturity at 2 to 4 years . males reach sexual maturity at age 1 to 4 .\nbreeding interval yearly , common kingsnakes have been known to produce more than one clutch per season .\nafter copulation the male will leave the female and not return to help with parental care . after the female lays her eggs she will disperse and not return to the nest .\nlittle information is available on the longevity of wild common kingsnakes . most available information is from captive snakes . ernst and barbour ( 1989 ) found that the oldest wild common kingsnake was 9 years old ( reported in 1937 ) . anage reported that the longest living kingsnake in captivity was 33 . 3 years old .\ncommon kingsnakes are diurnal . their annual activity period is between late march or early april to october and early november . they hibernate during the winter in caves , rock crevices , mammal burrows , hollow logs , and in old stumps . during the cooler days of the spring and fall they can be found out during the day sunning themselves . common kingsnakes spend a majority of their day under leaf litter and other debris ( 79 % ; wund et al . 2007 ) and the rest of the time is spent traveling , basking , and hunting ( 21 % ; wund et al . 2007 ) . common kingsnakes are not restricted to the ground , they can climb trees and swim quite well . combat between males is common ( during mating season ) .\n( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; krysko , 2002 ; mattison , 1995 ; mitchell , 1994 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )\na recent study proposed that common kingsnakes have home ranges of 330 to 350 square meters and can take up to 103 days to cover distances across their small ranges .\nadult common kingsnake diet varies across subspecies and is very broad , but published reports are available for a few representative subspecies . eastern kingsnakes and florida kingsnakes feed mainly on other snakes , including venomous snakes (\n) . they also eat other non - venomous snakes , birds , vertebrate eggs , lizards , mice , and rats . california kingsnakes prey on mice , gopher snakes (\n) . common kingsnakes have several defenses against potential predators . the most common is hissing , striking , \u201cs\u201d shaped striking pose , biting , and flight . they flee when threatened , rather than hold their ground . they are also able to spread a pungent musk that serves as an alarm substance to other common kingsnakes in the area . the banded and striped pattern of california kingsnakes , and other subspecies , disguises their movement and body outline when they are fleeing from a predator . their coloration may make them cryptic in leaf litter and against other backgrounds .\ncommon kingsnakes are beneficial for the ecosystem . they help keep rodent and frog populations in balance as well as other snakes like rattlesnakes (\n) . they are also prey for larger snakes and predatory birds and mammals . snider and bawler ( 1992 ) conducted a study to find if parasites were the cause of common kingsnake declines in florida . they found suggestions of parasite activity but no direct evidence . van peenan and birdwell ( 1968 ) found evidence of several species of parasites affecting common kingsnakes . these include apicomplexan species (\n( snider and bawler , 1992 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; oldak , 1976 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; van peenan and birdwell , 1968 ; winne , et al . , 2007 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )\n) . they play an important role in controlling populations of venomous snakes , which can pose a threat to humans .\n( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mitchell , 1994 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; winne , et al . , 2007 )\ncommon kingsnakes are listed as a \u201cspecies of concern\u201d on the u . s . federal list . this may be because florida kingsnakes ,\n, are in decline . reasons for declines include anthropogenic causes through extensive pet trade , road fatalities , and habitat loss . invasive fire ants (\n( mitchell , 1994 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )\nsarah bartz ( author ) , radford university , rachelle sterling ( editor ) , special projects , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nin deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nreferring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nliving in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .\nbaker , r . , g . mengden , j . bull . 1972 . karyotypic studies of thirty - eight species of north america .\ngroves , f . , j . groves . 1972 . keratophagy in snakes .\nmegonigal , j . , c . w . h . , k . s . , s . r . r . . 1997 . aboveground production in southeastern floodplain forests : a test of the subsidy - stress hypothesis .\noldak , p . 1976 . comparison of the scent gland secretion lipids of twenty - five snakes : implications for biochemical systematics .\npough , h . 1977 . the relationship between body size and blood oxygen affinity in snakes .\nstophlet , j . 1957 . nocturnal predation on summer tanager nestling by kingsnake .\nwilson , w . , s . friddle . 1950 . the herpetology of hardy county , west virginia .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ndescription average adult size is 36 - 48 inches ( 91 . 4 - 121 . 9 cm ) , record is 69 . 5 inches ( 176 . 5 cm ) . adults are variable in coloration from brown to yellow . they have more than 40 yellowish dorsal crossbands and a degenerate lateral chain - like pattern . the scales between the crossbands lighten with age , starting as black , they may develop to be the same light color as the crossbands . the belly has a checkerboard pattern . the scales are smooth , and there are usually 23 dorsal scale rows at midbody ( some individuals have 21 ) . the pupil is round . juveniles are distinctly crossbanded ( sometimes with red pigment within crossbands ) and most of the scales between the crossbands are black .\na . top of the head ( notice the large plate - like scales on the top of the head ) b . smooth scales c . elongated scales below the tail ( subcaudal scales ) are typically divided d . front ( face view ) of the head e . side of the head\nhabitat : uncommon , it is found in pinelands , hardwood hammocks , cypress strands , prairies , marshes , estuaries , sugar cane plantations , and stands of melaleuca ( australian punk trees ) .\ncomments : harmless ( non - venomous ) , and seldom bites . the florida kingsnake is mainly terrestrial and active during the day , yet in the summer months individuals may be found moving at night .\nit feeds on other snakes , lizards , frogs , rodents , turtle eggs , and birds and their eggs . it eats venomous snakes such as rattlesnakes , and is immune to their venom . it is even known to be cannibalistic , eating its own kind .\nit lays eggs . it is primarily active from february - may , when breeding takes place . in the early summer , 3 - 30 eggs are laid . newborns from 5 - 8 inches ( 12 . 7 - 20 . 3 cm ) hatch in late summer .\ndivision of herpetology \u2022 dickinson hall \u2022 gainesville , fl 32611 - 7800 \u2022 352 - 273 - 1945 \u2022 dr . coleman sheehy , collection manager\nholotype : unknown ( fide pyron & burbrink 2009 ) . holotype : florida state museum of natural history ; was : wtn 19211 ( wt neill , private collection ) [ goini ] holotype : uf 73433 ( field tag dbm 1360 ) , an adult male [ meansi ]\nthe generic name was derived from the greek words lampro , meaning\nbright or clear\nand pelte , meaning\na small shield ,\napplied in reference to the shiny\nscales .\nthe specific epithet refers to the getulian people of northern morocco , whose tribal insignia bears a resemblance to the \u2018chain\u2019 pattern of the kingsnakes of the eastern seaboard of the united states . l . g . meansi has been named after the collector of the type , d . bruce means .\nallen , morrow j . 1932 . a survey of the amphibians and reptiles of harrison county , mississippi . american museum novitates ( 542 ) : 1 - 20 - get paper here\nanonymous 2007 . snakes of new jersey . new jersey division of fish and wildlife\nbaird , s . f . and c . girard . 1853 . catalogue of north american reptiles in the museum of the smithsonian institution . part 1 . - serpents . smithsonian inst . , washington , xvi + 172 pp . - get paper here\nbarbour , t . and engels 1942 . two interesting new snakes . proc . new england zool . club 20 : 101 - 104\nbarbour , thomas 1917 . another new jersey king snake . copeia 1917 ( 49 ) : 92 - get paper here\nbateman , heather l . ; alice chung - maccoubrey , howard l . snell , and deborah m . finch 2009 . abundance and species richness of snakes along the middle rio grande riparian forest in new mexico . herp . cons . biol . 4 : 1 - get paper here\nbentley , georgia h . 1919 . reptiles collected in the vicinity of current , nye county , nevada . copeia 1919 ( 75 ) : 87 - 91 - get paper here\nberg , m . van den et al . 2013 . traumterrarien . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 18 ( 100 ) : 16 - 27 - get paper here\nbezy , robert l . and charles j . cole 2014 . amphibians and reptiles of the madrean archipelago of arizona and new mexico . american museum novitates ( 3810 ) : 1 - 24 - get paper here\nblainville , henri marie ducrotay de 1835 . description de quelques esp\u00e8ces de reptiles de la californie pr\u00e9c\u00e9d\u00e9e de l\u2019analyse d\u2019un syst\u00e8me g\u00e9n\u00e9ral d\u2019erp\u00e9tologie et d\u2019amphibiologie . nouv . ann . mus . hist . nat . paris 4 : 233 - 296 - get paper here\nbogosian , victor ; eric c . hellgren , and raymond w . moody 2012 . assemblages of amphibians , reptiles , and mammals on an urban military base in oklahoma . southwestern naturalist 57 ( 3 ) : 277 - 284 . - get paper here\nbrady , maurice 1927 . notes on the reptiles and amphibians of the dismal swamp . copeia 1927 ( 162 ) : 26 - 29 - get paper here\nburt , charles e . 1933 . a contribution to the herpetology of kentucky . american midland naturalist 14 ( 6 ) : 669 - 679 - get paper here\nburt , charles e . 1935 . further records of the ecology and distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the middle west . american midland naturalist 16 ( 3 ) : 311 - 336 - get paper here\nchristman , s . p . 1980 . patterns of geographic variation in florida snakes . bulletin of the florida state museum of biological sciences 25 ( 3 ) : 1 ( 157 ? ) - 256 - get paper here\ncollins , j . t . & collins , s . l . 2009 . a pocket guide to kansas snakes , 2nd ed . great plains nature center , wichita , 69 pp .\ncollins , j . t . & collins , s . l . 2010 . a pocket guide to kansas snakes , 3rd ed . great plains nature center , wichita , 69 pp .\nconant , roger 1938 . the reptiles of ohio . american midland naturalist 20 ( 1 ) : 1 - 200 - get paper here\nconant , r . & collins , j . t . 1991 . a field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern / central north america , 3rd ed . houghton mifflin ( boston / new york ) , xx + 450 p .\ncope , e . d . 1860 . catalogue of the colubridae in the museum of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , with notes and descriptions of new species . part ii . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 12 : 241 - 266 - get paper here\ncope , e . d . 1875 . the herpetology of florida . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 1875 : 10 - 11 - get paper here\ncope , e . d . 1892 . the batrachia and reptilia of north west texas . proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia 1892 : 331 - 337 - get paper here\ncorrington , julian d . 1927 . field note on some amphibians and reptiles at biloxi , mississippi . copeia 1927 ( 165 ) : 98 - 102 - get paper here\ncorrington , julian d . 1929 . herpetology of the columbia , south carolina , region . copeia 1929 ( 172 ) : 58 - 83 - get paper here\ncrother , b . i . 2000 . scientific and standard english names of amphibians and reptiles of north america north of mexico , with comments regarding confidence in our understanding . herpetological circular 29 : 1 - 82\ncrother , b . i . ( ed . ) 2012 . standard common and current scientific names for north american amphibians , turtles , reptiles , and crocodilians , seventh edition . herpetological circular 39 : 1 - 92\ndegenhardt , william g . ; c . w . painter , and a . h . price 1996 . amphibians and reptiles of new mexico . univ . new mexico press , 431 pp .\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . , and g . bibron . 1835 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale ou histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles , vol . 2 . librairie encyclop\u00e9dique de roret , paris , iv + 680 p . - get paper here\nenge , kevin m . 2009 . venomous and non - venomous snakes of florida . publication of the florida fish & wildlife conservation commission . 16 pp .\nernst , c . h . , & barbour , r . w . 1989 . snakes of eastern north america . george mason univ . press , fairfax , va 282 pp .\nfitch , h . s . 1936 . amphibians and reptiles of the rouge river basin , oregon . american midland naturalist 17 : 634 - 652 - get paper here\nflesch , aaron d . ; don e . swann , dale s . turner , and brian f . powell 2010 . herpetofauna of the rincon mountains , arizona . southwestern naturalist 55 ( 2 ) : 240\u2013253 - get paper here\ngilbert , carter r . 1974 . catalogue of type specimens in the department of natural sciences , florida state museum . bulletin of the florida state museum biological sciences 18 ( 2 ) : 102 - 120 - get paper here\ngreen , n . b . , & pauley , t . k . 1987 . amphibians and reptiles in west virginia . univ . of pittsburgh press , pittsburgh , 241 pp .\ngrismer , l . lee . 1999 . an evolutionary classification of reptiles on islands in the gulf of california , m\u00e9xico . herpetologica 55 ( 4 ) : 446 - 469 - get paper here\nhallmen , m . 2005 . farb - und zeichnungszuchten in der terraristik . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 10 ( 55 ) : 16 - 22 - get paper here\nhallmen , m . 2006 . selective breeding for color and pattern . reptilia ( gb ) ( 44 ) : 12 - 18 - get paper here\nhowze , jennifer m . and lora l . smith 2012 . factors influencing eastern kingsnake diel activity . copeia 2012 ( 3 ) : 460 - 464 . - get paper here\nhudson , bryan d . , zach i . felix , justin oguni , brad wilson , kira mcentire , theresa stratmann , daniel d . duff and zack seymour . 2015 . new geographic distributional records of amphbians and reptiles in georgia , usa . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 595 - 596\nirwin , kelly j . 2004 . arkansas snake guide . arkansas game & fish commission , little rock , 50 pp .\njan , g . 1865 . iconographie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des ophidiens . 12 . livraison . j . b . baili\u00e8re et fils , paris - get paper here\njan , g . 1865 . iconographie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des ophidiens . 14 . livraison . [ elapomorphus d\u2019orbignyi , coronella getulus var . sayi ] . j . b . baili\u00e8re et fils , paris - get paper here\njensen , john b . ; carlos d . camp , whit gibbons , & matt j . elliott 2008 . amphibians and reptiles of georgia . university of georgia press , 575 pp .\nkaiser , h . ; crother , b . i . ; kelly , c . m . r . ; luiselli , l . ; o\u2019shea , m . ; ota , h . ; passos , p . ; schleip , w . d . & w\u00fcster , w . 2013 . best practices : in the 21st century , taxonomic decisions in herpetology are acceptable only when supported by a body of evidence and published via peer - review . herpetological review 44 ( 1 ) : 8 - 23\nklauber , laurence m . 1938 . notes from a herpetological diary , i . copeia 1938 ( 4 ) : 191 - 197 - get paper here\nkreutz , r . 2005 . farb - und zeichnungsstandard der kornnatter ( panterhophis guttatus ) . kirschner und seufer verlag , keltern - weiler , 158 pp .\nlemos - espinal ja , smith gr 2016 . amphibians and reptiles of the state of coahuila , mexico , with comparison with adjoining states . zookeys 593 : 117 - 137 , doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 593 . 8484 - get paper here\nlinn\u00e9 , c . von [ = linnaeus , c . ] 1766 . systema natur\u00e6 per regna tria natur\u00e6 , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio duodecima , reformata . laurentii salvii , stockholm , holmiae . 1 - 532 pp . - get paper here\nlinzey , d . w . , & clifford , m . j . 1981 . snakes of virgina . univ . press of virginia , charlottesville 159 pp .\nl\u00f6nnberg , einar 1894 . notes on reptiles and batrachians collected in florida in 1892 and 1893 . proc . us natl . mus . 17 ( 1003 ) : 317 - 339 - get paper here\nmitchell , j . c . & reay , k . k . 1999 . atlas of amphibians and reptiles in virginia . specialty publication 1 , va dept of game and fisheries , 122 pp . - get paper here\nmitchell , j . c . 1994 . the reptiles of virginia . virginia department of game and inland fisheries , ca . 350 pp .\nmurphy , r . w . ; ottley , j . r . 1984 . distribution of amphibians and reptiles on islands in the gulf of california . annals of the carnegie museum 53 ( 8 ) : 207 - 230 - get paper here\nnev\u00e1rez - de los reyes ; manuel , david lazcano , javier banda - leal and ian recchio 2014 . notes on mexican herpetofauna 22 : herpetofauna of the continental portion of themunicipality of hermosillo , sonora , mexico . bull . chicago herp . soc . 49 ( 8 ) : 105 - 115 - get paper here\npalmer , w . m . & braswell , a . l . 1995 . reptiles of north carolina . univ . north carolina press\nrochester , carlton j . ; cheryl s . brehme , denise r . clark , drew c . stokes , stacie a . hathaway , and robert n . fisher 2010 . reptile and amphibian responses to large - scale wildfires in southern california . journal of herpetology 44 ( 3 ) : 333\u2013351 - get paper here\nsaviola , anthony j . ; valerie j . mckenzie , david chiszar 2012 . chemosensory responses to chemical and visual stimuli in five species of colubrid snakes . acta herpetologica 7 ( 1 ) : 91 - 103 - get paper here\nschmidt , d . 2005 . eine kettennatter als vegetarierin . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 10 ( 51 ) : 8 - 9 - get paper here\nskubowius , b . 2010 . new jersey \u2013 mit \u201efieldherpern\u201c und \u201epineys\u201c auf der suche nach der n\u00f6rdlichen kiefernnatter ( pituophis melanoleucus melanoleucus ) . reptilia ( m\u00fcnster ) 15 ( 84 ) : 52 - 60 - get paper here\nsmith , m . a . 1928 . the status of some recently described genera and species of snakes . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) 1 : 494 - 496\nsnyder , richard c . 1945 . notes on the snakes of southeastern alabama . copeia 1945 ( 3 ) : 173 - 174 - get paper here\nstebbins , r . c . 1985 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians , 2nd ed . houghton mifflin , boston\nstejneger , l . 1902 . the reptiles of the huachuca mountains , arizona . proc . us natl . mus . 25 [ 1902 ] : 149 - 158 - get paper here\ntanner , vasco m . 1927 . distributional list of the amphibians and reptiles of utah . copeia 1927 ( 163 ) : 54 - 58 - get paper here\ntanner , wilmer w . 1958 . herpetological range extensions . herpetologica 14 : 195 - 196 - get paper here\ntaylor , edward h . 1952 . third contribution of the herpetology of the mexican state of san luis potos\u00ed . univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 13 ) : 793 - 815 - get paper here\ntennant , a . 2003 . snakes of north america - eastern and central regions , revised edition . lone star books , 605 pp .\ntennant , a . & bartlett , r . d . 2000 . snakes of north america - eastern and central regions . gulf publishing , houston , tx , 588 pp .\nterrell , vanessa c . , jaimie l . klemish , nathan j . engbecht , john a . may , peter j . lannoo , rochelle m . stiles , and michael j . lannoo . 2014 . amphibian and reptile colonization of reclaimed coal spoil grasslands . the journal of north american herpetology 2014 ( 1 ) : 59 - 68 - get paper here\nthornton , okla w . , jr . ; smith , jerry r . 1993 . new county records of amphibians and reptiles from west - central texas . herpetological review 24 ( 1 ) : 35 - 36 - get paper here\nvan denburgh , j . ; slevin , j . r . 1921 . preliminary diagnoses of more new species of reptiles from islands in the gulf of california , mexico . proc . cal . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 11 ( 17 ) : 395 - 398 - get paper here\nvoris , h . k . , d . r . karns , k . a . feldheim , b . kechavarzi , and m . rinehart . 2008 . multiple paternity in the oriental - australian rear - fanged watersnakes ( homalopsidae ) . herp . cons . biol . 3 : 88 - 102 - get paper here\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nwallach , v . 1988 . status and redescription of the genus padangia werner , with comparative visceral data on collorhabdium smedley and other genera ( serpentes : colubridae ) . amphibia - reptilia 9 : 61 - 76 - get paper here\nwerner , f . 1924 . neue oder wenig bekannte schlangen aus dem naturhistorischen staatsmuseum in wien . l . teil . sitzungsb . ber . akad . wiss . , wien , abt . l , 133 : 29 - 56 - get paper here\nwilgers , d . j . ; horne , e . a . ; sandercock , b . k . & volkmann , a . w . 2006 . effects of rangeland management on community dynamics of the herpetofauna of the tall - grass prairie [ flint hills , kansas / oklahoma ] . herpetologica 62 ( 4 ) : 378 - 388 - get paper here\nwoodbury , angus munn 1928 . the reptiles of zion national park . copeia 1928 ( 166 ) : 14 - 21 - get paper here\nyarrow , h . c . 1882 . description of new species of reptiles and amphibians in the us national museum . proc . us natl . mus . 5 : 438 - 443 - get paper here\nyounas , saqib ; shafiullah gul , hameed ur rehman , faisal junaid , wali muhammad achakzai , shagufta saddozai , khalid usman and zawar ahmad 2017 . zoological fauna of khurum dam and muhabbat khel dam of district karak , khyber pakhtunkhwa , pakistan journal of entomology and zoology studies 2017 ; 5 ( 1 ) : 380 - 387 - get paper here\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nhammerson , g . a . , frost , d . r . & santos - barrera , g .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of the large and probably relatively stable extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size . this species is not threatened across most of its range .\nthis species ' range extends from the pacific to the atlantic coast of north america , from southwestern oregon , nevada , southern utah , southern colorado , southeastern nebraska , southern iowa , illinois , southern indiana , southern ohio , west virginia , and new jersey in the united states , south to southern baja california , northern sinaloa , san luis potosi , tamaulipas , texas , the u . s . gulf coast , and southern florida , at elevations from sea level to around 2 , 130 m asl ( 7 , 000 feet ) ( conant and collins 1991 , stebbins 2003 ) .\nthis species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations . the total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100 , 000 and probably exceeds 1 , 000 , 000 . its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size are probably relatively stable .\nthe species ' habitats vary geographically and include open coniferous forest , woodland , swamps , coastal marshes , river bottoms , farmland , prairie , chaparral , and desert . this snake is primarily terrestrial . periods of inactivity are spent in crevices or burrow , or under rocks , logs , stumps , vegetation , or other cover .\nno major threats have been identified . local declines probably have occurred in areas where habitat has been intensively developed for human uses , but in most of the range this species is not threatened .\nmany occurrences of this species are in national parks and other well - protected areas .\nhammerson , g . a . , frost , d . r . & santos - barrera , g . 2007 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthough now recognized by herpetologists as merely a color morph of the florida king snake , the brooks ' king is a still a favorite among herpetoculturists because of its light coloration . adult brooks ' kings have yellowish or white cross bands on a yellow and black speckled background .\nthe nicest adults are so heavily speckled in yellow that the background color is not apparent . the babies start out looking much different . they have yellow bands on a dark brown or black background . many babies have red coloration in the bands , though this is usually lost with age . our stock descends from animals that we collected ourselves in southern miami - dade county , fl .\nanthony flanagan inspects the edge of a path near a canal edge . king snakes are now rarely seen at this locale , though burmese pythons are common ."]}
{"id": 1960, "summary": [{"text": "the kuhli loach ( pangio kuhlii ) is a small eel-like freshwater fish belonging to the loach family ( cobitidae ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they originate from indonesia and the malay peninsula .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "this snake-like creature is very slender and nocturnal .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "in an aquarium , the kuhli loach can be very reclusive and , when startled , will dart underneath tank ornaments or bury itself , if a fine gravel or sandy substrate is present . ", "topic": 18}], "title": "kuhli loach", "paragraphs": ["kuhli loach care guide : how to care , tank mates , gender , feeding and breeding kuhli loaches . kuhli loach ( also known as coolie loach ) in a community tank \u05e7\u05d5\u05dc\u05d9 \u05dc\u05d5\u05e5\nthe kuhli loach is readily available at pet stores and online , and is moderately priced .\nwe find these kuhli loach fish in sumatra , southeast asia , western malaysia , singapore , thailand , borneo and java . we don\u2019t find this variety in the iucn red list . they are also known by several other names , such as coolie loach , prickly eye , cinnamon loach , leopard loach and giant coolie loach .\nthere are two different colour variations of kuhli loach . the more widely pictured , but much less common\nbanded\nkuhli loach , as well as the highly common\nblack\nkuhli loach . the latter ' s colours may range from dark burgundy to a darker shade of tan . albino versions are occasionally seen in shops .\nthis little fish was originally named and is best known as the kuhli loach or prickly eye , but there are quite a few other common names often associated with this fish . for example , in the united states this loach is sometimes also called the coolie loach , giant coolie loach , leopard loach , and cinnamon loach . coolie loaches are exported by the millions for the aquarium hobby .\ntheir is also an albino color form of this loach , known as the albino kuhli loach . this a bred color form , and it is not certain whether the albino kuhli loach occurs naturally in the wild . but these would be highly visible animals , so beacons for predation .\n: the kuhli loach lives in great masses around plant cushions of muddy rivers . southeast asia ; borneo , java ,\nthe kuhli loach ( pangio kuhlii ) is small eel shaped fish that is found throughout indonesia and malaysia . while it superficially resembles an eel , it is actually part of the large and varied loach family . there are nearly a dozen species of fish that are sold under the name kuhli loach , but the species pangio kuhli is the most commonly available for sale .\nkuhli loaches ( pangio kuhlii , earlier named as acanthophthalmus kuhlii ) also named as coolie loach , leopard loach is a peaceful ground fish which is more active in the evening and at night .\nhere is a my kuhli loach fish . he is a very lovely fish . the kuhli loach is a small eel - like freshwater fish belonging to the loach family . they originate from indonesia and the malay peninsula . this snake - like creature is very slender and nocturnal . thanks for watching and do not forget subscribe !\nin nature , kuhli loaches are social , though they do not form tight schools . while they can live by themselves , the kuhli loach would much rather shoal with members of their own species .\nthis stripy species springs to many minds as the \u2018kuhli loach\u2019 and this is the most likely fish to be mislabelled as p . kuhlii .\np . anguillaris is recognised as the eel \u2018kuhli\u2019 loach , being recorded from cambodia , indonesia , laos , malaysia , thailand and vietnam .\nmost of the time the kuhli loach are seen swimming at the base of the tank ; however , at night , they swim everywhere in the tank . the kuhli loach need pristine water , so do not put these kuhli loaches in an arrangement which is biologically not developed . they are adjustable to an aquarium of average size ( best nearly 20 gallons ) . where the water is a bit acidic , and with passive lighting the kuhli loach requires good water currents for generating sufficient oxygen .\na kuhli loach ( pangio kuhlii ) is a small worm - like freshwater fish belonging to the loach family ( cobitidae ) . the fish is also commonly called coolie loach , giant coolie loach , striped loach , and leopard loach . originating in indonesia and the malay peninsula , it is commonly kept as a pet in tropical aquaria . they have an orange body , about 4 in ( 10 cm ) long , with 6 to 10 often irregular dark bands along the length and some barbels about their mouth .\nthis is a popular \u2018un - banded\u2019 species that\u2019s often sold under the \u2018black kuhli loach\u2019 name and in certain older literature was known as p . javanicus .\ncommon name : kuhli loach scientific name : pangio semicincta wild origin : malaysia maximum size : 9cm \u2013 10cm , 3 . 55 inches \u2013 3 . 95 inches\ngenus ) that are much like the actual kuhli loach . these loaches all have the elongated wormlike body shape , are fairly similar in size and appearance , and are also wiggly little scavengers who make great aquarium cleaners . each of these fish however , can be distinguished from the kuhli loach by their individual color patterns and adult size .\nkuhli loach habitat ( acanthophthalmus kuhlii ) is in south - west asia and india . the fish also inhabits in sumatra , singapore , malaysia , java and borneo islands .\nsorry , i was actually just looking and found out that there are multiple species of pangio sp . that are marketed as kuhli loach or other misnomers . will edit !\nwas described by valenciennes in 1846 . they are found in southeast asia ; sumatra , singapore , western malaysia , java , borneo , and thailand . this species is not listed on the iucn red list . other common names they are known by include prickly eye , coolie loach , giant coolie loach , cinnamon loach , and leopard loach .\nmost stripy so - called \u2018kuhli loaches\u2019 in the trade have actually been p . semicincta .\njust wanted to mention that the black kuhli is actually a separate species , pangio oblonga .\nthe kuhli loach , also commonly known as coolie loach , comes from the tropical waters of indonesia , malaysia , java and surrounding areas . the kuhli loach is eel shaped . its body colorings are a kind of salmon - pink / yellow with dark brown to black stripes that half circles the body . the stomach is a sort of a whitish colour . the eyes on the kuhli loach are set in one of the stripes and therefore not easily seen . the mouth is set at a downward angle and with 3 pairs of bushy barbels adorning it ; it looks like it has an obstinate little moustache . its fins are translucent .\nthe kuhli loach is usually nocturnal , only sneaking out during feeding time to eat food that falls to the substrate , then quickly returning to its lair . because of this , it is common to not see a kuhli loach for days or even weeks at a time . in aquaria with under - gravel filters , kuhli loaches may seek refuge under the filter plates . members of this species may also explore other types of filters and hide in the filter media .\nthe benefit of the kuhli loach over several of the other loach is that their growth is limited to a length of almost 8 to 11 cm . ( 3 to 5 in . ) . besides , their bioload ( amount of life existing in an aquarium ) is too tiny for a loach . the kulhi loach is capable of squeezing out through tiny openings , hence keep the tank always securely closed . they need a tank of at least 20 gallons ( 37 liters ) .\nthe yoyo loach ( botia almorhae ) , also known as the pakistani loach , is a small fresh water fish native to india and pakistan . the name yoyo loach originates from the fact that the marking on the fishes side resemble the word \u201cyoyo\u201d , although this becomes more difficult to see as the fish ages .\nthe kuhli loach is a smaller , worm - like loach that can reach from 3 - 4 1 / 2 inches ( 7 . 8 - 12 cm ) in length , though generally a bit smaller in the aquarium . their life span is generally about 10 years , though they been reported to live even longer .\nkuhli loach care : tank parameters required : ph \u2013 3 . 5 - 7 . 0 gh \u2013 3 - 8 kh \u2013 1 - 3 tds \u2013 50 - 160 temperature \u2013 21 - 26c or 70 - 79f\nthe kuhli loach dwells in mountain streams among a litter of leaves and sandy locations where the rivers move slowly . their habitats are in general remote from the sun due to the canopy of the forest . in the wild , the khuli loach is seen in tiny groups , but they do not belong to the schooling fish variety .\nyes - best kept in groups of 6 or more , if kept singly a kuhli will seldom be seen .\nwith the added swimming area , we plumped for a streambed tank with extra inhabitants . kuhli loach are handsome but shy , and even a dozen or so in this tank could prove hard to spot . give them too many hiding spaces and you\u2019ll never see them . don\u2019t give them enough and they\u2019ll never become confident enough to show as much as a whisker . many a tank has \u2018lost\u2019 its kuhli loach for years at a time , only found again when the tank is eventually stripped . kuhli loach are malaysian fish , so we wanted a tank with plants from that part of the world . that meant two easy targets appeared straight away \u2014 cryptocoryne and java fern .\n75 gallon planted aquarium - red tail shark , rainbow shark , clown loach , red tail loaches , etc .\nand finally , kuhli loachs probably won\u2019t mix very well with drawf frogs . you\u2019ll probably end up with a lot of very confused frogs trying to fit a kulhli loach in their mouth , which will result in unhappy kuhli loachs . it may work , but i\u2019ve seen those frogs try to eat just about anything they come in contact with .\nthe kuhli loach has an advantage over most of the other loaches kept in aquariums , inasmuch as it never grows too large , growing around 8 - 11 cm ( 3 - 5 in ) in length . also their bioload is very small for a loach . be sure to keep the tank covered properly at all times as it can squeeze out of quite small places . the minimum tank size required for the kuhli is 20 gallons ( 37 liters ) .\nkuhli loaches are not a demanding fish , and will thrive in a well maintained 20 gallon tank . while many people attempt to keep them in smaller aquariums , a group of well fed kuhli loaches will quickly outgrow anything smaller than 20 gallons .\nnice profile , well done ! just wanted to mention that the black kuhli is actually a separate species , pangio oblonga .\nthey are pretty notorious for hiding , but the aquarium is way too small for them . and do you know what killed your yoyo loach ? was it another loach ? it sounds like they would be better in 30 gallon if at all possible .\nhowever even if further study reveals p . kuhlii to occur outside java it appears probable that it is not the common aquarium \u2018kuhli / coolie\u2019 loach which is more likely to be p . semicincta , one or more unidentified species , or a combination of these .\nlook closely and you\u2019ll see not just danios in this set - up , but also kuhli loaches out and about in the open .\ni would strongly recommend choosing an aquaclear power filter for a kuhli loach tank . this filter combines excellent filtration with a durable design , and it will keep your tank sparkling clear for years to come . you can also read the aquarium tidings aquaclear filter review here .\nand kuhli loaches almost always eat after lights out , so just feed them just before the lights go out and they should be happy .\nthe natural habitat of the kuhli loach is the sandy beds of slow - moving rivers and clean mountain streams . they are a social fish and are typically found in small clusters ( they are not schooling fish but enjoy the company of their species ) , but are cautious and\ni\u2019m sorry to hear about your loach . are there any symptoms right now ? is the fish bloated or is there anything growing on him ?\nkuhli loach tank should be moderately sized with soft ( 0 \u2013 5 dgh ) , a little acidic water ( ph : 5 . 5 - 6 . 5 ) and moderately lighted . is a ground fish , so not the tank size is determining , but the square of its bottom .\nhelp ! ! ! does anyone know how many babies a black kuhli loach has at a time ? i have two adults and now i have seen one little one\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 . i have read that this is rare in an aquarium . just wondering what to expect . i would appreciate any help any advice .\n: often hides or buries itself during the day , coming out at night to feed . the kuhli loach is often very active in the morning and when the lights are turned on . if a fish is floating on surface it is a sign of heavy water pollutants . there are two sub - species\nthis is heavily built and sometimes referred to as the \u2018giant kuhli loach\u2019 . adults are easily recognisable by their sheer depth of body and wide black markings interspaced by thin yellow / orange bars . the caudal fin is usually completely black or with a black base blotch and a subterminal black bar or row of spots .\neel loaches comprise the 33 members of the genus pangio . small and elongated , they are frequently and inappropriately called kuhli loaches or , worse still , coolie loaches .\nwhen i pulled my shrimp tank down i thought i had 1 or 2 kuhli but i found 5 big fat ones nothing like the little skinny ones i bought .\nit is essential that the water turnover takes place at a minimum of 10 to 15 times an hour . a filter below the gravel is an option for generating good oxygen all over the aquarium and also for decreasing the waste . supplementing a power head or canister filter to the arrangement gives good current for the kuhli loach fishes .\nthis is another slender and elongate loach that can attain 12 . 5cm / 5\u201d . it is known to inhabit the malay peninsula as well as sarawak , borneo .\nthis loach is a peaceful community fish and a great scavenger of uneaten foods that settle to the bottom of the aquarium . they hide during the day , but are quite lively and active in the evening . though they do not school , they will be more likely to come out of hiding if they are kept with some companions . a singly kept kuhli loach will seldom be seen . it is recommended that they be kept in small groups of at least 6 or more of its own kind .\nthis can be especially problematic when they are first introduced , and they are still on a nocturnal feeding schedule . while you should try to never overfeed your fish , a bit extra during the first few weeks will help keep the kuhli loaches fed . i have used hikari sinking wafers for kuhli loaches in the past with great success .\n\u2026vertical black bands , and the kuhli loach ( pangio kuhlii ) , a pinkish , eel - like species about 8 centimetres long , marked with many vertical black bands . other loaches include the stone ( nemachilus barbatula ) and spined loaches , both mottled , yellow and brown fishes about 13 centimetres long found in europe and northern asia . the\u2026\nhadiaty , r . k . and m . kottelat , 2009 - zootaxa 2171 : 65 - 68 pangio lidi , a new species of loach from eastern borneo , indonesia .\nharry , r . r . , 1949 - proceedings of the biological society of washington v . 62 : 69 - 72 a new loach of the genus acanthophthalmus from siam .\nsteve hunt\u2019s kuhli loach was in dire straits . the nano tank it had called home had been a present for steve\u2019s daughter , but it was woefully small . a curve - fronted little all - in - one lump of barely 30l / 6 . 6 gal , it had become tired and grubby , hidden away in a corner , decrepit and embarrassing .\na group of dozen kuhli loaches will have more active behavior and it\u2019ll be more close to their behavior in the wild , nevertheless acanthophthalmus can be also kept alone in a tank .\nthanks keith for this helpful info . 25 years on and off on fishkeeping but ive never had a kuhli , ive seen them at pet stores but i didnt know theyre usefull .\n: the kuhli loach has an eel - like shape . the dorsal fin is located far back on the body . the body coloring is orange to salmon with 15 - 20 wide transverse black bands that extend to the belly . the belly is light pink to white . four pairs of barbels extend from the mouth , and spines are located just below the eye .\nthe kuhli loach will swim mostly on the bottom of the aquarium , but at night these loaches will swim all over the tank . never introduce this loach into a biological immature setup as these fish require pristine water . this fish will do well in a medium sized aquarium ( ideally 20 gallons or so ) with soft , slightly acidic water and subdued lighting . they need good water movement that provides plenty of oxygenation . the tank water should turnover at least 10 - 15 times per hour . an undergravel filter is a great choice for these fish as it creates high oxygen through out the tank as well as reducing the waste . adding a canister filter or power head to the setup will make the proper current for this loach .\ni think we\u2019ve all been there with the \u2018faking\u2019 yoyo loaches . one time , i was getting ready to scoop a yoyo loach out , when it leapt up and swam away . lol\nyes kuhli loaches are very social creatures and they love to interact with eachother . kuhli loaches do better if they are in a minimum group of five or they will usually go into hiding and might even go into permanent hiding . i would suggest that you get two more , but you have to have at least a 10 gallon tank or they will be crowded . and one more thing your kuhli loaches might also be hiding because you might have an aggresive fish in your tank . i hoped i helped you , and good luck with your loaches ! ! !\nalthough they have been bred successfully in the aquarium , not much is known about the breeding habits of the kuhli loach . they scatter bright green adhesive eggs underneath floating plants where the eggs then attach to the stems and roots . the eggs have been described by herbert axelrod as a type of bubble nest , with each egg enclosed in a bubble . they are not yet bred commercially .\nthe slim shape of eel loaches set them apart from all others of the loach fraternity . they also differ by having a relatively high number of vertebrae and the dorsal fin is behind the pelvic fin .\nmy yoyo loach rules my cichlids tank , they all move out of the way when he\u2019s going somewhere , it sounds like mine is completely the opposite of the norm , he\u2019s very brave and active .\nthis species is traded on a regular basis and is also known as \u2018myer\u2019s loach\u2019 . in recent years albino and leucistic forms have become available although it\u2019s unclear if these are naturally - occurring or not .\ncare : all kuhli loaches require mature aquaria and should not be considered for newly set up tanks . a soft sandy substrate should be provided with lots of shady hiding places amongst bogwood and plants . as with other species of kuhli loach , these fish are best maintained in groups of three or more . however , given the rarity of this particular species and the fact they have only shown up in other fish shipments as ' contaminants ' , it may not be easy to source that many specimens . in such cases , it would be wise to provide them with company of similar species , such as p . oblonga .\nthe coolie loach is a bottom - dwelling fish that enjoys burrowing in sand and exploring hiding places in your tank . get to know this intriguing freshwater fish with its eel - like shape and fascinating habits .\nthis loach has a chance of warding off predators with its bright complexion . unfortunately , for a hungry dragon , it ' s nothing more than a colorful wet noodle . ( special thanks to ciar ! )\nthis cute little kuhli loach is quite easy to manage at homes in aquariums . it requires water of medium soft quality , with a ph of medium quality almost 6 to 7 . even then it accommodates water of almost all qualities . its position in the water is at the base , it is here that it searches for food . it needs a temperature in the range of 75 to 85\u00b0f ( 24 to 29\u00b0c )\nthat\u2019s the great thing about fish \u2013 they all have different personalities . it sounds like you have a happy and healthy loach , so keep up the good work ( though he\u2019d probably appreciate a few friends ) .\nthere are no specific common diseases that can affect the kuhli loach . it may get affected by any disease or if you do every thing correctly , it will not get any disease at all . like other scale less fish , it is affected a lot from medications that treat diseases like ich , so with a scale less fish , the best thing to do is just increase the temperature . the tank water should be kept clean at all times . that way it lessens any chance of poor health and enables your fish to stay strong and healthy . the life span of kuhli loaches is approximately 10 years , but longer has been recorded .\ni have 3 kuhli loaches which i purchased about a month ago , they were riddled with white spot but i treated them straight away an look great now , my tanks . . . ( more ) danie x harrison\nin the wild , kuhli loaches tend to inhabit slow flowing streams and rivers with soft , muddy bottoms . while they are not a traditional schooling fish , they naturally form into large groups with regular and playful interactions .\nmany hobbyists have a kuhli loach ( pangio kuhlii ) or two in their tanks . the long , almost snake - like body , and combination of orange - yellow and black bands make kuhlis an interesting addition to any community tank . their peaceful disposition , coupled with their ability to wiggle into every nook and cranny in search of food , make them an excellent choice . however , many hobbyists complain that they rarely see their pets .\nmy little illusive khuli loach which i only see once in a blue moon : ) he lived in the juwel filter but he moved house when i filled the tank with bogwood so now he lives under the bogwood somewhere .\noriginating from southeast asia , the coolie loach is indigenous to the streams of borneo , java , western malaysia , singapore , sumatra , and thailand . originally described as cobitis kuhlii , it was later named acanthophthalmus kuhlii , from the word acanthophthalmus that means\nthorn eye ,\na reference to the spines located beneath the eyes of the coolie loach . the current scientific name is pangio kuhlii , however , many references still utilize the former scientific names .\nsince they are omnivorous , the kuhli loach will generally eat all kinds of small live and frozen foods and meat based foods are relished the most . they also like sinking pelleted and tablet foods , flakes , and a bit of vegetable foods such as algae wafers . to keep a good balance give them a high quality prepared food everyday . feed tubifex worms , brine shrimp ( either live or frozen ) , mosquito larvae , and daphnia as a treat .\nthe most important thing for these loaches is that they always have clean and well - oxygenated water . frequent water changes of about 30 % a week are needed for the kuhli loach . with your weekly water change make sure to vacuum the gravel to remove all excess food and waste , but it ' s best not to remove any bio film on rocks and decor . a magnet algae cleaner normally does a great job in keeping the viewing pane clear .\nthis loach can be hardy under the right conditions . they are not recommended for beginners because of their need for pristine water and having small body scales and no scales on the head . reduced scales makes them more prone to disease and very sensitive to medications used to treat disease . experience in treating scaleless fish is very important to be able to give your loach a healthy and long life . do not try to introduce these fish into biologically immature tanks .\nas for the choice of fish , your tank should be large enough for yoyo loaches . but catfish would also work just as well , and you wouldn\u2019t be pushing the limits like you would be with a full yoyo loach .\nkuhli loaches are mostly bred in their native areas as they are very much available most of the time . breeding in the home aquarium can be difficult . the eggs are stuck to roots , buried beneath the surface of the substrate . females are plumper when ready to breed . this is the only way to identify the sexes . most breeding is done accidentally when many kuhli loaches are put in a tank together and they breed by themselves . if you want to try and breed them , the best way is to get a bunch of them in a tank with an undergravel filter . leave the kuhli loaches by themselves without any other fish for a few weeks , while still doing regular maintenance .\nbritz , r . and m . kottelat , 2010 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 20 ( 4 ) : 317 - 376 pangio longimanus , a miniature species of eel - loach from central laos ( teleostei : cypriniformes : cobitidae ) .\nbreeding the kuhli loach can be difficult in the home aquarium . the eggs buried beneath the surface and stuck to plant roots . most breeding is done by accident when many coolies are put into a tank and they mate by themselves . the best way to breed them is to get a bunch of them and get a tank with an under gravel filter and leave only coolies in the tank and leave it alone for a few weeks , while still doing the regular maintenance .\nthe fish likes clean and well aerated water , and frequents water renews . it\u2019s necessary to siphonate the bottom while changing the water to remove the litter , since loach fish as a ground one suffers the most from ammonia and nitrates on the bottom .\n: an excellent community fish that can be combined with small to medium sized species . it hides during the day but comes out at feeding times , and during the evening . do not combine with fish that might try and swallow this slender loach .\ni am very concerned . i purchased a yoyo loach the other day specifically because i was told they stay small and it was in to put in my 10 gallon tank . this was by the aquarium employee . i\u2019m not sure what to do ?\nthough peaceful , the kuhli loach is nocturnal and is most active at night . they can also be quite shy and will seldom be seen if kept alone . this doesn ' t mean they are a schooling fish , as they are not , but they are more comfortable and more likely to come out of hiding if they have some companions . a group of a half dozen or so will make them more prone to behave as they would in nature . they are quite hardy and can live for several years .\nacanthophthalmus kuhlii is a small striped loach that will grow to be about 8 - 12 cm ( 4 - 5 in ) long , however in a tank it won\u2019t be longer than 8 cm . lifespan is about 10 years , although it may be longer .\nthe natural habitat of the kuhli loach is the sandy beds of slow - moving rivers and clean mountain streams . they are a social fish and are typically found in small schools , but are cautious and nocturnal by nature and swim near the bottom where they feed or around obstacles . they natively live in a tropical climate and prefer water with a 5 . 5 - 6 . 5 ph , a water hardness of 5 . 0 dgh , and a temperature range of 75 - 86 \u00b0f ( 24 - 30 \u00b0c ) .\nit is difficult to breed these kuhli loach fishes at homes in the aquariums . the eggs get buried underneath the root surface where they get stuck up . the breeding , mostly are not planned . when several coolies are gathered in the tank , mating sometimes takes place naturally . the ideal way of breeding them is putting a group of them in the aquarium having a filter , under gravel and let only the coolies in the tank on their own for a period of some weeks , and continue to regularly maintain the aquarium .\nbreeding the kuhli loach is a challenge that requires work and patience . it\u2019s not something that hobbyists can do without really putting their minds to it . kuhli loaches are always in demand . once they reach about 2 inches , they are of salable size . often , you can trade with other hobbyists in your local fish club . provided that you maintain a good relationship with the owner of your local fish store , he or she should be happy to take the extra babies off your hands in exchange for fish food or supplies . a few might even buy them outright , but don\u2019t expect to get rich . be happy if you can cover fish food costs , and enjoy your hobby . at the very least , you\u2019ll be able to brag to your \u201cfishy\u201d friends that you met the challenge !\ni would strongly recommend choosing an aquaclear power filter for a yoyo loach tank . this filter combines excellent filtration with a durable design , and it will keep your tank sparkling clear for years to come . you can also read the aquarium tidings aquaclear filter review here .\nalternative decor the rounded rocks we used could easily be replaced by large flint cobbles . i\u2019d be wary of using one of the large \u2018resin type\u2019 fake stones in this role , as these are hollow and you\u2019ll soon have more kuhli loaches inside it than out of it .\npangio species are often generically referred to as \u2018kuhli\u2019 or \u2018coolie\u2019 loaches in the aquarium hobby , the latter a variation of the former which was itself derived from the surname of german naturalist heinrich kuhl ( 1797 - 1821 ) . ichthyologists tend to refer to them as \u2018eel loaches\u2019 .\n, and a temperature range of 75 \u2013 86 \u00b0f ( 24 \u2013 30 \u00b0c ) . kuhli loaches are scavengers , so they will eat anything that reaches the bottom . they usually feed at night , but can be taught to feed in the day in the home aquarium .\nan outbreak of disease can often be limited to just one or a few fishes if you deal with it at an early stage . when keeping these sensitive types of fish , it is common to catch deteriorating water conditions and disease before other fish are affected . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your kuhli loach the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish will is more likely to acquire disease .\nhello , i have a yoyo loach problem . i have 2 of them and they were completely happy and playing 2gether , then i had an ich problem with some neons . i used half dosage bc of the loaches the ich was gone but one of the neons died and i saw a loach eating him . then all of a sudden my one loach had a red mouth almost like lipstick . went to lfs did a water sample and they said nothing to be concerned about . they then told me to get melafix the redness has cleared up but the fish is sluggish , and constantly being chased by the other loach . i have not seen him eat and its been almost 2 weeks since i noticed he was not normal . seems as if some of his bristles are shorter then the other one . he def lays down a lot and i know he is not dead bc he keeps popping up and has gill movement . is he a goner or is there something else i can do to help him ? tank is 45 gal , multiple hiding caves , other fish are tetras and dwarf neon rainbows .\nhi ! btw thanks for the email about new website . i have 3 kuhli loaches in my 26 gal tank . they rule . but recently i noticed one looked like it was missing its barbel whisker things . i have gravel that\u2019s really dull with no sharp points that would cut them . i had a sandy area but my goldfish out gravel on it when i had pond snails a while ago to eat them . lesson learned - goldies in a planted tank are worse then mayasian trumpet snails ! ! will this be a problem ? ? they come out when the light is off and eat when i\u2019m not there . well , they never eat when i\u2019m looking at them and they don\u2019t seem skinny and the food is gone later . i\u2019m gonna replace the gravel with sand soon . what do you think about my kuhli loach missing his barbels ? ?\ninterestingly enough , the coolie loach possesses no lateral line . the fins are small , with the dorsal fin located on the lower third of the body , much closer to the tail than the head . quick moving , these loaches prefer to remain in the bottom levels of the tank where they rummage for morsels of food . they are social and prefer the company of others of their own kind . the coolie loach is most active at twilight and at nighttime , both in nature and in the home aquarium , remaining hidden or buried in the sand during the day .\nkuhli fish is an \u201cowl\u201d therefore it\u2019s activity can be observed during twilights and at night , it is always hiding . the fish can hardly be seen at day time , especially when it\u2019s kept in a tank alone , however it\u2019s not impossible , if one watches the fish for some time .\nin 4 days they start swimming and feeding . loach fish juveniles can be fed with infusorians , rotifers , brine shrimp nauplii or tubifex cut in small pieces . in a month juveniles become about 1 cm long and become striped . acanthophthalmus becomes reproductive at the age of 8 - 12 month .\na total of 25 consignments , each containing different varieties and species of warm water ornamental fish , were sampled between february and april 2008 . fish species and associated carriage waters sampled included , guppies ( poecilia reticulata peters ) , threadfin rainbow ( iriatherina werneri meinken ) , celebes rainbow ( telmatherina ladigesi ahl ) , neon gold barb ( puntius semifasciolatus g\u00fcnther ) , harlequin rasbora ( trigonostigma heteromorpha duncker ) , neon tetra species ( paracheirodon innesi myers and hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi g\u00e9ry ) , red wag platy ( xiphophorus maculates ) , kuhli loach ( pangio kuhlii valenciennes ) and silver molly ( poecilia shenops ) .\nsmall light green eggs stick to the plants leaves or fall on the tank bottom . one loach female can lay about 500 - 700 eggs . the fish parent should removed from the tank right after spawning . incubation time of the eggs lasts about 1 day , then small green ich fry appears .\ncoolie loaches have an eel - like body that is yellow to pink in color , with multiple dark brown bands or stripes that partially or fully encircle the body . the body and stripe color patterns vary based on species and / or subspecies . it is not unusual to purchase an incorrectly named loach .\nthey also prefer sand for substrate but if sand is not appropriate , smooth stones should be used so that the loach won ' t scratch its body on gravel or stones . sharp edged decorations also woud not be a good idea , with their habit of squeezing into tight places they could get badly scratched .\nmany fish can be kept as tank mates with the kuhli loach as long as precaution is taken not to include fish that are able to take them for a bite of food . in other words , don ' t keep fish that are big enough to eat them . they scavenge for food mainly at dusk or in the dark as they are nocturnal , and spend most of their time hiding in the substrate , plants and decorations during the day . but with time most of them readily learn to eat during the day time . being scavengers they eat most fish food , however sinking food pellets are preferred as well as live foods , for instance ; bloodworms and brineshrimp . it is recommended to feed them either , just before the lights are turned off for the night or after the lights have been off for a while . dont switch on the lights during the process it may scare the fish back into hiding . this is sometimes done with a flashlight when a curious hobbiest wants to see whats going on when its dark inside the tank , but never shine a flashlight into the tank after the lights have been off for a few hours ! it will put the other fish and maybe the kuhli loach into a state of shock !\nthis does happen with kuhli loaches , and it ' s often related to tank conditions and water changes . they need soft , slightly acidic water with good movement so that there is also plenty of oxygen . they always have to have very clean water , and it helps if each partial water change is relatively small .\nas for sand , it really is the best substrate for these fish . it\u2019s much gentler on their barbells , though you\u2019ll probably be alright with store bought gravel as well ; store bought gravel is coated to give it soft edges , so while it\u2019s not the preferred substrate for kuhli loachs , it will still work .\nthe kulhi loach is tiny as a worm that grows in a range of 3 to 4 \u00bd in . ( 7 , 8 to 12 cm . ) long . when in the aquarium , their length is a little smaller . they normally survive up to 10 years and there are reports of them living still longer .\ni have 3 kuhli loaches which i purchased about a month ago , they were riddled with white spot but i treated them straight away an look great now , my tanks conditions is as good as i can get them and do regular water changes , well planted , with guppies and 2 bristlenose plecos plenty of hiding places .\nit\u2019s not optimal , but as a long as it\u2019s the coated gravel you have in the store , your loaches should be fine . the rest of the setup sounds really good for them , and with kuhli loaches , it\u2019s commonly to only rarely see them during the day . especially with a smaller group like you have .\ni ' ve kuhli loaches loaches in my work tank and they are very cute . hardly see them though as they are nocturnal . comes out occasionally when plants are being trimmed or when food being fed . but i doubt they eat hair , brush , or staghorn algae . they defintely scavenge though . they do that all day .\nkuhli loaches don\u2019t reach sexual maturity until they are at least 12 to 18 months old . some sources even say they have to be over 2 years old before they are ready to breed for the first time . they spawn as pairs , but it\u2019s best to get a group of adults , and let them pair off and select their own mate .\nonce that has been completed , the only thing to do is take a wait and see approach . no one seems to know the exact trigger that initiates kuhli loaches spawning . some people speculate that they need a gravel substrate , while others believe that temperature is the key . you can play around with these variables and hopefully something will trigger a successful spawning .\nit\u2019s extremely important that any filter used in a tank with kuhli loaches have a covered intake . they are notorious for swimming up uncovered filter intakes and becoming trapped in the filter . if they aren\u2019t discovered quickly , they may be killed by the filter , or slowly starve to death . either way , it won\u2019t be pretty and should be avoided at all costs .\nkuhli loaches are peaceful fish and prefer to be kept in schools of 3 or more . because of this fishes beauty , many hobbiest get them straight after the nitrogen cycle has completed . it is , however , not advised to get them for the new aquarium as they are affected by sudden water changes . it is best recommended to wait a month before introducing them to the aquarium .\nthe eye of the coolie is covered by a thin layer of transparent skin and is hidden in one of the dark bands . below the eyes are a pair of sharp spines that rise if the fish is threatened , making it difficult for a predator to swallow them or for an owner to net them . the mouth of the coolie loach points downward and is surrounded by four pairs of barbels .\ni have had two black kuhli loaches for a year and i noticed a month ago that they had babies ! ! ! ! not sure how many there are because they stay hid . does anyone know how many they have at a time ? i asked the pet store and they didn\u2019t know . i saw one of the little ones today an its growing ! ! ! yea so happy ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !\nthis rather pretty little loach is fairly easy to care for in the home aquarium , needing water that is medium - soft to medium and ph around 6 . 0 to 7 . 0 . it has been known , however , for them to adapt to most water conditions . its region in the tank is the bottom where it browses for food . the temperature should be 75 - 85 f ( 24 - 29 c ) .\nthanks ! i was getting worried about my loach , i\u2019m glad they will grow back . and i made a cave for my fish out of non - toxic air dry terra cotta clay . would you recommend a type of coating to make it safe for an aquarium ? ? i though terra cotta clay would be best because flower pots are made of terra cotta and they are usually put in aquariums . what do you think ?\nkuhli loaches are really cool ! they love to dash around through the bubble wall , hang from the java ferns like christmas decorations and they are very easy to train to eat from your fingers . we love their unusual shape , their striking colours and most of all that they ' re such hyperactive , funny clowns ! ! they ' ll just dart around for hours and hours and hours , and then suddenly stop and rest .\nmost common disease that affects this loach is ich . ich is short for ichthyophthirius , also known as\nwhite spot disease\n. it is a parasite that can attack nearly all aquarium fishes , but you ' ll find that loaches are often the first to be attacked . take great care in treating ick as loaches are very sensitive to the medications used to treat it . often the dose is half of what is normally used .\nhi robert . love your tips on keeping your loach fish happy . i have had a pair of loach , for two weeks now , they are lovely to watch . i am a little concerned about one of them , he\u2019s hiding alot , but when they feed the two of them may seem to be dancing a round together up and down the tank . this morning i noticed one was on his side and moving his fins very fast , i helped him to lay on his tummy , he swam to the top of the tank , had a little swim then flouted to the bottom again . and now he\u2019s been there for a while up right . i have fresh plants in my tank , rocks in my tank , but no caves . i am feeding them flakes also i have live snails in my tank . what else can i do to help them , water fine .\nsomething else to keep in mind when setting up an aquarium for kuhli loaches , is that you can further reduce any stress by providing them with a soft substrate that they can burrow into . one of the more popular choices for substrate is play sand , which is attractive , clean and best of all \u2013 cheap . it\u2019s far cheaper than any of the gravel offered in a fish stores ( most of which look like clown puke anyways ) .\npangio kuhlii is one of the two dozen species of kuhlis , a number of which closely resemble each other . pangio kuhlii sumatranus and pangio kuhlii myersi are subspecies that have been described based on differences in coloration and markings . p . sumatuanus ( also known as the sumatra kuhli ) has fewer and darker bands than pangio kuhlii . sporting even wider bands is pangio kuhlii myersi . pangio kuhlii remains the most popular and readily available of the coolie loaches .\ni just purchased my first loach , i bought 3 . i only see 2 at any given time . i have a 20 gallon tank with small comminity fish . i have gravel , as i hate sand ( had it and couldnt stand it ) . will they ge ok with the gravel ? i have lots of real plants , a cave , driftwood , and tubes for hiding . im just worried about the gravel . any advice ? thanks !"]}
{"id": 1969, "summary": [{"text": "the red-flanked bluetail ( tarsiger cyanurus ) , also known as the orange-flanked bush-robin , is a small passerine bird that was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family turdidae , but is now more generally considered to be an old world flycatcher , muscicapidae .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it , and related species , are often called chats . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "red - flanked bluetail", "paragraphs": ["red - flanked bluetail , san clemente island , ca , 6 december 2011 . photograph by justyn stahl .\nwe generally substitute cameras for guns . for which small mercy we are all truly thankful . especially the red - flanked bluetail .\nred - flanked bluetail \u201cdigi - binned\u201d by jethro runco . note the buffy tipped greater coverts , indicating a first - winter bird .\nis remarkably stable in taxonomic terms . in hong kong we know this species as the red - flanked bluetail . if you search in\nwhen i read the conclusion of dresser\u2019s chapter about the red - flanked bluetail . he notes that some authors divide the species into two forms ,\nthe red - flanked bluetail was formerly classed as a member of the thrush family turdidae , but is now more generally considered to be an old world flycatcher , muscicapidae .\nred - flanked bluetail . tresta , 8th ocotober 2010 . dan brown . i got a very similar view as i flushed the bird by pis ( h ) sing .\nsuggests much more ambiguity around the bluetail ' s placement , vide : \u201corange - flanked bush - robin , tarsiger cyanurus ( synonyms , luscinia cyanura , nemura cyanura and ianthia cyanura ; protonym , motacilla cyanurus ) , pallas , 1773 , also known as the red - flanked bluetail or sometimes as the white - breasted blue wood - chat\u2026 . \u201d\nthe orange - flanked bush - robin is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nscored at halligarth everyone heard and got good if brief typically views of the dusky warbler plus 2 yellow - broweds and several swallows over . while otter searching , news broke of red - flanked bluetail on south mainland .\nthe red - flanked bluetail has a large range , estimated globally at 1 , 000 , 000 to 10 , 000 , 000 square kilometers . native to the asia but having migrated to much of europe , this bird prefers boreal , temperate , subtropical , or tropical forest ecosystems . the global population of this bird is estimated at 20 , 000 to 41 , 000 individuals in europe alone and does not show signs of decline that would necessitate inclusion on the iucn red list . for this reason , the current evaluation status of the red - flanked bluetail is least concern .\nfor another species that has occurred on occasion in north america , mostly in alaska , the genus has been changed : the red - flanked bluetail is now in luscinia rather than tarsiger . the luscinia genus is also that of the bluethroat and the siberian rubythroat .\nred - flanked bluetail is traditionally an autumn vagrant in britain , this is the first record of a wintering bird . the earliest spring records both occurred on march 31st in 2007 at easington , east yorkshire and 2012 on lewis , western isles . april has hosted just three records and may just the one .\nthe orange - flanked bush - robin is not currently known to be facing any threats .\nof this species dates back to october and november 1993 . i had recently taken up birding as a more serious interest . i remember that a red - flanked bluetail was found in dorset , england , at a place called winspit . the excitement was immense . this was the 13th british record at the time .\nit is captioned as orange - flanked bush - robin . our vernacular is given second and then red - flanked bush - robin , blue - tailed robin , bluestart , and siberian bluestart . the advantage of a universal scientific name is thus demonstrated . my ( sadly out of date 5th edition ) copy of clements\u2019\nthere are no known specific conservation measures currently in place for the orange - flanked bush - robin .\nsince 1993 , when the first twitchable mainland bird was found in dorset , there have been dozens of records , 2010 alone hosted up to 32 birds ! despite this red - flanked bluetail is still a species which for most birders still causes the heart to skip a beat every time one is found and for any dedicated patch worker a dream find .\nlittle story : having been directed stu piner and finder dan brown i went on the other side of walled garden away from the rest of the group as we awaited the appearance of the tresta ( mainland not fetlar ) bluetail . needed a wee . my mid - stream urinating activity flushed the red - flanked bluetail from the wall\u2019s base . right in front of me ! so i watched as it sat on branch only c 10 feet away - no bins needed - nor easily used ! result : my best \u2018pish\u2019 ever .\nshort time later bird is hidden again and i hear an odd call . kind of like a certain call of chiffchaff but wrong ; an odd warbler ? i went through a mental warbler list but couldn\u2019t attach the sound to a species . then it called again \u2013 with almost chat like \u2013 stonechat like quality as well . i realised - it must be the bluetail calling . excellent ! for me better than brief views of the bird . seen red - flanked bluetail before but never heard the call . a new call tick !\nred - flanked bluetail : breeds in mixed coniferous forests in asia , europe , from finland across siberia to kamchatka and japan . winters in asia , in the indian subcontinent , the himalayas , taiwan , and indochina . breeding range expanding through finland ; rare but increasing vagrant to europe , mainly to great britain . been a few records in westernmost north america , mostly in western alaska .\nthe orange - flanked bush - robin migrates south for winter , to southern china and southeast asia ( 5 ) .\nmorimoto , g . , yamaguchi , n . and ueda , k . ( 2005 ) plumage color as a status signal in male - male interaction in the red - flanked bushrobin , tarsiger cyanurus . journal of ethology , 24 : 261 - 266 .\nsatio , d . s . , morimoto , g . , fukunaga , a . and ueda , k . ( 2006 ) isolation and characterization of microsatellite markers in red - flanked bushrobin , tarsinger cyanurus ( aves : turdidae ) . molecular ecology notes , 6 : 425 - 427 .\nthroughout its large range , the orange - flanked bush - robin occupies coniferous and birch forests ( 4 ) with dense undergrowth ( 2 ) .\nthis represents just the second lower - 48 record for red - flanked bluetail ( aba code 4 ) . the only other previous record was of a bird banded on southeast farallon island on 1 november 1989 ( which has not been entered into ebird ! ) . this is the third old world species recorded on san clemente island , following a bluethroat ( 14\u201318 september 2008 ) , and a stonechat ( 20\u201321 october 1995 ) . it\u2019s been an amazing fall . who knows what will be next !\nhas also caught wind of the taxonomic discord among birders . under the headline\nmystery bird : orange - flanked bush - robin , tarsiger cyanurus ,\nred - flanked bluetail at wern ddu caerphilly . park in coed parc - y - van car park on the caerphilly to rudry rd . walk back 50 yds towards caerphilly and you will see a lane on the left . follow this lane over the railway bridge and then right to the warren . turn left here and follow the lane towards cardiff for about 200 yds . there is a notice board on the right and a bridle path on the left . take the bridle path and the bird was either side of this path but highly mobile .\nwang , y . , chang , j . , moore , f . r . , su , l . , cui , l . and yang , x . ( 2006 ) stopover ecology of red - flanked bush robin ( tarsiger cyanurus ) at maoershan , northeast china . acta ecologica sinica , 26 ( 3 ) : 638 - 646 .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - orange - flanked bush - robin ( tarsiger cyanurus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - orange - flanked bush - robin ( tarsiger cyanurus )\ntitle =\narkive species - orange - flanked bush - robin ( tarsiger cyanurus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nis\nnot globally threatened ,\naccording to the red list of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . in hong kong it is a common winter visitor and passage migrant .\nmembers of the muscicapidae often show different shades of brown , chestnut , gray , white , and black in their plumage . some species also have patches of red and several have plumages that are predominantly blue .\nstill to be called\ntanagers\n, the birds in the genus piranga , that are making the move to the cardinal family , cardinalidae include the scarlet , summer , western , hepatic , tooth - billed ( of southern central america ) , red ( of south america ) , flame - colored , rose - throated , white - winged , red - headed , and red - hooded . others that made the move to cardinalidae are the ant - tanagers , in the genus habia , and those tanagers in the genus chlorothraupis ( the carimol ' s , olive , lemon - spectacled , and ochre - breasted ) . moving from cardinalidae are the saltators , in the genus saltator , to a\nplace unknown\n.\nok , the editors here at crow ' s cottage are biased in andrew ' s favor , but these images are special ! if you study the gallery for a while , you ' ll find our bluetail amongst the flickr flock of beautiful birds . you ' ll also see world - class photographs of dragonflies , amphibians , insects , moths , dogs , and members of the human family .\nless than sparrow . old male of red - flanked bluetail is determined unmistakably by the grey - blue upperparts , especially bright on lesser wing coverts and upper tail coverts ; the flanks are rusty . differs from the siberian blue robin by the rusty flanks . the autumn plumage is same color but the blue on the head and back is marked by olive - grey edges on feathers . in 2nd year male the coloration as in female : the tail is bluish , the rest of the upperparts are olive - gray , the flanks are rusty , narrow eye - ring is white , throat and belly are whitish , the breast is with unclear dark band . some of the males has female - like color all their lives ( grey - olive morph ) . juveniles are like the juvenile bluethroat or robins , olive - brown pale mottled ; but they are well distinguishable by the blue tail . weight 12 - 18 gr , length about 12 - 15 , wing 7 . 0 - 8 . 4 , wingspan 21 - 24 cm .\nstatement that \u201cthe one thing that appears consistent is that the orange - flanked bush - robin has never been placed into erithacus\u201d since it is clearly placed there by ali . the moral of this story is do your own research . just because it is on the internet does not necessarily make it true !\nthe diet of the orange - flanked bush - robin comprises primarily insects , such as beetles , caterpillars , ants and wasps , which it forages for in the undergrowth or may snatch from the air in flight . it will also eat other invertebrates , such as spiders ( 2 ) , and feeds on fruits and seeds during the non - breeding season ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe orange - flanked bush - robin has an extremely wide distribution , occurring predominantly in asia . t . c . cyanurus is found from finland and north - west russia , across siberia , to china and japan ( 2 ) , while t . c . rufilatus is found throughout the himalayas ( 2 ) at 2 , 400 to 4 , 600 metres above sea level ( 4 ) .\nthe international union for conservation of nature assesses the conservation status of species , subspecies , and varieties of living things on a global scale to highlight taxa threatened with extinction . the red list of threatened species\u2122 evaluates plants and animals according to seven categories : least concern , near threatened , vulnerable , endangered , critically endangered , extinct in the wild , and extinct . our pretty little bluebird , tarsiger cyanurus , holds the status of least concern and is considered stable .\nduring the breeding season , the male orange - flanked bush - robin arrives at the breeding grounds first ( 6 ) , and starts defending a territory of roughly fifty metres in radius , mainly through song ( 7 ) . with the arrival of the females soon after , breeding pairs will form , each occupying a single territory . however , the females may also mate with other males as well as their \u2018partner\u2019 ( 6 ) .\ncollar , n . , de juana , e . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . orange - flanked bush - robin ( tarsiger cyanurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthis species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 1 , 000 , 000 - 10 , 000 , 000 km\u00b2 . it has a large global population , including an estimated 20 , 000 - 41 , 000 individuals in europe ( birdlife international in prep . ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern . [ conservation status from urltoken ]\nunlike many birds , the orange - flanked bush - robin nests on the ground rather than in trees . the female constructs a cup - shaped nest from twigs and moss , lined with feathers and grass , which is placed among roots or in a cavity in a tree stump or rotten log ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . three to seven eggs are laid , which are white and may have a few reddish speckles . the female incubates the eggs for 15 days , and the fledglings will spend a further 15 days in the nest after they have hatched ( 2 ) .\nafter what seemed like an eternity , i finally laid hands on my camera\u2013a small point - and - shoot type , but that\u2019s all i got ! i figured we\u2019d better get pictures or no one would believe us ( and we needed them to help id the thing ) ! we took off and quickly refound the bird foraging along the canyon wall , completely oblivious to our presence ( a good thing for us ! ) . at first we just took in the bird , trying to mentally gather all the plumage details and foraging behavior . still having no idea what the bird was , i got the camera into action . the bird was very cooperative , allowing us to get within 10 - 15 feet . i was using one barrel of my binoculars to see through while the other had my camera pressed up to it in \u201cdigi - binocular\u201d fashion . i figured if i could see the bird with one eyepiece , the other had to be on the bird , too . i took at least a 100 pictures knowing most would not turn out well , but hoping , hoping , a few would .\nupon arrival at the natural resources office , justyn stahl , the shrike project manager , was standing in the doorway brushing his teeth\u2026 .\nwintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . voice only , but unmistakably characteristic to this species .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nuntil recently considered conspecific with t . rufilatus ( which see ) . proposed race pacificus not accepted . monotypic .\nec & ne finland and nw russia ( including c kola peninsula ) , and from ural mts e to n sea of okhotsk , kamchatka , s to altai ( including ne kazakhstan ) , n mongolia , n & c japan , ne china and n korea ; non - breeding s japan , s korea , e & se china ( mainly s of r yangtze ) , taiwan , hainan and n se asia .\n13\u201314 cm ; 10\u201318 g . male is deep blue above , with brighter blue crown side , shoulder , rump and tail base , narrow whitish supercilium ; white chin to vent , . . .\nsong , by male from near top of bush or low branch , throughout day in early breeding season , also in . . .\nlittle studied . invertebrates , mainly insects ; also fruits and seeds when not breeding . stomachs of russian breeders held beetles and their . . .\nseason may\u2013aug in most of range , end jun to mid - aug in n korea ; at least occasionally double - brooded , apparently regularly so in . . .\nmigratory in most of range ; in c & s japan some merely undertake altitudinal movements to . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common in much of range , e . g . common breeder in kuriles and n japan ( hokkaido ) , rarer farther s . common to abundant autumn migrant at . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nsometimes merged into luscinia , earlier into erithacus ; recognition as a separate genus , sister to ficedula , supported by molecular work # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nclose in size and structure to european robin , though slightly shorter billed and longer tailed . small , fairly compact chat , with general character recalling both european robin and redstart . female dull olive - brown above , with pale eye - ring and darker , blue - washed rump and tail , dull white below , with brown chest and orange flank - panel . sexes disimilar , no seasonal variation .\nbreeds in upper - middle and marginally in upper continental latitudes , exclusively boreal and mountain , in thick mossy conifer forest , especially taiga , on moist soil , generally with undergrowth . also mixed forest with birch and rhododendron . in far east , more often in birchwoods , even up to 3000 m in japan , where trees no more than 3 m high .\ntarsiger cyanurus has a predominantly asian distribution , but its breeding range also extends into the boreal zone of european russia and finland . its european breeding population is relatively small ( < 21 , 000 pairs ) , but was stable between 1970 - 1990 . no trend data were available for the stronghold russian population during 1990 - 2000 , but the small population in finland increased\ndiet based on insects , also fruits and seeds outside breeding season . feeds in low trees , shrubs , and on ground . catches insects by hopping about on ground , by perching and flying down to take items located , and by brief aerial - pursuit like flycatcher .\nbreeding starts june - august in former ussr . nest site is on ground in hollow among tree roots , or in hole in bank , or slightly above ground in stump or fallen log . nest cup consists of moss , grass , and roots , lined with softer grass , wool , hair , and sometimes pine needles . 5 - 7 eggs incubated by female .\nwest palearctic populations are long - distance migrants ( wintering from burma east to southern china and taiwan ) . ( southern race rufilatus , breeding himalayan region and western china , mainly shows short - distance altitudinal movements . ) west palearctic birds therefore make long easterly movements ( in autumn ) , passing north of major central asian mountain systems , before turning south through mongolia and china . autumn migration begins early september ; northern edge of range deserted by mid - september . return passage begins april , vanguard reaching southern siberia in second half of april . spreads north and west during may , reaching arkhangel\u2018sk region around 20 may - 4 june .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhas gray wash . very active bird . hops on ground while bobbing tail up and down . forages on ground and in trees for various insects and berries .\na group of thrushes are collectively known as a\nhermitage\nand a\nmutation\nof thrushes .\nthe old world flycatchers are one of the one hundred forty - two families of birds in the order passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) ; a large taxonomic order that includes bird families such as the nuthatches , swallows , and starlings .\nthere are three hundred and fifteen species of old world flycatchers in forty - eight genera in the muscicapidae ( pronounced musi - kap - uh - dee ) , a family mostly found in eurasia and africa .\nthere are sixteen species of old world flycatchers in seven genera in the muscicapidae that have occurred in north america and hawaii . all but three of these species are vagrants to the region .\nthe members of this family are known for their cheery , chattering songs and small size . in europe , the european robin is one of the most well known , confiding , garden bird species .\nthe old world flycatchers are small birds with thin , rather short bills . although the wheatears and a few other species have long wings , most have short wings , medium - length tails , and rather long , strong legs and feet for hopping on the ground .\nmembers of the muscicapidae occur in a wide variety of habitats that include tundra , grasslands , marshes , boreal forests , gardens , and tropical forests . the two species that breed in north america are birds of the tundra and willow thickets . a third species that was introduced to hawaii occurs in gardens . the other north american muscicapidae species are vagrants from asia .\nin north america , all members of this family are migratory and spend the winter in africa and southern asia .\nmost muscicapidae species are solitary birds for most of the year although some species forage with other bird species in mixed flocks . members of this family glean insects off of vegetation and pick them out of the air in fluttering flight .\nnone of the members of this family that occur in north american are threatened with extinction . elsewhere , the black - throated blue robin of central and southern china is considered to be vulnerable and has only been seen on a handful of occasions .\nthe northern wheatears that breed in tundra habitats of northern north america migrate to sub - saharan africa for the winter . the other species that breeds in north america , the bluethroat , also migrates to ancestral wintering grounds in southern asia instead of migrating to mexico and central america .\n\u00a9 2002 - 2013 urltoken all rights reserved . mitch waite group . no part of this web site may be reproduced without written permission from mitch waite group . privacy policy\nthe ventral part of the bird , or the area between the flanks on each side and the crissum and breast . flight muscles are located between the belly and the breast .\ni live in marshfield and spend most of my bird watching time on the local patch . normally i go north of the village as there is high land there , and in the past we have had all three harriers , 15 short - eared owls two years ago , and quail are regular in the summer . it ' s mainly known for its roost of up to 500 corn buntings in winter and dozens of pairs breeding in the summer . it ' s wonderful area , with lots of farmland species that are rare elsewhere .\nup to yesterday the best spot was in 1989 when a woodchat shrike spent a sunday afternoon by rushmead farm , found by another regular visitor to the patch , martyn hayes .\nthankfully martyn arrived with his camera , and the result can be seen on his ' the birds of south gloucestershire ' website ! jack also arrived and before dusk five other people were able to get to the valley .\ni was happy for the news to get out as it was on a public footpath , and as long as visitors parked on the upper lane off the main road to tormarton , which is a rat run to the motorway , i was confident that all would be well .\ni went along today at about 11 30 and found 70 more people than are normally in the valley on a sunny day in february ! i was really pleased that everyone was able to get really good views without having to wait around or search . i believe that over 200 people came during the day , maybe more .\nthe bird is north of marshfield in shire valley 100yds beyond houses at shirehill farm . please park carefully on the road north of the valley and don ' t block access st . 785 . 770\n. walk to the valley and then east on path past farm . the bird has been very obliging at times and with patience and quietness you should obtain good views .\njon dunn brings you a comprehensive roundup of the week ' s best birds from around britain , ireland and the western palearctic , including pacific golden plover and squacco heron . more here >\nhen harrier has bred on the national trust ' s high peak moors , in the peak district national park , for the first time in four years . more here >\nresearch has found that young turtle doves raised on a diet of seeds foraged from arable plants rather than food provided in people ' s gardens are more likely to survive after fledging . more here >\na french director said on monday he would abandon filming at a mediterranean wetland after a pilot sparked panic among a huge flock of flamingos . more here >\nmale purple - crowned fairy - wrens use their purple crowns to show off about their social status and strength , according to a new study . more here >\neuropean fishing activities take place outside european waters , including in west and northern africa , where the pressure put on marine life and ecosystems is just as alarming and devastating . more here >\ncopyright rare bird alert 2018 . rare bird alert - 17 keswick close , norwich , norfolk nr4 6uw enquiries : admin @ urltoken or call 01603 457016\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nincubates keeps eggs warm so that development is possible . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , crustaceans , worms and spiders . subspecies a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species , but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a group .\ndel hoyo , j . , elliot , a . and christie , d . a . ( 2005 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 10 : cuckoo - shrikes to thrushes . lynx edicions , barcelona .\ndelin , h . and svensson , l . ( 2009 ) philip\u2019s guide to birds of britain and europe . philips , london .\nsibley , c . g . and monroe jr . , b . l . ( 1990 ) distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale university press , new haven and london .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nquite far from his regular area ! what a nice observation . first time in wallonie , thank you to the finder . recorded with iphone 8 .\ntwo males ( but not seen ) were competing for territories near a mountain stream . wintering near suburban region in kyoto city . same individuals as in xc202850 .\ntwo birds are calling each other for claiming winter territories . just started wintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . one of the bird ( closer one ) is the same one as in xc202387 .\nfirst recognition in this winter . unidentified species ( tit ? ) in the background . wintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city .\nwintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . two birds were competing in calls . low - frequency noise has been suppressed .\nslightly atypical call ( rising pitch ) for this species . in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . same individual as in xc193024 .\nslightly atypical call ( rising pitch ) for this species . in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city .\ntypical soft low - volume calls of this species . background tit species id not sure . wintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city .\ntwo types of calls are recorded . the one is noise - like clicks ( 0 : 02 , 0 : 07 , 0 : 11 , 0 : 14 etc ) . repeated whistle - like calls start at 0 : 19 and continue throughout the recording . in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city .\noverlapping japanese white - eye ( zosterops japonicus ) is rather strong . wintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city .\ncouldn\u2019t resist a pre - dawn assault on skaw and norwick - checking for visible ( and audible ) migration . clearly brambling , siskins and redwings were on the move - expect new birds today me thinks . the 2 little buntings called too each other very early and seemed to fly off south .\njust offshore the educational duo of juvenile terns : 1 common and 1 arctic tern showed well plus 2 1st winter little gulls . the black duck hybrid thing flew around . nice morning . heading south we had another \u2018from the van\u2019 find . graham picked up a barred warbler along a stone dyke at haroldswick - just before the phone purred to say a dusky warbler had been found at halligarth .\nby the time we had reached the north mainland there was a choice . 2 bluetails . one at geosetter and one at tresta . we opted for the tresta bird found by punkbirders .\nsiskin , norwick unst 8th october 2010 . migrating siskins , bramblings and redwing heralded \u2018news birds\u2019\nanother \u2018from the van\u2019 find . noticed by graham \u2013 a barred warbler on stone dyke at haroldswick . pink - footed goose was new for the week here also .\nlapland buntings continued to be seemingly \u2018everywhere\u2019 . we must have seen or heard some hundreds of birds .\nthen a final drive to drop off our excellent tour group of paul , andrew , graham and chris at the sumburgh hotel . 1 week and some 115 species later . new \u2018life\u2019 birds for everyone and some top - notch scare and rare bird finds . not sure anyone was keen for it to end . the only slight regret through the day was that a pallas\u2019s warbler had been seen well up the skaw burn . we predicted that the sumburgh area was a likely spot for one to turn up before flights home the next morning . must try that prophesy thing more often ! next time then !\npingback : white - throated robin . really 3 years ago ? | birding frontiers\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbreeds in western altai ( lineyskiy and ivanovskiy ridges ) . at summer it was recorded in southern altai ( altaisky tarbagatay ridge , markakol lake ) . on migration occurs near kustanay ( in autumn of 1920 ) , in kurgaldzhino reserve on kulanutpes river ( september 29 , 1960 ) , near semipalatinsk ( october 9 , 1936 ) , on sorbulak lake ( october 2 , 2011 ) , in chu valley ( october 10 , 2012 ) .\n\u0432 . \u043a . \u0440\u044f\u0431\u0438\u0446\u0435\u0432 .\n\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u0430 , \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u044f \u0438 \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0430\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0438\n. \u0435\u043a\u0430\u0442\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0431\u0443\u0440\u0433 , \u0438\u0437\u0434 - \u0432\u043e \u0443\u0440\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 , 2000 . \u044d . \u0438 . \u0433\u0430\u0432\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0432 .\n\u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446 \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430\n. \u0430\u043b\u043c\u0430\u0442\u044b , 1999 . gavrilov e . i . , gavrilov a . e .\nthe birds of kazakhstan\n. almaty , 2005 .\n\u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430\n\u0442\u043e\u043c 3 .\n\u043d\u0430\u0443\u043a\u0430\n. \u0430\u043b\u043c\u0430 - \u0430\u0442\u0430 , 1970 .\nall rights to materials published on site ( photos , videos , articles ) are owned by authors . to use materials please contact the author .\nbrowse all of today ' s sightings . to submit your own reports , you can complete the online submissions form , email sightings @ urltoken , phone us on 0333 577 2473 , or text birds rpt followed by your message to 07786 200505 . these details are only for submitting bird news \u2013 for everything else , go to the contact us page .\nmap details of sightings are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nwelcome to the grc recorders pages . this blog provides details on all the relevant news of glamorgan\u2019s scarcer birds , plus all bbrc & wrp decisions that affect us locally . it will also be used to document the status and occurrence of these scarcer species and we welcome contributions from anyone with photographs , artwork or documentation of rarities past , present and future . the grc also welcomes all seawatching news from around glamorgan and news of passage migrants in spring & autumn , uncommon birds in our area and unusual behaviour .\nbefore you can contribute . an invite will be sent to your email address . blog content will be strictly moderated . access to pages and downloads are available to everyone . all photographs on this blog remain the property of the originator .\nthe glamorgan rarities committee , in conjunction with the glamorgan bird club & gower wildlife , have agreed to co - operate with the welsh ornithological society in the sharing of bird records & photographs in the interest of keeping accurate records and to promote birdwatching in north , mid & south wales .\ni ' ve copied alan ' s notes giving directions for those who like me will be hoping this bird sticks around for a bit .\ngreat find indeed present until at least 2 . 30pm this afternoon 27th at the same location as paul roberts post on this blog . it is quite difficult staying low and sometimes subjected to disturbance by robins . extremely difficult for photography at the moment .\nall records of rare and scarce species submitted to the society are considered by the kos rarity panel before being accepted for publication in the kent bird report .\nall british birds rarities require descriptions and will be assessed by the british rare birds panel . urltoken\n, a quarterly journal produced by the bto which he is is anxious to find a new home for . anyone interested please contact john on 01580 212329\nfriends of dungeness moth licenceswith the changes in permission for moth trapping in the area around the long pits , dungeness , we are very pleased to announce that we have 2 moth licences for use by ' friends ' of the observatory . please contact the warden for more information .\nthe patch is steadily getting busier as the month progresses . 16 mediterranean gulls including several juveniles were present on the beach this morning . three yellow - legged gulls , one adult and two juveniles were also present . five grey herons came in off the sea and headed towards the lydd ranges . a grey wagtail flew west along the beach [ \u2026 ]\njack , jay and i took the ' gary ann ' out of deal along the coast to dover harbour to survey breeding seabirds on the cliffs today . it provided a very different view of the area and was probably most notable for the alarming lack of breeding birds ! the paucity of species appears to follow a nationwide [ \u2026 ]\na honey - buzzard flew over the top of the high street in kingsdown this afternoon , mobbed by jackdaws .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nbritish ornithologists ' union checklist ( 7th edition , incl . jan 2009 suppl . ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 294 , 833 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\ni have found only one clear change in genus . at some point it moved from\n( 1871 - 1881 ) . he addresses the identification and distribution in some detail . his chapter on what he tagged as\nreads like a who\u2019s who of contemporary ornithology : seebohm , jerdon , von middendorff , von schrenck , radde , p\u00e8re david , przevalsky , swinhoe , hume , stoliczka , hodgson \u2014 names that we still honour today .\n. he debunks this division , but to me it is amusing to discover that even in the late nineteenth century the lumpers and splitters were at it . \u2018armchair ticks\u2019 are not a new invention .\nthe taxonomy of this species is confusing ,\nthe article reads . indeed ! here ' s the link :\nis fully recognized today as that of the delightful wagtails . i am equally bewildered by\nis a bird of forests and scrub or shrub . in hong kong i have seen it in gardens , at roadsides and on fences . invariably some sort of cover is available if the bird feels the need to retreat under threat . i tend to see the bird in sparsely copsed areas where , with a little patience , it is possible to get good views and take photographs . it seems to remain loyal to a patch once it has settled . i wouldn\u2019t say it is inquisitive , but its circle of fear is not too wide . it rarely seems to fly far and will return if the observer sits quietly and still for a while . david tipling , writing in\nmotacilla cyanurus , pallas , reise russ . reichs , ii . p . 709 ( 1776 ) .\nthe male siberian blue - tail is blue above , with a white eye - stripe ; and white below with orange - chestnut flanks . the female is olive brown above with no eye - stripe , and in addition to the orange flanks there is an obscure broad brown band across the breast .\nfigures : temminck and schlegel , fauna japonica , aves , pl . 21 ( male and female ) ; david and oustalet , ois . chine , pl . 28 ( male ) .\nthe siberian blue - tail is a summer visitor to yezzo ( whitely , ibis , 1867 , p . 197 ) ; but in the more southerly islands of japan it is a resident , breeding on the mountains and wintering in the plains . there are twelve examples in the pryer collection from yokohama , and mr . ringer has sent skins to the norwich museum obtained at nagasaki ( blakiston and pryer , trans . as . soc . japan , 1882 , p . 161 ) . there is an example in the pryer collection from the central group of the loo - choo islands ( seebohm , ibis , 1887 , p . 174 ) , and another in the museum of the smithsonian institution at washington from the same locality ( stejneger , proc . united states nat . mus . 1886 , p . 646 ) .\nthe range of the siberian blue - tail extends from the ural mountains , whence i have seen examples in the moscow museum , to kamtschatka . it is a winter visitor to china and formosa .\ni found this bird in the valley of the yenesay as far north as the arctic circle , and mr . jouy describes it as one of the commonest birds in the mountains of japan during summer , often the only one seen on some of the higher passes . it is very familiar in its ways and easily approached . seated on a low branch of a tree or shrub , with its head on one side , it utters a low guttural chuckling note ( jouy , proc . united states nat . mus . 1883 , p . 281 ) . mr . jouy procured examples of this species on fuji - yama in june and on tate - yama in december .\nt h e b i r d s of the j a p a n e s e e m p i r e by h e n r y s e e b o h m with numerous woodcuts \u221e 1890 | london : r . h . porter , 18 princes street , cavendish square | pp . 58 - 59\nis an enthusiastic photographer across a wide range of genres , from wildlife to street . he grew up in rural britain but has traveled the 7 continents in search of birds and photographs . now settled in rural hong kong , he continues to indulge his passion for books , wildlife and photography . andrew is a moderator of the\nas our essay illustrates , taxonomy for birds has entered a period of great flux . one organization , birdlife international , is tracking the\ncurrent phase of taxonomic revision\ntoward the goal of making some sense of it all . the web linked here points to\nthe birdlife checklist ,\na useful tool for the study of the depth and complexity of taxonomy and classification . the checklist can be downloaded for free .\nandrew ' s blog showcases a wide range of his interests : photographs and commentary inspired by the natural world and the creatures who inhabit it . you ' ll also find some compelling character studies of our fellow humans .\nnotices announcing new entries for crow ' s cottage glossary and compendium are sent by e - mail express to my list of family , friends , students , and fellow travelers . if you ' ve come here by some other means , i invite you to write me at the address below so i can add you to the list . it ' s a private list , shared with no one and guarded by a flock of warrior crows with sharp claws and diligent fairies with tricks of illusion . aggressive or pacific \u2014 you choose \u2014 the guardians are in our service to ensure your privacy .\neclecticisms most plausible , spare embodiments in miniature , congruous abridgements , the occasional received epitome , choice facts , strange mysteries , unfettered digressions \u2014 each and all found within the smaller compass of the greater work , the magnum opus , with particular attention given to the natural world , its beings , objects , forces , and ideas , including the diverse ways nature is viewed and engaged by humanity .\ncrow ' s cottage glossary and compendium lives on urltoken , a developmental web for the mind and spirit . corndancer has participated in the world wide web since 2000 . submissions are invited and warmly welcomed . contact webmaster at threadspinner @ urltoken\nsome recent bird taxonomy changes , including two murrelets where there was one and new taxonomy from the bou ( the british ornithologists union ) and in a new book about owls this feature , composed by armas hill , relates to updates and revisions of bird taxonomy and nomenclature during the 3 years from 2012 back through 2010 . the changes have been incorporated in the lists and photo galleries of birds linked at the end of the feature .\na new subspecies has been created for the european storm petrel , hydrobates pelagicus . it is : the mediterranean storm petrel , hydrobates melitensis , breeding on the cabrera archipelago of the balearic islands off northeastern spain . and , lastly , here , the bou has put the ruff , the buff - breasted sandpiper , and the broad - billed sandpiper into the genus calidris . these 3 species have had their own unique genera .\none of the best books anywhere about owls was published earlier this year , in 2012 . it is entitled\nowls of the world , a photographic guide\n, by heimo mikkola . in the book , the photographs of virtually every owl in the world , are tremendous , and the text is informative and excellent . heimo mikkola is an owl expert who has been studying owls for a long time . another book of his ,\nowls of europe\nhas long been in my library . it was published in 1983 . in the 2012 book , there is some interesting\nnew\ntaxonomy , including : the american barn owl split from that in the old world , along with some other barn owls in the area of the caribbean , the splitting of owls in the galapagos islands , both the barn and the short - eared owls , and the splitting of the ferruginous pygmy owl into various\nspecies\nincluding the ridgway ' s pygmy owl in central america , and the chaco pygmy owl in , among other places , southwestern brazil . a number of other adjustments have been made to screech owls and other pygmy owls in central & south america . the mottled owl is treated as an exclusively south american species , with now the mexican wood owl in mexico & central america . in all , there are 249 different owls in the book .\nif you ' ve been in costa rica , you may have another adjustment to your bird - list . it is now the costa rican brush finch , arremon costaricensis , in southwestern costa rica and adjacent western panama , and the black - headed brush finch , arremon atricapillus , further east in panama . both of these were part of the stripe - headed brush finch of further south , in south america , arremon torquatus . if you ' ve been to the galapagos islands , the galapagos shearwater , now puffinus subalaris , has been split from the audubon ' s shearwater . genetics have shown it to be more closely related to the christmas island shearwater . other changes in 2012 relate to genera : the genus of the calliope hummingbird is now selasphorus , the same genus as the rufous , allen ' s , and broad - tailed hummingbirds . the calliope was in a genus of its own , stelluta ."]}
{"id": 2003, "summary": [{"text": "the panamint kangaroo rat ( dipodomys panamintinus ) is a species of rodent in the family heteromyidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to the mojave desert in eastern california and western nevada , in the united states . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "panamint kangaroo rat", "paragraphs": ["different species of kangaroo rat may have different seed caching strategies to coexist with each other , as is the case for the banner - tailed kangaroo rat and the merriam kangaroo rat which have overlapping ranges .\ngiant kangaroo rat the giant kangaroo rat is the largest of all kangaroo rats and has a body length ranging from 15 to 20 cm and a tail length of 18 to 21 .\ncom : similar species giant kangaroo rat is usually larger , with longer hindfoot .\nendangered status the giant kangaroo rat is on the u . ( full text )\ndipodomys merriami / d . ordii \u2014merriam ' s or ord ' s kangaroo rat\nthe house rock valley kangaroo rat ( d . microps leucotis ) is vulnerable .\nthe merriam kangaroo rat lives in stony soils including clays gravel and rocks , which is harder than soils preferred by some other species like the banner - tail kangaroo rat .\nthe giant kangaroo rat the giant kangaroo rat ( dipodomys ingens ) is a rodent named because of its tendency to move by jumping on its hind legs . ( full text )\ngiant kangaroo rats are distinguished from the similar san joaquin kangaroo rats ( d .\nspatial and temporal continuity of kangaroo rat populations shown by sequencing mitochondrial dna from museum specimens .\ngrinnell , j . : habitat relations of the giant kangaroo rat . j . mammal .\nseasonal variation in various blood indices of the kangaroo rat , dipodomys panamintinus . - pubmed - ncbi\ntappe , d . t . : natural history of the tulare kangaroo rat . j . mammal .\n1 . various blood indices in the panamint kangaroo rat revealed seasonal fluctuations . the red blood cell count during winter and summer averaged 7 . 2 \u00b1 1 . 0 \u00d7 10 6 and 9 . 2 \u00b1 0 . 2 \u00d7 10 6 / mm 3 respectively .\nthe burrows of merriam kangaroo rats are simpler and shallower than those of banner - tailed kangaroo rats . banner - tailed kangaroo rats also mate in their burrows , unlike merriam kangaroo rats .\nthe giant kangaroo rat ( dipodomys ingens ) is an endangered rodent species endemic to california . ( wiki )\nkenagy , g . j . : saltbush leaves : excision of hypersaline tissue by a kangaroo rat . science\nspatial and temporal continuity of kangaroo rat populations shown by sequencing mitochondrial dna from museum specimens . - pubmed - ncbi\nfitch , h . s . : habits and economic relationships of the tulare kangaroo rat . j . mammal .\nculbertson , a . e . : observations on the natural history of the fresno kangaroo rat . j . mammal .\nthe kangaroo mice are closely related to the kangaroo rats , which belong to the same subfamily , dipodomyinae .\nthe kangaroo mice are closely related to the kangaroo rats , which belong to the same subfamily , dipodomyinae .\nhome range size can vary within species with merriam kangaroo rats having larger home ranges than banner - tailed kangaroo rats . recently weaned kangaroo rats move into new areas not occupied by adults . within its home range , a kangaroo rat has a defended territory consisting of its burrowing system .\n, merriam ' s kangaroo rat , is a rodent found in the arid regions of the southwest united states and mexico .\nreynolds , h . g . : life history notes on merriam ' s kangaroo rat in southern arizona . j . mammal .\n) are a group of burrowing north american rodents specialized for seed - eating . they are named for their hopping locomotion and have large hind feet , long tails , and short front limbs used mainly for gathering seeds , which are carried in fur - lined external cheek pouches . all kangaroo rats closely resemble each other , but vary considerably in body size . this is the panamint kangaroo rat\nhas a whopping 4 cubic centimeters per pouch . in spite of the large capacity of their cheek pouches , these kangaroo rats are slower at filling them than are other species of kangaroo rat .\nwhen the outside temperature is too hot , a kangaroo rat stays in its cool , humid burrow and leaves it only at night .\nshaw , w . t . : the ability of the giant kangaroo rat as a harvester and storer of seeds . j . mammal .\nkangaroo rats stay in one place bipedally . the merriam kangaroo rat can leap 7 - 8 feet and quickly change its direction when landing . the banner - tailed kangaroo rat can move rapidly , which minimizes energy costs and predation risks ( schroder 1979 ) . it will also go into a \u201cmove - freeze\u201d mode which may reduce predation at night .\nfitch , h . s . 1948 . habits and economic relationships of the tulare kangaroo rat . journal of mammalogy 29 : 5 - 35 .\nto provide large amounts of moisture through respiration when sleeping , a kangaroo rat buries its nose in its fur , which allows the kangaroo rate to accumulate a small pocket of moist air ( lidicker 1960 ) .\nthe banner - tailed kangaroo rat ranges from northeastern arizona southward to aguascalientes and san luis posi , mexico and from arizona to western texas . they generally live in grasslands and scrublands . banner - tailed kangaroo rats live in dry areas but have more water available to them than merriam kangaroo rats . all kangaroo rat species are sensitive to extreme temperatures and remain in their burrows during rain storms and other forms of inclement weather .\na young / baby of a giant kangaroo rat is called a ' kitten , nestling , pinkie or pup ' . the females are called ' doe ' and males ' buck ' . a giant kangaroo rat group is called a ' colony , horde , pack , plague or swarm ' .\nthe burrow of a kangaroo rat is important in providing protection from the harsh desert environment . to maintain a constant temperature and relative humidity in their burrows , kangaroo rats plug the entrances with soil during the day .\ncurrently listed as endangered in the state of california , the giant kangaroo rat is in danger because of development and population expansion . ( full text )\nall kangaroo rat species are sensitive to extreme temperatures and remain in their burrows during rain storms and other forms of inclement weather ( howard 1994 ) .\nanderson , a . o . , allred , d . m . : kangaroo rat burrows at the nevada test site . gt . basin nat .\nkangaroo rats inhabit overlapping home ranges . these home ranges tend to be small with most activities within 200\u2013300 ft and rarely 600 ft . home range size can vary within species with merriam ' s kangaroo rats having larger home ranges than banner - tailed kangaroo rats . recently weaned kangaroo rats move into new areas not occupied by adults . within its home range , a kangaroo rat has a defended territory consisting of its burrowing system .\ndescription the giant kangaroo rat is , as its name would suggest , a small rodent that moves by hopping on its back legs . ( full text )\ncan leap 7\u20138 feet and quickly change its direction when landing . the banner - tailed kangaroo rat can move rapidly which minimizes energy costs and predation risks .\nto provide large amounts of moisture through respiration when sleeping , a kangaroo rat buries its nose in its fur to accumulate a small pocket of moist air .\nmerriam ' s kangaroo rat is an arid - land species essentially limited to lower sonoran habitats . it tends to prefer firmer soils than ord ' s kangaroo rat . however , there may be overlap in habitat usage , and at times both of these smaller species may be taken in the same trap line .\nthe banner - tailed kangaroo rat ranges from northeastern arizona southward to aguascalientes and san luis posi , mexico and from arizona to western texas . they generally live in grasslands and scrublands . banner - tailed kangaroo rats live in dry areas but have more water available to them than merriam kangaroo rats .\nlidicker , w . z . 1960 . an analysis of intraspecific variation in the kangaroo rat dipodomus merriami . berkeley and los angelos , university of california press .\nlidicker , w . z . 1960 . an analysis of intraspecific variation in the kangaroo rat dipodomus merriami . berkeley and los angelos , university of california press .\nschroder , g . d . 1979 . foraging behavior and home range utilization of the bannertail kangaroo rat . ecology 60 ( 4 ) : 657 - 665 .\nthis woodrat has the closest resemblance to the house rat and is often confused with it .\nthe diet of merriam ' s kangaroo rat is almost exclusively plant seeds ( they are granivorous ) . the bulk of their diet consists of the seeds of desert and grassland plants . they rarely drink water . rather , they obtain water through metabolic processes augmented by the moisture content of their food . ( see kangaroo rat )\nbanner - tailed kangaroo rats generally live in grasslands and scrublands . they live in dry areas but have more water available to them than merriam ' s kangaroo rats . all kangaroo rat species are sensitive to extreme temperatures and remain in their burrows during rain storms and other forms of inclement weather . kangaroo rats are preyed on by coyotes , foxes , badgers , weasels , owls , and snakes .\nin the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in europe , norway rats were captured and used for food during times of famine . rat - catchers were hired to exterminate rats and capture live ones for rat fights , rat coursing , and rat pits . rat - catchers captured and housed wild rats in cages as well ( matthews 1898 ) . during this time , naturally occurring albino , black , and hooded norway rats may have preferentially captured or chosen from litters of captive rats for their distinctive appearance\nthe fur is soft and silky in kangaroo rats , kangaroo mice , and silky pocket mice , and more coarse and spiny in the spiny pocket mice .\nschroder , g . d . 1979 .\nforaging behavior and home range utilization of the bannertail kangaroo rat .\necology . ( 60 ) : 4 657 - 665 .\nthe desert kangaroo rat is one of the larger of the genus . distribution today is the western great basin and south into the sonoran desert of southwestern arizona and northern mexico .\nkangaroo rats are a common prey items for many other desert animals . typical predators of the merriam ' s kangaroo rat include barn owls , great horned owls , coyotes , foxes , badgers , bobcats , and several snake species including sidewinders and glossy snakes .\n1998 ( pdf ) description : the giant kangaroo rat ( dipodomys ingens ) is the largest of more than 20 species in the genus dipodomys , which is in the family heteromyidae .\nhtm research projects : the giant kangaroo rat ( dipodomys ingens ) is an endangered species that occurs in a limited range on the western edge of the san joaquin valley and adjacent .\nthey have been observed storing the seeds of mesquite , creosote , bush , purslane , ocotillo and grama grass in their cheek pouches . kangaroo rat will store extra seeds in seed caches .\nkangaroo rats must harvest as much seeds as possible in as little time as possible .\nthe diet of the merriam ' s kangaroo rat is almost entirely seeds . they feed primarily on the seeds of mesquite , creosote bush , ocotillo , purslane , and grama grass . one study of\nthe chisel - toothed kangaroo rat is a desert dweller . it is found in mountains at elevations between 1 , 000 and 3 , 500 m . its abundance is primarily associated with two plants :\nthe spacing of the burrows depends on the number of kangaroo rats and the abundance of food . kangaroo rats also live in colonies that range from six to several hundred dens .\nkangaroo rats inhabit overlapping home ranges . these home ranges tend to be small with much activities within 200 - 300 ft and rarely 600 ft ( howard 1994 ) . home range size can vary within species with merriam kangaroo rats having larger home ranges than banner - tailed kangaroo rats . recently weaned kangaroo rats move into new areas not occupied by adults . within its home range , a kangaroo has a defended territory consisting of its burrowing system .\nthe giant kangaroo rat ( dipodomys ingens ) is an endangered species that occurs in a limited range on the western edge of the san joaquin valley and adjacent carrizo and elkhorn plains and the cuyama valley .\ngiant kangaroo rats are nocturnal and are away from the safety of their burrows as possible .\ngiant kangaroo rats are territorial , in the sense that they will protect their food stores .\nthe kangaroo mouse features significantly in the best - selling science fiction novel dune . the protagonist , paul atreides , is called muad ' dib , a fremen word for kangaroo mouse .\nreynolds , h . g . 1958 . the ecology of the merriam kangaroo rat ( dipodomys merriami mearns ) on the grazing lands of southern arizona . ecological monographs ( 28 ) : 2 111 - 127 .\nthe tails of kangaroo rats are longer than both their bodies and their heads . another notable feature of kangaroo rats are their fur lined cheek pouches which are used for storing food . the coloration of kangaroo rats varies from cinnamon buff to dark gray , depending on the species .\ngiant kangaroo rats are curious and bold inhabitants of the most arid , southwestern edge of central .\nkangaroo rats are generally solitary animals with little to no social organization . kangaroos rats do sometime cluster together in some feeding situations . groups of kangaroo rats that do exist are aggregations and colonies .\nreynolds , h . g . 1958 .\nthe ecology of the merriam kangaroo rat ( dipodomys merriami mearns ) on the grazing lands of southern arizona .\necological monographs ( 28 ) : 2 111 - 127 .\nwhen on foraging trips , kangaroo rats hoard the seeds that they find . it is important for a kangaroo rat to encounter more food items than are consumed , at least at one point in the year , as well as defend or rediscover food caches and remain within the same areas long enough to utilize food resources .\nmerriam kangaroo rats live in hot and dry areas , conserve water , and only use metabolic sources .\nkangaroo rats are preyed on by coyotes , foxes , badgers , weasels , owls , and snakes .\nforages above ground at night . during the day , these kangaroo rats engage in coprophagy below ground .\ncsuti , b . a . : karyotypes of kangaroo rats from southern california . j . mammal .\nkangaroo mouse is the common name for any member of the genus dipodomys . kangaroo rats are six - toed endotherms with large hind legs , small front legs and relatively large heads . the tails of kangaroo rats are longer than both their bodies and their heads . the coloration of kangaroo rats varies from cinnamon buff to dark gray , depending on the species ( howard 1994 ) . there is also some variation in length with one of the largest species , the banner - tail kangaroo rat being six inches in body length and a tail length of eight inches ( howard 1994 ) . sexual dimorphism exists in all species , with males being larger than females .\nthe roof rat prefers warmer climates regions . this allows the norway rat to dominate the other climate regions . the rats can be found throughout the u . s . but it is more common to find them in their preferred regions as shown in the figure above .\nthomas , j . r . , jr . 1975 . distribution , population densities , and home range requirements of the stephens ' kangaroo rat ( dipodomys stephensi ) . m . s . thesis , california state polytechnic university , ponoma . 64pp .\nare sand - dwelling mammals that inhabit arid regions of the southwestern united states and mexico . habitat requirements of merriam ' s kangaroo rats are less strict than most other species of kangaroo rats . they can live equally well in sandy soils , clays , gravels , and among rocks . urltoken ) . compared to other kangaroo rats ,\nwhich retain some grass or other vegetation . their diet includes seeds , leaves , stems , buds , some fruit , and insects . most kangaroo rat species use their burrows and buried caches nearby to store food against the possibility of bad seasons . the\nbrylski , p . dark kangaroo mouse . california department of fish and game . retrieved march 18 , 2012 .\nbrylski , p . pale kangaroo mouse . california department of fish and game . retrieved march 18 , 2012 .\nall kangaroo rats apparetnly cache food in their burrows . cheek pouches help the rats carry food to the burrow .\nkangaroo rats move bipedally . kangaroo rats often leap a distance of 6 feet , and reportedly up to 9 feet ( 2 . 75 m ) at speeds up to almost 10 feet / sec , or 10 kph ( 6 mph ) . they can quickly change their direction between jumps . the rapid locomotion of the banner - tailed kangaroo rat may minimize energy cost and predation risk . its use of a\nmove - freeze\nmode may also make it less conspicuous to nocturnal predators .\nthe banner - tailed kangaroo rat is enough larger than d . merriami and d . ordii as to usually be identifiable on size alone in the eastern part of the region . the current northern limits of distribution is near the four - corners area of new mexico .\n1 . various blood indices in the panamint kangaroo rat revealed seasonal fluctuations . the red blood cell count during winter and summer averaged 7 . 2 + / - 1 . 0 x 10 ( 6 ) and 9 . 2 + / - 0 . 2 x 10 ( 6 ) / mm3 respectively . 2 . the mean cell hemoglobin during winter and summer averaged 25 + / - 10 . 8 pg and 18 . 6 + / - 3 . 7 pg respectively . 3 . these fluctuations may reveal a rapid rate of red blood cell destruction during winter in combination with a change in diet , concomitant to this , is an increase in mean cell hemoglobin of the surviving red blood cells .\nthe roof rat species is from the asian tropics where they spread into the european colonies that eventually spread throughout the world through various trade routes and explorations .\ngrinnell , j . : a geographic study of the kangaroo rats of california . u . cal . publ . zool .\nkangaroo rats live in complex burrow systems . the burrows have separate chambers for specific proposes like sleeping , living and food storage .\nthe young are born in a fur - lined nest in the burrows . they are born blind and hairless . for the first week , young merriam kangaroo rats crawl , and develop their hind legs in their second or third week . at this time , the young become independent . banner - tailed kangaroo rat are weaned between 22\u201325 days . offspring remain in the mound for 1 - 6 more months in the maternal caches .\nkangaroo rats inhabit overlapping home ranges . these home ranges tend to be small with much activities within 200\u2013300 ft and rarely 600 ft .\nkangaroo rats have a promiscuous mating system . their reproductive output is highest in summer following high rainfalls ( waser and jones 1991 ) .\nthe kangaroo rats ( diplodomys sp . ) and kangaroo mice ( microdipodops sp . ) have elongated hind limbs and feet and move bipedally in long jumps , as with kangaroos . they also have tails that are long and have white tips or tufts on the end . the front legs are relatively small and the heads are relatively large . the tails of kangaroo rats are longer than both their bodies and their heads .\nalso has fur lined external cheek pouches which it carries seeds in . the belly of merriam ' s kangaroo rat bears white , silky pelage . the hind feet , bearing four toes , are very large , ( 39 mm ) , with hairy soles . these hairy soles aid the kangaroo rat in jumping through loose sand . the forelegs are retrogressed . the ears are small and hairless , and the eyes are large and luminous , similar to the eyes of other nocturnal mammals . the dental formula is 1 / 1 , 0 / 0 , 1 / 1 , 3 / 3 = 20 . ( vaughn , 1999 ) .\nthe roof rat favors the warmer climates and heavily populates them . they are far more dominant in the tropical climates throughout the world than the norway rats . the roof rat is far more modified and adapted to survive the warmer climates only , making it less frequent in colder locations . the norway rat takes to burrowing and the colder climates throughout the world and is far more numerous . the northern us is almost free of roof rats do to the colder climate . they are more likely to inhabit ships in the northern climates .\nthe roof rat species prefers the elevated habitat over the grounds like the norway rat . in the spring and summer , the habitats they choose are riverbanks , streams , parks , natural ponds , artificial ponds , reservoirs , gardens , rice fields , sugarcane fields , citrus groves , apple orchards , poultry farms , and other heavy favored thriving food sources .\nthe rat phylogeny and history dates back to over thirteen million years ago in the family murinae . the family continued to slightly transform over several millions of years until major speciation event occurred with the family the first at around 3 million years . at this point in time , speciation gave rise to the rattus genus or the rats . the rattus genus then began to split once again into two distinct species rattus norvegicus and rattus rattus . the species rattus norvegicus is known as the norway rat , and rattus rattus being the roof rat .\nwhich are suitable for burrowing . they can , however , vary in both geographic range and habitat . in particular , the merriam kangaroo rat ranges through southern california , utah , southwest new mexico , arizona , and northern mexico and live in areas of low rainfall and humidity , and high summer temperature and evaporation rates .\nit is actually common to have both the norway and roof rat inhabiting the same building . the roof rat will gain access through the roof with utility lines . they will inhabit and make a home in the attic or top floor . the norway rats will come in through the ground level and remain there establishing a nest in the basement or ground floor .\nbartholomew , g . a . , caswell , h . h . : locomotion in kangaroo rats and its adaptive significance . j . mammal .\nbecause of its food caching behavior , this species likely disperses seeds . it is also a small mammal , and probably forms an important part of the diet of local predators . because it potentially has as many as 4 sympatric congenerics in some parts of its range , the chisel - toothed kangaroo rat plays a role in regulating congener populations .\nghiselin , j . 1970 . edaphic control of habitat selection by kangaroo mice ( microdipodops ) in three nevada populations . oecologia 4 : 248 - 261 .\nnader , i . a . 1978 . kangaroo rate : intraspecific variation in dipodomus spectabilis merriami and dipodomys deserti stephens . chicago , university of illinois press .\nkangaroo rats are generally solitary animals with little social organization . kangaroo rats communicate during competitive interactions and courtship . they do cluster together in some feeding situations . groups of kangaroo rats that exist are aggregations and colonies . there appears to be a dominance hierarchy among male kangaroo rats in competition for access to females . male kangaroo rats are generally more aggressive than females and are more dominant over them . females are more tolerant of each other than males are and have more non - aggressive interactions . this is likely in part because the home ranges of females overlap less than the home ranges of males . linear dominance hierarchies appear to exist among males but it is not known if this is the case for females . winners of aggressive encounters appear to be the most active individuals .\nkangaroo rats , genus dipodomys , are small rodents native to north america . the common name derives from their bipedal form : as they hop in a manner similar to the much larger kangaroo , although they are not related . it has been noted that they are not properly characterized as\nrats\nat all .\nthese cute little rodents are possibly the most attractive and distinct species characterized by silky golden fur , large eyes , white stripes or markings , and long furry crested tails . the kangaroo rats cannot be mistaken to be any other rodent relative . the kangaroo mouse is the only closest resembling cousin of the rodent order .\nrandall , j . a . 2004 . pocket mice , kangaroo rats , and kangaroo mice ( heteromyidae ) . pages 199 to 210 in b . grzimek et al . , grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2nd ed . , vol . 16 . detroit , mi : thomson / gale . isbn 0787657921 .\nis a medium sized , 5 - toed kangaroo rat with a narrow face , small ears and ever - growing cheekteeth . its incisors are flat on the anterior side and less incurved than other members of the genus . chisel - toothed kangaroo rats are about 270 mm long and weigh about 55 g . the body without the tail is about 112 mm in length . tail length adds about 158 mm . males are slightly larger than females on average . the fur is brown and gray above with a\ngunmetal hue .\npresence of kangaroo rats in our region is taken to indicate presence of open areas basically free of vegetation ( though with bushes or other vegetation nearby for cover ) .\nkangaroo rats , small rodents of genus dipodomys , are native to western north america . the common name derives from their bipedal form . they hop in a manner similar to the much larger kangaroo , but developed this mode of locomotion independently , like several other clades of rodents ( e . g . dipodids and hopping mice ) .\nthe rat is capable of having an average of 3 to 8 young every litter . the offspring are born around 20 - 21 days after conception . they become adults in as little as 5 to 6 weeks .\nmerriam ' s kangaroo rats produce up to three litters per year , with an average of four pups in each litter . weaning of young occurs 24\u201333 days after birth .\nnader , i . a . 1978 . kangaroo rats : intraspecific variation in dipodomus spectabilis merriami and dipodomys deserti stephens . chicago , university of illinois press . isbn 0252006585 .\nkangaroo rats lose water mainly by evaporation during gas exchange , and so have developed a behavioural adaptation to prevent this loss . as they spend a lot of time within their burrows to escape the heat of the day , the burrows become much more humid than the air outside ( due to evaporative loss ) . when collecting seeds , they store them in the burrows rather than eating them straight away . this causes the moisture in the air to be absorbed by the seeds , and the kangaroo rat regains the water it has previously lost when it then consumes them .\nnorway rats are ground burrowers , so they will nest deep in the underground channels they have created . the average female norway rat has 4 to 6 liters per year and can successfully wean 20 or more offspring annually .\nthe rat is the first of the twelve animals of the chinese zodiac . people born in this year are thought to possess characteristics which are associated with rats , namely : creativity , intelligence , honesty , ambition and generosity\nshier , debra m . ; randall , jan a . ( 2004 ) .\nspacing as a predictor of social organization in kangaroo rats ( dipodomys heermanni arenae )\n.\nbartholomew , g . a . , and h . h . caswell . 1951 . locomotion in kangaroo rats and its adaptive significance . journal of mammalogy 32 : 155 - 169 .\nthe roof rat\u2019s eating habits resemble the diet of tree squirrels . the diet persists of a variety of fruits and nuts . though the rats like fruits and nuts they will also eat any vegetative part of ornamental and native plants .\ndipodomys insularis is among the smallest of the kangaroo rats . compared to other dipodomys merriami , dipodomys insularis has larger ears , a grayer coloration , and a more robust appearance . it has a lower bullar index and a lower cranial index of any of the dipodomys merriami sub - species . d . insularis also differs from its closest geographic relatives d . m . brunensis and d . m . melanurus by being larger in most respects , by being paler in coloration , and having considerably larger ears . [ 4 ] this nocturnal kangaroo rat is a granivore , feeding on seeds and shrubs . [ 5 ]\nfleming , t . 1984 . pocket mice and kangaroo rats . pages 632 - 633 in d . macdonald , the encyclopedia of mammals new york : facts on file . isbn 0871968711 .\nkangaroo rats are primarily seed eaters ( morgan 1992 ) . they will , however , sometimes eat vegetation at certain times of the year and some insects ( howard 1994 ) . they have been observed storing the seeds of mesquite , creosote , bush , purslane , ocotillo and grama grass in their cheek pouches . kangaroo rat will store extra seeds in seed caches ( reynolds 1958 ) . this caching behavior has an impact on the rangeland and croplands where the animals live ( howard 1994 ) . kangaroo rats must harvest as much seeds as possible in as little time as possible ( morgan and price 1992 ) . they need to decrease the time away from their burrows as they are cool and dry . in addition , being away from their burrows also makes them vulnerable to predators . ( morgan and price 1992 ) .\nthese links lead to images of stephens ' , dulzura , merriam ' s , ord ' s , short - nosed , and giant kangaroo rats , and the related great basin pocket mouse .\nwhite , l . d . , allred , d . m . : range of kangaroo rats in areas affected by atomic detonations . proc . utah acad . sci . , arts , letters\nwaser , p . m . , and t . w . jones . 1991 . survival and reproductive effort in banner - tailed kangaroo rats . ecology 72 ( 3 ) : 771 - 777 .\nbaumgardner , g . d . , and m . l . kennedy . 1994 . patterns of interspecific morphometric variation in kangaroo rats ( genus dipodomys ) . journal of mammalogy 75 : 203 - 211 .\nreproduction happens anywhere from three to five times a year , and varies between habitats . the number of litters a female can have depends on if the area has suitable habitat needs in which the rats can thrive . the factors that make up a habitat are climatic range , food sources , and number of total rat populations in the area . the last major factor that affects litters is how old the female is . on average the female rat will have anywhere from 3 - 5 litters in a single year .\nwaser , p . m . and t . w . jones . 1991 .\nsurvival and reproductive effort in banner - tailed kangaroo rats .\necology . ( 72 ) : 3 771 - 777 .\njenkins , s . h . , a . rothstein , et al . 1995 . food hoarding by merriams kangaroo rats : a test of alternative hypotheses . ecology 76 ( 8 ) : 2470 - 2481 .\nthe common house rats are known for taking care of one another , sleeping together , and developing a group to work together . the rats are like wolves they establish leaders and places of rank in the pack . there is always an alpha rat in each pack .\nto take advantage of the water content and nutrition in the leaves while maintaining water balance . none of the kangaroo rats needs to drink much , because this genus is able to use the water in their foods .\nkangaroo rats are generally solitary animals with little to no social organization . kangaroos rats do sometime cluster together in some feeding situations . groups of kangaroo rats that do exist are aggregations and colonies ( howard 1994 ) . there appears to be a dominance hierarchy among kangaroo rats with males competing for access to females ( newmark and jenkins 2000 ) . male kangaroo rats are generally more aggressive than females and are more dominant over them . females are more tolerant of each other than males are and have more non - aggressive interactions . this is likely because the home ranges of females overlap less than the home ranges of males ( newmark and jenkins 2000 ) . there appears to be linear dominance hierarchies among males but it is not known if this is the case for females ( newmark and jenkins 2000 ) . winners of aggressive encounters appear to be the most active ones .\nmerriam , c . h . , 1894 . preliminary descriptions of eleven new kangaroo rats of the genera dipodomys and perodipus , p . 114 . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 9 : 109 - 116 .\njenkins , s . h . , a . rothstein , et al . 1995 .\nfood hoarding by merriams kangaroo rats : a test of alternative hypotheses .\necology ( 76 ) : 8 2470 - 2481 .\n, kangaroo rats have highly developed hind legs , live in deep burrows which shelter them from the worst of the desert heat , and rarely drink water . instead , they have a highly water - efficient metabolisim ( their\nle rat kangourou dipodomys panamintinus a 4 sous - esp\u00e8ces . le repr\u00e9sentatif karyotype de 4 des sousesp\u00e8ces a 17 m\u00e9tacentriques et 14 chromosomes acrocentriques . dipodomys panamintinus caudatus , g\u00e9ographiquement isol\u00e9 des autres , a 16 m\u00e9tacentriques et 15 chromosomes acrocentriques . le nombre fondamental est 96 pour les esp\u00e8ces .\nkangaroo rats are primarily seed eaters . they will , however , sometimes eat vegetation at some times of the year and some insects , too . they have been seen storing the seeds of mesquite , creosote , bush , purslane , ocotillo and grama grass in their cheek pouches . kangaroo rats will store extra seeds in seed caches . this caching behavior affects the range - land and croplands where the animals live . kangaroo rats must harvest as much seed as possible in as little time as possible . to conserve energy and water , they minimize their time away from their cool , dry burrows . in addition , maximizing time in their burrows minimizes their exposure to predators .\nbaumgardner , g . d . , and m . l . kennedy . 1993 . morphometric variation in kangaroo rats ( genus dipodomys ) and its relationship to selected abiotic variables . journal of mammalogy 74 : 69 - 85 .\nmodes of communication include olfactory and acoustic . chisel - toothed kangaroo rats sandbathe to spread their scent and use foot drumming , possibly as territorial behavior . aggressive encounters are also used as a form of communication in this species .\nthe average lifespan is 4 . 9 month , but this , is of course , misleading . many kangaroo rats die young , and those who make it to adulthood can live a very long time . although maximum lifespan for\nnewmark , j . e . , and s . h . jenkins . 2000 . sex differences in agonistic behavior of merriam ' s kangaroo rats ( dipodomys merriami ) . american midland naturalist ( 143 ) : 2 377 - 388 .\nkangaroo rats construct burrows for protection , usually with several openings to the burrow system . as with their relatives , the pocket gophers , they tend to be antisocial except during the breeding season , but two or three species may occur sympatrically .\n. size varies from 100 to 200 mm , with a tail of equal or slightly greater length ; weight can be anywhere between 35 and 180 grams . the most distinctive feature of the kangaroo rats is their very long , hind legs .\nthe norway rat or rattus norvegieus is the larger of the two . norway rats are light brown in color , stocky , and borrowing capable rodents . they are found in homes or buildings on the ground level , basements , or in crawl spaces . this species is common to all 48 contiguous states .\nroof rats prefer to nest in locations off the ground and rarely dig burrows for living quarters if above - ground sites exist . the average number of litters a female roof rat has per year depends on many factors , but generally it is 3 to 5 with 3 to 8 young in each litter .\nnewmark , j . e . and s . h . jenkins . 2000 .\nsex differences in agonistic behavior of merriam ' s kangaroo rats ( dipodomys merriami ) .\namerican midland naturalist . ( 143 ) : 2 377 - 388 .\nmerriam ' s kangaroo rats have an average total length of 247 mm . the tail is rather long , about 144 mm in length , with an end tassle . it is usually more than 130 % of the the length of the head and body . (\nleaves are eaten whole , but as salinity builds up in the outer parts of the leaves in summer and fall , these kangaroo rats use their incisors to access the nutritious and less saline inner parts of the leaves . avoiding the salty parts of the plants enables\nrats are found in all of the contiguous 48 states . they are also known to inhabit every land mass . they are known to be found at every departure point and various research stations in antarctica . the rat species is the most prolific invasive species worldwide . there are estimated reports that state there are over 5 - 6 billion rats , if not more , worldwide . there is said to be over two billion in china alone . in britain , the rat population matches the amount of people . the french report estimates four rats to one person , and a population of rats at eight million . the true number of rats worldwide is expanding too swiftly too count and is difficult to determine .\nmale kangaroo rats are generally more aggressive than females and are more dominant over them . females are more tolerant of each other than males are and have more non - aggressive interactions . this is likely become the home ranges of females overlap less than the home ranges of males .\nrats are the vertebrate masters of adaptation . a highly intelligent rodent that is capable of remembering each path it takes , carrying for others , and working in teams , the rat is one of the most well - known invasive species in the world . they inhabit every ecosystem in the world . they are master scavengers and will eat any food and water resource they can .\nhas a high reproductive rate . breeding for the merriam ' s kangaroo rat begins in early february and continues into the spring , at least through may . the gestation period is approximately 28 to 32 days . between one and six young are born in each litter , with an average of three . when young are born they weigh between 3 and 8 grams . the young are weaned after 15 - 25 days , and sexual maturity is reached between 60 - 84 days . they can live up to 9 . 8 years . average territory size for males is 67 , 300 square feet , less than one acre . average female territories are 4000 square feet . ( grzimek , 1990 , urltoken )\nthe species in the four genera of pocket mice use quadrupedal locomotion . the silky pocket mice ( perognathus ) and coarse - hared pocket mice ( chaetodipus ) has species with relatively long feet , but these still use standard quadrupedal locomotion . the spiny pocket mice ( liomys ) and forest spiny pocket mice ( heteromys ) have a generalized body shape that is more rat - like ( randall 2004 ) .\nas for the other species the roof rat is the smaller of the two popular species . roof rats or rattus rattus are black or dark brown in color , and have long tails as long as their body . the species likes to climb and nest outside in trees , shrubs , bushes , and any high structures . in the home they can act the same way choosing to nest in the walls an attic spaces .\nthe overall colour of the kangaroo rats can be anywhere between pale sandy yellow and dark brown , with a white underside and often with white banding across the thighs . tails tend to be dark with white sides and a tuft of longer hairs . facial markings vary from one species to another , but all have an oil gland between the shoulders .\nkangaroo rats received their name because of similarities of locomotion and the morphology that goes with it between these rodents and the marsupials . the hind limbs are massively developed for the size of the animal and the forelimbs diminutive . other characteristics include huge feet , a very long tail for balance , and an oversized head , thanks to the greatly enlarged bullae .\nmost heteromyids live in complex burrows within the deserts and grasslands of western north america , though species within the heteromys and liomys genera are also found in forests . kangaroo mice are largely in sandy habitats , while desert pocket mice tend to be more in arid habitats ( sage brush , desert shrub , rocky hillsides , sand , chaparral , grass ( randall 2004 ) .\nsan jos\u00e9 island kangaroo rats utilize burrows for food storage , protection from the sun and predators , breeding , and shelter . dipodomys insularis creates burrows that are underground tunnels networked together with one or more entrance points . they each use 1 or 2 burrows and no more than 2 rodents inhabit each burrow . burrows containing the opposite sex are usually found closer in distance than those that contain d . insularis of same sex . most often , during breeding season , a male and female share a burrow . after giving birth the females were found sharing their burrows with their offspring as well . adult san jos\u00e9 island kangaroo rats seem less prone to sharing burrows than do subadults , unless it is with the opposite sex during mating season . [ 7 ]\n, kangaroo rats have large cheek pouches that open on either side of the mouth and extend back to the shoulders . they fill the pouches with food or nesting material ready for transport back to the burrow , then empty them by turning them inside out , like pockets , with their forpaws . there is a special muscle that , once the pouch is empty and clean , pulls it back in again .\nmerriam ' s kangaroo rats live individually within a maze of underground burrows . males and females each establish individual territories . they defend their territories against other male and female merriami , primarily to protect often scarce food resources . it is typical that they locate multiple entrances to their burrow complex at the base of shrubs near the middle of their territory . this allows more opportunities for them to escape from predators .\nthese rats span from the family neotoma . they resemble larger versions of deer mice . the difference between woodrats and house rats is that they are well - haired and have a bicolored tail . this nocturnal or cloudy rainy day species likes to forage in the cover of darkness like the rest of its relatives . the woodrats create large nests or large houses of sticks characterized by all sorts of junk . this is where the term \u201cpack rat\u201d comes from , and they fit the description . the woodrat is also a solitary species not known for large groups .\nmost species of heteromyidae are solitary species , with individuals living alone in individual burrow , with the exception of the new mothers with their young . males tend to have home ranges that overlap with other males and females , while the females tend to have ranges exclusive from other females , although in some , like the kangaroo rats dipodomys spectabilis , d . deserti , and d . ingens , both males and femals have exclusive territories ( randall 2004 ) .\nnorway rats are omnivorous like most rodents , but will eat anything to survive . they like to forage in food packaging plants and storage facilities . the only thing different from the roof rat is that its diet is far less controlled and they will eat any food that they can get ahold of . though they may have preferences , it varies from pack to pack . they enjoy eating feed for domestic animals like , chickens , dogs , cats , horses , cattle , and swine . there is often a draw to dog food for most rats , so pet food and outdoor pets attract norway rats .\nthe heteromyids range in size from 1 . 7 inches to 14 . 6 inches in total length ( 4 . 2 - 37cm ) and weigh from 0 . 2 to 6 . 9 ounces ( 5 - 195g ) ( randall 2004 ) . the smaller members of the family are the desert pocket mice in perognathus , which range in weight from 5 to 31 grams , and the kangaroo mice in microdipodops , which range from 10 - 17 grams ( randall 2004 ) . members of the genus chaetodipus range in size from 8 . 0 - 12 . 5 centimeters ( head and body ) and weigh 15 - 47 grams ( nowak 1999 ) . members of heteromys commonly range from 37 to 85 grams , while the members of liomys range from 34 - 50 grams ( randall 2004 ) . adult kangaroo rats , on the other hand , are larger and typically weigh between 70 - 170 grams ( nader 1978 ) , with the larger ranging up to 195 grams ( randall 2004 ) .\nthe silky pocket mice ( perognathus ) are small animals with soft pelage , long tails , and small feet compared to other heteromyids . they have long claws which are used for digging burrows and sifting sandy substrates for seeds . they have also been found to steal seeds from kangaroo rats ' dens . they store these seeds in large hairy external cheek pouches . they are nocturnal and are found in arid habitats . they are not true hibernators , but will go into torpor and stay in their burrows for extended periods of time .\nrats will eat anything available to them from seed , fruits , vegetables , nuts , grains , insects , worms , spiders , and various meats . rat activity begins in the cover of darkness or cloudy dark conditions . all of the rodent species prefer to forage in the cover of night fall . they will work together to move large quantities of food to safe locations to be eaten . rats will also collect and store the spoils of the foraging trips . they will hoard numerous amounts of trash and solid foods to be eaten at a later date . house rats will store these items in wood piles , wall voids , attics , boxes , and other coverings where they feel safe .\nroof rats will trail over 100 meters to find food from their nests . they will also stay with other rats on their foraging journey to exploit certain food sources . they will travel from tree to tree , and even climb power lines or fence lines to travel safely . they will make nests in trees near gardens or near the food sources they value . they favor palm trees and other high elevated locations . roof rats are smart and will avoid changes to their environment and are scared of them . they are neophobic , which is the fear of new things or experiences . talk about creatures of habit . neophobia is more distinct in roof rats than in the close cousin norway rats . some roof rat packs will even modify trails and routes to avoid frequently disturbed paths and areas .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie ."]}
{"id": 2004, "summary": [{"text": "nessia is a genus of skinks , lizards in the family scincidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus is endemic to sri lanka .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "species in the genus nessia are commonly known as snake skinks . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "nessia", "paragraphs": ["nessia is an unusual given name for females . nessia is an equivalently unusual surname too for all people .\nthe name nessia is a greek baby name . in greek the meaning of the name nessia is : pure .\nas a girls ' name is of greek origin , and nessia means\nlamb\n. nessia is a version of\nthe name nessia is a scottish baby name . in scottish the meaning of the name nessia is : from the headland .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - nessia ( nessia layardi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - nessia ( nessia layardi )\ntitle =\narkive species - nessia ( nessia layardi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nevesia monodactylus gray 1839 : 336 evesia bellii dum\u00e9ril & bibron 1839 : 782 ( fide brygoo 1985 ) nessia monodactyla \u2014 g\u00fcnther 1864 acontias monodactylus \u2014 boulenger 1887 : 425 acontias monodactylus \u2014 camp 1923 : 355 evesia monodactyla \u2014 camp 1923 : 410 acontias ( nessia ) monodactylus \u2014 deraniyagala 1931 nessia monodactyla \u2014 smith 1935 : 358 nessia monodactyla \u2014 taylor 1950 : 511 evesia monodactyla \u2014 manthey 1981 evesia bellii \u2014 frank & ramus 1995 nessia monodactylus \u2014 das 1996 : 47 nessia monodactylus \u2014 ziesmann et al . 2007 nessia monodactylus \u2014 somaweera & somaweera 2009\nno one has contributed data records for nessia yet . learn how to contribute .\ninformation on nessia layardi is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\na beautiful , girl . anyone would be lucky to have her . a nessia is someone that is sexy , and popular . a nessia is a girl who will wait for you all the time . a nessia is a girl whop loves you until the end .\ntype : not in bmnh fide p . campbell ( pers . comm . , 25 july 2014 ) type species : nessia burtonii gray 1839 : 336 is the type species of the genus nessia gray 1839 .\njohn is so lucky to have nessia as his girl . i & apos ; m jelous . : )\nthe team observed heavy infestation of coccidian oocysts in some nessia bipes ) and some mites ( on three occasions ) . crusz and daundasekera ( 1988 ) have observed nematodes melelrakis sinharajensis and parapharyngodon adamsoni in the large intestine and rectum of nessia bipes .\n. other variants , like nesha , are seldom used . adoption of this form of nessia was more pronounced among parents in the 1890s\nexcept for few brief accounts by deraniyagala ( 1931 , 1953a , 1953b , 1953c ) , smith ( 1935 ) and taylor ( 1950 ) nothing has been published on the ecology of nessia species to date . gans ( 1995 ) recorded distribution localities of six species of nessia .\nnearly 50 specimens of nessia bipes were observed from various localities in the knuckles massif . however , details such as measurements , gender , status etc . were recorded only of 41 specimens of nessia bipes , of which 14 were male adults , nine were female adults , 16 unsexed adults and two juveniles . furthermore five specimens of nessia sarasinorum were observed at yahangala ( 300m ) of which one was a male adult , one was a female adult and three were unsexed adults\nbased on morphological data , nessia is presumed to be monophyletic . its affinities with other scincid genera have been the subject of much speculation in the past ( e . g . , boulenger 1887 ; hewitt 1929 ; deraniyagala 1931 ; smith 1935 ) but most recently greer and shea ( 2001 ) have considered nessia to exhibit the\nchalcidine\nhead scale pattern , implying a possible relationship with a group of scincines that includes the majority of reduced limbed forms . relationships of nessia within the scincinae or\nchalcidinae\n, however , remain uncertain .\nbatuwita , sudesh ; udeni edirisinghe 2017 . nessia gansi : a second three - toed snake - skink ( reptilia : squamata : scincidae ) from sri lanka with the designation of a neotype for nessia burtonii gray travaux du muse\u0301um national d\u2019histoire naturelle \u00abgrigore antipa\u00bb 60 ( 1 ) : 377\u2013388 ; doi : 10 . 1515 / travmu - 2017 - 0001 - get paper here\nrecent studies by anslem de silva and his team provides additional brief notes on the ecology and natural history of nessia bipes smith , 1935 and nessia sarasinorum m ` 9fller , 1889 as observed during the knuckles expedition , 2004 and 2005 . anslem\u00eds preliminary data highlight the need for future studies to understand the ecology , natural history , and conservation status of these poorly known lizards .\nnamed in honour of major edward burton of the museum of chatham ( 1790 - 1867 ) ( beolens et al . , 2011 ) . etymology of nessia burtonii as mentioned by batuwita & edirisinghe ( 2015 ) is incorrect .\nnessia has amazing area of 14 , 000m\u00b2 , including two hosting complexes , each with a luxury hall , designed with classic , elegant lines , with an adjacent event garden rich in vegetation and waterfalls \u2013 a magical background for a reception or a chuppah .\noh my , i\u2019m glad to hear he\u2019s doing okay . he was my favorite from the beginning \u2013 as were alan in season 1 and you dave in season 2 \ud83d\ude42 i really hoped dave nessia would win , but he was probably to skinny to begin with . thank you for posting this !\nthe genus nessia was placed in the scincid sub - family acontinae by deraniyagala ( 1931 ) , but subsequently moved to the scincinae by greer ( 1970 ) , who recognized eight species , all endemic to sri lanka ( das & de silva , 2005 ; deraniyagala 1931 , 1953a , 1953b , 1953c ; de silva 2001 ) .\naccording to iucn red list criteria , nessia bipes is ranked as being endangered and nessia sarasinorum is ranked as a lower risk near threatened ( de silva , molur & walker 2000 ) . iucn ( 2000 ) ranks bipes and sarasinorum as threatened species . although a major part of the knuckles ( that is above 1 , 067 m ) is declared as a conservation forest , even in the conservation area the flora and fauna face many threats due to human activities . climatic changes over the past 100 years may also have had an impact . the annual rainfall at kobonila has decreased from 3800 mm in 1982 to 3400 mm in 1990 ( madduma bandara 1991 ) .\nwow ! for those of you that have seen the latest episode of alone , you saw the struggle was real for dave nessia . the happy go - lucky guy shrank over 40lbs during the 73 days that he was on the show into a surprisingly still optimistic , but incredibly physically depleted man that had to be medically evacuated from the show .\nnessia sevin sloane , the daughter of jaar - mel sloane and howard g . sloane of new york , was married saturday evening to taylor andrew kushner , a son of karen m . kushner and robert j . kushner of san juan capistrano , calif . rabbi peter j . rubinstein performed the ceremony at central synagogue in new york , where he is the senior rabbi .\ngravid nessia bipes with two eggs were observed in august and september . two hatchlings ( measuring 62mm , weighting 0 . 5g ) were observed in june to september . deraniyagala ( 1953c ) reported that two to four soft shelled eggs are laid in march , april and may . a female ( 130 mm long ) had laid two eggs measuring 16 x 8 mm and had been deposited in loose dark loamy soil in a cardamom plantation .\nnessia , h . r . , dale , a . r . , perrott , j . k . , waipara , n . w . , aguilar , g . d . , and blanchon , d . j . ( 2014 ) . comparison of species richness and frequency cover of forest floor plants and lichens in sites invaded and uninvaded by the invasive club moss selaginella kraussiana ( kunze ) a . braun . plant protection quarterly , 29 ( 2 ) , pp . 66 - 70 .\ntherefore , the coolness and / or moisture content of the microhabitat appear to be a critical requirement for prevention of desiccation and the survival of these reptiles . specimens were observed together as well as close to one another suggesting possible communities . chalcidoseps thwaitesii , lankascincus species and geckoella triedra were often observed as sympatric reptiles in the same microhabitat of nessia bipes . otocryptis wiegmanni and hypnale hypnale too were sometimes observed on the forest floor in the same habitat . sympatric invertebrates were termites ( three occasions ) , spiders , snails , ants , and beetle larva .\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\npeople with this name have a deep inner desire for a stable , loving family or community , and a need to work with others and to be appreciated .\npeople with this name tend to be a powerful force to all whose lives they touch . they are capable , charismatic leaders who often undertake large endeavors with great success . they value truth , justice , and discipline , and may be quick - tempered with those who do not . if they fail to develop their potential , they may become impractical and rigid .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nbeolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here\nkarunarathna , suranjan ; d . m . s . and a . a . thasun amarasinghe 2011 . a preliminary survey of the reptile fauna in nilgala forest and its vicinity , monaragala district , sri lanka . taprobanica 3 ( 02 ) : 69 - 76\nkramer , eugen 1979 . typenkatalog der echsen im naturhistorischen museum basel ( bm ) , stand 1978 . revue suisse de zoologie 86 ( 1 ) : 159 - 166 - get paper here\nm\u00fcller , f . 1890 . sechster nachtrag zum katalog der herpetologischen sammlung des basler museums . verh . nat . ges . basel 8 : 685 - 705 - get paper here\nsomaweera , r . & somaweera , n . 2009 . lizards of sri lanka : a colour guide with field keys . chimaira , frankfurt , 304 pp .\ntaylor , e . h . 1953 . a review of the lizards of ceylon . univ . kansas sci . bull . 35 ( 12 ) : 1525 - 1585 - get paper here\ntaylor , edward h . 1950 . ceylones lizards of the family scincidae . univ . kansas sci . bull . 33 ( 2 ) : 481 - 518 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1887 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) iii . lacertidae , gerrhosauridae , scincidae , anelytropsidae , dibamidae , chamaeleontidae . london : 575pp . - get paper here\nboulenger , george a . 1890 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptilia and batrachia . taylor & francis , london , xviii , 541 pp . - get paper here\ndum\u00e9ril , a . m . c . and g . bibron . 1839 . erp\u00e9tologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale on histoire naturelle compl\u00e8te des reptiles . vol . 5 . roret / fain et thunot , paris , 871 pp . - get paper here\ngray , j . e . 1839 . catalogue of the slender - tongued saurians , with descriptions of many new genera and species . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 1 ) 2 : 331 - 337 ( 287 - 293 ) [ 1838 ] - get paper here\ng\u00fcnther , a . 1864 . the reptiles of british india . london ( taylor & francis ) , xxvii + 452 pp . - get paper here\njayaneththi , hareschandra bandula 2015 . vertebrate fauna of morankanda - mukalana secondary forest patch in sri lanka : a checklist reported from 2004 - 2008 survey . ruhuna journal of science 6 : 21 - 41\nmanthey , u . 1981 . die echsen des ceylonischen regenwaldes und seiner randgebiete . sauria 3 ( 2 ) : 25 - 35 - get paper here\nsmith , m . a . 1935 . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . reptiles and amphibia , vol . ii . sauria . taylor and francis , london , 440 pp .\nthe king salomon complex accommodates seating of up to 850 people or 1 , 200 guests in cocktail events .\nthe david ' s violin complex accommodates seating of up to 450 guests or 600 guests in cocktail events .\nseason 2 winner of history channels alone show , wilderness survival instructor , public speaker , author & proud father .\nthe episode did a really neat job of telling some of dave\u2019s story and reasoning for being on the show . for dave , this experience was incredibly meaningful and much like the ultimate \u201cvision quest\u201d . he had a bucket of fish stashed away , and as you hear him describe his strategy , he had a plan to eat a half of a fish every day , estimating out loud that he had a couple more months left before he\u2019d need to tap out .\nunfortunately for dave , he had much less time left on the show than expected . it was a very emotional moment to watch when he hears the news that he\u2019s being forced to medically evacuate . in the tips at the bottom of the screen , you see where the alone show editors point out that sometimes if they\u2019re starving people will hoard food when they should be eating it . this is what happened to dave .\nafter the show aired , a lot of folks were curious about how dave is doing now . luckily he posted a public post on his personal facebook page that does a great job of explaining how he\u2019s doing . i\u2019ve embedded the post and copied the text below so you can read it here .\n\u201chello wonderful people ! ! ! ! for those that were following \u201calone\u201d and watching this crazy and amazing path , thank you ! ! ! ! your support and presence has been so inspiring . so nice to touch base with people that i haven\u2019t heard from in decades ! our paths might not be the same as it was but we have each other in our hearts and always will .\nthe producers had hundreds of hours of footage to work with to make a story that fit into this show .\ni do not envy them the task and i respect what they did . it all happened and i can honestly say the experience in patagonia , in many ways , was so much easier then watching the show for me . that boiled down to my own ego , i wanted to be the hero : ) ) ) ) . i went out there for many reasons , to test myself , to learn , to grow closer to myself and the earth , to feel life , to live , to show people this could be done and that you could be comfortable with the land ( the money was a secondary bonus ) . what i saw in the beginning episodes didn\u2019t show that for me and i kept going deeper into a place of dread at how they would show me physically deteriorate in front of my friends and families . and yes , you saw me deteriorate\n) ) ) . above all i wanted to be there ! of course there were moments of loneliness , sadness , hunger , but i placed all of them into individual moments and i knew that society and friends were not going anywhere . watching the last episode was so freeing in so many ways . of course it was closure but more then that i finally felt heard . \u201ci felt alive\u201d .\ni appreciate your further support and comments but know i am a bit overwhelmed by facebook : ) . at this point i am hoping to center a bit so please don\u2019t be upset if i step away from facebook for a time . it has helped me touch all of your lives again and i cherish that . i just get overloaded quick and need the simplicity of the outdoors for a while . hope to see many of you at winter count . we\u2019ll talk again : ) love you all , dave\u201d\nso it seems like dave is doing pretty well , thank goodness ! i think myself and many of the fans of the alone show would have liked to have seen more footage of the neat things dave was up to \u2013 and maybe we\u2019ll get to hear from him in the future . did you see that elaborate chess set he had carved ? it was beautiful !\nif you want to follow dave online , it looks like he does have a youtube channel , although it\u2019s not very active . maybe we\u2019ll see more from him in the future !\ni was sitting outside in the sun and suddenly thought : \u201ci wonder how dave from season 3 alone , is doing ? \u201d anyhow , got a great answer . thank you .\nthank you for stopping by kevin ! glad this post was helpful . \ud83d\ude42 i totally understand the allergy thing , darn ! it\u2019s still fun to talk about what you would plan to do though , isn\u2019t it ?\nsave my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .\nhello , my name is captain airyca ( erica ) and welcome to the alone show blog ! here you can find the latest news about alone show contestants and what they ' re up to now . urltoken\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nurltoken no longer supports internet explorer 9 or earlier . please upgrade your browser .\nnext month , mrs . kushner , 25 , is to become an associate in the tax department of davis polk & wardwell , the new york law firm . she graduated summa cum laude from cornell and received a law degree from columbia .\nher father , who is known as peter , is a partner in the new york law firm cahill gordon & reindel . he is also the chairman of the heckscher foundation for children in new york , which provides grants to organizations that help young people ; the bride is a trustee . her mother is the founder and chief executive of sloane square , a new york residential real estate firm .\nmr . kushner , 29 , is a vice president at goldman sachs in new york , working with the bank\u2019s special - situations group , where he focuses on investing in and lending to companies in the americas . he graduated cum laude from georgetown . he is a co - chairman of the urban arts partnership , a nonprofit organization in new york that provides arts programs for public school children .\nhis father is a founding partner in kushner , smith , joanou & gregson , an accounting firm in irvine , calif .\nwe\u2019re interested in your feedback on this page . tell us what you think .\naccessibility concerns ? email us at accessibility @ urltoken . we would love to hear from you .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbrygoo , e . r . 1985 . les types des scincid\u00e9s ( reptiles , sauriens ) du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , catalogue critique . bull . mus . natl . hist . nat . ( 4e s\u00e9r . ) 7 ( sect . a 3 ) , suppl . : 1 - 126\ncamp , charles lewis 1923 . classification of the lizards . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 48 ( 11 ) : 289 - 481 .\nziesmann , s . ; klaas , p . & janzen , p . 2007 . von skinken und anderen echsen [ sri lankas ] . draco 7 ( 30 ) : 18 - 23 - get paper here\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ncomparison of species richness and frequency cover of forest floor plants and lichens in sites invaded and uninvaded by the invasive club moss selaginella kraussiana ( kunze ) a . braun .\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\nselaginella species richness and abundance paper for ppq submission copy 21 august 2013 . pdf ( 171 . 1kb )\nselaginella kraussiana , or the african club moss , is a fern ally in the family selaginellaceae invasive to several countries including new zealand . this study was carried out to compare species richness and frequency cover in adjacent forest floor botanical communities with and without s . kraussiana using a paired experimental design . sites with s . kraussianahad reduced species richness , particularly the number of conifer and flowering plant species . frequency cover ( excluding s . kraussiana ) was not significantly affected .\nthis digital work is protected by copyright . it may be consulted by you , provided you comply with the provisions of the act and the following conditions of use : any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only , and you may not make them available to any other person . you will recognise the author ' s and publishers rights and give due acknowledgement where appropriate .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nonly a few studies are done on the skinks of sri lanka and the other reptile species . however , most of the studies indicate that these reptiles are endemic to sri lanka , and that most of them are highly threatened .\nmost skinks have smooth scales , possibly adapted for burrowing in soils and all have detachable tails that regenerate eventually .\nthis article will focus on a recent study done by sri lanka\u00eds top herpetologist anslem de silva and his team at the knuckles mountain region .\nthe data are from a study conducted in the mid 1980\u00eds , when the team measured the mulch level in many types of forests and plantations during the survey in 2004 and 2005 , it was less than 10 centimetres .\nin addition , soil erosion was high . thus , the team could foresee long - term , irreversible habitat degradation that could negatively impact on these and other fossorial animals that live in the humus of the forest floor .\ntherefore , the team believes it is important that the authorities take immediate steps to educate the cardamom cultivators in order to prevent further soil erosion and habitat degradation .\ntwo field techniques were used to investigate this subfossorial reptile : sampling of large leaf litter quadrats measuring 20m x 20m and patch sampling . patch sampling was found to be a more effective field method for discovering this animal because of its tendency to occur in certain types of habitat . when caught , individual animals were examined for abnormalities , damage , and external parasites . for females , reproductive status was noted . for a subset of animals , morphometric measurements were taken to examine morphological variation . after photographing , the animals were released back at the same locality where they were found .\nspecies in having rudimentary bud - like pair of posterior limbs surrounded by small scales situated on either side the cloacae . the scale rows at mid body are 26 to 28 and the interparietal broader than frontal . also an overlying mark on the interparietal was observed in\nthe scale rows at mid body are 22 and the interparietal is narrower than frontal . in both species well - developed forelimbs are not present , slight bulges in the pectoral region surrounded by small scales signal their position .\nderaniyagala ( 1932 ) reported the following measurements for an unsexed specimen : total length 107 mm , of which the tail was 44 mm , and a juvenile caught in july was also measured : snout to vent 35 mm and tail 32 mm .\nare diurnal reptiles . when exposed , either by the lifting of logs , stones or leaf litter , they were quick to wriggle and hide within the loose humus , soil , leaf litter , under stones , crevices and holes in the earth . when handled some showed a tendency to bite and wriggle in order to escape . it was observed that ( similar to\ndries and shrivels within 10 - 15 minutes when removed from its moist habitat .\nis restricted to a small range in the north east knuckles with no overlap . however , previous reports on the knuckles did not list this species ( bambaradeniya and ekanayake 2003 ; cooray 1998 ; ginige 1994 ; rathnayake et al . , 1999 ) .\nin addition , the negative impacts of cardamom cultivation at the knuckles have been extensively reported ( abeygunawardena & vincent 1993 ; gunawardane 2003 ) . studies have shown that in natural forested areas without cardamom cultivation the\na\nhorizon is well preserved and covered with mulch to a depth of 30 - 35 cm , whilst in cardamom fields the mulch level has been reduced to 15 - 25 cm ( madduma bandara , 1991 ) .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser ."]}
{"id": 2015, "summary": [{"text": "the malabar trevally , carangoides malabaricus , ( also known as the malabar jack , malabar kingfish and nakedshield kingfish ) is a species of large inshore marine fish of the jack family , carangidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is distributed throughout the indian and west pacific oceans from south africa in the west to japan and australia in the east , inhabiting reefs and sandy bays on the continental shelf .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the malabar trevally is similar to many of the other species in the genus carangoides , with the number of gill rakers and the grey-brown colour of the tongue being the diagnostic features .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the malabar trevally is a predator , taking a variety of small fish , cephalopods and crustaceans .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the species is of minor economic importance throughout its range , caught by a variety of net and handline methods . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "malabar trevally", "paragraphs": ["we are acknowledged as prominent manufacturer and exporter of a fine grade of malabar trevally , which has managed to make its name in the international market . the clean and fresh quality malabar trevally is processed and packed as per the standards set by the seafood industry . moreover , customized packaging facilities are provided to the customers for malabar trevally . scientific name\nwe are acknowledged for offering malabar trevally fish . the clean and fresh quality malabar trevally is processed and packed as per the standards set by the seafood industry . moreover , customized packaging facilities are provided to the customers as per their requirement .\nthe species is commonly referred to as the brassy trevally , tea - leaf trevally , or greenback trevally in reference to its colouration , while papuan trevally is used in reference to the specific epithet . [ 4 ]\nthe brassy trevally , caranx papuensis ( also known as the brassy kingfish , papuan trevally , tea - leaf trevally , and green back trevally ) is a species of large marine fish classified in the jack family , carangidae .\nday , f . ( 1865 ) .\non the fishes of cochin , the malabar coast of india part i\n.\nthe malabar trevally is also known as the malabar jack , malabar kingfish and nakedshield kingfish . the malabar trevally has the typical body profile of a jack , with a strongly compressed body almost ovate in shape . the colour of the malabar trevally is usually a silver overlain by a bluish - grey hue on the upper side of the fish fading to a silvery white on the underside and lower flanks . it is marketed fresh , may be dried or salted . this video is taken in kasimedu , north chennai . kasimedu is one of the important fishing port in chennai . a usual day starts here busily at 4 a . m . they supply fish to some of the top hotels in the city . nearly 30 , 000 people visit the auction hall situated near the harbour everyday . 30 percent is sent to other states such as karnataka and kerala too .\nthe bluefin trevally is one of the premier gamefish of the indo - pacific region , although is often overshadowed by its larger cousin , the giant trevally .\nmost bluefin trevally sold in hawaii are now imported from other indo - pacific nations .\ncarangoides praeustus ( anonymous [ e . t . bennett ] , 1830 ) ( brownback trevally )\nmuch in the way the related species , giant trevally have been observed to do in captivity .\nhawaii also keeps catch records , with these showing the species is taken in far less numbers than the giant trevally , with only 704 pounds taken compared to 10 149 lbs of giant trevally in 1998 .\nand a row of widely spaced conical teeth on the lower jaw . the blacktip trevally has 24 to 27\ncarangoides orthogrammus ( d . s . jordan & c . h . gilbert , 1882 ) ( island trevally )\nthe bluefin trevally has been successfully kept in large saltwater aquaria , but require large water volumes to adapt well .\nthe blacktip trevally is a large fish , growing to a maximum recorded size of 1 m in length and 12 . 5\nin hawaii found the bluefin trevally is the most common trevally species taken , accounting for over 80 % of the carangid catch . the authors note that this may not only reflect its abundance , but also it vulnerability to specific fishing methods used in the tournament .\nthe golden trevally is not currently considered threatened ; however , it is exploited for small scale commercial or subsistence fisheries in coastal waters , usually using artisanal fishing methods such as gillnets and spears . juvenile golden trevally may be taken for the aquarium trade ( 2 ) .\nthe bluefin trevally hunts both as a solitary individual and in groups of up to 20 , with most fish preferring an individual approach .\nthe bluefin trevally is a large fish , growing to a maximum known length of 117 cm and a weight of 43 . 5 kg ,\nan onion trevally , carangoides coeruleopinnatus , in lembeh strait , sulawesi , indonesia . source : jim greenfield / fishbase . license : all rights reserved\nbray , r . a . & justine , j . - l . 2006 : prosorhynchus maternus sp . n . ( digenea : bucephalidae ) from the malabar grouper epinephelus malabaricus ( perciformes : serranidae ) off new caledonia . folia parasitologica , 53 , 181 - 188 . doi : 10 . 14411 / fp . 2006 . 024\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - golden trevally ( gnathanodon speciosus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - golden trevally ( gnathanodon speciosus )\ntitle =\narkive species - golden trevally ( gnathanodon speciosus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ncalculations suggest each individual bluefin trevally consumes around 45 kg of fish per year on average , making it one of the most effective predators in this habitat .\nreferred to as the ' bluefin trevally ' , with the species ' s distinctive blue fins contributing to most of its other common names . these include bluefin jack , bluefin kingfish , blue ulua , omilu , bluefinned crevalle and spotted trevally . the species has many other non - english names due to its wide distribution .\nbeing the most common . despite the preference of several families , bluefin trevally do take a very wide variety of fish in small amounts , including various species of\nthe rapid decline in the population has seen a focus on breeding the bluefin trevally in captivity . the species ' aquaculture potential was first investigated in a 1975 experiment in\nspawning occurs during april and may , with studies on the biology of the golden trevally showing that growth of the population occurs fastest during the summer months ( 2 ) .\n; in this mode the trevally change their colour to a dark pigmentation state and hide behind large coral lumps close to where the aggregations ( often spawning reef fish ) occur .\nlong term studies have found the fish may range up to 10 . 2 km over several months , however is much less restricted in its movements than its relative , the giant trevally .\nindividuals of between 40 and 170 mm have been recorded in south african estuaries , where they are the least tolerant carangid to the brackish and freshwater conditions of these systems . bluefin trevally can tolerate\nknaggs , b . ( 2008 ) . knaggs , b . , ed .\n12 rounds with trevally\n. saltwater fishing . silverwater , nsw : express publications ( 58 ) : 72\u201380 .\nthe bluefin trevally displays a remarkable array of hunting techniques , ranging from midwater attacks to ambush and taking advantage of larger forage fish . the species is reported to hunt during the day , particularly at\n, once the prey school has been attacked , the trevally chases down the prey as they scatter back to cover in the corals , often colliding with coral as they attempt to snatch a fish .\nthe golden trevally is found throughout the indo - pacific region , east to the pacific coast of the americas ( baja california , mexico and ecuador ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .\n\u2014 melsvapelek\u0117 karang\u0117 statusas t sritis zoologija | vardynas taksono rangas r\u016b\u0161is atitikmenys : lot . caranx melampygus angl . bluefin jack ; bluefin trevally rus . \u0437\u0432\u0435\u0437\u0434\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0441 ; \u043a\u0440\u0430\u043f\u0447\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0441 ; \u0441\u0438\u043d\u0435\u043f\u0451\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043a\u0441 ry\u0161iai : platesnis terminas \u2013\u2026 \u2026\nthe imposter trevally inhabits the tropical waters of the indian and west pacific oceans . its range extends from the gulf of oman through to india and sri lanka in the west , with a break in records from sri lanka to the gulf of thailand . in the west pacific the imposter trevally inhabits south east asian waters from the gulf of thailand to sumatra and borneo . it is distributed east towards the philippines and guam , and south to australia .\nconfined to inshore coastal habitats , the golden trevally is usually encountered over sandy bottoms , lagoons and coral and rocky reefs , to depths of around 50 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .\nknaggs , b . ( 2008 ) . knaggs , b . . ed . 12 rounds with trevally . saltwater fishing ( no . 58 ) . silverwater , nsw : express publications . pp . 72\u201380 . isbn 8233000551 .\nas other fish , the brassy trevally is the host of various parasites . internal parasites include the bucephalid digenean prosorhynchoides lamprelli in the intestine [ 17 ] and external parasites include the protomicrocotylid monogenean lethacotyle vera on the gills . [ 18 ]\ntrials . the catch statistics for the bluefin trevally are poorly reported in most of its range , with only parts of the western indian ocean supplying information to the fao . in this region , catch levels have fluctuated between 2 and 50\nthe brassy trevally is not of high importance to commercial fisheries , often finding its way to market as bycatch in various netting and hook - and - line fisheries . [ 8 ] catch statistics are not kept for the species . the species is of some importance to recreational fishermen , and is considered a good gamefish and is often taken by various fish baits , as well as lures and flies . [ 19 ] despite this , it is rarely targeted by anglers , who overlook it for larger relatives such as giant trevally and bluefin trevally , [ 20 ] with the species often being an incidental catch , and rarely kept . [ 21 ] the species is also commonly taken by spearfishermen . brassy trevally is considered to be an excellent table fish . [ 11 ] the species has been held in large saltwater aquaria , with studies at the reunion island aquarium reporting the species adjusts to aquarium life , but needs a large tank . [ 22 ]\nthe imposter trevally inhabits coastal waters throughout its range , often found over the sandy continental shelf in the waters off north west australia . here it is known to form cohabit with carangoides coeruleopinnatus and carangoides malabaricus in waters 30 to 140 m deep .\nthe imposter trevally is of little importance to fisheries throughout its range , occasionally caught using hook and line , bottom trawls and various types of artisanal nets . it is often found in the bycatch of northern australian prawn trawlers , and usually discarded .\nonce the prey is close enough to the hiding spot , the fish ram the base of the school , before chasing down individual fish . these dark fish in ambush mode vigorously drive away any other bluefin trevally that stray too close to the aggregation .\nin many cases , the species uses changes in the depth of the reef such as ledges to conceal its ambush attacks . bluefin trevally also enter lagoons as the tide rises to hunt small baitfish in the shallow confines , leaving as the tide falls .\ndistinguished from other trevally species by its striking colouration , the golden trevally ( gnathanodon speciosus ) is beautiful bright yellow or golden as a juvenile and young adult , with a narrow black bar through the eye and between 7 and 12 vertical black bars , of alternating widths , along the body . the fins of this small fish are yellow , while the tail ( caudal fin ) is black - tipped and deeply forked . the second dorsal fin is larger than the first , and the pectoral fins are long and sickle - shaped ( 3 ) . as the golden trevally grows , the yellow becomes more silvery and iridescent , the black bars fade , and scattered , blackish blotches develop on the sides of the body ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the golden trevally has thick , fleshy lips and a protractile ( extendable ) mouth . adults lack teeth , and only a few small teeth are present in the lower jaw of juveniles ( 4 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) .\nthe brassy trevally is classified within the genus caranx , one of a number of groups known as the jacks or trevallies . caranx itself is part of the larger jack and horse mackerel family carangidae , a group of percoid fishes in the order perciformes . [ 1 ]\nzhao , z . ; lu , y . ( 2006 ) .\nestablishment and characterization of two cell lines from bluefin trevally caranx melampygus\n. diseases of aquatic organisms 68 ( 2 ) : 91\u2013100 . doi : 10 . 3354 / dao068091 . pmid 16532601 .\nthe imposter trevally is classified within the genus carangoides , one of a number of groups of fish referred to as jacks and trevallies . carangoides is further classified in the family carangidae , itself part of the suborder percoidei and the order perciformes ; the perch - like fishes .\na silvery grey trevally often with five indistinct darker bars and scattered yellow spots on sides , a small black blotch on the upper part of the gill cover , and no scales on the breast to beyond the origin of the pelvic fins . juveniles have a filamentous lobe on the second dorsal fin .\nthe upper body of the bluefin trevally is a silver - brassy colour , fading to silvery white on the underside of the fish , often with blue hues . after they reach lengths greater than 16 cm , blue - black spots appear on the upper flanks of the fish , with these becoming more prolific with age .\nmeyer , c . g . ; honebrink , r . r . ( 2005 ) .\ntransintestinal expulsion of surgically implanted dummy transmitters by bluefin trevally\u2014implications for long - term movement studies\n. transactions of the american fisheries society 134 ( 3 ) : 602\u201360 . doi : 10 . 1577 / t04 - 082 . 1 .\nthe golden trevally is a fast - swimming , predatory fish . it typically hunts in small groups , foraging in the sand for invertebrates ( usually molluscs and crustaceans ) and small fish , which are sucked up into the mouth by extending the protractile jaws into a tube ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) . juvenile golden trevally often mimic the behaviour of pilot fish ( naucrates ductor ) , associating closely with sharks and other large fish ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) , and are also known to live among the tentacles of jellyfish ( possibly for protection against predators ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) .\nchambers , m . d . ( ostrowski , a . c . ) .\ndevelopment of bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus ) and greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) for offshore aquaculture\n. joining forces with industry : proceedings third international conference on open ocean aquaculture , corpus christi , texas , may 10\u201315 , 1998 : 132\u2013141 .\nmasuda , r . ; ziemann , d . a . ( 2003 ) .\nvulnerability of pacific threadfin juveniles to predation by bluefin trevally and hammerhead shark : size dependent mortality and handling stress\n. aquaculture 217 ( 1 - 4 ) : 249\u2013257 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s0044 - 8486 ( 02 ) 00254 - 5 .\nthe brassy trevally is a large species of fish , growing to a known maximum of 88 cm in length and 6 . 4 kg in weight . [ 4 ] as its name suggests , the brassy trevally is a brassy to yellow greenish colour dorsally , becoming silvery white on the underside . juveniles generally lack the brassy tinge , being silver all over . [ 7 ] the species ' head and body above the lateral line is scattered with small black spots , with few spots occasionally much lower near the pectoral fins . these spots become more numerous with age . the species also has a conspicuous pale silvery - white spot with black margins shoulder near the upper opercle . the fins are yellow to dusky with the exception of the caudal fin , which has a dusky upper lobe and a dusky to yellow lower lobe and distinctive narrow white band on the trailing edge . [ 8 ] [ 9 ] it is often confused with the giant trevally , caranx ignobilis , but is best distinguished by its lighter dorsal colouring and abundant black spots .\nholland , k . n . ; lowe , c . g . & wetherbee , b . m . ( 1996 ) .\nmovements and dispersal patterns of blue trevally ( caranx melampygus ) in a fisheries conservation zone\n. fisheries research 25 ( 3 - 4 ) : 279\u2013292 . doi : 10 . 1016 / 0165 - 7836 ( 95 ) 00442 - 4 .\nmorikake , a . m . ; moriwake , v . n . , ostrowski , a . c . & lee , c . - s . ( 2001 ) .\nnatural spawning of the bluefin trevally caranx melampygus in captivity\n. aquaculture 203 ( 1 - 2 ) : 159\u2013164 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s0044 - 8486 ( 01 ) 00621 - 4 .\nkim , b . g . ; divikaran , s . , brown , c . l . & ostrowski , a . c . ( 2001 ) .\ncomparative digestive enzyme ontogeny in two marine larval fishes : pacific threadfin ( polydactylus sexfilis ) and bluefin trevally ( caranx melampygus )\n. fish physiology and biochemistry 24 ( 3 ) : 225\u2013241 . doi : 10 . 1023 / a : 1014054431627 .\nthe blacktip trevally ' s colouration is distinctive , with the upper body being dark bronze to yellow green while the lower body fades to silvery white below . the caudal fin is bright to olive yellow , with the top half normally black to dark , giving the species its common name . other fins range from bright yellow to dusky with little yellow at all . the species also lacks the dark spot on the\ntime movements are less extensive than daytime movements , with the trevally moving rapidly between several small reef sections , before slowing down and milling in one patch for around an hour . the fish living in a particular region congregate in one area at night , before returning to their individual daytime range during the day . the reason for this congregation is unclear , but may be important to the social structure of the species .\nonly one study has thoroughly recorded the diet of the imposter trevally , which was carried out in albatross bay , australia . it was found teleost fish made up 73 % of its diet , cephalopods 16 % and a variety of crustaceans including brachyurans and stomatopods the remainder . it is thought that the coexisting c . coeruleopinnatus and c . malabaricus use diet partitioning to allow this cohabitation . nothing is known of the species reproduction and growth patterns .\nthe imposter trevally is a silver to bluish grey dorsally , becoming silvery white below . a major distinguishing feature is the white to pale grey tongue , with this also seen in the carangid genus uraspis although their different body shapes prevent confusion with c . talamparoides . the operculum has a small black spot on its upper margin . the soft dorsal and anal fins are dusky in colour , while the caudal fin is dusky yellow with black distal margins .\nthe brassy trevally inhabits both inshore and offshore environments , predominantly inhabiting the seaward side of reef complexes or deepwater pinnacles as an adult . [ 11 ] other habitats the species is known from include rock outcrops in sandy bays and lagoons , [ 12 ] while juveniles are often found in tidal mangrove - lined creeks in turbid waters . [ 13 ] juveniles are also found in estuaries throughout their range , occasionally extending to the upper reaches of rivers . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ]\nthe brassy trevally is a predatory fish , traveling either individually or in small schools , where it hunts down a variety of prey including small fish , squid , prawns , and crabs . [ 11 ] studies on the species in natal estuaries found juveniles take predominantly crustaceans as prey , switching to teleosts as they mature . [ 14 ] other aspects of the species biology are poorly understood , including reproduction and movements , although catch data indicate higher numbers occur in south africa in summer . [ 11 ]\nthe brassy trevally is widespread throughout the tropical and subtropical waters of the indian and west pacific oceans . its range extends from south africa and madagascar north along the east african coast , but no records of the species are known from the red sea or persian gulf . records resume from india eastward throughout southeast asia , the indonesian archipelago and numerous indian ocean and east pacific island groups . the species is known from as far south as sydney , australia [ 10 ] and as far north as the ryukyu islands of japan . its range extends eastward to the marquesas islands in the central pacific . [ 4 ] [ 8 ]\nit is similar in general appearance to most jacks in the genus , having a compressed , oblong body , with the dorsal profile more convex than the ventral profile , particularly anteriorly . [ 8 ] the dorsal fin is in two distinct parts ; the first consisting of eight spines and the second of one spine and 21 to 23 soft rays . the anal fin consists of two anteriorly detached spines followed by one spine and 16 to 19 soft rays , [ 9 ] while the pelvic fins have one spine followed by 19 to 20 soft rays . the lateral line is moderately arched anteriorly , with 53 to 61 scales in this section , while the straight section contains none to three scales and 31 to 39 strong scutes . the breast is naked ventrally with the exception of a small patch of scales before the pelvic fin . [ 7 ] the species has weakly developed adipose eyelids , while its dentition consists of an outer row of widely spaced canines and an inner band of villiform teeth in the upper jaw with a row of widely spaced conical teeth on the lower jaw . the brassy trevally has 26 to 30 gill rakers and 24 vertebrae . [ 8 ]\nthe imposter trevally is a relatively small species , growing to a maximum known length of 30 cm , still making it small compared to many of its relatives . the overall shape of the fish is similar to most of the other species in carangoides , having a strongly compressed almost ovate body , with the dorsal profile somewhat more convex than the ventral . this asymmetry is due to the dorsal profile of the head being strongly elevated to the nape . the dorsal fin is in two distinct sections ; the first consisting of 8 spines and the second of 1 spine and 20 to 23 soft rays . the long section of the anal fin is preceded by two detached spines , while the main fin has 1 spine and 17 to 19 soft rays . the lobes of both the soft dorsal and anal fins are low , being shorter than the head length . the lateral line has a moderate anterior arch , with the curved section of the line much longer than the straight section . there are 32 to 52 scales on the lateral line , with 20 to 32 of these being weak scutes at the base of the caudal fin . the breast is devoid of scales , with this area extending to behind the pelvic fins , and often as far as the anal fin , and reaching as far up as the pectoral fin base . the jaws both have bands of small villiform teeth , with some outer teeth becoming conical at the front of the mouth . there are 27 to 31 gill rakers and 24 vertebrae in total .\nan annotated list of the 63 species in 23 genera of carangid fishes known from australian waters is presented . included in these 63 are eight endemic species , eight new australian records ( alepes vari , carangoides equula , c . plagiotaenia , c . talamparoides , caranx lugubris , decapterus kurroides , d . tabl and seriola rivoliana ) and a new species in the genus alepes . a generic key and specific keys to alectis , alepes , carangoides , scomberoides , selar , ulua and uraspis are given . the systematics of the 32 australian species of alectis , alepes , atule , carangoides ,\ncaranx\n, elagatis , gnathanodon , megalaspis , pantolabus , scomberoides , selar , selaroides , seriolina , ulua and uraspis are covered in detail . for each species a recommended common name , other common names , australian secondary synonymy , diagnosis , colour notes , description , comparison with other species , maximum recorded size , ecological notes and distribution are given . specific primary synonymies are listed when the type locality is australia or papua new guinea\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nturkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences ( journal , magazine , 2001 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : turkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences publisher : [ erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar ] : central fisheries resarch institute . isbn / issn : 1303 - 2712 oclc : 890294421\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nturkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences / ; [ erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar ] : central fisheries resarch institute .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfrench , carangue , the name of a caribbean fish ; 1836 ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; reef - associated ; amphidromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 20 - 140 m ( ref . 11441 ) . tropical ; 40\u00b0n - 40\u00b0s , 26\u00b0e - 170\u00b0w\nindo - west pacific : east coast of africa ( without verified records from the red sea ) to sri lanka and farther eastward to the gulf of thailand , north to japan and south to australia .\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 60 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2334 ) ; common length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2334 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 9 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 20 - 23 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 17 - 19 .\nadults occur in the continental shelf , near rocks and coral reefs ( ref . 7300 ) . they feed on crustaceans , small squids , and fishes ( ref . 5213 ) . juveniles are found in sandy bays ( ref . 2334 ) . marketed fresh , may be dried or salted ( ref . 5284 ) .\nrandall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene , 1990 . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p . ( ref . 2334 )\n) : 22 . 6 - 28 . 4 , mean 27 . 2 ( based on 887 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02239 ( 0 . 01635 - 0 . 03066 ) , b = 2 . 91 ( 2 . 85 - 2 . 97 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 9 \u00b10 . 52 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 68 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species can be easily confused with carangoides talamparoides ( w . smith - vaniz pers . comm . 2015 ) .\njustification : this species occurs western indian ocean , from south africa to the persian gulf , east to the indo - malayan region , south to queensland and north to japan . this species inhabits coral and rocky reefs . this species is utilised for human consumption and is marketed fresh and dried salted , although this has not yielded any observed or suspected population declines . there are no known major threats to this species , and there are there are numerous marine protected areas that intersect with its range . therefore , it is listed as least concern .\nthis species is broadly distributed in the western indian ocean , from south africa and madagascar , including the seychelles , to the persian gulf , east to the indo - malayan region , south to queensland and new south whales , australia , and north to japan ( where rare ) ( smith - vaniz 1984 , randall 1995 ) . this species is also known from mauritius and the seychelles ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . org , 2015 - 03 - 09 ) . the depth range 20 to 140 m ( randall 1995 ) .\naustralia ; bahrain ; brunei darussalam ; cambodia ; china ; disputed territory ( paracel is . , spratly is . ) ; djibouti ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; iran , islamic republic of ; iraq ; japan ; kenya ; korea , republic of ; kuwait ; madagascar ; malaysia ; mauritius ; mozambique ; myanmar ; oman ; pakistan ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; qatar ; r\u00e9union ; saudi arabia ; seychelles ; singapore ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; timor - leste ; united arab emirates ; viet nam ; yemen\nthis species occurs over coral and rocky reefs over the continental shelf while juveniles are mainly found in shallow sandy bays . it is moderately tolerant of turbid waters . this species diet consists of crustaceans , small squids and fishes ( smith - vaniz 1984 ) . the maximum recorded total length ( tl ) is 60 cm ( randall et al . 1990 ) .\nthis species is collected mainly by hook - and - line , but also gillnets , and traps and is marketed fresh and dried salted ( smith - vaniz 1984 ) . this species is also taken as part of trawl fishery by - catch in some portions of its range ( hosseini et al . 2012 ) .\nalthough this species is taken by hook - and - line , small traps and gill nets , there have been no observed or suspected population declines as a result . there are no other known major threats to this species .\nthere are no known species - specific conservation measures for this species ; however , its range overlaps with a number of marine protected areas ( iucn and unep 2014 ) .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\nsmith - vaniz , w . f . & williams , i . 2016 .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t20429800a115374938 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nyearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,\ncodes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases\n, pp . 15 pp . + appendices\nmcculloch , a . r . 1929 ,\na check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part ii\n, memoirs of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 145\u2013329\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0d59de4d - a4b0 - 4155 - 8178 - d5ad5da526f0\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 8cb46649 - b401 - 4e85 - 98cc - bc5b7263200d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 421615\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nsince its inception in the year 1997 , poonam ice & cold storage is witnessing growth and progress at an accelerated pace . the unit is situated on a coastal area surrounded by the arabian sea . under the efficient supervision of the management team , comprising of mrs . jaya . p . lodhari ( proprietor ) , mr . premji . k . lodhari ( p . a . holder / md ) , mr . nayan . p . lodhari ( marketing manager ) , the company has reached new horizons of success . moreover , the management and staff of poonam ice & cold storage stick to their commitment to the customers of providing the safest quality good seafood available in indian waters .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\ncompanies by fish | seafood species - companies listed by the fish or seafood product that they deal in . fish & seafood products listed by common name .\nseafood producers - seafood & fish producers , companies that produce and manufacture seafood products , fishing boat & fleet owners .\nbait suppliers - companies who supply fishing bait products to commercial fishermen and wholesale suppliers of bait product to tackle stores .\nwholesale seafood - wholesale fish suppliers and seafood distributors , local suppliers or in country suppliers .\nretail seafood suppliers - companies who supply fish and seafood products to retail seafood outlets .\nseafood restaurants - companies who specialise in supplying seafood and fish products to restaurants , hotels and catering establishments .\ncompanies who provide services to commercial fishing and seafood industries directory : aquaculture , business , training , marketing consultants , fish processing services , biosecurity , environment , marine engineers & repairs , customs services , legal , finance , crewing agencies , insurance , testing services , ship provisioning , news & publications . . .\nsuppliers of other products to the commercial fishing & seafood industry : ice machines , refrigeration , fish & seafood processing equipment , packaging supplies , cleaning , fish feed , fishing tackle , marine engines parts & spares , repairs , fuel , other food products . . .\n, leather jacket fish , crabs , cod fish and many other varieties of fresh water fishes and seafood . we ensure and supply quality and hygienic frozen seafood adhering to the standards and tested under supervision of highly experienced q c staffs .\nkeshodwala foods india - processors , exporters , wholesalers of silver pomfret , cuttlefish , squid , octopus , shrimps , lobster , crab , ribbon fish , reef cod , kingfish , sea bream , emperor , mackerel , tuna , snapper . . .\nat licious , we\u2019re big meat - lovers . and by big , we mean huge . so when it comes to the meat we put on your plate , we\u2019re extremely picky . every single product is handpicked by a team with years of experience .\nfor meat to stay fresh and retain its natural juices , it needs to be stored at a temperature between 0\u00b0 and 5\u00b0 . we maintain this temperature from the time we procure the product to cleaning , cutting and storing it , until it leaves for delivery . and even when it\u2019s out for delivery , we keep it chilled right up to your doorstep . did we mention that we\u2019re obsessed ?\ndoesn\u2019t everyone do this ? not really . most other places first weigh the meat , then cut up the pieces , and throw out the parts which aren\u2019t fit to eat , such as offal , gizzard , wingtips , etc . but you still pay based on the original weight even though what you finally get is 10 % to 30 % less\nlicious is your one - stop fresh meat delivery shop . in here , you get nothing but the freshest meat & seafood , delivered straight to your doorstep . now you can buy meat online anytime at your convenience . indulge in our diverse selection : chicken , lamb , seafood ( fish , prawns , crabs ) , marinades & cold cuts . all our products are 100 % halal and completely natural and healthy . once you ' ve experienced licious , you ' ll never go back to the old way of buying meat and seafood .\nlive murrel fish ( viraal meen ) , mussels , seer fish , mahi mahi , original sea bass , travelly ( paarai ) , black / white pomfret , indian salmon , cobia ( nei - meen ) , red snapper , grouper fish , anchovy ( nethili ) , lady fish ( kelangan ) , japanese thread fin ( sankara ) , sea cat fish ( keluthi ) , shark , yellow fin tuna , halibut , rohu , pearl spot , tilapia , indian basa , white squid , jumbo prawns and much more available . add our whatsapp number 9171072896 in your phone to receive regular updates / recipes . call before 3 . 00 pm for today delivery .\nall you have to do is refer supreme seafood by way of sharing our website links or social media posts like facebook , twitter , pinterest , you tube , g + to your friends or relatives . when they order for the first time and refer your name and phone number as in our records , we will deduct rs . 100 on your next order and deduct rs . 100 for your friend ' s / relative ' s first order .\nwhich at that time was a common genus for placing carangid fishes . the origin of the\n, the species was transferred there , where it has remained . there is some confusion over a species described by\ndespite this , the name remains valid amongst some authorities . a second , later independent description of the fish by\nconsists of 2 anteriorly detached spines followed by 1 spine and 15 to 17 soft rays .\nthe pattern of breast scales is variable , ranging from fully scaled to naked ventrally . the species has moderately well developed\nand individually throughout its habitat , with juveniles more commonly found in shoals . they appear to be\nand higher in the water column . prey items include a variety of fish ,\nand can be taken by fish or squid baits as well as various patterns of lure and fly .\nwhen taken from the water , the fish often ' grunt ' in similar manner to a young pig .\nsmith , j . l . b . ( 1968 ) .\nstudies in carangid fishes no . 4 . the identity of\nsmith - vaniz , w . ( 1986 ) .\nfamily no . 210 : carangidae\n. in smith & heemstra .\nnew , rare or little known scombrids . no . ii . carangidae\nsmith - vaniz , w . ( 1999 ) .\ncarangidae\n. in carpenter , k . e . ; niem , v . h .\nthe living marine resources of the western central pacific vol 4 . bony fishes part 2 ( mugilidae to carangidae )\n. fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . rome : fao . pp .\nkhalaf , m . a . ; krupp , f . ( 2003 ) .\ntwo new records of fishes from the red sea\n.\n, from kagoshima : the first records from japan and northernmost records for the species\n.\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 6 / 13 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nthe species was first scientifically described by the dutch ichthyologist pieter bleeker in 1852 based on the holotype specimen taken from western sumatra in indonesia . bleeker named this new species carangoides talamparoides , with the specific epithet having a slightly ambiguous meaning . talam is a length measurement spanning the length of the thumb to little finger , par is greek for ' equal ' and oides translates to ' like ' - possibly indicating the small size of the holotype . bleeker ' s classification is still considered to be correct to this day , with some authors incorrectly reassigning the species to caranx , and only one junior synonym has been applied ; carangoides gibber by henry weed fowler .\nthe species was first scientifically described by the australian zoologists haynes gibbs alleyne and william john macleay in 1877 based on a specimen collected from hall sound off papua new guinea , which was designated to be the holotype . [ 2 ] they named the species caranx papuensis , with the specific epithet taking its name from papua new guinea where the holotype was taken . [ 3 ] they referred the species to the genus caranx , where it has remained . the species was independently redescribed twice ; the first by samuel garman , who applied the name caranx regularis and then by j . l . b . smith with the name caranx celetus . [ 4 ] the species was apparently widely confused with the now dubious caranx sansun , [ 5 ] a move which resulted in smith trying to resolve the taxon by renaming the species that had been identified as c . sansun , [ 6 ] which led to several now defunct junior synonyms .\nhosese , d . f . ; bray , d . j . ; paxton , j . r . ; alen , g . r . ( 2007 ) . zoological catalogue of australia vol . 35 ( 2 ) fishes . sydney : csiro . p . 1150 . isbn 978 - 0 - 643 - 09334 - 8 .\nalleyne , haynes g . ; william j . macleay ( 1877 ) .\nthe ichthyology of the chevert expedition\n. proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . 1 ( 3\u20134 ) : 261\u2013281 . issn 0370 - 047x .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2009 ) .\ncaranx papuensis\nin fishbase . april 2009 version .\nfricke , r . ( 1999 ) . fishes of the mascarene islands ( r\u00e9union , mauritius , rodriguez ) : an annotated checklist , with descriptions of new species . koeltz scientific books . p . 759 . isbn 978 - 3 - 87429 - 411 - 9 .\nsmith , j . l . b . ( 1968 ) .\nstudies in carangid fishes no . 4 . the identity of scomber sansun forsskal , 1775\n. occasional papers of the department of ichthyology , rhodes university . 15 : 173\u2013184 . issn 0075 - 207x .\nlin , pai - lei ; shao , kwang - tsao ( 1999 ) .\na review of the carangid fishes ( family carangidae ) from taiwan with descriptions of four new records\n. zoological studies . 38 ( 1 ) : 33\u201368 .\n. fao species identification guide for fishery purposes . rome : fao . pp . 2659\u20132757 .\nrandall , john ernest ; roger c . steene ; gerald r . allen ( 1997 ) . fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . university of hawaii press . p . 161 . isbn 0 - 8248 - 1895 - 4 .\nhutchins , b . ; swainston , r . ( 1986 ) . sea fishes of southern australia : complete field guide for anglers and divers . melbourne : swainston publishing . p . 187 . isbn 1 - 86252 - 661 - 3 .\nvan der elst , rudy ; peter borchert ( 1994 ) . a guide to the common sea fishes of southern africa . new holland publishers . p . 142 . isbn 1 - 86825 - 394 - 5 .\nlaroche , j . ; e . baran ; rsoandrasana , n . b . ( 1997 ) .\ntemporal patterns in a fish assemblage of a semiarid mangrove zone in madagascar\n. journal of fish biology . 51 ( 1 ) : 3\u201320 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8649 . 1997 . tb02509 . x . pmid 9236084 .\nblaber , s . j . m . ; cyrus , d . p . ( 1983 ) .\nthe biology of carangidae ( teleostei ) in natal estuaries\n. journal of fish biology . 22 ( 2 ) : 173\u2013188 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8649 . 1983 . tb04738 . x .\nkuo , s . r . ; h . j . lin ; k . t . shao ( 1999 ) .\nfish assemblages in the mangrove creeks of northern and southern taiwan\n. estuaries . coastal and estuarine research federation . 22 ( 4 ) : 1004\u20131015 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1353079 . issn 0160 - 8347 . jstor 1353079 .\njustine j - l , rahmouni c , gey d , schoelinck c , hoberg ep ( 2013 ) .\nhansford - steele , b . ( 2004 ) . african fly - fishing handbook . struik . p . 472 . isbn 978 - 1 - 86872 - 882 - 4 .\n. department of fisheries , perth , western australia . no . 153 : 1\u201364 . archived from\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses .\ngold - barred jack , golden horsmackerel , golden jack , golden king , golden kingfish .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ngrandcourt , e . m . , al abdessalaam , t . z . , francis , f . and al shamsi , a . ( 2004 ) population biology and assessment of representatives of the family carangidae carangoides bajad and gnathanodon speciosus ( forssk\u00b0al , 1775 ) , in the southern arabian gulf . fisheries research , 69 : 331\u2013341\nvan der elst , r . ( 1993 ) a guide to the common sea fishes of southern africa . struik publishers , cape town , south africa .\nrandall , j . e . ( 1995 ) coastal fishes of oman . crawford house publishing pty ltd , bathurst , australia .\nking , d . and fraser , v . ( 2001 ) more reef fishes and nudibranchs : east and south coast of southern africa . struik publishers , cape town , south africa .\ngrove , j . s . and lavenberg , r . j . ( 1997 ) the fishes of the gal\u00e1pagos islands . stanford university press , stanford , california .\nrandall , j . e . , allen , g . r . and steene , r . c . ( 1997 ) fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea ( revised edition ) . crawford house publishing pty ltd , bathurst , australia .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nplease fill up the details and send an enquiry to buy / import / export this product to your country with your specification .\ncarangidae is a family of fish which includes the jacks , pompanos , jack mackerels , runners , and scads . they are marine fishes found in the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans . most species are fast - swimming predatory fishes that hunt in the waters above reefs and in the open sea ; some dig in the sea floor for invertebrates .\npayment terms preferable are tt ( tele - transfer of 30 % advance ) or lc ( letter of credit 45 days ) . however , we can adapt to your requirements ."]}
{"id": 2031, "summary": [{"text": "long run is a retired national hunt racehorse owned by robert waley-cohen and trained during his racing career by nicky henderson in great britain and later by his owner . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "long run ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["long run won ' t be ready to run this season ,\nsaid the owner on twitter .\nit has not yet been confirmed what long run will be doing during his retirement .\nkauto star was probably at his best today , but long run is a very good young horse .\nlong run trainer nicky henderson was similarly thrilled to see his charge return to winning form .\nthe win saw long run become only the seventh horse after the likes of kauto star and desert orchid to reclaim the king george title .\nlong run justified his billing as 7 - 2 favourite by winning the cheltenham gold cup with a superb display .\nwhat i look for is to see a horse that is consistent , that wants to go out there and run a good race and to me that epitomises long run as a horse who is all courage and loves his racing .\nnacarat had made the early running , but the french - bred long run and kauto star were always in close proximity .\namateur jockey sam waley - cohen says his 2011 cheltenham gold cup winner long run can reclaim the prize on 15 march .\nno horse other than kauto star has regained the gold cup having lost it but there is little likelihood of long run ' s owner robert waley - cohen replacing his son on the horse .\nlong run , winner of the cheltenham gold cup and two king george vi chases , has been retired from racing aged 11 .\nlong run lost to silviniaco conti in the betfair chase at haydock in november , while sir des champs won the irish hennessy .\nthe idea that long run ' s victory brought the scene - shifters into jump racing was resisted by sam , who lost a brother , thomas , to cancer . he said :\nit may be too early for that , but long run ' s an amazing horse \u2013 and a baby .\namateur jockey sam waley - cohen produced a faultless ride on 9 - 2 second favourite long run , who is owned by his father robert .\nthe 2011 cheltenham gold cup winner long run will miss this season and return to racing in the autumn , says owner robert waley - cohen .\nclimbing when a horse lifts its front legs abnormally high as it gallops , causing it to run inefficiently .\non the bit when a horse is eager to run . also known as\nin the bridle .\nlong run was initially aimed at this year\u2019s cheltenham foxhunter before a setback in january saw hopes divert towards the grand national at aintree . sunday\u2019s race was considered a trial run ahead of the liverpool showcase \u2014 but his disappointing run prompted connections to call it a day on his illustrious racing career .\ninside information is where people who have close connections with a horse know how likely it is that the horse is going to run in a certain race , and if it does , how well it is likely to run .\na mistake by kauto star at the penultimate fence sealed his fate , and the foot - perfect long run surged to the line for a convincing victory .\nlong run , dual king george vi chase hero and winner of the gold cup , has been retired after finishing fifth in a hunter chase at carlisle .\nlong run was one of the favourites , at 12 - 1 , for last year ' s national at aintree but fell at valentine ' s brook .\nlong run is a phenomenal horse and i ' m so pleased he ' s shown people what he is capable of ,\nsaid the 28 - year - old sam waley - cohen .\nkey horse a single horse used in multiple combinations in an exotic wager . l\nkauto star , right , finished a well - beaten third behind long run in the king george vi chase at kempton . photograph : tom jenkins for the observer\nbrilliant young steeplechaser long run thwarted kauto star ' s bid to create racing history as he trounced his rivals to win the king george vi chase at kempton .\nthe 15 - 8 favourite long run claimed victory in a thrilling finish to the king george vi chase at kempton to win the race for a second time .\nrun - out bit a special type of bit to prevent a horse from bearing out ( or in ) . s\nasked if he had \u00a310 to put on one horse in the gold cup , waley - cohen replied ;\ni would back long run . i think he has a chance of winning it .\nlong run looked sure to finish third after jumping the final fence , but was eased and stopped to a walk on the run - in , being passed by both barachois silver and durban gold , meaning he beat just one rival home .\nlong run , trained by nicky henderson , won january ' s king george vi chase but the six - year - old had struggled at cheltenham on previous visits .\nthe jockey was criticised when winning a second king george in december after long run made a mistake at the last fence but battled back to edge out captain chris .\nnear side left side of a horse . side on which a horse is mounted .\nreins long straps , usually made of leather , that are connected to the bit and used by the jockey to control the horse .\nbut after running out of time , he instead made the long trip north to cumbria .\nnasogastric tube a long tube that is capable of reaching from the nose to the stomach .\nnational hunt heroes big buck\u2019s , denman and long run are among the equine stars that will be parading at the cheltenham festival on the opening day ( tuesday , 14 march ) .\n( a ) silky sullivan a horse that makes a big run from far back . named for the horse silky sullivan , who once made up 41 lengths to win a race .\ngrowth plates located at the end of long bones where they grow in length . see physis .\ntrip an individual horse ' s race , with specific reference to the difficulty ( or lack of difficulty ) the horse had during competition , e . g . , whether the horse was repeatedly blocked or had an unobstructed run .\nbounce a poor race run directly following a career - best or near - best performance .\nburn ( ed ) see run down . commonly used in the term : burned heels .\n\u201cthat\u2019s it for long run now . we\u2019ll find something else for him to do . he\u2019s been a wonderful horse , i\u2019ve had him since was a three - year - old and he\u2019s given us some fantastic moments , \u201d said robert .\nchampion trainer henderson has five possible runners , including long run , with the seven barrows handler also leaving in captain conan , finian\u2019s rainbow , riverside theatre and cheltenham gold cup hero bobs worth .\nlong - distance running and evolution : why humans can outrun horses but can\u2019t jump higher than cats .\nbreakdown when a horse suffers a potentially career - ending injury , usually to the leg : the horse suffered a breakdown . the horse broke down .\nwaley - cohen , whose mount beat great steeplechasers denman and kauto star two years ago , has also been third in a gold cup and landed the king george vi chase twice with long run .\nlong run was the youngest gold cup winner since mill house in 1963 , but was beaten twice by kauto star last season before finishing third behind winner synchronised when favourite for the big cheltenham race .\nthe race was run at a slow pace and nicky said to be aware and ride him handy . i was just keeping out of trouble and making sure he got a nice run .\nspit the bit a term referring to a tired horse that begins to run less aggressively , backing off on the\npull\na rider normally feels on the reins from an eager horse . also used as a generic term for an exhausted horse .\nsheets a handicapping tool assigning a numerical value to each race run by a horse to enable different horses running at different racetracks to be objectively compared .\nmeanwhile , following the carlisle race , long run\u2019s jockey sam received a controversial seven - day suspension for easing up on the gelding during the run - in . he has announced he will appeal against the ban which rules him out of the aintree fox hunters in april \u2014 a race the jockey has won three times .\nmane long hairs growing on the crest of the horse ' s neck , which are usually kept clipped to about six inches in length for neatness , or decoratively braided .\ntrainer nicky henderson , claiming his fifth win of the day , sealed a one - two as long run beat stablemate riverside theatre by 12 lengths , with the four - time king george winner a further seven lengths adrift .\nbut it was time for a new champion as long run , who only officially had his sixth birthday on new year ' s day , proved too good on the day for the 11 - year - old kauto star .\ncut down horse suffering from injuries from being struck by the shoes of another horse . or , due to a faulty stride , a horse may cut itself down . d\nbha works on the principle that no horse should run in great britain under the effects of medication or have any substance present in its system that can affect performance .\nfront - runner a horse whose running style is to attempt to get on or near the lead at the start of the race and to continue there as long as possible .\npastern ( bones ) denotes the area between the fetlock joint and the hoof . the joint between the long and short pastern bones is called the\npastern joint .\ncan also be used to describe the area of the limb or to describe a specific bone long pastern bone . technically known as the p1 ( long ) and p2 ( short ) .\ngrandsire the grandfather of a horse ; father (\nsire\n) of the horse ' s dam or sire .\nbut last year ' s gold cup winner dug deep on the run - in to win by a neck .\none horse who heads to the festival undiminished is the champion hurdler , binocular , trained , like long run , by nicky henderson who had five winners in total . binocular was an authoritative winner of the restaged christmas hurdle under mccoy , who rode the new desert orchid for the first time .\nwaley - cohen had taken over the training of long run since his unsuccessful journey to france \u2014 when he suffered various injuries on his way back to britain - and had hoped to get him qualified for the foxhunter chase at cheltenham .\nlong run , winner of the two out of the last three runnings of the william hill king george vi chase at kempton and last year\u2019s runner - up , captain chris , head the list of 30 entries for this year\u2019s race .\nlong run ' s stablemate bobs worth , who has won four races at cheltenham and triumphed in the hennessy gold cup last time out , heads the betting at about 3 - 1 ahead of silviniaco conti and irish challenger sir des champs .\ni ' ll sit down and have a talk with clive but if he ' s sound and well there is no reason why he can ' t run in this year ' s gold cup . cheltenham will suit him better than kempton does now , he ' s just that bit slower . long run was always going to be a good horse if he put it all together and he did that .\ndistal sesamoidean ligaments attaches to the bottom of the sesamoid bones , passing down and attaching to the long and short pastern bones .\nflatten out a very tired horse that slows considerably , dropping its head on a straight line with its body . some horses , however , like to run with their heads lowered .\nhorse when reference is made to sex , a\nhorse\nis an ungelded male five - years - old or older .\nfetlock ( joint ) joint located between the cannon bone and the long pastern bone , also referred to as the\nankle .\njail refers to the requirement that a horse which has been claimed that next runs in a claiming race must run for a claiming price 25 percent higher for the next 30 days . commonly used in the phrase the horse is in ( out of ) jail .\ndigital the part of the limb below the ankle ( fetlock ) joint . includes the long and short pastern bones and the coffin bone .\nschooling process of familiarizing a horse with the starting gate and teaching it racing practices . a horse may also be schooled in the paddock . in steeplechasing , more particularly to teach a horse to jump .\nbut waley - cohen had long run well positioned and they looked dangerous at the top of the hill and loomed alongside the nicholls duo with two fences to go and his younger legs were able to get him clear from the last and up the cheltenham hill for a famous win .\nlunge 1 ) horse rearing and plunging . 2 ) a method of exercising a horse on a tether (\nlunge line\n) . m\n\u201che won\u2019t run again and will now do something he enjoys . whether that\u2019s showing or eventing , we\u2019ll have to wait and see . \u201d\npeople who care about horses are turning their backs on the grand national and every other race in which horses are being run to death .\nif a horse\u2019s microchip is unreadable / undetectable then the horse will be identified by the markings in its passport . a notification form will be issued by the veterinary officer , for the horse to be re - micro chipped .\non rare occasions a horse will be unable to be identified from its chip or passport . should this happen the horse will be prevented from running .\nmare ' s month september . in theory , because mares that have not run well during the summer often\nwake up\nin september .\nlong run , who had finished second to kauto star in last year ' s race after winning in 2010 , had battled hard in the testing heavy conditions and three fences from home looked the most likely winner before captain chris and richard johnson challenged with grands crus ( 7 - 1 ) finishing third .\nconsolation double a payoff to holders of daily double tickets combining the winning horse in the first race of the double with a scratched horse in the second .\nfire a burst of acceleration by a horse in a race . for example ,\nthe horse did ( didn ' t ) fire when asked .\ngraduate 1 ) winning for the first time , horse or rider . 2 ) a horse that has moved up to allowance , stakes or handicap racing .\ndefending champion imperial commander , who was out of contention a long way from home before being pulled up , was later found to have burst a blood vessel .\nkauto star took the race a long way out and with three fences to go was fighting it out with stablemate and fellow 11 - year - old denman .\ni just thought he might run well at kempton , finish third or fourth , and then we ' d put him away for the summer .\ndavid johnson ' s patience is unbelievable . this is the longest td run of his career . . . 58 yards ! # mnf # nyjvsaz urltoken\ncondition book ( s ) a series of booklets issued by a racing secretary which set forth conditions of races to be run at a particular racetrack .\nhorse racing betting tips : top picks for the eclipse at sandow . . .\nhorse racing betting tips june 30 : best bets for the northumbe . . .\nany horse affected will receive immediate attention and treatment from the racecourse veterinary team .\nfault weak points of a horse ' s conformation or character as a racehorse .\nmuzzle 1 ) nose and lips of a horse . 2 ) a guard placed over a horse ' s mouth to prevent it from biting or eating . n\nsecond dam grandmother of a horse . also known as a\ngranddam .\nshort a horse in need of more work or racing to reach winning form .\nsnip small patch of white hairs on the nose or lips of a horse .\nstall walker horse that moves about its stall constantly and frets rather than rests .\nstud 1 ) male horse used for breeding . 2 ) a breeding farm .\ntimber topper jumper or steeplechase horse . more properly horses jumping over timber fences .\nunderlay a horse racing at shorter odds than seems warranted by its past performances .\nphysis plural physes . the\ngrowth plate\nat the end of the long bones ( such as the cannon bone ) that lets the bone grow in length .\neach horse has its own passport . checks are carried out on selected horses to ensure their recorded markings match the chip number recorded on the passport . all horses having their first run on a racecourse will be checked , as will horses having their first run for a new trainer . equine influenza vaccination records are also checked to ensure they comply with the requirements set out in the rules .\nbut the golden run came to an end for the northern irishman , who has ridden more than 3 , 000 winners in a record - breaking career .\naction 1 ) a horse ' s manner of moving . 2 ) a term meaning wagering , for example ,\nthe horse took a lot of action .\ndeclared in the united states , a horse withdrawn from a stakes race in advance of scratch time . in europe , a horse confirmed to start in a race .\nreserve a minimum price , set by the consignor , for a horse in a public auction . for example ,\nthe horse did not reach its reserve .\nfor an amateur to win such a prestigious race is rare , and waley - cohen has had to endure much adverse comment about his suitability for the long run ride . pure nepotism , some thought . his father , robert , said :\nthat ' s the perfect riposte . he has justified my faith in him .\nhorse racing tips july 2 : pontefract , hamilton , windsor , wolve . . .\nbottom 1 ) stamina in a horse . 2 ) subsurface of a racing strip .\ncolt an ungelded ( entire ) male horse four - years - old or younger .\ndigestible energy the amount of energy a horse is able to digest from a feedstuff .\nentry fee money paid by an owner to enter a horse in a stakes race .\nexercise rider rider who is licensed to exercise a horse during its morning training session .\nnose smallest advantage a horse can win by . called a short head in britain .\nprop when a horse suddenly stops moving by digging its front feet into the ground .\npull up to stop or slow a horse during or after a race or workout .\nshow bet wager on a horse to finish in the money ; third or better .\nyes , so long as you are still eligible , to claim an allowance in accordance with rules ( f ) 140 or ( f ) 141 of the rules of racing .\ngreen osselet an inflammation and swelling in the fetlock joint of young horses , particularly on the front of the joints where the cannon and long pastern bones meet . see arthritis .\nthe seven - year - old , who is owned by the jockey ' s father robert , will now be hoping to complete another king george / gold cup double in cheltenham in march , but his stable - mate bobs worth remains at the head of the betting market at around 4 - 1 with long run at around 7 - 1 .\nrunning and jumping comes naturally to horses , and we see them doing both those things in the wild . it\u2019s also interesting to note that when a horse unseats its rider during a race , it will continue to run and jump with the other horses .\nbeyer number a handicapping tool , popularized by author andrew beyer , assigning a numerical value ( speed figure ) to each race run by a horse based on final time and track condition . this enables different horses running at different racetracks to be objectively compared .\nlong run ( fr ) b . g , 2005 { 1 - x } dp = 1 - 0 - 4 - 3 - 0 ( 8 ) di = 0 . 60 cd = - 0 . 13 - 34 starts , 15 wins , 7 places , 6 shows career earnings : \u00a31 , 542 , 715 in gb / fr / ire\nbreak ( a horse ) 1 ) to train a young horse to wear a bridle and saddle , carry a rider and respond to a rider ' s commands . almost always done when the horse is a yearling . 2 ) to leave from the starting gate .\ntrial in thoroughbred racing , a preparatory race created in tandem with a subsequent , more important stakes race to be run a few days or weeks hence the derby trial .\nthe french - bred horse becomes the youngest gold cup winner since mill house in 1963 .\ni want to say thank you to everyone for believing in me and the horse .\nhorse racing tips july 6 : best bets for sandown , doncaster , ne . . .\nhorse racing tips july 3 : best bets for stratford , brighton , h . . .\nhorse racing tips july 1 : best bets for uttoxeter , cartmel , wi . . .\nhorse racing tips june 30 : best bets for york , chester , windso . . .\nhorse racing tips june 25 : best bets for beverley , brighton , n . . .\nbrace ( or bracer ) rubdown liniment used on a horse after a race or workout .\nbreeze ( breezing ) working a horse at a moderate speed , less effort than handily .\nconformation the physical makeup of and bodily proportions of a horse how it is put together .\ndriving a horse that is all out to win and under strong urging from its jockey .\ngrass slip used in some areas , permission to exercise a horse on the turf course .\nhead a margin between horses . one horse leading another by the length of its head .\nthe foot of the horse . consists of several parts that play an integral role in supporting the weight of the horse . see\nhoof\nsubsection of\nmusculoskeletal system\nin\nmudder horse that races well on muddy tracks . also known as a\nmudlark .\noverweight surplus weight carried by a horse when the rider cannot make the required weight . p\nshank rope or strap attached to a halter or bridle by which a horse is led .\ntaken up a horse pulled up sharply by its rider because of being in close quarters .\nclosed knees a condition when the cartilaginous growth plate above the knee ( distal radial physis ) has turned to bone . indicates completion of long bone growth and is one sign of maturity .\nlong run is an 8 - 1 chance for a repeat performance of last season\u2019s epic battle with captain chris \u2013 who is rated a 25 - 1 shot \u2013 after a disappointing showing in last weekend\u2019s charlie hall chase at wetherby , in which he finished out of the first three for the first time in his career , but subsequently was found to have scoped badly .\noiled ( oiling ) administration of mineral oil via nasogastric tube to relieve gas or pass blockage . preventative procedure commonly used in long van rides to prevent impaction with subsequent colics . see colic .\na horse ambulance is available on site to ensure prompt and safe transport of an injured horse to either the on - course veterinary treatment facilities or a near - by equine referral centre .\nsite : media | arena : nfl | pagetype : stories | section : | slug : watch - david - johnson - dances - past - jets - defense - for - a - career - long - td - run | sport : football | route : article _ single . us | 6 - keys : media / spln / nfl / reg / free / stories\ncup 1 ) refers to the irregular occlusal surface of the tooth ( the surfaces that meet when a horse closes its mouth ) and is used as a visual method of determining age in a horse . 2 ) trophy awarded to winning horse owners , usually in a stakes race .\nwilliam hill king george vi chase odds : 5 - 1 dynaste , 6 - 1 bobs worth , cue card , silviniaco conti , 7 - 1 sir des champs , 8 - 1 long run , 12 - 1 al ferof , 16 - 1 captain conan , flemenstar , mount benbulben , 20 - 1 lord windermere , menorah , tidal bay , 25 - 1 bar .\nhorse racing tips july 8 : best bets for ayr , market rasen , fai . . .\ncheck ( ed ) when a jockey slows a horse due to other horses impeding its progress .\nconnections persons identified with a horse , such as owner , trainer , rider and stable employees .\nmorning glory horse that performs well in morning workouts but fails to reproduce that form in races .\nrabbit a speed horse running as an entry with another , usually come - from - behind horse . the rabbit is expected to set a fast pace to help the chances of its stablemate .\nridden out a horse that finishes a race under mild urging , not as severe as driving .\nwhite a horse color , extremely rare , in which all the hairs are white . the horse ' s eyes are brown , not pink , as would be the case for an albino .\nthere was disappointment for amateur jockey willy twiston - davies when he was unseated by the well - fancied baby run in the christie ' s foxhunter chase two from home when well clear .\ncondylar ( fracture ) a fracture in the lower knobby end ( condyle ) of the lower ( distal ) end of a long bone such as the cannon bone or humerus ( upper front limb ) .\nthe sport\u2019s substantial investment in veterinary research and education brings benefits for all breeds of horse in britain .\ncarpus a joint in the horse ' s front leg , more commonly referred to as the knee .\ncryptorchid a\nunilateral cryptorchid\nis a male horse of any age that has one testicle undescended . a\nbilateral cryptorchid\nis a male horse of any age that has both testicles undescended . the jockey club defines\ncryptorchid\nas a male horse of any age that has both testicles undescended .\nfeather light weight . usually refers to the weight a horse is assigned to carry in a race .\nhung a horse that does not advance its position in a race when called upon by its jockey .\nnominator one who owns a horse at the time it is named to compete in a stakes race .\noverlay a horse going off at higher odds than it appears to warrant based on its past performances .\nsteadied a horse being taken in hand by its rider , usually because of being in close quarters .\ntattoo a permanent , indelible mark on the inside of the upper lip used to identify the horse .\nfive out he was clumsy ; four out he dropped four lengths behind the leaders as long run surged ahead of the old champion and staked his claim on the future , passing the post 12 lengths clear of his stable companion riverside theatre . at the second - last kauto star turned mccoy into a rodeo rider , blundering badly and almost ejecting the bbc sports personality of the year out of the saddle .\nit\u2019s important to note that if a horse does not want to race , it won\u2019t , and very occasionally we see a horse plant its feet and refuse to move . no horse can be made to race against its will . in the overwhelming majority of cases , horses happily take part in a race .\nthe graduate development programme is run each year from the end of june to beginning of september with around 18 placements on offer . visit the graduate page on the careersinracing website to found out more .\nas with any sport , those taking part do sometimes suffer injury , but it is important to note that 99 . 58 % of runners in british racing complete their race without incurring any long - term injury .\nscratch to be taken out of a race before it starts . trainers usually scratch horses due to adverse track conditions or a horse ' s adverse health . a veterinarian can scratch a horse at any time .\nstakes a race for which the owner usually must pay a fee to run a horse . the fees can be for nominating , maintaining eligibility , entering and starting , to which the track adds more money to make up the total purse . some stakes races are by invitation and require no payment or fee .\n\u201che\u2019s been a magic horse and in many ways changed our lives with the fabulous days he\u2019s given us .\n\u201cit was a course record as well , which just puts into context how good a horse he was .\ncloser a horse that runs best in the latter part of the race , coming from off the pace .\nconditioner 1 ) a trainer . 2 ) a workout or race to enable a horse to attain fitness .\ncuppy ( track ) a dry and loose racing surface that breaks away under a horse ' s hooves .\ndrop ( ed ) down a horse meeting a lower class of rival than it had been running against .\nearmuffs a piece of equipment that covers a horse ' s ears to prevent it from hearing distracting sounds .\nleg up 1 ) to help a jockey mount a horse . 2 ) a jockey having a mount .\nprep ( race ) a workout ( or race ) used to prepare a horse for a future engagement .\nteaser a male horse used at breeding farms to determine whether a mare is ready to receive a stallion .\nif a horse is injured , it\u2019s important that it is kept calm , and provided with some privacy . a screen helps create a calm environment around the horse and allows the vets to work safely and without distraction .\nthis horse is still only six , so there is a lot to look forward to with him yet .\nbad doer a horse with a poor appetite , a condition that may be due to nervousness or other causes .\nfalse favorite horse that is a race favorite despite being outclassed by other competition in the field . see underlay .\npast performances a horse ' s racing record , earnings , bloodlines and other data , presented in composite form .\nblood - typing a way to verify a horse ' s parentage . blood - typing is usually completed within the first year of a horse ' s life and is necessary before registration papers will be issued by the jockey club .\nbut he ' s improved a massive amount from that run . today he ' s travelled supremely and jumped . he picked them up the minute he wanted to and he ' s our little hurricane fly .\nveterinary surgeons must record any vaccines given in the horse\u2019s passport . if the horse is signed out of the food chain in its passport , generally no other records need to be kept for the vmd . if the horse is not signed out of the food chain there are strict recording requirements for the acquisition , use and disposal of medicines : urltoken\ndeclaring a new era open , bookmakers installed long run as the 6 - 1 second - favourite for the gold cup behind imperial commander ( 3 - 1 ) , who defends his title at the cheltenham festival . kauto star was pushed out to 8 - 1 , the same price as his stablemate denman . those two have carved up steeplechasing over the past five years but motor to the cotswolds now as beloved veterans \u2013 assuming kauto star travels at all .\npaying his own tribute , he said : \u201che\u2019s been a phenomenal horse who rose to the biggest occasion every time .\nas with any sport , horse racing is tough , but the level of risk for its participants is very low .\nbreak maiden horse or rider winning the first race of its career . also known as\nearning a diploma .\ngate card a card , issued by the starter , stating that a horse is properly schooled in starting gate procedures .\ngelding a male horse of any age that has been neutered by having both testicles removed (\ngelded\n) .\nmorning line probable odds on each horse in a race , as determined by a mathematical formula used by the track handicapper , who tries to gauge both the ability of the horse and the likely final odds as determined by the bettors .\novergirth an elastic band that goes completely around a horse , over the saddle , to keep the saddle from slipping .\nspeed figure a handicapping tool used to assign a numerical value to a horse ' s performance . see beyer number .\nsubscription fee paid by owner to nominate a horse for a stakes race or to maintain eligibility for a stakes race .\ntubing inserting a nasogastric tube through a horse ' s nostril into its stomach for the purpose of providing oral medication .\nwheel betting all possible combinations in an exotic wager using at least one horse as the key . see part wheel .\nyearling a horse in its second calendar year of life , beginning jan . 1 of the year following its birth .\nre - entered the reason that the horse was scratched out of the race was that he was either a ) entered in another race on that day , either at the same track or another track and opted to race in the other race or b ) was scratched out of this race to run in another race in the next few days .\n\u201cwhen it\u2019s a 50 - 50 call , i think you lean on the side of the welfare of the horse . \u201d\nbreather easing off on a horse for a short distance in a race to permit it to conserve or renew its strength .\ngastric ulcers ulceration of a horse ' s stomach . often causes symptoms of abdominal distress ( colic ) and general unthriftiness .\nhood a ( usually ) nylon covering which goes over a horse ' s head to which blinkers or earmuffs are attached .\npart wheel using a key horse or horses in different , but not all possible , exotic wagering combinations . see wheel .\nstate - bred a horse bred in a particular state and thus eligible to compete in races restricted to state - breds .\nswayback horse with a prominent concave shape of the backbone , usually just behind the withers ( saddle area ) . scoliosis .\nin sum , you might say we were born to run . but you also might just as well say we ran to be born . come to think of it , that would make a seriously good motto for the wales marathon .\nin only his second run over hurdles after an impressive debut at kempton , the 13 - 2 chance , ridden by daryl jacob , ran out an impressive two - and - a - quarter - length winner from the irish filly unaccompanied .\nadded weight a horse carrying more weight than the conditions of the race require , usually because the jockey exceeds the stated limit .\ncast a horse , positioned on its side or back , and wedged against a wall , such that it cannot get up .\nmaiden 1 ) a horse or rider that has not won a race . 2 ) a female that has never been bred .\nrefuse 1 ) when a horse will not break from the gate . 2 ) in jumping races , balking at a jump .\nstripe a white marking running down a horse ' s face , starting under an imaginary line connecting the tops of the eyes .\nthe big horses were all there and he had to get through them , and he did . it was a wonderful ride . it was a great race because all the horses have run great races - there ' s no disputing it .\nopen knee a condition of young horses in which the physis of the knee has not closed ; an immature knee . often used to describe the status of the physis immediately above the knee and is an indicator of long bone growth in two - year - olds .\nflank area between the horse ' s ribs and hip . lacking heavy musculature and the site of important internal organs , the flank is a very sensitive region on the horse ' s body and cannot be touched by a jockey ' s whip during a race .\ntwitch a restraining device usually consisting of a stick with a loop of rope or chain at one end , which is placed around a horse ' s upper lip and twisted , releasing endorphins that relax a horse and curb its fractiousness while it is being handled .\nbut , despite their successful association , some believe a professional with more experience should be on board the nicky henderson - trained horse .\nit is information that is known by those who work closely with the horse such as an owner , trainer , rider , stable employee or their service providers . service providers are people like vets , farriers and feedmen that have provided services to do with the horse .\newios , who work in teams , are responsible for the security of the stable yard and the monitoring horse welfare at race meetings .\nacross the board a bet on a horse to win , place and show . if the horse wins , the player collects three ways ; if second , two ways ; and if third , one way , losing the win and place bets . actually three wagers .\nblack a horse color which is black , including the muzzle , flanks , mane , tail and legs unless white markings are present .\ngroom a person who cares for a horse in a stable . known as a\nlad\nor\ngirl\nin britain .\nneck unit of measurement . about the length of a horse ' s neck ; a little less than a quarter of a length .\nrattle used in the expression ,\nhe likes to hear his feet rattle ,\na horse that likes a firm turf course .\nwe ' ll know more in a week ,\nsaid clive smith , his owner , acknowledging at least the possibility that the first horse to regain the gold cup title has run his last race . if any damage is found , smith added , they could\ncall it a day\n. paul nicholls , his trainer , favours perseverance and will argue for one more adventure .\nthe decision was made to retire the son of cadoudal after he finished fifth in a hunter chase at carlise on sunday ( 20 march ) . it was his comeback run after sustaining an injury on his way back from racing in france in may 2014 .\ngirth 1 ) an elastic and leather band , sometimes covered with sheepskin , that passes under a horse ' s belly and is connected to both sides of the saddle . 2 ) deepest point of the horse ' s midsection , around which the saddle girth is tightened .\nowners and trainers love their horses and have invested huge amounts of time and care into looking after and training them . the last thing they want is to have to put down a horse . but horses have far more complex physiology than humans , and a broken leg can often cause damage to blood vessels and other tissue . because horses can not stay off their feet for long periods , broken bones do not have a chance to heal , and so often sadly the kindest way to help a horse with a broken limb is to put it down .\nwhen he got there he saw the crowd and he wanted to stop and have a look . what a horse he is .\na trainer or member of their stable staff may sign in the owner of their horse and escort them in and out of the stables .\ncribber a horse that clings to objects with its teeth and sucks air into its stomach . also known as a\nwind sucker .\nforelock lock of mane hair that falls forward from the poll ( top of the head ) to just above the horse ' s eyes .\nunder wraps horse under stout restraint in a race or workout to keep it from pulling away from the competition by too large a margin .\n99 . 58 % of runners in british racing complete their race without incurring any long - term injury . over the last twenty years , concerted efforts across the sport has seen an already low equine fatality rate drop by a further third , to just 0 . 18 % of runners .\nclaiming process by which a licensed person may purchase a horse entered in a designated race for a predetermined price . when a horse has been claimed , its new owner assumes title after the starting gate opens although the former owner is entitled to all purse money earned in that race .\noff - track betting wagering at legalized betting outlets usually run by the tracks , management companies specializing in parimutuel wagering , or , in new york state , by independent corporations chartered by the state . wagers at otb sites are usually commingled with on - track betting pools .\nracecourses employ experienced veterinary surgeons and have state - of - the - art horse ambulances available to ensure the very best treatment of any injury .\ndistanced horse so far behind the rest of the field of runners that it is out of contact and unable to regain a position of contention .\nrank a horse that refuses to settle under a jockey ' s handling in a race , running in a headstrong manner without respect to pace .\nwashed out a horse that becomes so nervous that it sweats profusely . also known as\nwashy\nor\nlathered ( up ) .\nif a horse does have to be put down , it is done in a quick and painless way , by a trained veterinary surgeon . the usual method is by injection , but the vets will decide on the most appropriate course of action for the horse based on its specific circumstances . any decision is taken by a team of veterinary surgeons ; where appropriate this will be done in consultation with the owners and trainer of a horse .\njumps in horse racing are designed , first and foremost , to be as safe as possible , and allow horses to show off their natural athleticism . there are lots of ways that jumps are designed to pose a challenge to the horse and jockey , but at the same time minimise risk .\nclaiming race a race in which each horse entered is eligible to be purchased at a set price . claims must be made before the race and only by licensed owners or their agents who have a horse registered to race at that meeting or who have received a claim certificate from the stewards .\ntongue tie strip of cloth - type material used to stabilize a horse ' s tongue to prevent it from\nchoking down\nin a race or workout or to keep the tongue from sliding up over the bit , rendering the horse uncontrollable . also known as a\ntongue strap .\n\u201cit is a difficult balance for the stewards . you have to have the horse\u2019s welfare in your mind as well as riding for all your worth .\nalso - eligible a horse officially entered for a race , but not permitted to start unless the field is reduced by scratches below a specified number .\ndosage index ( di ) a mathematical reduction of the dosage profile to a number reflecting a horse ' s potential for speed or stamina . the higher the number , the more likely the horse is suited to be a sprinter . the average dosage index of all horses is about 4 . 0 .\nas races are shorter on the flat , it\u2019s important that the participants begin in as straight a line as possible . for longer races ( and that includes some long flat races as well as all jump races ) , riders often want to take up a tactical position that they believe offers their horse its best chance to perform well . for some , that might mean going out in front , whilst for others it might mean taking a lead from another horse or dropping in at the back of the field . the ground would often be too soft to move the stalls around on at a jumps meeting .\nelite human runners , however , can sustain speeds up to 6 . 5 meters per second . even run - of - the - mill joggers typically do between 3 . 2 and 4 . 2 meters per second , which means they can outrun dogs at distances greater than two kilometers .\nthe cardinals running back proved that yet again monday night . against the jets , johnson got the scoring started with a 58 - yard touchdown run . he showed great patience in allowing the play to develop before he hit full speed and then proceeded to dance his way around the entire defense .\nall racecourses appoint specialist equine veterinary surgeons ( racecourse veterinary surgeons ) who attend each race meeting to provide immediate first aid and veterinary treatment to any horse .\nfontana safety rail an aluminum rail , in use since 1981 , designed to help reduce injuries to horse and rider . it has more of an offset ( slant ) to provide greater clearance between the rail and the vertical posts as well as a protective cover to keep horse and rider from striking the posts .\nnod lowering of head . to win by a nod , a horse extends its head with its nose touching the finish line ahead of a close competitor .\ntightener 1 ) a race used to give a horse a level of fitness that cannot be obtained through morning exercises alone . 2 ) a leg brace .\ntop line 1 ) a thoroughbred ' s breeding on its sire ' s side . 2 ) the visual line presented by the horse ' s back .\npony any horse or pony that leads the parade of the field from paddock to starting gate . also , a horse or pony which accompanies a starter to the starting gate . also can be used as a verb he was ponied to the gate . also known as a\nlead [ leed ] pony .\ncooling out restoring a horse to normal temperature , usually by walking , after it has become overheated during exercise . all horses that are exercised are cooled out .\nentire an ungelded horse . in europe , where geldings are not permitted to enter certain races , the race conditions might read\nentire colts and fillies .\nhandily 1 ) working in the morning with maximum effort . compare with , 2 ) a horse racing well within itself , with little exertion from the jockey .\nas it is important to complete any course of antibiotics to help prevent resistance developing within the bacteria we would not wish for a trainer to stop giving a course of antibiotics prescribed by a vet in order for the horse to be eligible to run in the future . we are confident that antibiotics do not improve performance on raceday . more details on detection of anti - infective drugs can in the bha notices section of the rules website and there are specific notices on :"]}
{"id": 2040, "summary": [{"text": "euglossa dilemma , the green orchid bee or dilemma orchid bee , is a species of solitary euglossine bee native to a broad area of central america , and recently introduced to florida in the united states .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it was first detected in broward county , florida in 2003 , and initially identified as euglossa viridissima , but further study revealed that e. viridissima as previously defined consisted of two cryptic species , and the one present in florida was new to science . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "euglossa dilemma", "paragraphs": ["maggie whitson marked\neuglossa dilemma ( green orchid bee )\nas trusted on the\neuglossa dilemma\npage .\nmaggie whitson marked\ngreen orchid bee ( euglossa dilemma )\nas trusted on the\neuglossa dilemma\npage .\nmaggie whitson added a link to\nfeatured creatures : green orchid bee - euglossa dilemma friese\non\neuglossa dilemma\n.\neuglossa dilemma genome assembly edil _ v1 . 0 ( gca _ 002201625 . 1 / nijg01 )\nmaggie whitson marked\nfriendly green orchid bee\nas trusted on the\neuglossa dilemma\npage .\nmaggie whitson marked\neuglossa - dilemma , - male , - side _ 2012 - 06 - 27 - 17 . 32 . 14 - zs - pmax\nas trusted on the\neuglossa dilemma\npage .\neuglossa dilemma , male , face _ 2012 - 06 - 27 - 17 . 20 . 45 zs pmax\neuglossa dilemma , male , face _ 2012 - 06 - 27 - 17 . 20 . 45 zs pmax | flickr\neuglossa dilemma genome assembly edil _ v1 . 0 ( gca _ 002201625 . 1 / nijg01 ) | i5k workspace @ nal\neuglossa - dilemma , - male , - side _ 2012 - 06 - 27 - 17 . 32 . 14 - zs - pmax\neuglossa - dilemma , - male , - side _ 2012 - 06 - 27 - 17 . 32 . 14 - zs - pmax | flickr\nchemosensory genes detected in the antennal transcriptomes of e . dilemma and e . viridissima\ne . dilemma gene annotations with homology to the honey bee . ( . txt )\nestablishment of the neotropical orchid bee euglossa viridissima ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in florida .\nfigure 2 . a female euglossa dilemma photographed while foraging . corbiculae ( pollen baskets ) are visible , and contain yellow pollen stores . photograph by thomas chauvenc , university of florida , ft . lauderdale research and education center .\na fixed and polymorphic non - synonymous and synonymous substitutions between orthologs of given genes of e . dilemma and e . viridissima\nfigure 1 . a male euglossa dilemma photographed from various angles . characteristic green metallic coloration , long tongue , brush - like front tarsi , and enlarged hind tibiae are visible . photographs by aaron mullins , university of florida , ft . lauderdale research and education center .\na homologous genes identified independently in the antennal transcriptomes of e . dilemma and e . viridissima with \u226510 - fold mean per - base coverage\nacquisition of species - specific perfume blends : influence of habitat - dependent compound availability on odour choices of male orchid bees ( euglossa spp . )\ncharacterization of the orchid bee euglossa viridissima ( apidae : euglossini ) and a novel cryptic sibling species , by morphological , chemical , and genetic characters .\npech , m . e . c . , w . de j . may - itz\u00e1 , l . a . m . medina , and j . j . g . quezada - euan , 2008 sociality in euglossa ( euglossa ) viridissima friese ( hymenoptera , apidae , euglossini ) . insectes sociaux\nacquisition of species - specific perfume blends : influence of habitat - dependent compound availability on odour choices of male orchid bees ( euglossa spp . ) | springerlink\nif you use this dataset , please cite the following publication : the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of the facultatively eusocial orchid bee euglossa dilemma philipp brand , nicholas saleh , hailin pan , cai li , karen m . kapheim and santiago r . ram\u00edrez g3 : genes , genomes , genetics early online july 12 , 2017 ; urltoken\nour results are consistent with the hypothesis that genes of the olfactory peripheral system of e . dilemma and e . viridissima have evolved under strong divergent selective pressures . together , these observations support a significant trend of increased divergent selective pressures that may have shaped the recent evolution of chemosensory genes in e . dilemma and e . viridissima .\nskov c , wiley j . 2005 . establishment of the neotropical orchid bee euglossa viridissima ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in florida . florida entomologist 88 : 225 - 227 .\nallpaths - lg for more information , or to cite , please see the following publication : the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of the facultatively eusocial orchid bee euglossa dilemma philipp brand , nicholas saleh , hailin pan , cai li , karen m . kapheim and santiago r . ram\u00edrez g3 : genes , genomes , genetics early online july 12 , 2017 ; urltoken\nfirst identified as euglossa viridissima , but further study revealed that e . viridissima as previously defined consisted of two cryptic species , and the one present in florida was new to science\nmitochondrial genome reconstruction . the structure of the honey bee mitochondrial genome and information of the homologous reconstructed parts of the e . dilemma mitochondrial genome . nonreconstructed parts of incompletely reconstructed genes are hatched .\nthis bee was spotted in north naples fl june 4 , 2016 . it has an bright fluorescent green color . but what really caught our eye was the way it hovers and dart around our basil plant . i think it was eating the basil leaves ? i found this description online : green bee ? - euglossa dilemma - female north lauderdale , broward county , florida , usa euglossa viridissima . neotropical orchid bees ( hymenoptera : apidae : euglossini ) have been reported only twice from the united states of america ; once near brownsville , texas and more recently near silverbell , arizona .\nvillanueva - gutierrez r , quezada - euan j , eltz t . pollen diets of two sibling orchid bee species , euglossa , in yucat\u00e1n , southern mexico . apidologie . 2013 ; 44 : 440\u20136 .\nall bees play an important role in the pollination of plants . in the case of green orchid bees , this role is not entirely known in its naturalized range in florida . pemberton and wheeler ( 2006 ) provide a comprehensive list of important plants known to be visited by euglossa dilemma in florida . though most of these plants are beneficial , there is evidence that the green orchid bee outperforms native bees in the pollination of certain invasive weeds .\nto analyze genome structure , we compared the genome - wide gene synteny of e . dilemma and the honey bee . we used the genomic locations of homologous genes ( as determined above ) of the honey bee and e . dilemma scaffolds of at least 100 kb length to build haplotype blocks with a minimum length of 1 kb . haplotype blocks included the entire gene span as well as intergenic regions whenever two or more adjacent genes were homologous in both species . we discarded gene annotations from downstream analysis that were recovered as homologous to multiple genomic locations in either species . furthermore , we excluded e . dilemma genes that were recovered as homologous to honey bee scaffolds belonging to unknown linkage groups .\nschorkopf dlp , mitko l , eltz t . enantioselective preference and high antennal sensitivity for ( \u2212 ) - ipsdienol in scent - collecting male orchid bees , euglossa cyanura . j chem ecol . 2011 ; 37 : 953\u201360 .\nzimmermann y , roubik dw , quezada - euan jjg , paxton rj , eltz t ( 2009b ) single mating in orchid bees ( euglossa , apinae ) : implications for mate choice and social evolution . insectes sociaux 56 : 241\u2013249\nin rare cases , high similarity between sequences detected in the euglossa transcriptomes and the reference sequences allowed for subsequent manual identifications of homologs of the other species only assembled by one assembler . the resulting chemosensory gene family sets constituted the basis of all subsequent analyses .\naquino - v\u00e1zquez a , cuadriello - aguilar ji . 1990 . un nido de euglossa viridissima friese 1899 ( hymenoptera : apidae : euglossini ) , pp . 117 - 118b in xxv congreso nacional de entomolog\u00ed\u00e1 . programa y resumenes . oaxaca , oaxaca , mexico .\nhinojosa - d\u00edaz ia , feria - arroyo tp , engel ms . 2009 . potential distribution of orchid bees outside their native range : the cases of eulaema polychroma ( mocs\u00e1ry ) and euglossa viridissima friese in the usa ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . diversity and distributions 15 : 421 - 428 .\ndistribution of non - synonymous amino acid substitutions across odorant receptor ( or ) domains . a the white bars represent the sum of all non - synonymous substitutions detected in the respective domain over all ors . or12 , or41 and or45 are highlighted because they showed the most non - synonymous substitutions between e . dilemma and e . viridissima . in : intracellular n - terminus , tm : transmembrane domain , el : external loop , il : internal loop , ec : extracellular c - terminus . b predicted membrane topology for or41 . fixed non - synonymous substitutions between e . dilemma and e . viridissima are highlighted in black\npokorny t , hannibal m , quezada - euan jjg , hedenstr\u00f6m e , sj\u00f6berg n , b\u00e5ng j , et al . acquisition of species - specific perfume blends : influence of habitat - dependent compound availability on odour choices of male orchid bees ( euglossa spp . ) . oecologia . 2013 ; 172 : 417\u201325 .\neltz t , fritzsch f , pech jr , zimmermann y , ram\u00edrez s , quezada - euan jjg , et al . characterization of the orchid bee euglossa viridissima ( apidae : euglossini ) and a novel cryptic sibling species , by morphological , chemical , and genetic characters . zool j linn soc . 2011 ; 163 : 1064\u201376 .\neltz t , fritzsch f , petch jr , zimmermann y , ramirez sr , quezada - euan jg , bembe b . 2011 . characterization of the orchid bee euglossa viridissima ( apidae : euglossini ) and a novel cryptic sibling species by morphological , chemical , and genetic characters . zoological journal of the linnean society 163 : 1064 - 1076 .\nwe identified 3185 orthologous genes including 94 chemosensory loci from five different gene families ( odorant receptors , ionotropic receptors , gustatory receptors , odorant binding proteins , and chemosensory proteins ) . our results revealed that orthologs with signatures of divergent selection between e . dilemma and e . viridissima were significantly enriched for chemosensory genes . notably , elevated signals of divergent selection were almost exclusively observed among chemosensory receptors ( i . e . odorant receptors ) .\neltz , thomas ; fritzsch , falko ; zimmermann , yvonne ; pech , jorge ramirez ; ramirez , santiago r . ; quezada - euan , j . javier g . ; bembe , benjamin ( 2011 ) .\ncharacterization of the orchid bee euglossa viridissima ( apidae : euglossini ) and a novel cryptic sibling species , by morphological , chemical , and genetic characters\n. zoological journal of the linnean society 2011 ( 163 ) : 1064\u20131076 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1096 - 3642 . 2011 . 00740 . x .\nthe e . dilemma genome assembly edil _ v1 . 0 , the annotation , and the original gene set edil _ ogs _ v1 . 0 are available for download via ncbi ( bioproject : prjna388474 ) , beebase ( elsik et al . 2016 ) , the i5k nal workspace ( urltoken ) ( i5k consortium 2013 ) , and the ramirez lab website . the raw reads are available via ncbi ( bioproject : prjna388474 ) . the published raw transcriptome sequence reads are available at the ncbi sequence read archive ( sra : srx765918 ) ( brand et al . 2015 ) .\nthe high success in mitochondrial gene reconstruction is likely due to the nature of the analyzed transcriptome data . short intergenic regions as well as polycistronic mitochondrial mrna likely lead to the assembly of multiple genes into single scaffolds . the a - t rich region is completely missing as well as the nd2 and 12s rrna genes flanking the region in insect mitogenomes . this unrecovered region also contains a high number of trnas in the honey bee , which could explain the low number of recovered trnas in e . dilemma . while the partial mitochondrial genome assembly is only 75 % complete , it represents the first mitogenome for the group of orchid bees and will thus be a valuable resource for future phylogenetic analyses within the lineage and between more distantly related bee taxa .\nthe cegma and busco analysis and the gene annotation results suggest that the gene - coding fraction of the e . dilemma genome was properly assembled , despite the large estimated genome size and comparatively low per - base sequencing coverage . however , genetic material obtained from natural populations as in our study can lead to the fragmentation of assemblies due to high nucleotide diversity ( kajitani et al . 2014 ) . in addition , high genetic diversity in the underlying genetic material can lead to a high number of false duplicates due to multiple incorporation of divergent genomic regions in genome assemblies ( kelley and salzberg 2010 ) . our busco analysis suggests that the assembly did not produce an unusually high fraction of duplicated benchmark single - copy orthologs , indicating a relatively low abundance of false duplicates . the observed fragmentation in our assembly is thus likely to be primarily the result of repetitive genomic elements , and less likely the result of low coverage or high nucleotide diversity in the genetic material used for sequencing .\ntotal - rna was extracted using the trizol extraction method ( invitrogen ) following the manufacturers tissue preparation protocol , except for an extended incubation time of 15 min in the phase separation step to maximize rna yield . extracted rna was resuspended in 30 \u03bcl of rnase free water . all optional steps were skipped . rna pools were treated with dnasei to purge potential dna contamination and subsequently quantified on the experion automated electrophoresis system ( bio - rad ) with the experion stdsens analysis kit ( bio - rad ) according to the standard protocol . afterwards , 4 \u03bcg and 2 \u03bcg of total - rna of the e . dilemma and e . viridissima pool , respectively were sent to gatc - biotech ( constance , germany ) for barcoded cdna library preparation using the truseq mrna kit ( illumina ) and subsequent 100 - bp single - end sequencing on an illumina hiseq 2000 lane ( raw sequence reads are available at the ncbi sequence read archive [ sra : srx765918 , sra : srx765888 ] ) .\nanalysis of divergent selection between e . dilemma and e . viridissima . a boxplot comparing d n and d s values obtained for chemosensory and non - chemosensory ( nc ) genes ( d n and / or d s \u2260 0 ) . d n was significantly higher for chemosensory than for nc loci while d s had similar values for both sets resulting in elevated mean d n / d s for the chemosensory loci ( see text for statistics ) . * : p < 0 . 001 . b d n / d s plot for 3185 genes reconstructed from the antennal transcriptome analysis . those genes exhibiting d n / d s > 1 have higher non - synonymous to synonymous substitution rates , in agreement with the hypothesis of divergent selection ( lower right ) ; those genes with d n / d s < 1 exhibit lower non - synonymous to synonymous substitution rates , being consistent with the hypothesis of purifying selection ( upper left ) . genes with zero d n and d s are not shown and genes with either d n or d s = 0 are indicated by small points . the set of genes with d n / d s > 1 was enriched for chemosensory receptor genes . ors : odorant receptors , irs : ionotropic receptors , obps : odorant - binding proteins\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nbrilliant metallic green with\ninflated\nhind legs , used to store floral oils .\nif you see their tongue , it ' s is nearly as long as its body .\nrecorded on cheilocostus and datura . the hosts section on its discover life species page lists known associations based on specimen records and images .\nthe bees in your backyard : a guide to north america ' s bees . joseph s . wilson & olivia j . messinger carril . 2015 . princeton university press .\ncontributed by martin hauser on 11 may , 2006 - 12 : 18pm additional contributions by beatriz moisset , john s . ascher , h . go , marci hess last updated 6 may , 2017 - 2 : 19pm\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nsince this arrival , the green orchid bee has become well established in south florida . current reports of this species are mostly from broward , palm beach and dade counties . however its future distribution has been predicted to include almost half of peninsular florida . following a line that runs from tampa to west palm beach and south , the potential range extends tothe entire southern tip of the florida peninsula .\ngreen orchid bees are a quite conspicuous and charismatic species . this is mostly due to their large size and bright metallic - green coloration ( fig . 1 ) . they are roughly the same size to slightly smaller than a honey bee , usually about 1 . 3 cm in length . the wing membranes are darkened , but transparent . green orchid bees are very fast and agile flyers , and can be seen quickly darting from flower to flower separated by long periods of hovering . as with most bees in florida , females possess a stinger and males do not . although females can sting , they are quite timid in doing so . the sting itself is less painful than that of a honey bee , though unlike honey bees they can sting repeatedly .\ngreen orchid bees are most likely to be confused with metallic members of the bee family halictidae ( sweat bees ) . however , orchid bees can easily be identified by their long tongues , which are roughly two thirds as long as their bodies . in contrast , sweat bees have quite short tongues in comparison to their bodies . female orchid bees have corbiculae ( pollen baskets ) on their hind legs , in which they store collected pollen in order to provision their young ( figs . 2 , 3bc ) . though males lack corbiculae , they have characteristic enlarged hind tibiae ( fig . 3a ) . these unusual structures have a hole on the outer side , which provides access to the spongy compartment within . these unusual structures play an important role in the storage of fragrant , aromatic compounds which male orchid bees collect from their environment .\nfigure 3 . hind legs of male ( a ) and female ( b , c ) green orchid bees . male bees have an enlarged hind tibia with a hole providing access to the spongy compartment which acts as storage for fragrant compounds collected from its environment . females have corbiculae ( pollen baskets ) for collecting pollen and propolis ( plant resins ) . photographs by aaron mullins , university of florida , ft . lauderdale research and education center .\nthough closely related to highly social bees in the same family , orchid bees are primarily solitary , showing only primitively social characteristics such as occasionally sharing communal nesting locations . females construct nest cells out of propolis ( resins collected from plant sources ) ( fig . 4b ) . nests are located in any sort of enclosed cavity ; entrances are often sealed off with resin and plant debris ( fig . 4a , c ) . mature nests can contain up to 20 cells . the young are provisioned with nectar and pollen provided by the mother as they develop .\nfigure 4 . a young orchid bee nest constructed inside an empty nucleus colony box ( a beekeeping hive box half as wide as a typical hive box used for housing small honey bee colonies ) ( a ) . the top has been removed revealing three cells under construction by a female green orchid bee ( b ) . the entrance has been sealed off with propolis ( plant resins ) except for a small hole allowing entry for the female bee ( c ) . photographs by aaron mullins , university of florida , ft . lauderdale research and education center .\nmale orchid bees exhibit a peculiar behavior of collecting fragrant volatile compounds from their environment . these compounds are meticulously collected , stored , and ( presumably ) presented to females by fanning their wings and \u201cspray ventilating\u201d their bouquet for the inspection of prospective mates . fragrant compounds are collected by males with mop - like protrusions on their front tarsi ( fig . 3a , video 1 ) . they are then transferred into the enlarged hind tibiae through the hole . collecting a complex bouquet of fragrances and storing them within the hind tibia represents a considerable investment on the part of male orchid bees . fighting and robbing fragrance stores from competing males has been observed in nature . different species of orchid bee tend to be quite particular in the fragrances sought .\nthis behavior is presumably what has led to the complex interaction with species - specific orchids in their native ranges . a particular orchid will provide fragrant compounds attractive to a specific species of orchid bee . in turn , the bees provide pollination of the orchid species . the arrival and success of the green orchid bee into florida without its natural mutualistic orchid has provided evidence that the mutualism is perhaps obligatory on the part of the orchid , but merely facultative for the bees . in florida , male green orchid bees are attracted to chemicals produced by certain wood - rot fungi ( video 1 ) , decomposing vegetation , perfume flowers , and certain essential oils such as clove and cinnamon oil . male green orchid bees can be quickly and easily attracted and observed by soaking a small piece of paper with clove oil and placing it outside .\nbemb\u00e9 b . 2004 . functional morphology in male euglossine bees and their ability to spray fragrances ( hymenoptera , apidae , euglossini ) . apidologie 35 : 283 - 291 .\ncarvalho filho fs . 2010 . scent - robbing and fighting among male orchid bees , eulalema ( apeulalema ) nigrata lepeletier , 1841 ( hymenoptera : apidae : euglossini ) . biota neotropica 10 : 405 - 408 .\ndressler rl . 1967 . pollination by euglossine bees . evolution 22 : 202 - 210 .\nliu h , pemberton rw . 2009 . solitary invasive orchid bee outperforms co - occurring native bees to promote fruit set of an invasive solanum . oecologia 159 : 515 - 525 .\npemberton rw , wheeler gs . 2006 . orchid bees don\u2019t need orchids : evidence from the naturalization of an orchid bee in florida . ecology 87 : 1995 - 2001 .\n, senior biological scientist , university of florida , ft . lauderdale research and education center\nphotographs : aaron mullins and thomas chauvenc , university of florida , ft . lauderdale research and education center\nis a species of green orchid bee from central america in which the males have two teeth on their mandibles .\nthe very similar bee that was first observed in florida in 2003 was found to have three such teeth . sequencing data from a\nvaried between the two groups . males of these bees store aromatic compounds extracted from various environmental sources in pouches on their hind legs . certain characteristic compounds present as main ingredients in these perfumes in\nof hndb ( 2 - hydroxy - 6 - nona - 1 , 3 - dienyl - benzaldehyde ) . it was therefore concluded that\ngreen orchid bees are varying shades of glossy metallic green and can grow to a length of about 1 . 3 cm ( 0 . 5 in ) . the membranous wings are dark - coloured and translucent and the female has\non her hind legs . the male has an enlarged joint on his hind leg in which there is a pit for storing substances he gathers from plants . the female but not the male possesses a sting which can be used on more than one occasion but which is not as painful to humans as a honeybee ' s sting . this bee is very agile in the air , hovering for lengthy periods and darting between flowers . it might be confused with sweat bees in the\nand is expected to extend its range to most of the southern half of florida .\nin its native mexico it is found in hot dry habitats including degraded forests , pastures , parks and gardens . it is less dependent on primary forests than most euglossine bees .\nmale orchid bees are specialised to visit particular species of neotropical orchid . this is a\narrangement in which the male bee benefits from gathering the fragrance ingredients supplied by the flower which he stores in his hollow hind legs , and the orchid benefits by being pollinated .\nis associated in its central american home range is unknown , but in its new florida habitat , it breeds successfully without the presence of any orchid , the male visiting other species of plants to gather the ingredients for his perfume . one of these plants is basil (\nthere may be unexpected consequences of the naturalization of these bees in the united states . for example , in a similar situation in florida , two fig species\nhave been introduced but did not spread because there was no suitable pollinator . with the arrival of the non - native wasps (\nthe male bee attracts a female by releasing his fragrance and fanning his wings to disperse it . the female builds a solitary nest out of\n, an exudate from plants . the nest may contain up to twenty cells , in each of which she lays an egg . the female brings pollen and nectar to the nest to feed the developing larvae . several bees may build their nests side by side but do not share the task of feeding the young .\npemberton , robert w . ; wheeler , gregory s . ( 2006 ) .\norchid bees don ' t need orchids : evidence from the naturalization of an orchid bee in florida\n. ecology 87 : 1995\u20132001 . doi : 10 . 1890 / 0012 - 9658 ( 2006 ) 87 [ 1995 : obdnoe ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\ninteresting information & pictures from uf / ifas on the green orchid bee , . . .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nimage credit : bob peterson . view source . cc by - sa 2 . 0\nthere are no feature counts to report . if you have loaded features for this organism then re - populate the organism _ feature _ count materialized view .\nbob peterson . < a href =\nurltoken short url\n> view source . < / a > < a href =\nurltoken\n> cc by - sa 2 . 0 < / a >\nplease cite the use of our resources : doi : 10 . 1093 / nar / gku983\neverybody probably has a favorite insect . we thought it would be fun to ask our pollinator staff to suggest their favorite pollinator . with so many pollinators to choose from , it gives a glimpse into the diversity that\u2019s out there waiting to be watched and enjoyed . we\u2019ll be posting one staff pick every other day . we hope you enjoy them .\nthis entry was posted on wednesday , june 3rd , 2015 at 9 : 27 am and is filed under blog . you can follow any responses to this entry through the rss 2 . 0 feed . both comments and pings are currently closed .\nsign up for our newsletter to receive up to date information about our programs and events .\nthe xerces society \u2022 628 ne broadway ste 200 , portland or 97232 usa \u2022 tel 855 . 232 . 6639 \u2022 fax 503 . 233 . 6794 website terms of use \u2022 privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwe\u2019ve updated our privacy policy to give you more control over your information and support new european data protection laws . you can review the changes here .\nincludes unlimited streaming via the free bandcamp app , plus high - quality download in mp3 , flac and more .\na wealth of optimistic soundscapes , each assuring us : the total darkness of non - being is haunted by the eventuality of life .\nbeautiful pieces of music , such variety yet many of the tracks complement each other .\nrecording as allenheimer , atli bollason dismantles icelandic pop songs , making illusory new ambient material from the component parts .\ncreated to accompany a film about a bicycle trip from london to edinburgh , \u201cheading north\u201d is full of plaintive , whispery atmospherics .\nplayful new kell / / ua ep continues the recent roll of top - notch tunes from the melbourne - based fallopian tubes .\nit is made available under a cc - by - nc 4 . 0 international license .\nnote : your email address is requested solely to identify you as the sender of this article .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see this page from the biorxiv website .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ni just saw one of these bees in my yard in tarpon springs , fl ( gulf coast ) . it hovered about 12 inches in front of my face for about 30 seconds , and it seemed to be staring at me . it went away , then came back again and did the same thing . it was very beautiful .\ni have had two of them in my house in the last two days . i live in a suburb of cleveland ohio . i would post a picture , however , i don ' t see an option to do that . it is the bee pictured in this site though . . .\ni have many beautiful butterflies in my yard along with several types of bees but sitting on my front porch and watching this bee was a real treat . i live on the western edge of wellington , fl in palm beach county .\njust found one of these beauties in our garden . took a couple of pictures . very beautoful bee ! never seen one before .\ni caught this exact bee on my porch in vero beach , fl yesterday and have a photo - a little blury but you can get the just of it . put some flowers in the jar with it and the long tongue immediately found its way into the flower - looked similar to a butterfly ' s tongue .\ni just got stung by one this morning & caught it in a bottle , so i could look it up . fascinating !\ni saw one at cibolo creek nature center in boerne texas on saturday june 14th . first time i have ever seen one . did not get a chance to photo it .\ni noted one on some pumpkin plants a couple of months ago . i do not know exactly the species , but it certainly looked like this . i thought maybe i ' d see more , but no luck so far . . .\nwe ' ve had these glorious green bees for at least 10 years in volusia county . i ' ve had boxes up and active for at least that long . when my lotus and angel trumpets are in bloom there are always at least 5 at a time working each flower . looking forward to their return in a few weeks .\nwe saw one today just after a light rain , in the last few blooms on our bolted basil . we ' ve also had tiny black bees in large quantities pollinating the basil , but this is the first time for the green bee .\nok i ' m just posting as a warning . they at a pretty insect with a powerful sting . guys , guys , guys . . . . i found one . ouch !\ni found one of these awsome little bees on my back porch in upper sandusky ohio ! but i only see people commenting in other states like florida , texas , mexico and new york . just thought id let you all know they are in ohio too ! but please feel free to e - mail me at jaybird462011 @ urltoken if they are not supost to be here : )\nsaw in garden . thought it was a fly at first but then it was going into the tomato flowers and got a closer look and was acting just like bee and looks like a bee so i looked up online and found this . interesting . can ' t say i ' ve ever seen one before but it ' s welcome to stay as long as it wants .\ni ' ve never seen this bee before ! thought it was a fly until i put my glasses on . beautiful color and rather small . seen in palmdale , ca , north of los angeles .\ni live in oakland park / ft lauderdale area and was just trimming my basil plant and got startled by two of these hovering around the plant and landing several times . i stood still watching them for a good 5 mins . so beautiful and didn ' t even know these existed !\nwas just out front , there was one in the sunflowers . there was also a black & greyish white . not sure if that would be relevant .\ncouldn ' t say it didn ' t stick out like a sore thumb . . . was going to keep it , but it got away . my brother took a picture .\ni saw one today gathering pollen from a wandering jew . his pollen sacks were full and yellow . he was small but caught my attention with his bright coloring . march 29 , 2013 . bradenton , florida .\nwent back out and saw 2 of em ! took a great inflight pic . wish i could post it !\nmy fiance and i just arrived in sarasota and saw one of these in my grandnmothers flower bed . got a real good look too . wish i gad my camera on me . was cool looking . almost glows . bright shiny greenish blue . interesting creatures .\nwow . it ' s beautiful . just found one on my front yard wildflower display . colored as if a green fly . . . . but with a honeybee ' s flight patterns . gorgeous green mood ring colors . . . flashing to and fro with the sun ' s light . . . . . emerald green helmet . amazing . i had to pause and study for a few seconds just to confirm what exactly it was . i ' m glad i did , because at first thought . . . i really thought it was some sort of fly . very fast , darting style of flight . . . . with the normal bee - like graceful hover we are accustomed to when alight on a pollen frond . wild .\nits a double rainbow\nkind of day . thanks google for directing me here during my query .\nme and my boyfriend found a dead green bee on the ground in arcata , california . i think it ' s a male , and the stinger is still in it . we ' ve got it in a little box , show it to people . i had never seen one before . it ' s quite fascinating .\njust an fyi : male bees don ' t have a stinger . the stinger in bees are a modified ovipositor ( an organ used to lay eggs ) which males don ' t possess . just thought you ' d like to know to help you in your identification of bees . if it stung you it ' s a female . incidentally the same goes for ants , wasps and mosquitoes .\ni saw one of these sunday in my flower garden . i was startled at first then hypnotized by the beauty and strangeness . i live in lake city , florida . it is in north central florida where i - 10 and i - 75 intersect . glad he didn ' t sting me . i followed him for a while , of course my camera and phone were on the back porch !\nwe live about 5 miles from butterfly world and my daughter was just stung by one of these . she kept insisting that it was green and then i saw him lying on the ground . we trapped and bagged him . he is very pretty but his sting sure hurts .\nspotted 3 or 4 green bees in bradenton , fl ( south of tampa bay ) . at first , i thought they were mutant horseflies . they are much faster than the common honeybee , so i couldn ' t snap a photo . we ' ve recently had a few cool nights here due to a late spring snow fall up north which could be driving them further south . the pretty visitors are welcome to our garden anytime .\ni just saw a beautiful specimen of this in englewood , florida in my dad ' s front yard on jan . 6 , 2012 . it was a perfect replica of a honey bee albeit slightly smaller . the black stripes were quite prominent as on a honey bee but the base color was an amazing neon green ! it also had the accumulation of pollen on its legs as did the other honey bees it was flying around with . i would say that it flew faster and collected the pollen a little faster than the other bees but i am not exactly sure of that .\ni just found a green bee on my flowers in the back patio . i live in north texas\ni just found one in my apartment - in new york . hes sitting on the wall . he let me snap several pictures of him before smacking into me ( and scaring me ) while flying away to another part of the wall . we have had an annoying sound coming from the bookshelf or wall over the past few days - a slight knocking sound , but repetitive like a woodpecker . i was wondering if it could of been him ? i certainly hope its not another bug . its getting to be fall - i feel kind bad that he ' s gonna have such a sad life away from his tribe , cold .\ni found one in our apartment in stuart florida . my kids and i let it go .\ni was stung by a green bee while i was dressing for work , it seems like he was in the shirt sleeve and stung me on my upper arm . it ' s two days later and it still stings , i just put some meat tenderizer on it and that stopped the stinging . i have never seen a green bee before .\nthanks so much ! i ' m glad i found this site ! i posted the pic to be identified before i looked around and i found the bee on here ! seems to be a green orchid bee .\nthanks . . i also like post . so this is my favorite to see same post . new construction homes parkland florida florida new home construction rebate . get 66 % of my commission back at closing .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nwe wish to thank rosamond coates and the staff of the los tuxtlas biological station for their hospitality and support during field sampling . ricardo ayala kindly provided a collecting permit for euglossine bees in southern mexico , klaus lunau and the sensory ecology lab at the university of d\u00fcsseldorf hosted part of the molecular analyses , and martin beye and martin hasselmann provided expertise and technical advice . supported by the german science foundation ( el 249 / 3 ) , sep - conacyt 103341 , and a mutual - foncicyt grant .\nackerman jd ( 1981 ) phenological relationships of male euglossine bees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) and their orchid fragrance hosts . florida state university . florida state university , tallahassee\nackerman jd ( 1983 ) diversity and seasonality of male euglossine bees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) in central panama . ecology 64 : 274\u2013283\nackerman jd ( 1989 ) geographic and seasonal variation in fragrance choice and preferences of male euglossine bees . biotropica 21 : 340\u2013347\nackerman jd , montalvo am ( 1985 ) longevity of euglossine bees . biotropica 17 : 79\u201381\narmbruster ws ( 1993 ) within - habitat heterogeneity in baiting samples of male euglossine bees : possible causes and implications . biotropica 25 : 122\u2013128\nballoux f , lugon - moulin n ( 2002 ) the estimation of population differentiation with microsatellite markers . mol ecol 11 : 155\u2013165\nbarton nh , hewitt gm ( 1985 ) analysis of hybrid zones . annu rev ecol syst 16 : 113\u2013148\nbecker p , moure js , peralta fja ( 1991 ) more about euglossine bees in amazonian forest fragments . biotropica 23 : 586\u2013591\nbohonak aj ( 2002 ) ibd ( isolation by distance ) : a program for analyses of isolation by distance . j hered 93 : 153\u2013154\nbrosi bj ( 2009 ) the effects of forest fragmentation on euglossine bee communities ( hymenoptera : apidae : euglossini ) . biol conserv 142 : 414\u2013423\ncairns ma , haggerty pk , alvarez r , de jong bhj , olmsted i ( 2000 ) tropical mexico\u2019s recent land - use change : a region\u2019s contribution to the global carbon cycle . ecol appl 10 : 1426\u20131441\ncane jh ( 2001 ) habitat fragmentation and native bees : a premature verdict ? conserv ecol 5 : art . no . 3\ncook jm ( 1993 ) sex determination in the hymenoptera\u2014a review of models and evidence . heredity 71 : 421\u2013435\ndick cw , roubik dw , gruber kf , bermingham e ( 2004 ) long - distance gene flow and cross - andean dispersal of lowland rainforest bees ( apidae : euglossini ) revealed by comparative mitochondrial dna phylogeography . mol ecol 13 : 3775\u20133785\ndieringer d , schlotterer c ( 2003 ) microsatellite analyser ( msa ) : a platform independent analysis tool for large microsatellite data sets . mol ecol notes 3 : 167\u2013169\ndodson ch , dressler rl , hills hg , adams rm , williams nh ( 1969 ) biologically active compounds in orchid fragrances . science 164 : 1243\u20131249\ndressler rl ( 1968a ) observations on orchids and euglossine bees in panama and costa rica . revista de biolog\u00eda tropical 15 : 143\u2013183\ndressler rl ( 1982 ) biology of the orchid bees ( euglossini ) . annu rev ecol syst 13 : 373\u2013394\neltz t , roubik dw , lunau k ( 2005 ) experience - dependent choices ensure species - specific fragrance accumulation in male orchid bees . behav ecol sociobiol 59 : 149\u2013156\neltz t , zimmermann y , haftmann j , twele r , francke w , quezada - euan jjg , lunau k ( 2007 ) enfleurage , lipid recycling and the origin of perfume collection in orchid bees . proc roy soc b biol sci 274 : 2843\u20132848\neltz t , zimmermann y , pfeiffer c , ramirez pech j , twele r , francke w , quezada - euan jjg , lunau k ( 2008 ) an olfactory shift is associated with male perfume differentiation and sibling species divergence in orchid bees . curr biol 18 : 1844\u20131848\n( apidae : euglossini ) and a new cryptic sibling species , by morphological , chemical , and genetic characters . zool j linn soc ( in press )\nfahrig l ( 2003 ) effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity . annu rev ecol evol syst 34 : 487\u2013515\nfrankham r , ballou jd , briscoe da ( 2002 ) introduction to conservation genetics . cambridge university press , cambridge\nhardy oj , vekemans x ( 1999 ) isolation by distance in a continuous population : reconciliation between spatial autocorrelation analysis and population genetics models . heredity 83 : 145\u2013154\nhartter j , lucas c , gaughan ae , aranda ll ( 2008 ) detecting tropical dry forest succession in a shifting cultivation mosaic of the yucat\u00e1n peninsula , mexico . appl geogr 28 : 134\u2013149\njanzen dh ( 1971 ) euglossine bees as long - distance pollinators of tropical plants . science 171 : 203\u2013205\njanzen dh , devries pj , higgins ml , kimsey ls ( 1982 ) seasonal and site variation in costa rican euglossine bees at chemical baits in lowland deciduous and evergreen forest . ecology 63 : 66\u201374\nkeller lf , waller dm ( 2002 ) inbreeding effects in wild populations . trends ecol evol 17 : 230\u2013241\nkroodsma de ( 1975 ) flight distances of male euglossine bees in orchid pollination . biotropica 7 : 71\u201372\nlopez - uribe mm , almanza mt , ordonez m ( 2007 ) diploid male frequencies in colombian populations of euglossine bees . biotropica 39 : 660\u2013662\nmantel n ( 1967 ) detection of disease clustering and a generalized regression approach . cancer res 27 : 209\nmendoza e , fay j , dirzo r ( 2005 ) a quantitative analysis of forest fragmentation in los tuxtlas , southeast mexico : patterns and implications for conservation . revista chilena de historia natural 78 : 451\u2013467\nmyers n , mittermeier ra , mittermeier cg , da fonseca gab , kent j ( 2000 ) biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities . nature 403 : 853\u2013858\notero jt , sandin jc ( 2003 ) capture rates of male euglossine bees across a human intervention gradient , choco region , colombia . biotropica 35 : 520\u2013529\n( hymenoptera : apidae ) and their variability in other orchid bees . mol ecol resour . doi :\npearson dl , dressler rl ( 1985 ) two - year study of male orchid bee ( hymenoptera : apidae : euglossini ) attraction to chemical baits in lowland south - eastern peru . j trop ecol 1 : 37\u201354\npemberton rw , wheeler gs ( 2006 ) orchid bees don\u2019t need orchids : evidence from the naturalization of an orchid bee in florida . ecology 87 : 1995\u20132001\npowell ah , powell gvn ( 1987 ) population dynamics of male euglossine bees in amazonian forest fragments . biotropica 19 : 176\u2013179\nramirez sr , dressler rl , ospina m ( 2002 ) euglossine bees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) from the neotropical region : a species checklist with notes on their biology . biota colombiana 3 : 10\u2013118\ndressler ( apidae : bombinae : euglossini ) at union juarez , chiapas , mexico . j kansas entomol soc 69 : 144\u2013152\nraw a ( 1989 ) the dispersal of euglossine bees between isolated patches of eastern brazilian wet forest ( hymenoptera , apidae ) . revista brasileira de entomologia 33 : 103\u2013107\nraymond m , rousset f ( 1995 ) an exact test for population differentiation . evolution 49 : 1280\u20131283\nrice wr ( 1989 ) analyzing tables of statistical tests . evolution 43 : 223\u2013225\nrincon m , roubik dw , finegan b , delgado d , zamora n ( 1999 ) understory bees and floral resources in logged and silviculturally treated costa rican rainforest plots . j kansas entomol soc 72 : 379\u2013393\nroderick gk ( 1996 ) geographic structure insect populations : gene flow , phylogeography , and their uses . annu rev entomol 41 : 325\u2013352\nroubik dw , ackerman jd ( 1987 ) long - term ecology of euglossine orchid bees ( apidae : euglossini ) in panama . oecologia 73 : 321\u2013333\nroubik dw , hanson pe ( 2004 ) orchid bees of tropical america : biology and field guide . instituto nacional de biodiversidad press ( inbio ) , heredia , costa rica\nroubik dw , weigt la , bonilla ma ( 1996 ) population genetics , diploid males , and limits to social evolution of euglossine bees . evolution 50 : 931\u2013935\nrousset f ( 1997 ) genetic differentiation and estimation of gene flow from f - statistics under isolation by distance . genetics 145 : 1219\u20131228\nsaunders da , hobbs rj , margules cr ( 1991 ) biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation\u2014a review . conserv biol 5 : 18\u201332\nsouza ro , cervini m , del lama ma , paxton rj ( 2007 ) microsatellite loci for euglossine bees ( hymenoptera : apidae ) . mol ecol notes 7 : 1352\u20131356\nsouza ro , del lama ma , cervini m , mortari n , eltz t , zimmermann y , bach c , brosi bj , suni s , quezada - eu\u00e1n jjg , paxton rj ( 2010 ) conservation genetics of neotropical pollinators revisited : microsatellite analysis demonstrates that diploid males are rare in orchid bees . evolution 64 : 3318\u20133326"]}
{"id": 2065, "summary": [{"text": "qatranilestes is an extinct genus of afrosoricid which existed in fayum , egypt during the earliest oligocene period ( rupelian age ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was first named by erik r. seiffert in 2010 and the type species is qatranilestes oligocaenus .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "as of 2010 , qatranilestes was the youngest known afrosoricid fossil from egypt . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "qatranilestes", "paragraphs": ["as of 2010 ,\nqatranilestes\nwas the youngest known afrosoricid fossil from egypt .\nhow can i put and write and define qatranilestes in a sentence and how is the word qatranilestes used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528qatranilestes\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528qatranilestes\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528qatranilestes\u9020\u53e5 , qatranilestes meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\nhave a fact about qatranilestes ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for qatranilestes ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nqatranilestes is an extinct genus of afrosoricid which existed in fayum , egypt during the earliest oligocene period ( rupelian age ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nkey words : mammalia , adapisoriculidae , tenrecidae , garatherium , widanelfarasia , eocene , oligocene , egypt .\nerik r . seiffert [ erik . seiffert @ urltoken ] , department of anatomical sciences , stony brook university , stony brook , new york , 11794 - 8081 , usa .\nthis is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( for details please see urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it ."]}
{"id": 2078, "summary": [{"text": "the maspalomas bow-legged grasshopper ( dericorys minutus ) is a species of grasshopper of the family acrididae .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the species is endemic to the town of maspalomas on gran canaria island , and is considered critically endangered , or almost extinct , since it has n't been found since 1949 . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "maspalomas bow - legged grasshopper", "paragraphs": ["the maspalomas bow - legged grasshopper ( dericorys minutus ) is a species of grasshopper of the family acrididae .\nhave a fact about maspalomas bow - legged grasshopper ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for maspalomas bow - legged grasshopper ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nthe red - legged grasshopper ( melanoplus femurrubrum ) is a species of grasshopper belonging to the genus melanoplus .\nchorthippus biguttulus , the bow - winged grasshopper , is one of the most common species of grasshopper found in the dry grassland of northern and central europe .\nschistocerca nitens is a species of grasshopper known by several common names , including vagrant grasshopper and gray bird grasshopper .\ndactylotum bicolor , also known as the rainbow grasshopper , painted grasshopper , or the barber pole grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper in the family acrididae .\nthe blue - winged grasshopper , oedipoda caerulescens is a grasshopper in the genus oedipoda .\nhave a fact about maspalomas ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for maspalomas ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nheteracris trimaculata , also known as three - spotted forest grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper .\nmetaleptea brevicornis , the clipped - wing grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper from north america .\ncaelifera , grasshopjumper , grasshoppers , hoppergrass , short - horned grasshopper , short - horned grasshopper .\neupropacris abbreviata , commonly known as kilosa noble grasshopper is a species of grasshopper of the family acrididae .\neuthystira brachyptera , the small gold grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper belonging to the family acrididae .\nthe giant south american grasshopper ( tropidacris violaceus ) is a species of grasshopper in the family romaleidae .\nthe african rice grasshopper , hieroglyphus daganensis is a medium - sized grasshopper species found in the sahel region .\npsophus stridulus , commonly known as the rattle grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper of the family acrididae .\ncyphocerastis uluguruensis , also known as uluguru mountain grasshopper is a rare species of grasshopper in the family acrididae .\nvalanga nigricornis , the javanese grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper in the subfamily cyrtacanthacridinae of the family acrididae .\nteratodes monticollis , commonly known as the hooded grasshopper , is a species of grasshopper native to india and sri lanka .\ndictyophorus spumans , the koppie foam grasshopper or rooibaadjie , is a species of grasshopper in the family pyrgomorphidae indigenous to africa .\nthe slender burrowing grasshopper ( acrotylus patruelis ) is a species of bandwing grasshopper found throughout africa , southern europe and southwestern asia .\nromalea microptera ( syn . romalea guttata ) , known commonly as the eastern lubber grasshopper or just lubber grasshopper , is a grasshopper native to the southeastern and south central portion of the united states .\nthe foothill yellow - legged frog ( rana boylii ) is a small - sized frog from the rana genus in the ranidae family .\neight vessels and one shore station of the royal navy were named hms grasshopper , named for the grasshopper , a common type of herbivorous insect .\nthe black - tailed godwit ( limosa limosa ) is a large , long - legged , long - billed shorebird first described by carolus linnaeus in 1758 .\naiolopus is a genus of grasshopper belonging to the family acrididae , subfamily oedipodinae .\nthe kagu or cagou ( rhynochetos jubatus ) is a crested , long - legged , and bluish - grey bird endemic to the dense mountain forests of new caledonia .\naiolopus strepens is a species of grasshopper belonging to the family acrididae , subfamily oedipodinae .\naiolopus thalassinus is a species of grasshopper belonging to the family acrididae , subfamily oedipodinae .\nthe southern austroicetes ( austroicetes frater ) is an australian grasshopper in the genus austroicetes .\nthe pallid - winged grasshopper ( trimerotropis pallidipennis ) is a common grasshopper of the family acrididae , native to the deserts of western north america from british columbia to argentina .\npardillana exempta is a species of grasshopper in the genus pardillana of the family acrididae .\nschayera baiulus is a species of grasshopper in the family acrididae , endemic to australia .\nchorthippus parallelus , the meadow grasshopper , is a common species of grasshopper found in non - arid grasslands throughout the well vegetated areas of europe and some adjoining areas of asia .\nthe rufous grasshopper is a medium - sized , broad , brown , ' short - horned ' grasshopper with clubbed antennae that are tipped with a conspicuous white or pale color .\nthe senegalese grasshopper ( oedaleus senegalensis ) is a medium - sized grasshopper species found in the sahel region of africa , the canary islands , cape verde islands and west asia .\nthe ant and the grasshopper , alternatively titled the grasshopper and the ant ( or ants ) , is one of aesop ' s fables , numbered 373 in the perry index .\nalpinacris tumidicauda is a species of grasshopper only known from otago and southland , new zealand .\noedipoda is a genus of grasshoppers , including the blue - winged grasshopper , oedipoda caerulescens .\nphyllochoreia is a genus of grasshopper endemic to the western ghats of india and sri lanka .\nchorthippus albomarginatus , the lesser marsh grasshopper , is a common grasshopper of european grassland both damp - marshy and ( despite its name ) dry , including salt - marsh and coastal habitats .\naularches miliaris is a colorful grasshopper belonging to the family pyrgomorphidae found in south and southeast asia .\ndociostaurus maroccanus , commonly known as the moroccan locust , is a grasshopper in the insect family acrididae .\nthe yellow - winged grasshopper ( gastrimargus musicus ) is a common grassland locust in australia and india .\nthe following is a list of the species of grasshopper , cricket and allied insects recorded from britain .\nthe red locust ( nomadacris septemfasciata ) is a large grasshopper species found in sub - saharan africa .\nalpinacris crassicauda is a species of grasshopper only known from west coast region and tasman region , new zealand .\ngrasshopper is an outdoor 1988 copper sculpture by wayne chabre , located in salem , oregon , united states .\natractomorpha similis , commonly known as the northern grass pyrgomorph , is a species of grasshopper in the genus atractomorpha .\nchorthippus brunneus , a member of the subfamily gomphocerinae , are more commonly referred to as the common field grasshopper .\nthe southern grasshopper mouse or scorpion mouse ( onychomys torridus ) is a species of rodent in the family cricetidae .\nsphenarium purpurascens , in spanish : chapul\u00edn de la milpa or in portuguese : gafanhoto - do - milho ( translation : the corn field grasshopper ) , is a grasshopper species in the genus sphenarium found in mexico and guatemala .\nbugdom 2 follows the adventure of a grasshopper named skip as he tries to get his stolen knapsack from bully bee .\nthe grasshopper escapement is an unusual , low - friction escapement for pendulum clocks invented by british clockmaker john harrison around 1722 .\nthe short - winged green grasshopper ( dichromorpha viridis ) is a common species of slant - faced grasshoppers found in north america .\nthe lipnur belalang ( grasshopper in indonesian ) was a military trainer aircraft built in small numbers in indonesia in the late 1950s .\nthe species has probably gone extinct near maspalomas as a consequence of the destruction of its habitat caused by touristic development . the recently discovered second site is threatened by the construction of houses . based on this threat , the species occurs only at one location .\nphaulacridium otagoense is an endemic new zealand grasshopper found in low altitudes throughout the central south island ( mackenzie basin and central otago ) .\nspharagemon collare , common name mottled sand grasshopper , is found in sandy - soiled , grassy areas of northern united states and southern canada .\nkuznechik ( grasshopper ) was a bactrian camel that became known for following the soviet red army in its advance towards germany in world war ii .\nthe morogoro pretty grasshopper ( acanthothericles bicoloripes ) is a species of thericleid orthopteran that is endemic to lowland and submontane rainforests around morogoro in tanzania .\ngrasshopper glacier is located in shoshone national forest , in the us state of wyoming on the east of the continental divide in the wind river range .\nphaulacridium marginale is an endemic new zealand grasshopper found in low altitudes throughout the north island , the south island , stewart island and on many smaller islands .\nschistocerca americana is a species of grasshopper in the family acrididae known commonly as the american grasshoppersquitier , j . m . and j . l . capinera .\nnsenene is the luganda name for a long - horned grasshopper ( more commonly called bush cricket or katydid ) that is a central ugandan delicacy as well as an important source of income .\nthe gran canaria crested grasshopper is endemic to gran canaria ( canary islands , spain ) , from which it is only known from a single locality in the north of the island ( sardina del norte , near g\u00e1ldar ) , where it was recently rediscovered ( h . l\u00f3pez pers . comm . 2016 ) . it was originally described from a single specimen found at the beach of maspalomas ( chopard 1954 ) , where it was never found again . the extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is between 4 and 10 km\u00b2 , the area of occupancy ( aoo ) is 4 to 8 km\u00b2 .\nel chapul\u00edn colorado ( the red grasshopper or as captain hopper in the english version of el chavo : animated series ) is a mexican television comedy series that ran from 1972 to 1981 and parodied superhero shows .\nthe arbal\u00e8te sauterelle type a , or simply sauterelle ( french for grasshopper ) , was a bomb - throwing crossbow used by french and british forces on the western front during world war i . it was designed to throw a hand grenade in a high trajectory into enemy trenches .\nthe migratory locust ( locusta migratoria ) is the most widespread locust species , and the only species in the genus locusta . it occurs throughout africa , asia , australia and new zealand . it used to be common in europe but has now become rare there . because of the vast geographic area it occupies , which comprises many different ecological zones , numerous subspecies have been described . however , not all experts agree on the validity of some of these subspecies . many other species of grasshopper with gregarious and possibly migratory behaviour are referred to as ' locusts ' in the vernacular , including the widely distributed desert locust .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neades , d . c . , otte , d . , cigliano , m . m . and braun , h . 2016 . orthoptera species file . version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 . available at : urltoken .\ncritically endangered b1ab ( iii , v ) + 2ab ( iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\nin the south of gran canaria , the species has not been found since 1949 and is probably extinct . recently the species has been rediscovered in the north of the island . as the only known locality is strongly affected by the construction of houses , a continuing decline in the number of mature individuals is inferred .\nthe ecology of this species has not been studied . it is likely to prefer coastal open habitats with scarce vegetation , although its habitat preferences are not clear as the species has been only recently re - discovered . its next relatives are specialised on chenopodiaceae as food plants .\nfor the recently discovered subpopulation near sardina del norte , conservation action needs to be implemented immediately . particularly , the habitat needs to be protected from further deterioration . research on its population size , population trend and ecology is urgently needed . furthermore , a monitoring program needs to be implemented . it also should be studied if the species has survived elsewhere at the coast of gran canaria . the species is not present in protected areas .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nwith the help of more than 100 of the iucn species survival commission\u2019s specialist groups , global wildlife conservation has compiled this list of species considered lost across more than 160 countries as part of the search for lost species . the definition of \u201clost\u201d varied by taxa . we welcome additional nominations and encourage conservationists , scientists and naturalists to launch searches for species on this broad list . report an observation on the search for lost species inauralist page . iucn red list of threatened species status key :\ncar\u00ec\u00e1bido de doramas ( fide machado , a . , & morera , m . ( eds . ) . ( 2005 ) . nombres comunes de las plantas y los animales de canarias . islas canarias : academia canaria de la lengua .\nprobably extinct in mart\u00ec _ n esquivel , j . l . , fajardo gonz\u00ec\u00e1lez , s . , cabrera p\u00ec\u00a9rez , m . \u00ec\u0081 . , arechavaleta hern\u00ec\u00e1ndez , m . , aguiar clavijo , a . , mart\u00ec _ n de abreu , s . , & naranjo morales , m . ( 2005 ) . evaluaci\u00ec _ n 2004 de especies amenazadas de canarias . especies en peligro de extinci\u00ec _ n , sensibles a la alteraci\u00ec _ n de su h\u00ec\u00e1bitat y vulnerables . santa cruz de tenerife : consejer\u00ec _ a de medioi ambiente y ordenaci\u00ec _ n territorial , gobierno de canarias .\nwant more info ? go to urltoken or contact us at info @ urltoken .\nthere are lots of additional ways you can join the global search ! make a donation to support the expeditions . become a corporate sponsor of the initiative or sponsor a specific expedition . share the lost stories on facebook , instagram and twitter .\nno matter how big or small , there is always something you can do to help spread the conservation message .\n\u00a9 2017 global wildlife conservation . all rights reserved . global wildlife conservation is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nmelanoplus femurrubrum . this striking color pattern is not unusual in this species . in the west , similarly patterned ones sometimes have the dark areas colored blue .\nselect your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nthe acrididae are the predominant family of grasshoppers , comprising some 10 , 000 of the 11 , 000 species of the entire suborder caelifera .\nthe silent slant - faced grasshoppers make up the subfamily acridinae of the insect family acrididae .\nacridini is a tribe of insects in the subfamily acridinae ( silent slant - faced grasshoppers ) of the insect family acrididae .\nthe african crake ( crex egregia ) is a bird in the rail family that breeds in most of sub - saharan africa away from the arid south and southwest .\nthe african golden wolf ( canis anthus ) , also known as the african wolf or thoa , is a canid native to north and northeastern africa .\nallomerus decemarticulatus is an amazonian ant species found in the tropics of south america .\nthe alpine chough , or yellow - billed chough , ( pyrrhocorax graculus ) is a bird in the crow family , one of only two species in the genus pyrrhocorax .\nalq\u014dsh ( \u0710\u0720\u0729\u0718\u072b , judeo - aramaic : \u05d0\u05dc\u05e7\u05d5\u05e9 , \u0623\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0634 ) , alternatively spelled al - qosh or alqush , is an assyrian town in northern iraq .\nthe american kestrel ( falco sparverius ) , sometimes colloquially known as the sparrow hawk , is a small falcon , and the only kestrel found in the americas .\nthe american robin ( turdus migratorius ) is a migratory songbird of the thrush family .\nangling is a method of fishing by means of an\nangle\n( fish hook ) .\nangling in yellowstone national park is a major reason many visitors come to the park each year and since it was created in 1872 , the park has drawn anglers from around the world to fish its waters .\nangolan cuisine is the cuisine of angola , a country in south - central africa .\nanimal communication is the transfer of information from one or a group of animals ( sender or senders ) to one or more other animals ( receiver or receivers ) which affects either the current or future behavior of the receivers .\nanimal suicide refers to self - destructive behavior displayed by various species of animal that becomes likened to suicide .\nanti - predator adaptations are mechanisms developed through evolution that assist prey organisms in their constant struggle against predators .\nthe costa rican zebra tarantula , also known as the striped - knee tarantula ( aphonopelma seemanni ) , is a species of tarantula inhabiting most of western costa rica , as well as other parts of central america , such as honduras and nicaragua , and possibly guatemala .\naposematism ( from greek \u1f00\u03c0\u03cc apo away , \u03c3\u0311\u03b7\u03bc\u03b1 sema sign , coined by edward bagnall poultonpoulton , 1890 . foldout\nthe colours of animals classified according to their uses\n, after page 339 . ) , perhaps most commonly known in the context of warning coloration , describes a family of antipredator adaptations where a warning signal is associated with the unprofitability of a prey item to potential predators .\nthe four - spot orb - weaver ( araneus quadratus ) is a common orb - weaver spider found in europe and central asia , and as far as the kamchatka peninsula and japan .\narm slaves are fictional mecha from the light novel , manga , and anime series full metal panic ! .\nan artificial fly or fly lure is a type of fishing lure , usually used in the sport of fly fishing ( although they may also be used in other forms of angling ) .\nassociation football club names are a part of the sport ' s culture , reflecting century - old traditions .\nthe biodiversity of great britain and ireland is probably the most well - studied of any geographical area of comparable size anywhere in the world .\nattwater ' s prairie chicken ( tympanuchus cupido attwateri ) is a highly endangered subspecies of the greater prairie chicken that is native to coastal texas and louisiana in the united states .\nthe australian magpie ( cracticus tibicen ) is a medium - sized black and white passerine bird native to australia and southern new guinea .\nthe australian owlet - nightjar ( aegotheles cristatus ) is a nocturnal bird found in open woodland across australia and in southern new guinea .\nthe australian raven ( corvus coronoides ) is a passerine bird in the genus corvus native to much of southern and northeastern australia .\nthe moroccan auxiliary forces ( berber : idwasen imawwasen or imxazniyen , arabic : \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0639\u062f\u0629 al - quww\u0101t al - mus\u0101 ` idah , french : forces auxiliaires marocaines ) is a paramilitary force legally part of the royal moroccan armed forces but following the command of the ministry of the interior , and supplements the military , gendarmerie and police when needed .\naxon guidance ( also called axon pathfinding ) is a subfield of neural development concerning the process by which neurons send out axons to reach the correct targets .\nin addition to the normal karyotype , wild populations of many animal , plant , and fungi species contain b chromosomes ( also known as supernumerary or accessory chromosomes ) .\nthe banded kestrel ( falco zoniventris ) is a bird of prey belonging to the falcon family falconidae .\nbandwings , or band - winged grasshoppers ( subfamily oedipodinae ) is a group of insects classified under the family acrididae .\na barber ' s pole is a type of sign used by barbers to signify the place or shop where they perform their craft .\nthe barred eagle - owl ( bubo sumatranus ) , also called the malay eagle - owl , is a species of owl in the strigidae family .\nthe barred owl ( strix varia ) is a large typical owl native to north america .\nthe bat - eared fox ( otocyon megalotis ) is a species of fox found on the african savanna , named for its large ears , .\nis a line of small 2\ntall action figure toys , in the form of an anthropomorphised animals with body armor and a unique weapon .\nbee 52 is a side scrolling game for the nintendo entertainment system ( nes ) .\nfor the 1947 docudrama , see the beginning or the end beginning of the end is a 1957 american science fiction film directed by bert i . gordon and starring peter graves and peggie castle .\nbelonogaster juncea juncea is a subspecies of belonogaster juncea and is classified as a primitively eusocial wasp , meaning that the species is social while exhibiting a morphology that is indistinguishable from that of other castes .\nbenno ii ( \u2013 27 july 1088 ) was bishop of osnabr\u00fcck from 1068 until his death .\n- - - - the bessarabia germans ( bessarabiendeutsche , germani basarabeni ) are an ethnic group who lived in bessarabia ( today part of moldova and ukraine ) between 1814 and 1940 .\nthe term bible diet ( also known as the maker ' s diet ) is used to refer to a diet promoted on radio and in books by writer and motivational speaker jordan s . rubin , who says it is based on teachings from leviticus , deuteronomy and other books of the bible , that certain foods are either forbidden (\nunclean\n) or acceptable (\nclean\n) to god .\nbig two - hearted river\nis a two - part short story written by american author ernest hemingway , published in the 1925 boni & liveright edition of in our time , the first american volume of hemingway ' s short stories .\nbio - inspired robotic locomotion is a fairly new sub - category of bio - inspired design .\nthe biodiversity of new zealand , a large island nation located in the southwestern pacific ocean , is one of the most varied and unique on earth due to its long isolation from other continental landmasses .\nbizarre foods with andrew zimmern is a travel and cuisine television show hosted by andrew zimmern on the travel channel .\nthe black - backed jackal ( canis mesomelas ) is a canid native to two areas of africa , separated by roughly 900 km .\nthe black - crowned central american squirrel monkey ( saimiri oerstedii oerstedii ) is a subspecies of the central american squirrel monkey .\nthe black - headed dwarf chameleon ( bradypodion melanocephalum ) is a lizard of the family chamaeleonidae endemic to kwazulu - natal , south africa .\nthe black - shouldered kite ( elanus axillaris ) or australian black - shouldered kite is a small raptor found in open habitat throughout australia and resembles similar species found in africa , eurasia and north america , which have in the past also been named as black - shouldered kites .\nblister beetles are beetles of the family meloidae , so called for their defensive secretion of a blistering agent , cantharidin .\nthe blue crane ( anthropoides paradiseus ) , also known as the stanley crane and the paradise crane , is the national bird of south africa .\nthe blue mountains water skink ( eulamprus leuraensis ) is a species of skink in the family scincidae .\nthe blue - bellied roller ( coracias cyanogaster ) is a member of the roller family of birds which breeds across africa in a narrow belt from senegal to northeast democratic republic of the congo .\nthe blue - headed vireo ( vireo solitarius ) is a neotropical migrating song bird found in north and central america .\nboea is a genus of plants in the gesneriaceae ( gesneriads ) family , with species originating from australia , china , india , malaysia , birma , philippines , polynesia , solomon islands , thailand , papua new guinea , indonesia , nepal , bhutan , cambodia , vietnam and laos .\nthe boveri\u2013sutton chromosome theory ( also known as the chromosome theory of inheritance or the sutton\u2013boveri theory ) is a fundamental unifying theory of genetics which identifies chromosomes as the carriers of genetic material .\nthe brook trout ( salvelinus fontinalis ) is a species of freshwater fish in the salmon family salmonidae .\nthe brown anole ( anolis sagrei ) , also known as the bahaman anole or de la sagra ' s anole , is a lizard native to cuba and the bahamas .\nthe brown thrasher ( toxostoma rufum ) is a bird in the family mimidae , which also includes the new world catbirds and mockingbirds .\nbrunneria borealis , common name brunner ' s mantis , brunner ' s stick mantis , or northern grass mantis , is a species of praying mantis native to the southern united states .\nbugdom is a 1999 platform video game originally created by pangea software for the mac os 9 .\nbunyan bugs are a series of synthetic objects used as fly rod bait in fly - fishing , designed to look like a wide variety of insects , including grasshoppers , stoneflies , mayflies , horse flies , bumble bees , ants and caddis flies .\nthe cactus wren ( campylorhynchus brunneicapillus ) is a species of wren that is native to the southwestern united states southwards to central mexico .\ncalamovilfa longifolia is a species of grass known by the common names prairie sandreed and sand reedgrass .\nthe california leaf - nosed bat ( macrotus californicus ) is a species of bat in the family phyllostomidae .\ncamouflage is the use of any combination of materials , coloration , or illumination for concealment , either by making animals or objects hard to see ( crypsis ) , or by disguising them as something else ( mimesis ) .\nthe canadian synchrotron radiation facility ( csrf ) ( institut canadien du rayonnement synchrotron - icrs ) was canada ' s national synchrotron facility from 1983 - 2005 .\nthe cape starling , red - shouldered glossy - starling or cape glossy starling ( lamprotornis nitens ) is a species of starling in the family sturnidae .\ncaragana arborescens , caragana or siberian peashrub , is a species of legume native to siberia and parts of china ( heilongjiang xinjiang ) and neighboring mongolia and kazakhstan .\nthe carolina wren ( thryothorus ludovicianus ) is a common species of wren that is a resident in the eastern half of the united states of america , the extreme south of ontario , canada , and the extreme northeast of mexico .\nthe caspian plover ( charadrius asiaticus ) is a wader in the plover family of birds .\ncassava ( manihot esculenta ) production is vital to the economy of nigeria as the country is the world ' s largest producer of the commodity .\ncassin ' s sparrow ( peucaea cassinii ) is a medium - sized sparrow .\nthe cattle egret ( bubulcus ibis ) is a cosmopolitan species of heron ( family ardeidae ) found in the tropics , subtropics and warm temperate zones .\nthe central american squirrel monkey ( saimiri oerstedii ) is a squirrel monkey species from the pacific coast of costa rica and panama .\nthe central asian northern desert is an ecoregion in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome , located in the central asian countries of kazakhstan and uzbekistan .\nceratonia siliqua , commonly known as the carob tree , st john ' s - bread , or locust bean ( not to be confused with the african locust bean ) is a species of flowering evergreen shrub or tree in the pea family , fabaceae .\nthe chamaesaura , also known as grass lizards , are a genus of legless lizards from southern and eastern africa .\nchameleons or chamaeleons ( family chamaeleonidae ) are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of old world lizards with 202 species described as of june 2015 .\nchapulines , plural for chapul\u00edn , are grasshoppers of the genus sphenarium , that are commonly eaten in certain areas of mexico .\nchargaff ' s rules states that dna from any cell of all organisms should have a 1 : 1 ratio ( base pair rule ) of pyrimidine and purine bases and , more specifically , that the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine .\ncharles valentine riley ( 1843 - 1895 ) was a british - born american entomologist and artist .\ncharles w . woodworth ( april 28 , 1865 \u2013 november 19 , 1940 ) was an american entomologist .\nthe chinese mantis ( tenodera sinensis ) is a species of praying mantis native to china and other parts of asia and islands off of mainland asia .\nis the fourth film adaptation of the popular kamen rider series kamen rider den - o , following kamen rider den - o : i ' m born ! , kamen rider den - o & kiva : climax deka , and saraba kamen rider den - o : final countdown .\ncholula ( spanish ) is a city and district located in the center west of the state of puebla , next to the city of puebla de zaragoza , in central mexico .\ntwo species of chough constitute the genus pyrrhocorax of the corvidae ( crow ) family of birds .\nthe cirl bunting , emberiza cirlus , is a passerine bird in the bunting family emberizidae , a group now separated by most modern authors from the finches , fringillidae .\ncitrix systems , inc . is an american multinational software company founded in 1989 that provides server , application and desktop virtualization , networking , software - as - a - service ( saas ) , and cloud computing technologies .\nclimate change in the us state of washington is a subject of study and projection today .\nthe columbia spotted frog ( rana luteiventris ) is a north american species of frog .\nthe common dwarf mongoose ( helogale parvula ) , sometimes just called the dwarf mongoose , is a small african carnivore belonging to the mongoose family ( herpestidae ) .\nthe common myna ( acridotheres tristis ) , sometimes spelled mynah , also sometimes known as\nindian myna\n, is a member of the family sturnidae ( starlings and mynas ) native to asia .\nthe common planigale ( planigale maculata ) , also known as the pygmy planigale or the coastal planigale , is one of many small marsupial carnivores known as\nmarsupial mice\nfound in australia .\nthe common poorwill ( phalaenoptilus nuttallii ) is a nocturnal bird of the family caprimulgidae , the nightjars .\nthe common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the european starling , or in the british isles just the starling , is a medium - sized passerine bird in the starling family , sturnidae .\nthe common tody - flycatcher or black - fronted tody - flycatcher ( todirostrum cinereum ) is a very small passerine bird in the tyrant flycatcher family .\nthe islamic dietary laws ( halal ) and the jewish dietary laws ( kashrut ; in english , kosher ) are both quite detailed , and contain both points of similarity and discord .\nconcordia normal school located in concordia , kansas was a state - funded normal school operated by the kansas state government from 1874 until 1876 .\nthe corn crake , corncrake or landrail ( crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family .\nthe corpus clock is a large sculptural clock at street level on the outside of the taylor library at corpus christi college , cambridge university , in the united kingdom , at the junction of bene ' t street and trumpington street , looking out over king ' s parade .\ncrematogaster is an ecologically diverse genus of ants found worldwide , which are characterised by a distinctive heart - shaped gaster ( abdomen ) , which gives one of their common names , valentine ant .\ncrepitation refers to situations where noises are produced by the rubbing of parts one against the other , as in .\nthe cretaceous , derived from the latin\ncreta\n( chalk ) , usually abbreviated k for its german translation kreide ( chalk ) , is a geologic period and system from to years ( ma ) ago .\ncrickets , family gryllidae ( also known as\ntrue crickets\n) , are insects related to grasshoppers .\nthe crimson fruitcrow ( haematoderus militaris ) is a species of bird in the large family cotingidae , not a crow .\ncrossley ' s vanga ( mystacornis crossleyi ) , also known as crossley ' s babbler - vanga , crossley ' s babbler , or madagascar groundjumper , is a bird species in the family vangidae .\ncryptococcus ( greek for\nhidden sphere\n) is a genus of fungus .\ncentrafrican cuisine includes the cuisines , cooking traditions , practices , ingredients and foods of the central african republic ( car ) .\nthe cutthroat trout is a fish species of the family salmonidae native to cold - water tributaries of the pacific ocean , rocky mountains , and great basin in north america .\ndaniel otte ( born 14 march 1939 ) is a noted behavior ecologist , a world expert on crickets and grasshoppers and a prominent scientific illustrator .\ndave ' s hopper is an artificial fly used for fly fishing , designed to imitate adult grasshoppers and other orthoptera species .\nthe cuisine of the democratic republic of the congo varies widely , representing the food of indigenous people .\ndickinson ' s kestrel ( falco dickinsoni ) is a bird of prey of southern and eastern africa belonging to the falcon family falconidae .\ndiscotettix is an genus of insects found in malaysia , belonging to the tetrigidae family of orthopterans .\ndiscotettix adenanii is an insect found in malaysia , belonging to the tetrigidae family .\ndiscotettix selangori is an insect found in malaysia , belonging to the tetrigidae family .\ndissection ( from latin dissecare\nto cut to pieces\n; also called anatomization , from greek anatomia , from ana -\nup\nand temnein\nto cut\n) is the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the functions and relationships of its components .\ndissosteira is a genus of grasshoppers in the family acrididae found in north america .\ndoctor dolittle is an animated series produced by depatie - freleng enterprises in association with 20th century fox television .\nthe are the fictional antagonists in the kamen rider series kamen rider w . dopants are normal humans who use gaia memories .\nthe dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) is a species of forest - dwelling grouse native to the rocky mountains in north america .\neast polden grasslands is a 124 hectare biological site of special scientific interest on the polden hills in somerset , notified in 1999 .\nthe eastern coyote ( canis latrans var . ) , also known as the new england canid or tweed wolf , is a wild northern american canid of mixed wolf - coyote parentage present in new england , new york , new jersey , pennsylvania , ontario , quebec , new brunswick , nova scotia , and newfoundland and labrador .\nthe eastern screech owl ( megascops asio ) is a small owl that is relatively common in eastern north america , from mexico to canada .\nthe echigo - tsumari art triennial is an international modern art festival held once every three years in the niigata prefecture , japan .\nthe ecology of banksia refers to all the relationships and interactions among the plant genus banksia and its environment .\nthe ecology of the rocky mountains is diverse due to the effects of a variety of environmental factors .\nestella eleanor carothers ( 4 december 1882 \u2013 1957 ) , known primarily as eleanor carothers , was an american zoologist , geneticist , and cytologist known for her work with grasshoppers .\nelectronic pest control is the name given to the use of any of the several types of electrically powered devices designed to repel or eliminate pests , usually rodents or insects .\nelectrotettix is an extinct genus of pygmy locust found in amber collected in the dominican republic .\nthe emu ( dromaius novaehollandiae ) is the second - largest living bird in the world by height , after its ratite relative , the ostrich .\nendophenotype is a genetic epidemiology term which is used to separate behavioral symptoms into more stable phenotypes with a clear genetic connection .\nendrin is an organochloride with the chemical formula c12h8cl6o that was first produced in 1950 by shell and velsicol chemical corporation .\nensifera is a suborder of the order orthoptera , including insects in the families gryllidae ( true crickets ) , prophalangopsidae ( grigs ) , stenopelmatidae ( jerulalem crickets , king crickets , tree and giant wetas ) , gryllacrididae ( leaf - rolling and raspy crickets ) , cooloolidae ( cooloola monsters ) , rhaphidophoridae ( cave and camel crickets ) , schizodactylidae ( dune or splay - footed crickets ) and tettigoniidae ( bush crickets or katydids ) .\nentomology ( from greek \u1f14\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 , moment ,\nthat which is cut in pieces or engraved / segmented\n, hence\ninsect\n; and - \u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1 , - logia ) is the scientific study of insects , a branch of zoology .\nentomophagy ( from greek \u1f14\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd \u00e9ntomon ,\ninsect\n, and \u03c6\u1fb0\u03b3\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd phagein ,\nto eat\n) is the human consumption of insects as food : human insectivory .\nepicauta vittata is a species of beetle in the family meloidae , the blister beetles .\nthe etruscan shrew ( suncus etruscus ) , also known as the etruscan pygmy shrew or the white - toothed pygmy shrew is the smallest known mammal by mass , weighing only about on average ( in russian ) .\neumorsea is a genus of grasshoppers in the family eumastacidae , the monkey grasshoppers .\neuprenolepis procera is a species of ant found in the rainforests of south east asia .\nevidence of common descent of living organisms has been discovered by scientists researching in a variety of disciplines over many decades and has demonstrated common descent of all life on earth developing from a last universal ancestor .\nthe exopterygota , also known as hemipterodea , are a superorder of insects of the subclass pterygota in the infraclass neoptera , in which the young resemble adults but have externally developing wings .\nan exoskeleton ( from greek \u03ad\u03be\u03c9 , \u00e9x\u014d\nouter\nand \u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2 , skeletos\nskeleton\n) is the external skeleton that supports and protects an animal ' s body , in contrast to the internal skeleton ( endoskeleton ) of , for example , a human .\nthe apapane ( himatione sanguinea ) is a species of hawaiian honeycreeper , that is endemic to hawaii .\nthe fourth season of the syfy reality television series face off premiered on january 15 , 2013 and ended march 26 , 2013 .\nfasciclin 2 ( fas2 or fasii ) is a 95 kilodalton cell membrane glycoprotein in the immunoglobulin ( ig ) \u2013 related superfamily of cell adhesion molecules ( cams ) .\nthe fauna of australia consists of a huge variety of animals ; some 83 % of mammals , 89 % of reptiles , 24 % of fish and insects and 93 % of amphibians that inhabit the continent are endemic to australia .\nthe fauna of the australian capital territory includes representatives from most major australian animal groups .\nthe fieldfare ( turdus pilaris ) is a member of the thrush family turdidae .\nthe fiji woodswallow ( artamus mentalis ) is a species of woodswallow in the family artamidae .\nfipronil is a broad - use insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family . fipronil is a broad - spectrum insecticide that disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking gaba - gated chloride channels and glutamate - gated chloride ( glucl ) channels , resulting in central nervous system toxicity .\nfirst street ( chinese : \u7b2c\u4e00\u8857 ) is a street in sai ying pun , an early suburb of hong kong .\nfishing bait is any substance used to attract and catch fish , e . g . on the end of a fishing hook , or inside a fish trap .\nthe flap - necked chameleon , chamaeleo dilepis , is a species of arboreal lizard native to sub - saharan africa .\nthe florissant fossil bed national monument is a national monument located in teller county , colorado .\nfly fishing is an angling method in which an artificial\nfly\nis used to catch fish .\nfork - marked lemurs or fork - crowned lemurs are strepsirrhine primates ; the four species comprise the genus phaner .\nthe four - toed elephant shrew or four - toed sengi is the only living species in the genus petrodromus , which together with three other extant genera rhynchocyon , macroscelides and elephantulus constitutes the order macroscelidea .\nfoxley wood is an 11 . 36 hectare local nature reserve and site of borough importance for nature conservation , grade 1 , in purley in the london borough of croydon .\nfrancis henry maynard , known as frank h . maynard ( december 16 , 1853 \u2013 march 28 , 1926 ) , was an old - time cowboy of the american west who claimed authorship of the revised version of the well - known ballad\nthe streets of laredo\n.\nfrank phillips ( november 28 , 1873 & ndash ; august 23 , 1950 ) founded phillips petroleum in bartlesville , oklahoma ( marketed as phillips 66 ) in 1917 , along with his brother , lee eldas\nl . e .\nphillips , sr .\nfriedmann ' s lark ( mirafra pulpa ) is a species of lark in the alaudidae family .\nfringe - toed lizards are lizards of the genus uma in the family phrynosomatidae , native to deserts of north america .\nfrogs are a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short - bodied , tailless amphibians composing the order anura ( ancient greek an - , without + oura , tail ) .\na gapeworm ( syngamus trachea ) , also known as a red worm and forked worm , is a parasitic nematode worm infecting the tracheas of certain birds .\nthe garden dormouse ( eliomys quercinus ) is a rodent in the dormouse family .\ngavialidium is a genus of insects found in malaysia , belonging to the tetrigidae family of orthopterans .\ngavialidium phangensum is an insect found in malaysia , belonging to the tetrigidae family .\na genet ( pronounced or ) is a member of the genus genetta , which comprises 14 to 17 species of small african carnivorans .\ngeoffroy ' s tamarin ( saguinus geoffroyi ) , also known as the panamanian , red - crested or rufous - naped tamarin , is a tamarin , a type of small monkey , found in panama and colombia .\ncount giuseppe zinanni or ginanni ( 7 november 1692 ravenna \u2013 23 october 1753 in the same city ) was an italian naturalist .\nthe glossy ibis ( plegadis falcinellus ) is a wading bird in the ibis family threskiornithidae .\nthe gnateaters are a bird family , conopophagidae , consisting of ten small passerine species in two genera , which occur in south and central america .\nthe golden - fronted woodpecker ( melanerpes aurifrons ) is a north american woodpecker .\nthe golden - rumped elephant shrew ( rhynchocyon chrysopygus ) is the largest species in the african elephant shrew family .\ngoofy and wilbur is a cartoon produced by walt disney productions and released by rko radio pictures on march 17 , 1939 .\ngotthilf hempel ( born march 8 , 1929 ) is a retired german marine biologist and oceanographer .\ngraeme ruxton is a zoologist known for his research into behavioural ecology and evolutionary ecology .\nin zoology , a graminivore ( not to be confused with a granivore ) is an herbivorous animal that feeds primarily on grass ( specifically\ntrue\ngrasses , plants of the family poaceae ) .\nthe grand comoro drongo ( dicrurus fuscipennis ) is a species of bird in the dicruridae family .\ngrasses , or more technically graminoids , are monocotyledonous , usually herbaceous plants with narrow leaves growing from the base .\ngrasshoppers ( cavallette ) is an animated short by bruno bozzetto which condenses the whole of human civilization into 9 minutes , focusing primarily on the human race ' s predilection for warfare and the vanity of war .\ngrasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses ( poaceae ) , however sedge ( cyperaceae ) and rush ( juncaceae ) families can also be found .\nsaint gratus of aosta ( san grato di aosta , saint grat d ' aoste ) ( d . september 7 , c . 470 ad ) is the patron saint of aosta .\nthe great bustard ( otis tarda ) is in the bustard family , the only member of the genus otis .\nthe great grey shrike , northern grey shrike , or northern shrike ( lanius excubitor ) is a large songbird species in the shrike family ( laniidae ) .\nthe great horned owl ( bubo virginianus ) , also known as the tiger owl ( originally derived from early naturalists ' description as the\nwinged tiger\nor\ntiger of the air\n) or the hoot owl , austing , g . r . & holt , jr . , j . b . ( 1966 ) .\nthe great potoo ( nyctibius grandis ) is a bird , both the largest potoo species and the largest member of the order caprimulgiformes ( nightjars and allies ) .\nthe great pyramid of cholula , also known as tlachihualtepetl ( nahuatl for\nartificial mountain\n) , is a huge complex located in cholula , puebla , mexico .\nthe greater kestrel or white - eyed kestrel ( falco rupicoloides ) is a bird of prey belonging to the falcon family falconidae .\nthe greater rhea ( rhea americana ) is a flightless bird found in eastern south america .\nthe greater short - horned lizard ( phrynosoma hernandesi ) , also commonly known as the mountain short - horned lizard , is a species of lizard endemic to western north america .\nin the earliest times the greeks wore their hair kome ( long ) , and thus they are constantly called in homer karekomoontes .\nthe green iguana ( iguana iguana ) , also known as common iguana or american iguana , is a large , arboreal , mostly herbivorous species of lizard of the genus iguana native to central , south america , and the caribbean .\nthe grey - crowned central american squirrel monkey ( saimiri oerstedii citrinellus ) is a subspecies of the central american squirrel monkey .\nthe grey - necked rockfowl ( picathartes oreas ) is a medium - sized bird in the family picathartidae with a long neck and tail .\nthe groundhog ( marmota monax ) , also known as a woodchuck , or whistlepig , is a rodent of the family sciuridae , belonging to the group of large ground squirrels known as marmots .\ngrowing up in the universe was a series of lectures given by richard dawkins as part of the royal institution christmas lectures , in which he discussed the evolution of life in the universe .\nguindy national park is a protected area of tamil nadu , located in chennai , south india , is the 8th smallest national park of india and one of the very few national parks situated inside a city .\nthe are a fictional race creatures who act as the antagonists in the 2000 kamen rider series kamen rider kuuga .\nhabigbagim ( hebrew : \u05d4\u05d1\u05d9\u05d2\u05d1\u05d2\u05d9\u05dd ) is an israeli educational television program for preschoolers , which aired on the israeli children channel between 1998 and 2000 .\nthe hairy frog ( trichobatrachus robustus ) , also known as the horror frog or wolverine frog , is a central african species of frog in the arthroleptidae family .\nhawk is a common name for some small to medium - sized diurnal birds of prey , widely distributed and varying greatly in size .\nhedotettix is an genus of insects found in china , belonging to the tetrigidae family of orthopterans .\nhedotettix brachynota is an insect found in china , belonging to the tetrigidae family .\nhedotettix grossivalva is an insect found in china , belonging to the tetrigidae family .\nhedotettix xueshanensis is an insect found in china , belonging to the tetrigidae family .\nhellgrammite ( roderick rose ) is a fictional character , a supervillain appearing in dc comics , commonly as an enemy of superman .\nhemimetabolism or hemimetaboly , also called incomplete metamorphosis and paurometabolism , mcgavin , george c . essential entomology : an order - by - order introduction .\nhemolymph , or haemolymph , is a fluid , analogous to the blood in vertebrates , that circulates in the interior of the arthropod body remaining in direct contact with the animal ' s tissues .\nhenry ' s amazing animals ( more commonly known as amazing animals ) is an educational children ' s nature program produced by dorling kindersley and originally broadcast on the disney channel in 1996 ."]}
{"id": 2097, "summary": [{"text": "hemigrammus pulcher is a semi-popular aquarium species , also known as the pretty tetra , garnet tetra or black wedge tetra .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "in the wild , the species is found near iquitos in the peruvian amazon , and probably also in brazil and colombia . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "hemigrammus pulcher", "paragraphs": ["hemigrammus rhodostomus is found in the lower amazon river of south america in paraguay and aripiranga .\nalso known as the garnet or black wedge tetra , h . pulcher is deservedly popular in the hobby . it\u2019s both hardy and inexpensive , and is a good choice for the beginner . there was previously a subspecies , h . pulcher haraldi . this has now been reclassified as a distinct species , h . haraldi .\nthe south american tetras , placed in the subfamily tetragonopterinae within characidae , comprise numerous genera , including hemigrammus , hyphessobrycon , paracheirodon ( the neon , green , and cardinal tetras ) , and tetragonopterus .\ndescription : it is hard to describe the body colors of pretty tetra , because it depends on the light , but it can range from violet to copper . the belly area is lighter , sometimes yellow . there is a shiny copper marking behind the gill cover . the upper part of the iris is red . the fins are transparent . a shiny light line extends on the caudal pedunce , and a thick black band runs below this line . hemigrammus pulcher was first imported to europe in the late 1930\u2019s , and it has been succesfully bred a little later . like all hemigrammus , the taxonomic status of this species is currently uncertain and scientists agree that a full revision is required .\nlike all hemigrammus , the taxonomic status of this species is currently incertae sedis , meaning uncertain . the genus is currently used as something of a catch - all for over 70 species of small characin . most experts agree that a full revision is required , with the likely outcome that many species will be placed into new or different genera .\nthis species occurs in the peruvian amazon in the mara\u00f1on and ucayali river basins ( ortega et al . 2012 ) in the amazon basin of colombia ( mojica et al . 2005 ) , and in the napo river basin of ecuador ( barriga 2012 ) . it apparently also occurs in brazil , although this may be the similar - looking hemigrammus haraldi ( f . lima pers . comm . 2007 ) .\nwill do fine in most \u2018general\u2019 community tanks . it is lively , quite colourful and peaceful . it\u2019s a good tankmate for most livebearers , danios , rasboras , other tetras and peaceful bottom dwellers such as corydoras or smaller loricariids . it can also be kept with the majority of commonly available gouramis and dwarf cichlids . it is quite shy , so don\u2019t keep it with anything much larger or more boisterous . in a biotope tank as described above , it can be combined with other hemigrammus or hyphessobrycon species , pencil fish , apistogramma dwarf cichlids and the aforementioned bottom dwellers .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nchuctaya , j . , ortega torres , h . , correa , e . , reis , r . & lima , f .\njustification : this species is assessed as least concern because it has a wide distribution , is common , and there are no known major threats currently affecting it .\nthis species has a stable population trend at present . it appears to be relatively common around iquitos and probably in another localities in the peruvian amazon .\nthis species inhabits large streams and rivers , and probably associated flood plains . a generalist mid - water swimmer , feeding on insects , plant matter , and the like .\nthe species is harvested for the pet trade , although not currently at a level that is causing concern .\nit is harvested for the aquarium trade , but probably not as intensively in a way that could jeopardize natural populations . there are no other meaningful impacts known to affect the species .\nthere are no conservation measures in place and research into the population trends are required . it is not known if populations are found in protected areas .\nchuctaya , j . , ortega torres , h . , correa , e . , reis , r . & lima , f . 2016 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nendemic to the upper amazon in peru . the vast majority of specimens seen for sale in the uk originate from commercial farms in eastern europe .\na standard 24\u2033 x 15\u2033 x 12\u2033 ( 60cm x 37 . 5cm x 30cm ) \u2013 70 litre tank is suitable for a small shoal of these .\nas it is captive bred , it\u2019s adaptable and will do well in most tanks . it does look particularly effective in a heavily - planted arrangement , though , and can appear a little washed out in very spartan setups .\nif you really want to see it at its best , you could set up a biotope tank . use a substrate of river sand and add a few driftwood branches ( if you can\u2019t find driftwood of the desired shape , common beech is safe to use if thoroughly dried and stripped of bark ) and twisted roots . a few handfuls of dried leaves ( again beech can be used , or oak leaves are also suitable ) would complete the natural feel . allow the wood and leaves to stain the water the colour of weak tea , removing old leaves and replacing them every few weeks so they don\u2019t rot and foul the water . a small net bag filled with aquarium - safe peat can be added to the filter to aid in the simulation of black water conditions . use fairly dim lighting . under these conditions , the true beauty of the fish will be revealed .\neasy to feed . it will readily accept just about anything offered . for the best condition and colours offer regular meals of small live and frozen foods such as bloodworm , daphnia and brine shrimp , along with dried flakes and granules .\nalways buy a group of at least 6 of these , preferably 10 or more . it is a shoaling species by nature , and will fare much better when in the company of its own kind . it actually looks far more effective when maintained like this anyway .\napparently , it can be sexed by examining the swim bladder , which is fairly visible through the translucent skin of the fish . this tapers to a point in males , but is rounded in females . adult females also tend to be slightly larger and more heavy - bodied than males .\nquite easily accomplished . you\u2019ll need to set up a separate tank if you want to raise decent numbers of fry . something around 18\u2033 x 10\u2033 x 10\u2033 in size is fine . this should be very dimly lit and contain clumps of fine - leaved plants such as java moss or spawning mops , to give the fish somewhere to deposit their eggs . alternatively , you could cover the base of the tank with some kind of mesh . this should be of a large enough grade so that the eggs can fall through it , but small enough so that the adults cannot reach them . the water should be soft and acidic in the range ph 5 . 5 - 6 . 5 , gh 1 - 5 , with a temperature of around 80 - 84\u00b0f . filtering the water through peat is useful , as is the use of ro water . a small air - powered sponge filter bubbling away very gently is all that is needed in terms of filtration .\nit can be spawned in a group , with half a dozen specimens of each sex being a good number . condition these with plenty of small live foods and spawning should not present too many problems .\nalternatively , it can be spawned in pairs . under this technique , the fish are conditioned in male and female groups in separate tanks . when the females are noticeably full of eggs and the males are displaying their best colours , select the fattest female and best - coloured male and transfer them to the spawning tank in the evening . they should spawn the following morning .\nin either situation , the adults will eat the eggs given the chance and should be removed as soon as eggs are noticed . these will hatch in 24 - 36 hours , with the fry becoming free swimming a 3 - 4 days later . they should be fed on an infusoria \u2013 type food for the first few days , until they are large enough to accept microworm or brine shrimp nauplii . the eggs and fry are light sensitive in the early stages of life and the tank should be kept in darkness if possible .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ntank size - max . 40 liter max . 60 liter max . 80 liter max . 100 liter max . 150 liter max . 200 liter max . 250 liter max . 300 liter max . 400 liter max . 500 liter > 500 liter\nsocial behavior : a peaceful and active schooling characin , that is a good choice for a general community tank , but can be a little shy , so keep them only with similar sized and peaceful fish . they should be kept in a group of at least 6 species .\ndiet : omnivorous ; they will readily accept all kinds of foods , but regular live foods are necessary to maintain their colors .\ndecoration : they can be kept either in a densely planted tank , or in a biotope aquarium . in the latter case use river sand as substrate and decorate the tank with some driftwood branches or roots . a few dried leaves in their tank can stain the water like in their natural habitat , or you can use peat filtered ro water . use subdued lighting .\nfeeds on worms , small crustaceans and plants . in captivity , spawning takes place among plants and eggs usually hatch in 20 to 24 hours ( ref . 7020 ) . maximum length reported to reach 4 . 5 cm tl ( ref . 7020 ) . aquarium keeping : in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ngreek , hemi = half + greek , gramma = letter , signal ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 5 . 0 - 6 . 0 ; dh range : 5 - 12 . tropical ; 23\u00b0c - 27\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 3 . 3 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 38376 )\nfeeds on worms , small crustaceans and plants . in captivity , spawning takes place among plants and eggs usually hatch in 20 to 24 hours ( ref . 7020 ) . maximum length reported to reach 4 . 5 cm tl ( ref . 7020 ) . aquarium keeping : in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\nlima , f . c . t . , l . r . malabarba , p . a . buckup , j . f . pezzi da silva , r . p . vari , a . harold , r . benine , o . t . oyakawa , c . s . pavanelli , n . a . menezes , c . a . s . lucena , m . c . s . l . malabarba , z . m . s . lucena , r . e . reis , f . langeani , c . moreira et al . \u2026 , 2003 . genera incertae sedis in characidae . p . 106 - 168 . in r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds . ) checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil . ( ref . 38376 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01445 ( 0 . 00642 - 0 . 03257 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 \u00b10 . 31 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthe pretty tetra can be recognized on the black wedge that is found on the back part of the fish ' s body right under the deep red area . the base colour of this tetra is greenish and there is a hint of a shoulder spot . the body is decorated with golden to greenish highlights . the largest scientifically measured pretty tetra was 3 . 3 cm long ( slightly longer than 1 1 / 4 inch ) . they are however known to grow bigger in captivity .\nwild pretty tetras live where the water temperature is 23 \u2013 27\u00b0c ( 73 \u2013 81\u00b0f ) , the ph 5 . 0 - 6 . 0 ( acidic ) and the dh range 5 - 12 ( soft ) . keeping optimal water conditions is especially important if your want to spawn pretty tetra fish in your aquarium . the pretty tetra feeds on small crustaceans , worms and plants in the wild . always keep this fish in groups consisting of at least 5 - 6 individuals .\nin the wild , the pretty tetra spawns among plants and the eggs will normally hatch within 20 - 24 hours . a well planted aquarium is therefore a good idea , since this will resemble the natural breeding grounds for the pretty tetra .\nsexing pretty tetras is a bit tricky when they are not in breeding condition . the males are however equipped with a characin hook on the anal fin . females in good condition will have heavier bodies than the males . as mentioned above , you should always keep at least six pretty tetras together .\na five gallon aquarium ( roughly 20 l ) is large enough to serve as breeding aquarium for a reasonably sized group of pretty tetras . a plastic mesh basket can be used to keep the adult fish from eating the eggs . suspend the basket one inch from the bottom .\nthe pretty tetra appreciates acidic water , so peat moss is a good idea . the water should also be very soft .\nduring the mating process , the male will press the female against a suitable surface . you can for instance include artificial spawning strips when you set up the breeding aquarium . the first spawning will normally contain a smaller amount of eggs than the following spawnings .\nwhen the spawning is over , the adults should ideally be moved before the eggs hatch and the fry swims up through the mesh and gets eaten . newly hatch pretty tetra fry look like slivers of glass and will stay on the bottom for 2 - 3 days before they become free swimming . they will appreciate having a piece of java moss or similar to hide in . the tiny fry can eat infusoria during the first week , and then gradually move up to microworms and newly hatched brine shrimp .\nkeeping and breeding astyanax bimaculatus - breeding astyanax bimaculatus black phantom tetra - information about keeping and breeding black phantom tetras in aquariums . black skirt tetra - information about keeping and breeding black skirt tetras in aquariums . bloodfin tetra - information about keeping and breeding bloodfin tetras in aquariums . breeding the black tetra - breeding notes for gymnocorymbus ternetzi cardinal tetra fish - an introduction to cardinal teras - paracheirodon axelrodi . cardinal tetra - information about all aspect of keeping and breeding cardinal tetras . congo tetra - an introduction to congo tetra - micralestes interruptus . glowlight tetra - information about keeping and breeding glowlight tetras in aquariums . lemon tetra - information about keeping and breeding lemon tetras in aquariums . my experiences with swordtail characins - corynopoma riisei . and how to breed them . neon tetra fish - an introduction to neon tetras . neon tetra - an indepth article about neon tetras , their breeding and the dreaded neon tetra disease . serpae tetra - an introduction to the serpae tetra .\ntetra is the common name for various small , often colorful , tropical , freshwater fish within the two characiform ( order characiformes ) families characidae \u2014and in particularly its subfamily tetragonopterinae , the\nsouth american tetras\n\u2014and alestiidae , the\nafrican tetras .\nthe african tetras formerly were classified in alestiinae as a subfamily of characidae , and remain within characidae in some classifications .\nthe term tetra is not a formal taxonomic rank , but rather is the common name used for numerous small fish scattered over numerous genera and different families and subfamilies . because of the popularity of tetras in the fish - keeping hobby , many unrelated fish are commonly known as tetras . even fish that are vastly different may be called tetras , such as hydrolycus scomberoides , occasionally known as the sabretooth tetra or vampire tetra , which is placed in the characinae subfamily within characidae .\nbeing small and brightly colored , and often easy to keep in captivity , many tetras , such as the neon tetra , paracheirodon innesi , are extremely popular for home aquariums . whether seen in aquariums or in the wild in a clear stream , tetras , add to the wonder of nature for humans . tetras also are valuable ecologically due to their role in food chains , preying upon smaller invertebrates , such as insects , and being prey for larger fish , mammals , birds , and so forth .\ntetras traditionally were classified within the family characidae ( characins ) , and in particularly the subfamilies tetragonopterinae ( south american tetras ) and alestiinae ( african tetras ) . however , this family has undergone much taxonomic revision and many authorities have moved the african tetras to the family level , called alestiidae ( nelson 2006 ) .\nboth characidae and alestiidae belong to the order characiformes . characiformes are characterized by well developed teeth ( most are carnivores ) and the presence of a pelvic fin ( with five to twelve rays ) and normally an adipose fin , and a body that is almost always scaled ( nelson 1994 ) .\ncharacidae is a large and diverse family of freshwater subtropical and tropical fish , with members found in central and south america , southern north america , and africa , and include such varied forms as the piranhas , the tetras , a blind cavefish in mexico ( populations of astyanax mexicanus found in caves ) and brazil ( stygichthys typhlops ) , and a species found as far northward as southwestern united states ( astyanax mexicanus ) ( nelson 1994 ) . the characins are distinguished from other fish by the presence of a small adipose fin between the dorsal fin and caudal fin . both the characidae family and the alestiidae families are comprised only of freshwater fish .\nthe african tetras , now placed in the family alestiidae , include 18 genera , including alestes ( = brycinus ) and hydrocynus , with about 110 recognized species in total ( nelson 1994 ) .\nthe following are some species with the common name of tetra . though the list below is sorted by common name , in a number of cases , the common name is applied to different species , depending on country and context . since the aquarium trade may use a different name for the same species , advanced aquarists tend to use scientific names for the less - common tetras . the list below is incomplete .\nbali , n . , and w . fink . 2004 . paracheirodon simulans animal diversity web . retrieved november 14 , 2007 .\nnelson , j . s . 1994 . fishes of the world , 3rd edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471547131\nnelson , j . s . 2006 . fishes of the world , 4th edition . new york : john wiley & sons . isbn 0471250317\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 2 april 2008 , at 17 : 36 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nunfortunately questions regarding fish , plants , diseases or tank setup will be ignored if submitted via the form below ! in order to ask such a question , please click this link ! the form below shall be used to ask about the website , functionality , issues or to give feedback . thanks a lot !\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling javascript in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nwork properly ! please , consider enabling cookies in order to maximise your user experience while browsing .\nusual size in fish tanks : 2 - 4 cm ( 0 . 79 - 1 . 57 inch )\nrecommended water hardness ( dgh ) : 4 - 12\u00b0n ( 71 . 43 - 214 . 29ppm )\ntheir favorite food is live bloodworms , the rummy nose tetra will also readily accept a variety of store bought foods in any form .\nrummy nose tetras are egg layers . the eggs take 3 - 4 days to hatch and the fry take another 2 - 4 days to absorb their yolk sacs .\nh . bleheri and petitella georgiae are similar species that are often mistaken for the h . rhodostomus that we find in the aquarium industry . in fact , so close is the resemblance that many of the rummy nose tetras we find in the industry today might actually be h . bleheri or p . georgiae .\ntest kits should be used once a week in order to monitor water quality .\nnever put an airline to the cave as it will produce big bubbles that may stress out the fish .\nthey are among the most beautiful fish to watch when kept in shoals . they can be quite delicate when first moved to another tank . once they become established , they do well . they are peaceful fish .\ni had a pair of those rummy noses . . . they are rare here in my place , and quite expensive . . . but they are beautiful species . . i love them . .\nhi , i just did a water change in my 18 . 5 litre tank where i have 2 rummy noses , 1 betta , and 2 cardinal neons . i gave the tank a real good clean so i took the fish out . as i went to put them back in , i noticed that a rummy nose was upside down almost , as i looked closer he has an eyeball missing . i put them back into their tank and he was bobbing along but the betta was going over to him now and then attacking him , i kept my eye on him and he is swimming around now . does anyone one know what happened and will he make it ?\nall comments must be submitted by registered members . please , click this link to login or register !\nplease , verify whether your login and password are valid . if you don ' t have an account here , register one free of charge , please .\nunfortunately this page doesn ' t allow discussion . please , find any other page that fits your area of interest as over 99 % of our pages allow discussion . the reason why no discussion is allowed here is this page is too general . thanks a lot for understanding ! click here to search , please !\na tetra is one of several species of small freshwater fish from africa , central america , and south america belonging to the biological family characidae and to its former subfamilies alestidae ( the\nafrican tetras\n) and lebiasinidae . the characidae are distinguished from other fish by the presence of a small adipose fin between the dorsal and caudal fins . many of these , such as the neon tetra ( paracheirodon innesi ) , are brightly colored and easy to keep in captivity . consequently , they are extremely popular for home aquaria .\ntetra is no longer a taxonomic , phylogenetic term . it is short for tetragonopterus , a genus name formerly applied to many of these fish , which is greek for\nsquare - finned\n( literally , four - sided - wing ) .\nbecause of the popularity of tetras in the fishkeeping hobby , many unrelated fish are commonly known as tetras , including species from different families . even vastly different fish may be called tetras . for example , payara ( hydrolycus scomberoides ) is occasionally known as the\nsabretooth tetra\nor\nvampire tetra\n.\n( a twin - lobbed , or forked , tail fin whose upper and lower lobes are of equal size ) and a tall dorsal fin characterized by a short connection to the fish\u2019s body .\nadditionally , tetras possess a long anal fin stretching from a position just posterior of the dorsal fin and ending on the ventral caudal peduncle , and a small , fleshy adipose fin located dorsally between the dorsal and caudal fins . this adipose fin represents the fourth unpaired fin on the fish ( the four unpaired fins include the caudal fin , dorsal fin , anal fin , and adipose fin ) , lending to the name tetra , which is greek for four .\n) lack this appendage . ichthyologists debate the function of the adipose fin , doubting its role in swimming due to its small size and lack of stiffening rays or spines .\nalthough the list below is sorted by common name , in a number of cases the common name is applied to different species . since the aquarium trade may use a different name for the same species , advanced aquarists tend to use scientific names for the less - common tetras . the list below is incomplete .\ncarey , r . tetras and barbs : a complete guide to the successful care and breeding of two of the most popular groups of aquarium fish . tfh publications , inc . , 2009\nmoyle , p . , & cech , j . fishes : an introduction to ichthyology ( 5th ed . ) . pearson , benjamin cummings , 2004\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 4 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 2134, "summary": [{"text": "the cuckoo-finch ( anomalospiza imberbis ) , also known as the parasitic weaver or cuckoo weaver , is a small passerine bird now placed in the family viduidae with the indigobirds and whydahs .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it occurs in grassland in africa south of the sahara .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the male is mainly yellow and green while the female is buff with dark streaks .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the eggs are laid in the nests of other birds . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "cuckoo - finch", "paragraphs": ["the preferred habitats for cuckoo finch are : woodlands and grasslands . the cuckoo finch is also at home in wetland and bushveld areas .\nthe cuckoo finch is a southern african bird that belongs to the viduidae bird family group which includes birds such as whydahs , indigobirds , cuckoo finch .\ncuckoo finch ( anomalospiza imberbis fam . viduidae ) kruger park birds & birding .\nin terms of distribution of the cuckoo finch in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . cuckoo finch : see above distribution map .\nthe cuckoo finch takes on more than a single mate ( it is bigamous ) .\nthis outraged tawny - flanked prinia has just seen a cuckoo finch near its nest .\na cuckoo finch chick about to fledge from the nest of a red - faced cisticola .\ncuckoo - finch ( anomalospiza imberbis ) is a species of bird in the viduidae family .\nrusty - breasted cuckoo , cacomantis sepulcralis , is split from brush cuckoo , cacomantis variolosus .\nfemale cuckoo finch and female southern red bishop . but which is which ? claire spottiswoode , author provided\nimage : cuckoo finch chick sitting in the nest of its foster parents . courtesy of claire spottiswoode .\nthe cuckoo finch is mainly found in light and densely wooded forests , where there are mopane trees .\nyou will not see cuckoo finch in flocks . the bird prefers to act singly or in pairs .\nmuseum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of cuckoo - finch were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of cuckoo - finch here .\ncuckoo finch , midmar game reserve , kwazulu - natal , south africa . [ photo alan manson \u00a9 ]\nthe cuckoo finch ( latin name anomalospiza imberbis ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 820 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 1081 also a picture of the cuckoo finch on page 1009 . the cuckoo finch belongs to the family of birds classified as viduidae . according to the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology the cuckoo finch is also known by these other names : parasitic weaver , cuckoo weaver .\na cuckoo finch in sheep ' s clothing : cuckoo finches in africa have adopted a unique disguise to help them lay their eggs in other birds ' nests .\nthe cuckoo finch is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park . it is however a rare summer resident\n) . he identified the young as that of a cuckoo finch only after roberts had photographed young cuckoo finches in nests of prinias and cisticolas . chicks thought to have been of\nthe female cuckoo finch ( l ) has evolved to be nearly identical to the harmless female red bishop ( r ) .\nthey reject foreign eggs from their nest at a higher rate after they have seen either a female cuckoo finch or a female bishop .\nthe outside circle shows eggs laid by tawny - flanked prinia females , and the inside circle shows eggs laid by different cuckoo finch females .\nmoluccan cuckoo , cacomantis heinrichi , is split from brush cuckoo , cacomantis variolosus . [ cuculidae , pelecanae i , 2 . 13 ]\nsome of the different types of patterns found in cuckoo finch eggs , which mimic african tawny - flanked prinia eggs . courtesy of claire spottiswoode .\nthe outside circle shows eggs laid by tawny - flanked prinia females , and the inside circle shows eggs laid by different cuckoo finch females . claire spottiswoode\na three day old cuckoo finch chick ( left ) with a tawny - flanked prinia hatchling ( right ) which is about to die of starvation .\nthe cuckoo - finch has a scattered distribution across sub - saharan africa where it occurs in open or lightly wooded grassland , especially near damp areas .\nso were the prinia really deceived by the cuckoo finches\u2019 mimetic plumage ? to answer this , we carried out one last experiment . we presented a female cuckoo finch , a female southern red bishop or a male southern red bishop model near a prinia nest . after that , we replaced a prinia egg with an experimental egg to simulate egg laying by a real cuckoo finch .\nto answer this question , first we measured and compared the colour and pattern of cuckoo finches\u2019 plumage to those of vidua finches ( the cuckoo finch\u2019s closest relatives ) and weavers at the natural history museum at tring , uk .\nas mentioned in the above paragraphs , cuckoo finches lay in the nests of prinias and cisticolas in grassland and marshes and in savanna and open woodland . these hosts rear the young cuckoo finch , usually the only chick in the brood that fledges . this is because the cuckoo finch , when she lays her egg , removes the host ' s eggs , thereby leaving her own young brood parasite as the only chick in the nest . occasionally , a host lays after the cuckoo finch has done so , and it may then rear its own young along with the parasitic nestling . sometimes , more than one cuckoo finch egg is deposited in the nest and two chicks survive and fledge . the survival of more than one chick , including either a host chick or another brood - parasitic one , indicates that the young cuckoo finch does not evict its nestmates .\nso were the prinia really deceived by the cuckoo finches & apos ; mimetic plumage ? to answer this , we carried out one last experiment . we presented a female cuckoo finch , a female southern red bishop or a male southern red bishop model near a prinia nest . after that , we replaced a prinia egg with an experimental egg to simulate egg laying by a real cuckoo finch .\nour work shows that the cuckoo finch has evolved another novel strategy of attack , whereby it defeats both sensory and cognitive components of host rejection behaviour .\nthe treatment of darwin ' s finches has been updated . the warbler finch , certhidea olivacea , has been split into green warbler finch , certhidea olivacea , and gray warbler finch , certhidea fusca . [ thraupidae , thraupid group , 2 . 12 ]\nto answer this question , first we measured and compared the colour and pattern of cuckoo finches & apos ; plumage to those of vidua finches ( the cuckoo finch\u2019s closest relatives ) and weavers at the natural history museum at tring , uk .\nthis diversity of mimicry has evolved because hosts fight back , since they pay a high price if they are tricked by a cuckoo finch . the young finch usually hatches a day or two in advance of the host chicks , which typically only survive a day or two before starving to death , while the cuckoo finch obtain ' s the lion ' s share of the food the host parents bring to the nest .\ncuckoo finch eggs ( right column ) mimic their eggs of their hosts ( left column ) . the top two rows of eggs are from red - faced cisticola nests and the bottom four rows are from tawny - flanked prinia nests . tawny - flanked prinias lay a range of egg colours and patterns to foil cuckoo finch mimicry .\nit would be great to know whether other parasites have a similar strategy to the cuckoo finch , and whether there is any way hosts can fight back .\ncuckoo finches change their appearance with the season as a result of feather abrasion .\nafrican tawny - flanked prinias are the targets of cuckoo finches in southern zambia .\nhaving highly variable eggs among individuals makes it hard for each female cuckoo finch to match many of the egg types that different prinias lay ,\nexplained dr stevens .\nthe description for the cuckoo finch ( latin name anomalospiza imberbis ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the anomalospiza imberbis can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 820 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 1081 . you will find a picture of the cuckoo finch on page 1009 .\nthis is unfortunate for the cuckoo finch \u2013 and we suspect this is because the rate of parasitism is consistently high at this site , making this strategy worthwhile for the crafty prinias .\nthe film clip shows a nest of the most frequent host of the cuckoo finch , the tawny - flanked prinia , which has an extravagantly diverse range of eggs . the prinia parent has recognised that an egg in its nest is that of a cuckoo finch , and proceeds to eject it by spearing it on the end of its beak and carrying it away .\nthe researchers took 999 randomly chosen pairs of 300 prinia and 84 cuckoo finch eggs in their study population , plugged them into the model and simulated egg rejection using different host - to - parasite egg ratios . they saw that the cuckoo finch eggs are less likely to be ejected when they comprise a greater proportion of the nest , especially if the mimicry is good .\ncuckoo finch eggs mimic those of their hosts , and the same cuckoo finch female commonly lays two or more eggs in the same host nest . in this paper we show that this increases her chances of tricking hosts into accepting the parasitic eggs as their own . by increasing the proportion of foreign eggs in the clutch , cuckoo finches appear to be able to take advantage of uncertainty in the sensory and cognitive processes that hosts use to distinguish foreign eggs from their own .\nthe cuckoo finch was discovered to be a brood parasite after v . g . l . van someren , in 1912 , photographed and collected a young bird in the nest of a rattling cisticola (\nthe nesting habit of cuckoo finch is to use the nest of another bird . the surrogate family then raise the chicks . the bird lays eggs which are white in colour and number between 1 to 3\nusing model cuckoo finches and model southern red bishops ( a common weaver species at the study site ) , we tested whether the prinias reacted differently towards female cuckoo finches and female southern red bishops , compared to male cuckoo finches and male southern red bishops . unlike females , males of these two species look very different : male cuckoo finches are bright yellow and male southern red bishops are black and red .\nleft : two prinia eggs and one cuckoo egg ( good mimicry ) . right : one cuckoo egg and two prinia eggs ( poor mimicry ) . courtesy of stevens et al . / nature communications .\nthe name cuckoo is common to many parasitic bird species that rely upon others to raise their young .\nthe cuckoo finch does not built its own nest but rather invades the nest of other birds . if the bird does not find an empty nest it will attack the host ( original nest owner ) and displace it\nthe cuckoo finch in zambia has evolved to be almost indistinguishable from common and harmless female weaver birds , such as the southern red bishop , said dr william feeney , from the australian national university ( anu ) .\nwe tested these predictions in the tawny - flanked prinia and its parasite , the cuckoo finch . egg appearance ( colour and pattern ) varies greatly among individuals in both host and parasite , but individual females always lay a single egg - type throughout their lives 7 , 8 . cuckoo finches do not target prinia clutches that resemble their own eggs but instead rely on chance matches to succeed 7 . therefore , mimicry can range from very good to poor . a cuckoo finch female commonly lays two eggs in the same host nest 22 ( see below ) .\nthe cuckoo finch looks a lot more similar to the bishop than its nearest relatives , the vidua finches , suggesting that it has evolved to be able to hang around prinia nests without arousing suspicion ,\nhe said .\nthe cuckoo finch , the whydahs and the indigobirds are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other kinds of songird . the nesting birds , the hosts , rear the young brood parasites along with their own brood .\nwhat is interesting about this situation is that each female cuckoo finch only lays a particular type of egg mimicking a particular host species , and will specialise only on that species , so that within a small area , neighbouring cuckoo finches may look and sound the same , but have hatched from different host nests and lay eggs that mimic that host species . for example , the eggs in the header image above are all cuckoo finch eggs from an area of less than a thousand hectares on our study site in zambia , and come from the nests of three different host species .\nunlike the indigobirds and whydahs , which have since split up into numerous species each specialising on a single host species , the cuckoo finch has remained one species comprising several host - specific races . for instance , the cuckoo finches we study in zambia lay their eggs in the nests of the tawny - flanked prinia prinia subflava and at least three cisticola species .\none of the first indicators to take note of when trying to identify a bird is it relative size . for example how big is the bird compared to a well known familiar bird . the cuckoo finch is a small bird about the size of a house sparrow . do not take this relative indicator as anything other than a rough easy to remember indicator . it is not a accurate visualization . the height of the cuckoo finch is about 13 cms and its weight is about 20 gms\nresearchers found that the cuckoo finches repeatedly targeted the same nests to improve the probability of their eggs being cared for .\nthe cuckoo - finch typically occurs in pairs or small flocks during the breeding season and larger flocks outside the breeding season . it forages on the ground or perched on the flower heads of grasses or herbs . it feeds mainly on grass seeds .\n. female long - tailed paradise - whydahs are attracted to songs of their host , the melba finch , and not to orange - winged pytilia songs ; in aviaries , they sometimes lay when they hear songs of the melba finch . males of this paradise - whydah mimic songs of the melba finch , and in natural conditions the females are attracted to male whydahs giving these songs .\n( ed . by t . e . martin & d . m . finch ) . new york : oxford university press .\nprinias ' egg colours vary widely but by laying multiple eggs in a nest , cuckoo finches reduce the risk of rejection .\njust as expected , we found that the prinias were much more likely to reject the foreign egg after seeing one of the two female species than when they saw a male bird . this showed that they were unable distinguish between the two female species and that the cuckoo\u2019s mimicry is successful , but does not give the cuckoo finch the advantage in the arms race at this site .\n, namely the shape of the horny palate and the thick , internally flattened lower mandible , function in breaking and crushing hard seeds . the cuckoo finch ' s crop contains crushed seeds , not intact , hulled ones as do those of the whydahs and indigobirds .\nthe cuckoo finch has a height of 13 cms and weighs around 20 gms . the head is coloured yellow while the bill is coloured brown . the anomalospiza imberbis has a white coloured throat , brown legs and a yellow coloured back . the eyes are brown .\nthere are two changes from the sacc . they have changed the name of the diademed plover back to diademed sandpiper - plover and have split the gray - throated warbling - finch , poospiza cabanisi , from red - rumped warbling - finch , poospiza lateralis , with the latter now called buff - throated warbling finch . [ charadriidae , charadriiformes , 2 . 51 thraupidae , core passeroidea v , 2 . 51 ]\nhost species therefore defend themselves against parasitism by rejecting foreign eggs from their nests , and this selection pressure has resulted in the evolution of superb egg forgeries by cuckoo finches . not only do cuckoo finches closely mimic the colour and pattern of host eggs , but as we have seen , different host - races of cuckoo finches lay different eggs that mimic those of the specific host species they specialise upon . for example , the photo below shows cuckoo finch eggs ( right column ) mimicking the eggs of two different host species ( left column ) : red - faced cisticolas in the first two rows , and tawny - flanked prinias in the last four rows .\nour cuckoo finch research focuses on two general questions : exactly how cuckoo finches dupe their hosts into accepting these foreign eggs , and on the genetic mechanisms that allow egg mimicry of different hosts to be evolutionarily maintained . this is a puzzle because we would expect interbreeding among males and females raised by different hosts to cause such specialised adaptations to break down . for more information , see the research page .\ncuckoo finches in africa have adopted a unique disguise to help them lay their eggs in other birds ' nests , biologists have found .\nthe prinias have learned to react aggressively towards the innocent female bishops , which look like female cuckoo finches ,\nshe said .\nthe top images show the range of colours and patterns found in prinia eggs , and the proportions of host and foreign eggs used in rejection trials ( ratios of host : foreign eggs ) . lines under the eggs indicate groups originating from the same clutch . the bottom two images show naturally parasitized clutches with one cuckoo finch egg ( left ) or two cuckoo finch eggs ( right ) . both cuckoo finch and host eggs show extensive variation among individuals . prinia eggs have fine lines on them that cuckoo finches do not reproduce ; surprisingly , hosts do not seem to use this fail - safe \u2018signature\u2019 in egg rejection decisions . such markings make it easy to distinguish host and parasite eggs . average host egg size for length is 15 . 63 mm ( max = 16 . 98 , min = 14 . 63 ) and breadth is 11 . 42 mm ( max = 11 . 91 , min = 10 . 82 ) from a sample of 40 randomly chosen eggs .\n) shells . they have not been observed to double - scratch in the field , nor have captives in an aviary been seen to utilize this method with small grass seeds scattered on sand . the cuckoo finch takes grit and sand , which serve to pulverize hard seeds in the crop ;\ncuckoo finches lay multiple eggs in the nests of other birds to make it harder to detect the ' imposters ' , researchers have found .\nin all species , there was relatively little phenotypic variation within clutches ( electronic supplementary material , table s1 ) ; however , species differed in the level of among - clutch variation , i . e . polymorphism . we calculated mdp space for each host species and their respective cuckoo finch gens (\ncuckoo finches forage on the ground and on erect stems of fruiting heads . they use the bill to crush large seeds , such as sunflower (\nthe species is a brood parasite , laying its eggs in the nests of cisticolas and prinias . the eggs are white , pale blue or pink with brown , reddish or violet markings . they are 17\u201317 . 3 mm long and 12 . 5\u201313 mm wide . the eggs are incubated for 14 days . the young bird fledges after 18 days and remains dependent on its hosts for another 10\u201340 days . the young of the host bird usually disappear although there have been records of the host ' s nestlings surviving alongside the young cuckoo - finch . sometimes two cuckoo - finch chicks have been found in the same nest .\nwe used our logistic models of conspecific egg rejection experiments to estimate the proportion of real parasitic eggs likely to be rejected by each host species . we simulated a randomly laying cuckoo finch female by pairing randomly sampled host and cuckoo finch eggs ( of the corresponding gens ) 999 times , and for each pair calculating the phenotypic difference between them for each egg trait . because for red - faced cisticolas the available sample of real cuckoo finch eggs was small ( n = 7 ) , to minimize the risk of identical host\u2013parasite combinations , we chose 50 random host eggs in random order and compared each with a randomly chosen parasitic egg ( thus ensuring a different comparison each time ) , and repeated this process five times , thus generating 250 host\u2013parasite comparisons . we then substituted these standardized values into the rejection models ( reported in the electronic supplementary material , table s3 ) to estimate the probability of egg rejection for each simulated laying event .\nyou ' re actually more likely to hatch alongside a sibling or half - sibling , since your mother probably laid two eggs in the same host nest . this is not a problem : you ' ll thrive alongside each other . this cuckoo finch chick at left has hatched just before its sibling at right . note the absence of any fine lines ( scribbles ) on the cuckoo finch egg , unlike on tawny - flanked prinia eggs . although these scribbles should be perfect signatures of identifty that reliably inform prinia parents which eggs are their own and which are a parasite ' s , puzzlingly , they often still accept unscribbed eggs .\nthe cuckoo finch is so similar to the innocent bishops , that the target of the trickery , the tawny - flanked prinia , cannot tell them apart ,\nsaid dr feeney , who did his phd at the anu research school of biology before taking a position at the university of cambridge , united kingdom .\nthe female african tawny - flanked prinia , a species of warbler , lays eggs in a wide spectrum of colours in an effort to fool cuckoo finches .\nan experimental study of co - evolution between the cuckoo , cuculus canorus , and its hosts . ii . host egg markings , chick discrimination and general discussion\nthis conflict of information can be exploited by a parasitic strategy of repeated laying in the same host nest , such that a parasitic female\u2019s eggs outnumber the host\u2019s own . a simulation model based on our field experimental data demonstrated that a parasite\u2019s eggs are more likely to be accepted if she lays more than one egg in the same host nest , especially when the level of mimicry is also good . this implies a strong adaptive benefit to observed cuckoo finch behaviour : the majority of naturally parasitized nests in the field are composed of clutches in which cuckoo finch eggs are either equal in number to or outnumber host eggs . such repeated targeting of the same nest is unlikely to be explained by a shortage of hosts , as tawny - flanked prinias are abundant at the study site and parasitism levels are only ~ 19 % ( ref . 7 ) . our simulations suggest that approximately a quarter of cuckoo finch breeding attempts have levels of mimicry that afford a benefit from repeated parasitism .\n24 g . all are sexually dimorphic . the male cuckoo finch is greenish and yellow . males of the whydahs and indigobirds have extensive black in the breeding plumage , and whydah males have the inner two pairs of rectrices elongated , in contrast to the additional elongated rectrices of the long - tailed male widowbirds in the ploceid genus\nhere , we show that prinias prioritize a template - based approach to identify foreign eggs , but that they also utilize information about the relative proportions of their own and foreign eggs in making rejection decisions . second , we show that hosts are less likely to reject foreign eggs when they outnumber their own and when the level of mimicry is very good , and correspondingly cuckoo finch eggs are more likely to be accepted under such circumstances . finally , we show that cuckoo finch females have a strategy of repeatedly targeting the same host nests with more than one egg to increase the likelihood of acceptance , and this constitutes a further adaptation by brood parasites to defeat host defences .\nthe rattling cisticola , intermediate with respect to both strategies of defence , is not currently parasitized at our study site . just as several species potentially suitable as common cuckoo hosts show strong rejection behaviour [ 9 ] , it is likely that the rattling cisticola is a former host that has won the arms race with the cuckoo finch . while some foreign eggs were accepted , experimental eggs were always conspecific and hence likely to be a much closer match to the host clutch than real parasitic eggs ; therefore , this does not preclude consistent rejection of cuckoo finch eggs . if the rattling cisticola is indeed a former host , then implementing both strategies appears to have been a highly successful defence against brood parasitism . ideally , these dual defences would be analysed in a phylogenetic context across a range of hosts to distinguish ancestral from derived levels of defence .\nspecies learn the songs from their foster parents and the birds inherit their mitochondrial genes from their mother . in the first generation , a female indigobird laid an egg in a melba finch nest . the melba finch reared the young indigobird , a female , and the latter became imprinted upon the song of her foster parent . as a breeding adult , she was attracted to and mated with a male paradise - whydah mimic of the melba finch . she was then attracted to nesting melba finches and laid her eggs in their nest , and her hybrid young were reared by the melba finches . the two male whydahs , hybrids in the third generation of this family history , mimicked the songs of the melba finch .\nrejection frequency by each host species of real cuckoo finch eggs laid by their respective parasitic gens , based on simulations using logistic models of egg discrimination experiments ( see \u00a72 ) . total frequencies add up to in ( a ) 999 , tawny - flanked prinias , but in ( b ) 250 , red - faced cisticolas ( see \u00a72 ) .\n11\u201312 cm ; 18\u201321g ( kenya ) , 20\u201322\u00b75 g ( transvaal ) . small , stocky finch with short tail and short , stubby bill with upper mandible laterally compressed . . .\nif female cuckoo finches looked more similar to vidua finches than to weavers , then it would suggest that the cuckoo finch plumage is a product of their shared ancestry . if they looked equally similar to vidua finches and weavers , it would suggest that their plumage has been shaped through shared selection pressures from a shared environment ( for example , having to avoid shared predators ) . however , if they looked more similar to the weavers than the vidua finches , it would suggest that natural selection for mimicry has driven their resemblance .\ndistribution of cuckoo finch in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( \u00a9 animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .\ncuckoo finches reproduce by stealing something very unusual from other birds : parenting skills . the cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of other bird species , hoping their young will blend in and be fed . even though other birds have evolved to detect minute differences between eggs , and will eject foreign eggs from their nests , somehow cuckoo finches get by .\nbrood parasite , mating system not known , but probably polyg - ynous . lays one to two eggs per nest , removing one or more host eggs . incubation 14 days , fledging 18 days . hosts are warblers of the genera cisticola or prinia , host young usually trampled in nest , rarely reared with parasite young . two cuckoo finch young may be reared together .\nwidowbirds , in which the change is brought about by moult . female cuckoo finches are streaky brown above and whitish below , similar in appearance to females or non - breeding males of\nwe specifically looked at cuckoo finches , as there is already good evidence of an evolutionary arms race between it and its primary host in southern zambia , the tawny - flanked prinia .\ncuckoo finches , like the iconic cuckoos , are brood parasites who lay their eggs in the nests of other birds , to deceive them into raising the parasitic young as their own .\nkozlovic , d . r . , knapton , r . w . & barlow , j . c . 1996 . unsuitability of the house finch as a host of the brown - headed cowbird .\nthe cuckoo - finch is a small finch - like bird , about 11\u201313 cm long . it has a short tail , large legs and feet , and a large , deep , conical bill . the adult male has a black bill and a yellow head and underparts . the upperparts are olive - green with black streaks . the yellow areas become increasingly bright prior to the breeding season as the feathers become worn . the adult female is buff with heavy black streaking above and light streaks on the flanks ; its face is largely plain buff and the throat is buff - white .\ncuckoo finches live in grassland , shrubby woodland , and grassy marshes and swamps . unlike some of their relatives in the present family , however , they are not associated with human activities .\nfound in cisticola nests in ethiopia were saved as specimens in the british museum ( natural history ) ; examination of these reveals that they are , in fact , young cuckoo finches .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . cuckoo - finch ( anomalospiza imberbis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nof f . willughby in 1676 , and the\nred - breasted long - tailed finch\ndescribed by g . edwards in 1747 . aldrovandi ' s paradise - whydah is the bird now known as\nthe species was described in 1868 by the german ornithologist jean cabanis based on a specimen from east africa , probably from the coast opposite zanzibar . it was initially placed in the genus crithagra but later moved to a genus of its own , anomalospiza . the name of the genus means\nanomalous finch\nwith spiza being a greek word for finch . the specific name imberbis comes from latin and means\nbeardless\n.\nthe village indigobird similarly exploits small termites when they emerge during the rains . straw - tailed whydahs supplement their diet of small grass seeds with both larval and adult insects , which they catch on the ground . the cuckoo finch has been seen on rare occasions to take insects , sometimes hawking these at dusk . it feeds its young with insects , including caterpillars and wasps ( hymenoptera ) . wilson\u00e7s indigobird (\na particularly interesting case involves the cuckoo finch ( anomalospiza imberbis ) and one its many hosts , the african tawny - flanked prinia ( prinia subflava ) . university of exeter ecologist martin stevens told io9 ,\nthere ' s an extremely high level of variation from one prinia ' s eggs to another .\nsome birds ' eggs resemble the surface of mars , while other eggs may be green with brown spots .\nanomalospiza imberbis ( cuckoo finch ) koekoekvink [ afrikaans ] ; koekoekswever [ dutch ] ; anomalospize parasite [ french ] ; kuckucksweber [ german ] ; tecel\u00e3o - parasita [ portuguese ] distribution and habitat occurs in patches across africa\u2019s western coast from guinea to cameroon , with a separate population extending from ethiopia through tanzania , zambia and angola to southern africa . here it is uncommon in swaziland , mpumalanga and surrounding provinces , while\u2026\nimportantly , the cuckoo has evolved to produce eggs that look similar to the prinia ' s eggs . but rather than seek out prinia nests with eggs that look like its eggs , the cuckoo leaves it all up to chance , laying eggs in seemingly random prinia nests . in response to this mimicry , the prinia , like many other host species , has developed mechanisms to tease out imposter eggs .\ndavies , n . b . , brooke , m . de l . & kacelnik , a . 1996 . recognition errors and probability of parasitism determine whether reed warblers should accept or reject mimetic cuckoo eggs .\nnaturally parasitized clutches at our study site during 2007\u20132009 and 2012\u20132013 are consistent with the prediction that repeated parasitism should benefit the cuckoo finch : of 62 parasitized prinia nests where the final clutch composition was known ( that is , incubation had begun ) , two - thirds contained either two ( 61 % ) or three ( 5 % ) parasitic eggs laid by the same female ( as assessed phenotypically by the human eye ; cuckoo finch eggs are highly variable and distinctive among individuals for colour and pattern 7 , making it relatively easy to identify eggs as belonging to the same individuals ) . parasitic eggs were in the majority in 68 % of nests ( in 36 of 42 cases , no host eggs were present ) , equal numbers of host and parasitic eggs were present in 19 % of nests , and host eggs made up the majority of the clutch in just 13 % of parasitized nests .\n( a ) simulations between 999 random pairs of host and cuckoo finch eggs show that as the proportion of parasitic eggs in the nest increases , they are more likely to be accepted . error bars show \u00b11 s . e . m . ( b ) the probability of rejection also depends on the level of colour difference between host and parasitic eggs : closely matching eggs are less likely to be rejected when they comprise a greater proportion of the clutch .\nsurprisingly , we found that the prinias were extremely aggressive to both the harmful female cuckoo finches and harmless southern red bishops \u2013 treating both as threats . they were not , however , aggressive to males of either species .\nless is known about the breeding behaviour of the cuckoo finch . adults and juveniles of this species form flocks both outside and within the breeding season . when not in a flock , a male sometimes sings at a single site for a few minutes , as has been recorded at lochinvar national park , in zambia , and at harare , in zimbabwe . the male ' s courtship displays , with the wings raised , look more like the nest - displays of\n= 55 per group ; resampled mean \u00b1 s . e . for prinias = 0 . 651 \u00b1 0 . 002 and for red - faced cisticolas = 0 . 382 \u00b1 0 . 002 ) . correspondingly , cuckoo finch eggs laid in tawny - flanked prinia nests were more polymorphic ( mean \u00b1 s . e . = 0 . 547 \u00b1 0 . 015 ) than those laid in red - faced cisticola nests ( 0 . 404 \u00b1 0 . 038 ) (\nthe broad - tailed paradise - whydah is a southern african bird that belongs to the viduidae bird family group which includes birds such as whydahs , indigobirds , cuckoo finch . the description for the broad - tailed paradise - whydah ( latin name vidua obtusa ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the vidua obtusa can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 863 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 1071 . more\ni ' ve incorporated the new paper by burns and racicot ( 2009 ) about tachyphonini . the tachyphonini have been rearranged and gained black - goggled tanager and crimson - breasted finch from the incertae sedis tanagers . [ thraupidae , core passeroidea v , 2 . 15 ]\nin europe , whydahs and indigobirds have been kept as cagebirds for centuries , being held in esteem for their song and colourful breeding plumage . renaissance scholar michel de montaigne visited the italian city of florence in 1581 and saw them in the medici aviaries . his description of a finch with\nits closest relatives are thought to be the indigobirds and whydahs of the genus vidua . these birds are now usually considered to form a family , viduidae . previously they were treated as a subfamily , viduinae , within either the estrildid finch family , estrildidae , or the weaver family , ploceidae .\nin this study , we demonstrate a novel evolutionary tactic at play in these interactions . we have previously shown that the tawny - flanked prinia , the most common host of the cuckoo finch , uses several different features of egg colour and pattern to discriminate between its eggs and those of the cuckoo finch . in this study , we first demonstrated that prinias know the appearance of their own eggs and primarily reject foreign eggs based on whether they deviate from this internal template . this is consistent with past work investigating mechanisms of rejection in hosts of other brood parasites 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 16 , 20 . however , we further demonstrated that prinias do not simply reject any eggs that differ sufficiently from an internal template regardless of their frequency . instead , they appear to use both template - recognition and discordancy mechanisms to maximize information about egg identity . the two mechanisms are in conflict when host eggs are outnumbered by mimetic parasitic eggs , such that sensory and cognitive mechanisms disagree . we have shown that under such circumstances , hosts prioritize information from the template - recognition mechanism but require greater colour differences to make the correct decision .\nnestling and fledgling whydahs and indigobirds are fed by their foster parents . they crouch , twist the head and neck , wave the head from side to side , and beg with the head turned to one side or even upside - down , in the manner of the young of their estrildid hosts . the nestlings and fledglings are fed with seeds regurgitated by their foster parents . in contrast to the whydahs and indigobirds , the young cuckoo finch begs in an upright posture , without waving the head , and it feeds directly , taking insects held in the fosterer ' s bill .\nwe carried out fieldwork during january\u2013march 2007\u20132009 , within a ca 800 ha area on and around musumanene farm ( 16\u00b047\u2032 s , 26\u00b054\u2032 e ) near choma , southern zambia . all hosts build woven nests with a side entrance , stitched among the broad leaves of small herbaceous shrubs ( tawny - flanked prinias and red - faced cisticolas ) , or tucked into the base of a shrub or grass tussock ( rattling cisticolas ) . hosts pay strong fitness costs of parasitism since cuckoo finch hatchlings usually outcompete all host young [ 22 ] . hosts removed foreign eggs by puncturing then ejecting them .\n, the cuckoo finch , include the bill , the mouth and the palate . the bill is short and stubby , with the outline straight . the jaw is bent downwards at the frontonasal - maxillary hinge at an angle of about 110 degrees in relation to the jugal . inside the mouth , a thick lateral surface is formed by the edge of the maxilla and a broad ventral protuberance that articulates with the jugal bone . this complex forms a crushing surface . the lower mandible of all of the viduids has a thick , flat rostral flange that is expanded ventrally at its posterior margin .\nthis paper shows experimentally that adult female cuckoo finches ( at left in photo ) in zambia have evolved to resemble harmless and abundant bishop - birds ( right ) , which should help them to slip past being attacked by host parents while they try to lay their egg . however , hosts are not fooled by this attempted deception , and defend themselves against parasitic cuckoo finches and harmless bishop - birds alike . to our knowledge this is the first time that such \u201cwolf - in - sheep\u2019s - clothing\u201d plumage mimicry has been experimentally shown to exist in any adult bird .\nif you ' re an adult female , lay your eggs in exactly the same host species as your mother did . hope that at least some of your eggs will match the host clutch more like nest number 13 on the left , than nest number 15 on the right ( in each case , the egg at far right is that of a cuckoo finch , and the others are those of the tawny - flanked prinia host ) . your egg will therefore have a much better chance of being accepted by the host parents ( the whole lot will probably still get eaten by a snake , though ) .\nanticipating sacc decisions , hyphens have been removed from : rufous crab hawk , buteogallus aequinoctialis ; many - colored rush tyrant , tachuris rubrigastra ; crowned slaty flycatcher , empidonomus aurantioatrocristatus ; shear - tailed gray tyrant , muscipipra vetula drab water tyrant , ochthornis littoralis ; short - tailed field tyrant , muscigralla brevicauda ; many - colored chaco finch , saltatricula multicolor ; black - backed bush tanager , cnemoscopus rubrirostris ; long - tailed reed finch , donacospiza albifrons ; and gray - hooded bush tanager , cnemoscopus rubrirostris . i have also removed a hyphen from white - headed marsh tyrant , arundinicola leucocephala , which has been added to the sacc proposal .\nwe found the latter , which suggested that female cuckoo finches have evolved to mimic weavers . we then conducted two field experiments in southern zambia to test whether we could verify this apparent case of mimicry . this meant months of long days watching these birds from the inside of a hide , which was absolutely brilliant !\nhas a single clear layer of bone on each side of the dorsal mid - line ; the clear region contrasts with the spotted appearance of the skull of other songbirds , in which two layers of bone are joined by columns and the layers are otherwise separated by a layer of air , the mature skull being pneumatized or\nossified\n. nearly all adults have an incompletely pneumatized skull . in yearling indigobirds the skull is pneumatized by about half , individuals two years old and older have the skull more than 70 % pneumatized , and fewer than 5 % of all birds have a fully pneumatized skull . cuckoo finch adults also have an incompletely pneumatized skull .\nmany brood parasites [ such as cuckoo finches ] and hosts are locked in ongoing evolutionary arms races , with parasites evolving attack strategies to get their eggs accepted - such as egg mimicry - and hosts evolving defences - such as egg rejection ,\nexplained co - author dr martin stevens from the university of exeter .\nusing simulations based on the egg rejection models derived from experimental data , we found that prinia\u2013cuckoo finches laying randomly in tawny - flanked prinia nests have an average rejection probability of 0 . 492 \u00b1 0 . 008 ( range 0 . 047\u20130 . 999 ) , and that the distribution of rejection probabilities was relatively even ( figure 3 a ) . red - faced cisticola\u2013cuckoo finches laying randomly in red - faced cisticola nests have an average rejection probability of 0 . 521 \u00b1 0 . 014 ( range 0 . 001\u20130 . 795 ) ; thus , very similar on average to prinias , but with a less even distribution ( figure 3 b ) .\nwe were suspicious that adult female cuckoo finches might be employing aggressive mimicry to get into their host\u2019s nest because they look remarkably similar to another group of species that shares their grassy habitats : females of the several common species of weavers , known as bishopbirds or widowbirds . is this coincidence , or a deceptive strategy shaped by natural selection ?\non the evolution of aggressive mimicry by adult cuckoo finches : feeney , w . e . , troscianko , j . , langmore , n . e . & spottiswoode , c . n . 2015 evidence for aggressive mimicry in an adult brood parasitic bird , and generalised defences in its host . proceedings of the royal society of london b 282 : 2015079 .\nwe found that african cuckoo finches \u2013 brood parasites that rely on a different kind of bird to raise their young \u2013 have evolved to look like harmless weaver birds in an attempt to deceive their hosts . but we also discovered that their tawny - flanked prinia hosts have caught onto this and responded by being aggressive to anyone resembling their enemy \u2013 a form of collective punishment .\nin some cases , a brood parasite ' s eggs will look nothing like the host ' s eggs , and this is ok because the host cannot tell the difference . but in other cases , especially those involving cuckoo birds , the parasite ' s eggs and the host ' s eggs have similar patterns or colorations , and this results in some very cool evolutionary arms races .\nindigobirds and whydahs , along with other finch - type species , are widely trapped for the cagebird trade . in senegal , hundreds of thousands of birds are captured each year , under permit , for this purpose , yet this activity appears , perhaps somewhat surprisingly , to have no noticeable effect on population numbers . viduids are trapped for the trade also in guinea , mali , tanzania and mozambique , and almost certainly elsewhere , too .\na few indigobirds ringed as adults have been recovered more than 20 km from their breeding site , but nothing is known about the juvenile dispersal of these birds . at the end of the breeding season , some whydahs form large flocks and move many kilometres , and a marked shaft - tailed whydah was recovered 150 km from its earlier site . in the dry non - breeding season , cuckoo finches appear in flocks far from their known breeding areas , and they may , in fact , be seasonal migrants .\nparadise - whydahs in zambia , where males in breeding plumage appeared at the same site and chased each other . their plumage and their display behaviour were intermediate between those of indigobirds and those of the long - tailed paradise - whydah , and their song mimicked the songs and calls of the melba finch , the normal host species of the whydah . mitochondrial dna of the hybrid male was like that of the indigobirds , which parasitize and mimic the songs of firefinches . the individual life history of one of these hybrid viduids was recovered from its song mimicry and its mitochondria , as\nhost species of brood - parasitic birds can evolve features such as spots , squiggles and colours on their eggs that act like \u2018signatures ' that are difficult for parasites to forge , helping hosts to detect and reject imposter eggs . in this paper , we show that hosts of cuckoo finches ( as well as hosts of diederik cuckoos ) in zambia have optimised this defence by arranging signature traits in unpredictable combinations . thus , egg signatures are individually distinctive and hard for parasites to mimic , helping hosts distinguish parasitic eggs from their own . the paper arose from mphil research by eleanor caves ( co - authored by martin stevens , edwin iversen and claire spottiswoode ) and the data were all obtained from major john colebrook - robjent ' s wonderful egg collection .\nviduids occur in flocks at any time of the year , gathering together in the evening , and they often roost in flocks both in the breeding and in non - breeding seasons . sometimes several species will flock and roost together at night in leafy trees . when gathered together , birds will occasionally produce a harsh\nchut\nor short chatter ; they do not give song mimicry at their roosting assemblages . it is uncertain whether the actively breeding males join in these roosting flocks or roost alone , but at the end of the breeding season , and still in breeding plumage , they certainly feed together and flock for the evening roost along with the moulting males , as well as the females and juveniles . cuckoo finches have not been observed closely through the day , but the breeding females at all stages of their laying cycle spend much of their time in flocks ; males tend to occur alone on song territories , where they are well - spaced from other males , but they also occur in flocks throughout much of the day ."]}
{"id": 2138, "summary": [{"text": "the siamese algae eater ( crossocheilus oblongus ) is a species of freshwater fish in the carp family , cyprinidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this bottom-dwelling tropical fish is found in mainland southeast asia , including the chao phraya and mekong basins as well as the malay peninsula .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "its natural habitats are streams and rivers as well as flooded forests during the rainy season .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the siamese algae eater should not be confused with the flying fox ( epalzeorhynchos kalopterus ) or the false siamensis ( garra cambodgiensis ) . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "siamese algae eater", "paragraphs": ["siamese algae eater , chinese algae eater and harlequin\u00b4s , in my 200 liters planted fishtank .\nalgae eater , siamese headbreather , sucker loach , sucking loach , and biforated carp .\nthere is a narrow lighter band above the black band in a false siamese algae eater .\nall fins on a false siamese algae eater are yellowish in color except for the pectorals .\n) . these fish are very commonly sold as merely algae eater . watch out for its adult size , and temperament . the siamese algae eater , (\nspecificationsmpnf90 0022 2105manufacturerthat fish placecommon nametrue siamese algae eater scientific namecrossocheilus siamensis originasia max siz . . .\nthe siamese algae eater is also known as the siamese flying fox , flying fox and siamese fox . it is common in aquarium stores and a very good algae eater . a very similar species , garra taeniata aka epalzeorhynchus sp , is sometimes sold as siamese algae eater which have earned that species the common name false siamese algae eater . a majority the siamese algae eaters that are ( or at least used to be ) sold in united states are in fact false siamese algae eaters . it is also common for shipments of siamese algae eater to contain both siamese algae eaters and false siamese algae eater . this is not surprising as the species live in the same areas and young specimens of the two species school together . you can tell the two species apart by the following facts :\notocinclus catfish care guide - otocinclus vittatus - best nano algae eater . great for brown algae .\nthe siamese algae eater is an interesting and fun fish to watch , especially when in their natural habitat , being a planted community aquarium . these algae eaters are not to be confused with the chinese algae eater\nthe siamese algae eater is one of the best algae eater fish . sometimes it is confused with other similar fish like the flying fox . \u05d0\u05d5\u05db\u05dc \u05d0\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e1\u05d9\u05d0\u05de\u05d9 , \u05e9\u05d5\u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05e4\u05e3 , \u05d0\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05d1\u05d0\u05e7\u05d5\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd\nthe black horizontal band doesn ' t go all the way to the tail fin on a false siamese algae eater .\nright now you are bound to think \u201c does it really matter if i get the true siamese algae eater or the false one ? \u201d . the answer is that it very well might . the false siamese algae eater is not as good an algae eater as the true one and more importantly is more aggressive towards other fish species than the siamese algae eater . it is therefore much less suitable for a community aquarium with friendly fish .\nthe true siamese algae eater ( crossocheilus siamensis ) is one of the most popular algae eaters , especially to help control nuisance algaes in planted . . .\nthe siamese algae eater is native to thailand and the malay peninsula . it is the only know species to eat red algae and can be a good ally to have when fighting a number of nasty algae such as red algae and brush algae .\nin addition , the dorsal fin of the flying fox is more deeply notched than on the siamese algae eater , although this may be slight .\nok , i ' m sure you can see the differences right off the bat between a siamese and chinese algae eater , so i ' m not going to get into that much . but as you can see , the false siamensis and flying fox are very similar in apperance to a true siamese algae eater .\nsiamese algae eaters need to swim to float . if they stop they sink to the bottom .\ncommon name : siamese algae eater , siamese flying fox , flying fox , siamese fox scientific name : crossocheilus siamensis max size : 6 inches / 15 cm ph : 6 . 5 - 7 ( tolerates a much larger range span ) temperature : 75 - 79\u02daf / 24 - 26\u02dac\nthe flying fox has a smoother edge to the black stripe running along its body \u2014 the one on the siamese algae eater has a more ragged edge \u2014 with the area above the stripe tending to be uniformly coloured . the scales in this area of the siamese algae eater have dark margins , imparting a net - like pattern .\nthe chief difference is a large fleshy flap in the corner of the mouth in the flying fox ( epalzeorhynchos kalopterus ) that\u2019s absent in the siamese algae eater ( crossocheilus siamensis ) .\nmore commonly referred to as the carp family . these bottom - dwelling algae eaters are not to be confused with the chinese algae eater or plecostomus , two other popular varieties of algae eaters among freshwater aquarium owners . the siamese algae eater is indigenous to the main lands of southeast asia including the mekong and chao phraya river basins . they inhabit streams and rivers and will spread into flooded out lowland jungle areas of the malay peninsula during the rainy season .\nsiamese algae eaters are technically omnivores but lean quite far toward the herbivore side of the spectrum . the algae growth in your aquarium alone will not provide an adequate foods source . sinking food wafers and algae pellets or dried algae sheets will help insure they receive enough food to keep them healthy and full of vigor . siamese algae eaters will readily nibble at green leafy vegetables like lettuce and spinach . these make excellent supplemental food items .\nsome tips and information on keeping the siamese algae eater - sae . like and subscribe ! music :\ndrops of h2o ( the filtered water treatment )\nby j . lang ( feat . airtone ) urltoken is licensed under a creative commons license : urltoken\nsiamese algae eater are a medium sized member of the carp family . these fish generally reach a maximum adult length of 6 inches in an aquarium setting . they have slender torpedo shaped bodies with transparent fins . these fish have silver color palettes with a single horizontal stripe beginning in front of their eyes and terminating at the base of the caudal fin . siamese algae eaters have a double set of barbels . barbles are a distinguishing characteristic of the carp family .\nanother big difference is in behaviour . both the false siamensis and flying fox are solitary , and may become aggressive to others of its kind . the siamese algae eater , on the other hand , is a peaceful schoaler , and does better in a small group of 4 - 6 .\nthis species is among a handful of near - identical congeners that are traded as \u2018siamese algae - eater\u2019 ( often abbreviated to \u2018sae\u2019 ) , \u2018siamese flying fox\u2019 and \u2018crossocheilus siamensis\u2019 . recent work has shown that name to be a synonym of epalzeorhynchos siamensis which was described from tadi province , southern ( peninsular ) thailand by smith ( 1931 ) before being moved to crossocheilus by b\u0103n\u0103rescu ( 1986 ) .\nthis species is as earlier mentioned a good algae eater , but in most aquariums they will need other food as well as there simply isn ' t enough algae to sustain a school of siamese algae eaters . they willingly accept all types of live , frozen and flake food . feed them a varied diet with a lot of vegetable matter . if given too little green food in the aquarium they might hurt the plants . young specimens are better algae eaters while older specimens seem to like other food more .\ncommon name : siamese algae eater scientific name : crossocheilus siamensis family : cyprinidae origin : south east asia size : 5 - 6 inches / 12 - 15 cm ph : 7 . 0 - 8 . 0 temperature : 74 - 80 f temperament : peaceful great fish for eating nuisance black / beard algae . excellent in planted aquariums and should be kept in groups of 3 or more .\nfinally , one last thing i ' ve read about and also observed in my tank concerns the peculiar way a siamese algae eater rests . it doesn ' t lie flat on it ' s belly but keeps propped up slightly with its tail , pelvic and pectoral fins ; prefering low , dense plants like cryptocorynes .\ni observed mine doing this very thing the other evening , so it seems only appropriate to end this article with a picture of 3 of my siamese algae eaters resting in the dim evening lights .\nthe easiest and most apparent difference is the horizontal black stripe running down the body . both the false siamensis and flying fox have a nice smooth black stripe topped with a gold stripe . the true siamese algae eater has a ragged , almost zig - zag black stripe running to it ' s tail , and no gold stripe .\nthe next thing to look at is the mouth . admittedly it ' s hard to see in the photos , but on close inspection you ' ll notice that the false siamensis and flying fox both have twin pairs of barbells ( the little whisker by their mouths ) , but a true siamese algae eater only has 1 pair .\nhow to identify the siames algae eater . recently i had the luck of running across 6 beautiful little siamese algae eaters , mistakenly labeled at the pet store as flying foxes . knowing their true identity i immediately bought all 6 , and now that they ' ve settled and i ' ve gotten some good pictures , i ' d like to share with you all some tips on identifying this amazing little fish .\nthe siamese algae eater is generally considered to be the best all - around algae eater available to aquarists . unfortunately it is easily confused with other similar species ( usually\nfalse siamensis\nepalzeorhynchus sp . ) , and is often mislabeled in stores . most of the fish i ' ve seen in canada sold under the name\nsiamese algae eater\nare really epalzeorhynchus sp . a relatively peaceful fish , especially when young , it can become agressive to its own species as it ages , and its quick , darting movements can stress out some more sensitive fish , such as dwarf cichlids or discus . a very hardy fish , it is easy to keep and feed , eating both algae and just about anything else put into the tank , such as flake food , pellets , live foods , parboiled vegetables , etc . it does a diligent job of removing algae from plants without harming them , as well as from decorations and aquarium glass . considered by this aquarist as a necessity in any well - planted aquarium . cover the tank carefully however , as these fish are strong jumpers .\nsiamese algae eaters leave most plants alone but might eat duckweed ( lemna minor ) and the roots of the water hyacinth . they are best kept in schools . true siamese algae eaters are peaceful and can be kept in community tanks with most other friendly fish . avoid keeping them with long finned fish as they might bite the fins on long finned fish . the aquarium should be at least 25 gallon / 100 l .\nsiamese algae eaters make excellent additions to a community tank . they have peaceful temperaments and quite frequently ignore the activities of fish in the upper levels of your tank . they should not , however , be housed with fish with long , flowing fins like angelfish and bettas . they are reputed fin nippers . unlike many bottom dwelling species , the siamese algae eater exhibits no sign of territorial aggression toward conspecifics . multiples will school together in home aquariums . it is in fact recommended that these fish be raised in schools . they have a particular affinity to broad leafed aquarium plants and will frequently be found resting atop of them , especially when they are younger . adult fish are more prone to rest on the aquarium substrate . these fish will require a minimum tank size of 25 gallons . the average lifespan of a siamese algae eater is 5 - 7 years but they have been documented to live as long as 10 years .\nthe siamese algae eater is a hardy fish that can adapt to a wide variety of living conditions as long as extremes are avoided , but they do best in planted aquariums with densely planted areas as well as open areas . siamese algae eaters wants to have at least a few broad leafed plants in the aquarium since they like to rest on top of such leafs . young specimens also use narrow leaves for this . if not provided with suitable plants they rest on the bottom . adult fish are more prone to rest on the bottom even if suitable plants are available .\nsiamese algae eaters a brief description and benefits of keeping this fish . sea ' s were kept in this small tank only for a week , to remove some bba algae which appeared after the water output flow was rendered and some dead spots were created . music by : andrew komarnjicki etsy shop : urltoken\ndescription - urltoken one of the best known algae eater in aquarium . peaceful and attractive fish . temperature : 20 - 26 \u00b0c ph : 6 - 7 . 5 tank : min 100 l fish size : 10 - 15 cm .\nnow observe the color of the fish itself . you ' ll see that both the false siamensis and flying fox are more colorful , with some yellow or red markings to the fins . the siamese algae eater is rather blandish gold - brown - silver . but a distinctive marking is along the back , where the black outlines the scales , making the top of the fish appear retulicar .\nhow well do otocinclus catfish eat algae ? a little experiment from the den . . . .\nalthough the body stripe becomes paler when the fish are sparring it doesn\u2019t change in width , and a further simple distinguishing trait is the presence of a dark blotch immediately in front of the anal fin on the underside of the fish . this fish is the one most often referred to as \u2018siamese algae eater\u2019 in literature and online , but because it varies slightly with c . langei sensu stricto the possibility that it\u2019s an undescribed species cannot be discounted .\na wonderful fish that is known to even eat red algae . not to be confused with the flying fox or false siamese algae eater . these fish are jumpers though , and won ' t hesitate to leap out of the water . a good cover for the tank is required . new owners of this fish might be unnecessarily distressed by their unusual sleeping behavior . it is not uncommon for these fish to sleep nose down , even upside down , either supported by water flow or jammed into or precariously perched upon aquarium decor and equipment . a true sign of distress however , often indicating , stress from water chemistry issues or stress from persecution by other fish is a blanching out of the black lateral stripe , something that should be taken very seriously , and potential causes investigated immediately . siamese algae eaters regularly blanching out are often only hours away from death .\nextremely pleased with my order of 6 siamese algae eaters . they are all very healthy and have acclimated to my tank nicely . shipping process was smooth and package arrived on time tightly packed inside a heated enclosure , due to cold weather conditions . thanks again ! you\u2019ve got my attention .\nniederle , j . , 2009 - the aquarium gazette 8 my anabasis with red - algae eaters known as crossocheilus siamensis .\nlives mainly in mountain streams and brooks with gravel bottoms . feeds on algae and other plants ( ref . 45563 ) .\nsiamese algae eaters are hard to sex but females are fatter than males and look more rounded when viewed from above . no other differences are known . nothing is known about breeding this species in aquariums without the aid of hormones . it is reasonable to assume that changes in the water ( temperature , ph , hardness ) and current conditions might trigger spawning in well conditioned fish .\narrived alive and in good condition . they do nibble on black algae but they & apos ; ll eat cucumbers , zucchini and fish food as well .\ncame in great and did well . they seem to be doing the job that i bought them for , eating the black hair algae in my tank !\n\u2018crossocheilus siamensis\u2019 ( see \u2018notes\u2019 ) is famed as a consumer of \u2018black brush\u2019 algae ( bba ) , also known as \u2018red\u2019 or \u2018beard\u2019 algae . these members of the division rhodophyta can be otherwise difficult to remove once established in aquaria so the \u2018species\u2019 has achieved huge popularity among hobbyists who maintain planted set - ups .\nsiamese algae eaters accept a wide variety of water conditions but neutral to slightly acidic water is preferred even if they tolerate ph 5 . 5 - 8 . 0 . the recommended temperature is between 75 and 79\u02daf / 24 and 26\u02dac . don\u2019t keep this species in very hard water . they prefer well circulated clean water . it is recommended to oxygenate the water as they like oxygen rich water .\ncame in the day after i ordered . arrived very healthy and adjusted to the community immediately . they have severely reduced the black beard algae in the tank .\n) unless the aquarium is large and well planted , because that species is very aggressive towards all its relatives . i have kept these fish in my 200 l community tank for years bacause this slender algae eating barb is the only known fish that eats the red algae which grows in my heavily planted tank from time to time .\nfrank , neil ; liisa sarakontu .\nalgae eating cyprinids from thailand and neighboring areas\n. the aquatic gardener : journal of the aquatic gardeners association . aquatic gardeners association .\nfish are often bought as algae eaters because they will readily eat algae when young , but with age , their preference changes towards meatier foods , such as prepared aquarium foods , frozen crustaceans and small fish . this change is also reflected in behaviour , which becomes aggressive with age , especially so towards others of their own kind and fish with similar colors .\nthey were delivered timely and in good health . they came in separate bags exactly as i requested because they were going into different tanks . it took them about a week to do any algae eating , but they now have done a nice job of cleaning up the hair algae . they are very cute and one likes to school with my large school of rummy nose tetras !\n) is an active and fast swimmer , which thrives best in schools but can also be kept alone or in pairs . it is a strong jumper and should not be kept in uncovered tank , because it will eventually jump . siamese algae eaters often chase one another , but they never get hurt in these fights . as they are not aggressive , they can be kept in any community tank big enough . their active behavior might stress some sensitive species like dwarf cichlids and prevent them from spawning . they should not be kept with red - tailed sharks (\narrived alive , very healthy , and settled right in . only problem is they don & apos ; t do much eating of the hair algae i bought them for . they seem to eat most anything else except live plants . my otocinclus eat as much of it as they do , very odd\n. it is a beautiful , peaceful little schooler that more than anything else is famous for being possibly the only aquarium fish in the world that will eat black brush ( red ) algae . the problem is they ' re not easy ( or downright impossible ) to breed in captivity , and easily mixed up with\nin nature crossocheilus species are aufwuchs grazers feeding on algae , diatoms and other phytoplankton , plus associated microorganisms . the use of high - protein foods in the aquarium should therefore be avoided as the fish are unable to metabolise some components efficiently ; regular , prolonged consumption can result in excessive deposits of fat and even organ degeneration .\nsiamese algae eaters appreciate the company of their own species and may wane and become overly timid if kept in solitary conditions . this is a communicative species that requires shoal numbers for their full personality to be appreciated , they will sleep in groups , and feed in coordinating lines and rows . they will shoal defensively . this is a consistently active fish that may annoy fish of a more delicate temperament such as discus , and corydoras with their incessant flight behaviour . the author recommends an aquarium of at least 40 gallons for four adult specimens . the positive aspects of allowing this fish a social life cannot be ignored as regards their health and vigor . this fish has nothing in common with the antisocial and territorial flying fox as regards personality , and is consistently peaceful throughout its life . scuffles cause no real injuries .\nwe had problems with black bearded algae in our 85 liter tank . so we bought 4 sae ' s when they were just a couple of centimeters long . they quickly grew to maximum size ( 12 - 14 cm ) , and we had to get a new aquarium . we bought a 530 liter aquarium , and the fishes are now very happy , i think . we have had no problems with black bearded algae after the sae ' s moved in . have in mind that they grow quite large , and should have plenty of space to move on . they are so incredibly fast , that i call them\nmy 4 small jet fighters\n. they are nice to other fish !\ni have had my sae for about 10 years . he has grown so big ( about 13 cm and has outlived every fish in my tank . although i have read that he is a good algae eater , mine is a big fat lazy opportunist . he eats more processed food and live food than all my fish put together and has a big fat gut . he or she is also very territorial and won ' t allow any of the fish to have a space of their own . i have a 300 liter tank filled with sweet little community fish , angelfish , a kribensis mother and some grown babies , and some rams . he lays ownership to any spot that another fish wants . i do have to say that he doesn ' t allow other fish to fight . if he sees fish getting aggressive toward one another , he is right there to break it up . he is absolutely a pain in my tank , but i love him .\ni have a school of seven sae ' s in my 220 liter community aquarium . they range in size from about 6 cm to 8 cm . i believe these are about the most industrious algae eaters i ' ve seen in my 55 years as a fish hobbyist . i originally purchased them because i read somewhere on the internet that they were the only species that ate what has come to be known as black bearded algae , which is an unsightly pest that is very difficult to get rid of . i had this scourge all over some driftwood and all over my live plants , and it was one of the factors that led to the demise of many of my plants . the sae ' s went to work the instant i put them in the tank , and within a few weeks the driftwood looked like it had just come from the processor - it sparkled a bright brown color . they also went to work on the plants when they got tired of polishing the driftwood . within a few days those leaves that were not destroyed by the algae began to look greener and brighter . the algae was almost gone , and there were no residual holes where the sae ' s had been feasting . since this aquarium is located next to my computer , i get to spend a lot of time watching the fish , and i have never seen the sae ' s resting . they constantly forage on every surface in the aquarium . i have found these little custodians to be a peaceful and most useful addition to this community aquarium , which is populated with several species of near adult rainbowfish , adult congo tetras , adult emperor tetras , and several half grown apistogramma species .\nthese are the hardest working , most beautiful cleaner fish you can get . i think they are much more attractive than the false siamensis and cae ' s with whom they are commonly confused . once you know what to look for it , is easy to make a distinction . the main thing to look at as the stripe . true sae ' s have a serrated stripe that runs all the way to the tip of the tail . i have 10 sae ' s in my 380 liter and they are constantly looking for algae or leftover food to nibble on . they never stop ! i highly recommend these to anyone with the room for them . they get quite large , i ' ve seen some about 14 cm ! they are a must for a planted tank , as they clean the leaves so well , but cause no damage to the plant whatsoever . they eagerly take flake food , but should always have some sort of vegetable matter in their diet , so if they run out of algae , supplement with sinking algae tabs , mine love them . sae ' s are very peaceful toward other fish , but i ' ve noticed mine can occasionally be territiorial to each other , although i don ' t think they have the ability to cause injury .\nthis can be further furnished with roots and branches arranged to form a network of nooks , crannies and shaded spots . while the majority of plant species will fail to thrive in such surroundings hardy types such as microsorum , bolbitis or anubias spp . can be grown attached to the d\u00e9cor and bright lighting will promote the growth of algae upon which the fish will graze . in this kind of environment it will display more natural behaviour and can be kept alongside other species that enjoy similar conditions .\npresumably this saleability is also one reason why several fishes , including c . langei , are offered under the name . these do browse on bba but to varying extents depending on species and in some cases the availability of alternative food sources . c . atrilimes , for example , shows a preference for fine - leaved , higher plants such as vesicularia spp . but will also feed on various types of algae . c . langei sensu amplo is the most efficient consumer of bba although some reports state that only younger , softer growths are eaten and that the fish should be introduced prior to any potential outbreak .\noccur in medium to large - sized rivers and enters flooded fields ( ref . 12975 ) . found on solid surfaces in flowing waters . mostly herbivorous , feed largely on algae , periphyton and phytoplankton , but also take insect larvae or zooplankton . in current , they hold onto fixed objects with their sucker - like mouth . for breathing , water is pumped into the gill cavity through a small spiracle and across the gills for gas exchange . large fish are sold in the markets , smaller ones are used to make prahoc ( ref . 12693 ) . aquarium keeping : needs plant feed ; adults territorial ; in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\noccur in medium to large - sized rivers and enters flooded fields ( ref . 12975 ) . found on solid surfaces in flowing waters . mostly herbivorous , feed largely on algae , periphyton and phytoplankton , but also take insect larvae or zooplankton . in current , they hold onto fixed objects with their sucker - like mouth . for breathing , water is pumped into the gill cavity through a small spiracle and across the gills for gas exchange . large fish are sold in the markets , smaller ones are used to make prahoc ( ref . 12693 ) . aquarium keeping : needs plant feed ; adults territorial ; in groups of 5 or more individuals ; minimum aquarium size 60 cm ( ref . 51539 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .\ncopyright \u00a9 1997 - 2011 marcos a . avila . all rights reserved . reproduction of any portion of this website ' s content is strictly forbidden without written permission .\nfirst off let me say that i ' ve searched the internet extensively for info on sae ' s , and i have to admit i am amazed at the conflicting information concerning this innocent little fish . as with everything on the internet , easily half the information posted is either inaccurate or outdated , so it is very possible that something i post is also incorrect . so this is sort of my disclaimer : to the best of my knowledge , what i ' m writing is as accurate as information as i can find .\n\u00a9 urltoken - providing tropical fish tank and aquarium information for freshwater fish and saltwater fish keepers . sitemap | aquarium fish sitemap | aquarium fish dictionary | privacy policy | contact us\njavascript is disabled on your browser . to view this site , you must enable javascript or upgrade to a javascript - capable browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nan unidentified species of striped crossocheilus feeding in the songgaria river , western thailand .\ncrossocheilus : from the ancient greek \u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u03cc\u03c2 ( kross\u00f3s ) , meaning \u2018fringe , tassel\u2019 , and \u03c7\u03b5\u03af\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 ( che\u00edlos ) , meaning \u2018lip\u2019 , in reference to the barbels on the upper lip in members of this genus .\nlangei : named in honour of e . a . lange , acting health officer and hospital inspector , dutch east indian army , who forwarded the type specimen to bleeker .\ncurrently considered to occur in borneo , peninsular malaysia , southern and western thailand , and possibly southern myanmar . the distribution of laterally - striped crossocheilus spp . , particularly in thailand , requires further study as some populations may represent undescribed species .\ninhabits flowing streams and tributaries with substrates of boulders , pebbles , gravel and sand , often in areas with submerged driftwood or tree roots . the clear , often shallow , water allows sunlight to penetrate the surface and the development of a rich biofilm covering submerged surfaces upon which the fish browse .\nit is thought to undergo seasonal migrations during which it can be found in deeper , more turbid water .\nthis species will do well in most well - maintained tanks but is best - suited to a set - up designed to resemble a flowing river or stream , with a substrate of variably - sized rocks , gravel and some large water - worn boulders .\nlike many fishes that naturally inhabit running waters it\u2019s intolerant to the accumulation of organic wastes and requires spotless water at all times in order to thrive . it also does best if there is a high level of dissolved oxygen and a decent level of water movement in the tank so a external filters , powerheads or similar should be employed in order to obtain the desired effect .\na good quality dried product ( s ) with added spirulina or similar is ideal but plenty of fresh vegetable matter should also be included in the diet . shelled peas , blanched courgette , spinach and chopped fruit all make good additions to the menu . once settled into the aquarium the fish sometimes ascend into midwater to feed and in a set - up as described above will often be seen browsing the biofilm that tends to form on the rockwork .\ngenerally peaceful and can be maintained alongside many of the more popular species in the hobby although it is perhaps preferable to select fishes from from one of its native countries or rivers . possibilities from thailand alone include botia rostrata and crossocheilus reticulatus plus various cyclocheilichthys , devario , mystacoleucus , rasbora , garra , homaloptera , lepidocephalichthys , nemacheilus , syncrossus , yasuhikotakia and schistura species .\ncrossocheilus spp . are typically found swimming in loose aggregations in nature and can exhibit shy or skittish behaviour if kept singly or in small numbers . they are shoaling , rather than schooling , fishes which develop a distinct pecking order and are best - maintained in a group of six or more since weaker individuals may be bullied incessantly if smaller numbers are kept . you\u2019ll be rewarded with a more natural - looking display plus interesting behaviour from the fish as they interact with one another .\nsexually mature females are normally thicker - bodied than males but it\u2019s impossible to accurately sex young fish by external characters .\nnot thought to have occured in the hobby although the young fish widely available in the trade are assumed to be farmed via the use of hormones . members of this genus are known to undergo seasonal reproductive migrations in nature , moving upstream during the dryer months and in the opposite direction when water levels rise .\nthe latter name is not valid , however , and is a synonym of epalzeorhynchos siamensis which is itself a synonym of crossocheilus oblongus , a species described from java . c . oblongus is currently accepted to range throughout indochina and the sunda islands but its identity is unclear although its name is routinely applied to fish in the aquarium trade . it was described as a blueish fish with yellow fins and is almost certainly not the \u2018sae\u2019 in the aquarium hobby .\nseparating the species found on sale as \u2018c . siamensis\u2019 is tricky but differences do exist if combinations of characters are considered . c . atrilimes is most - easily identified by observing the distance between the vent and anal fin which in this species is only 1 . 5 - 2 scale widths compared to 2 - 3 . 5 in other species .\nthe black lateral stripe runs from the snout to the tip of the caudal fin ; the eye is pale brown above the pupil and white below ; maxillary barbels are not visible ; the lateral line is curved ; the fins are a pale dusky yellow colour . depending on mood this species has the ability to change the appearance of the dark body stripe , most obviously during bouts of sparring when it becomes much broader and paler in colour .\nc . langei sensu amplo seems to be the other commonly - traded , laterally - striped crossocheilus and can be told apart from c . atrilimes by the following characters : the eye is reddish - golden above the pupil and white below ; it has two pairs of barbels ; the lateral line is essentially straight and passes through the centre of the dark body stripe ; the fins are brownish .\nthe third fish in the group is an undescribed species sometimes referred to as c . sp . \u2018citripinnis\u2019 . it\u2019s a larger fish growing to 150 mm sl and possessing a clearly visible pair of maxillary barbels . the fins are lemon yellow in colour , this becoming more intense as the fish mature ; the dark body atripe doesn\u2019t alter in width or colour when the fish are sparring ; the lateral line is curved and the overall body shape is similar to c . atrilmes meaning they\u2019re easily confused as juveniles . there may also be other , potentially undescribed , species from thailand being traded as c . siamensis but as yet no detailed study has been conducted .\nin 2009 tan and kottelata described a new laterally - striped species , c . obscurus , from the batang hari river drainage in sumatra . this species also grows relatively large ( to \u201cat least\u201d 5 . 6\u2033 / 14 . 2 cm ) and is further distinguished as follows : \u201cone pair of rostral barbels , no maxillary barbels ; midlateral stripe with edges not sharply contrasted , slightly curved downward , obscured in largest individuals , continued on median caudal - fin rays , reaching posterior margin ; no black mark between anus and anal fin ; mouth wide ( 30 - 36 % hl ) \u201d . it\u2019s possible that this one has already appeared in the trade labelled with a different name .\nc . oblongus is another name widely misused in the trade but that species has seemingly never been exported and was described as a blueish fish with yellow fins . it\u2019s native to streams of gunung salak mountain in bogor regency , west java , indonesia where collecting of ornamental fishes is almost non - existent . other species of laterally - striped crossocheilus also exist and may be available from time - to - time but are more easily told apart from the group described above .\nin c . nigriloba , for example , the dark body stripe uniquely breaks up into a series of blotches when the fish are sparring , stressed or sleeping and the lower caudal fin lobe contains dark pigmentation suffused with red , while c . burmicanus exhibits a patch of blue colouration at the base of the pectoral fins .\nto add further confusion the vaguely - similar garra cambodgiensis ( itself often referred to incorrectly as g . taeniata ) is usually sold with the name \u2018false sae\u2019 although this one is easily - identifiable as the dark lateral stripe ends at the caudal peduncle , all barbels are tiny and it has a disc - like lower jaw which sometimes develops bright red colouration on the outer lips .\nepalzeorhynchos kalopterus is sometimes misidentified as a crossocheilus sp . but exhibits several distinguishing traits , the most obvious of which are the characteristic white - edged , red and black coloured fins . also comparable are the paracrossochilus species from the island of borneo but these are almost unknown in aquaria .\nmembers of crossocheilus are characterised by possessing 8 branched dorsal fin rays , immobile rostral lobes , lacking a dorsal spine and by the fact that the upper and lower lips aren\u2019t connected , the upper being attached to the lower jaw via a thin membrane .\nbleeker , p . , 1860 - acta societatis regiae scientiarum indo - ne\u00earlandicae v . 7 ( n . s . , v . 2 ) : 1 - 492 + i - xiii de visschen van den indischen archipel , beschreven en toegelicht . deel ii .\nb\u0103n\u0103rescu , p . m . , 1986 - travaux du mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle 28 : 141 - 161 a review of the species of crossocheilus , epalzeorhynchos and paracrossochilus ( pisces , cyprinidae ) .\nkottelat , m . , 2003 - raffles bulletin of zoology 51 ( 2 ) : 399 - 401 nomenclatural status of crossocheilus burmanicus , c . horai and c . multirastellatus ( osteichthyes : cyprinidae ) .\nkottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibiography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .\nng , h . h . and h . - h . tan , 1999 - zoological studies 38 ( 3 ) : 350 - 366 the fishes of the endau drainage , peninsular malaysia with descriptions of two new species of catfishes ( teleostei : akysidae , bagridae ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 - fao , rome : 1 - 265 fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes .\nsu , r . - f . , j . - x . yang and y . - r . chen , 2000 - the raffles bulletin of zoology 48 ( 2 ) : 215 - 221 a review of the chinese species of crossocheilus , with description of a new species ( ostariophysi : cyprinidae ) .\ntan , h . h . and m . kottelat , 2009 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 20 ( 1 ) : 13 - 69 the fishes of the batang hari drainage , sumatra , with description of six new species .\narticle about \u201chormone free\u201d breeding in the current issue of the german amazon magazine # 47 pp . 64 \u2013 66 .\nthese two species are often confused . dr heok hee ng explains how to tell them apart .\nsince examination of structures of mouthparts is very difficult , if not impossible with live fishes , the only other way to tell them apart are slight differences to colour pattern .\nthe fins of the flying fox are generally yellowish , and orange for the caudal fin , with black highlights on the dorsal , pelvic and anal fins .\n\u00a9 1955 - 2016 bauer consumer media limited are authorised and regulated by the financial conduct authority ( firm reference no . 710067 ) media house , peterborough business park , peterborough , pe2 6ea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nthis is a hardy species that can adapt to a multitude of living conditions . it is , however , only prudent to provide you with what would be considered premium water parameters for this species .\nthese fish thrive in softer water with a neutral to slightly acid ph factor . a ph level anywhere in the range of 5 . 5 - 8 . 0 is considered ideal . they prefer water temperatures between\n75 - 79\u02daf . well circulated water with plenty of flow and a high oxygen content will simulate their natural habitat .\nthe males and females of this species look very similar in appearance . females tend to be a little more rounded than males . this species rarely breeds in home aquariums . their seems to be no information available as to whether or not these fish are commercially bred to supply the demand created from the fish hobby trade , which would tend to indicate that they are not .\n/ / > < ! - - sfhover = function ( ) { var sfels = document . getelementbyid (\nnav - main\n) . getelementsbytagname (\nli\n) ; for ( var i = 0 ; i < sfels . length ; i + + ) { sfels [ i ] . onmouseover = function ( ) { this . classname + =\nsfhover\n; } sfels [ i ] . onmouseout = function ( ) { this . classname = this . classname . replace ( new regexp (\nsfhover \\ \\ b\n) ,\n) ; } } } if ( window . attachevent ) window . attachevent (\nonload\n, sfhover ) ; / / - - > < !\ngreek , gyrinos = tadpole + greek , cheilos = lip ( ref . 45335 )\nfreshwater ; demersal ; ph range : 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 5 - 19 ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) . tropical ; 25\u00b0c - 28\u00b0c ( ref . 1672 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 28 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27732 )\nhas 9 branched dorsal rays ; 36 - 40 lateral line scales ; no dark spots on pelvic and anal fins ( ref . 27732 ) ; a small dark spot always present behind spiracle ; sometimes tiny tubercles on side of head and large tubercles confined to snout ( ref . 12693 ) .\nrainboth , w . j . , 1996 . fishes of the cambodian mekong . fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fao , rome , 265 p . ( ref . 12693 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 5 \u00b10 . 25 se ; based on food items .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 24 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nthe middle / lower mekong ( thailand , cambodia , lao pdr , viet nam ( e . g . , the mekong delta ( electricity viet nam 2010 ) and the\nand from the northern malay peninsula ( southern thailand , peninsular malaysia , and probably associated parts of the mekong drainage in myanmar ( mekong myanmar ( the mae kok , mae sai , and kengtung ) ) .\n28 . 0 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27732 ) )\nhas 9 branched dorsal rays ; 36 - 40 lateral line scales ; no dark spots on pelvic and anal fins ( ref . 27732 ) ; a small dark spot always present behind spiracle ; sometimes tiny tubercles on side of head and large tubercles confined to snout ( ref . 12693 ) .\ninhabits flowing streams and tributaries with substrates of boulders , pebbles , gravel and sand , often in areas with submerged driftwood or tree roots ( rainboth 1996 ) . it is thought to undergo seasonal migrations during which it can be found in deeper , more turbid water and is known to enter temporarily - inundated zones .\noccurs in medium to large - sized rivers and enters flooded fields ( taki 1978 ) . it is a good indicator of stream / river quality ( c . vidthayanon pers . comm . 2011 ) .\ndemersal ; potamodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; freshwater ; ph range : 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 ; dh range : 5 - 19\npotamodromous . migrating within streams , migratory in rivers , e . g . saliminus , moxostoma , labeo . migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 3 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nthe species has a wide distribution from southern china and southeast asia ( thailand , lao pdr , cambodia and viet nam ) .\npopulations have declined in some parts of its range ( e . g . , thailand ) as a result of over - exploitation . although considered threatened in china and viet nam , and perhaps naturally rare , it is assessed as least concern at present as it is not thought likely to have declined sufficiently across its range in order to qualify for a threatened category .\nit is naturally rare / uncommon in china and southern viet nam ( mekong delta areas ) , but is locally common in viet nam ' s mekong tributaries ( the se san and sre pok ) and the chao phraya - mae khlong basin and the tonle sap basin . populations in thailand have declined ; it was an important component of fish sauce (\nalthough the species may be impacted by dams , not enough is known about its migratory habits to predict the scale of impacts . populations have declined locally , especially in thailand , as a result of a range if factors , including over - exploitation .\nmore information on the species ecology , threats and distribution is required . listed as a protected animal in yunnan province in 1989 and considered endangered ( wang 1998 ) , and considered rare in viet nam ( huynh 1998 ) .\nit is of interest as a local food source and for the aquarium trade , being first imported into germany in 1956 .\nthe fish spends most of its time on flat surfaces , such as rocks , in flowing water , using its unusually formed inferior mouth to attach itself to rocks in stronger flows .\nthe fish are sold in local markets as a food source and small fish are used in preparation of prahok .\nhas been recorded as reaching at least 28 cm ( 11 . 02 in )\nand is the only species in the genus to have 9 branched dorsal rays and 36 - 40 lateral line scales .\nthe mouth is inferior with a special\nsucker\nmodification which allows the fish to attach itself to smooth surfaces . no barbels are present .\nwild type colour varies from pale grey to olive , with darker markings along the lateral line which vary from a solid stripe with alternating higher and lower extensions to uneven dots . the belly is usually paler than the base colour . some darker markings may also be observed along the back and on the caudal fin , but no dark markings occur on the pelvic and anal fins .\nand is sometimes misidentified as one of these species . it is available in a number of colour morphs , including wild type , gold , marble ,"]}
{"id": 2160, "summary": [{"text": "epichorista zatrophana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in new zealand .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11 \u2013 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are bright ochreous , spotted with whitish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the markings are deep reddish ochreous , somewhat mixed with blackish .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are dark fuscous . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "epichorista zatrophana", "paragraphs": ["epichorista zatrophana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family . it is found in new zealand .\n( harmologa zatrophana , meyr . , trans . n . z . inst . , 1882 , 46 . )\nzatrophana meyrick , 1883 ( harmologa ) , trans . new zealand inst . 15 : 46 . tl : new zealand , christchurch , mid canterbury . holotype : bmnh . male .\nhave a fact about epichorista prodigiosa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for epichorista prodigiosa ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nperversa meyrick , 1912 ( epichorista ) , exotic microlepid . 1 : 9 . tl : south africa , natal , camperdown . lectotype : bmnh . female .\nsicca meyrick , 1912 ( epichorista ) , exotic microlepid . 1 : 9 . tl : madagascar , madagascar ( antananarivo ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\ncarcharodes meyrick , 1914 ( epichorista ) , trans . new zealand inst . 46 : 104 . tl : new zealand . kaeo , northland . holotype : bmnh . male .\nlindsayi philpott , 1928 ( epichorista ) , rec . canterbury mus 3 : 181 . tl : new zealand , little river , mid canterbury . holotype : cmnz . male .\nabdita philpott , 1924 ( epichorista ) , trans . proc . new zealand inst 55 : 664 . tl : new zealand , mt . arthur . holotype : nzac . male .\nphaeocoma meyrick , 1914 ( epichorista ) , exotic microlepid . 1 : 195 . tl : malawi , nyasaland [ malawi ] ( mlanje plateau ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\ncandida clarke , 1926 ( epichorista ) , trans . new zealand inst . 56 : 419 . tl : new zealand . l . manapouri , fiordland . holotype : amnz . female .\nsamata diakonoff , 1941 ( epichorista ) , treubia 18 : 41 . tl : new guinea , north east new guinea ( huon gulf , simbang ) . holotype : mnhu . female .\ntheatralis philpott , 1918 ( epichorista ) , trans . proc . new zealand inst 50 : 128 . tl : new zealand . mt . cleugnearn , fiordland . holotype : nzac . female .\ntenebrosa philpott , 1917 ( epichorista ) , trans . proc . new zealand inst 49 : 243 . tl : new zealand , ben lomond , otago lakes . holotype : amnz . male .\naethocoma meyrick , 1923 ( epichorista ) , bull . mus . natn . hist . nat . 1923 : 563 . tl : angola , angola ( dongo ) . holotype : mnhn . male .\nmimica philpott , 1930 ( epichorista ) , rec . auckland inst . mus . 1 : 5 . tl : new zealand , mt . ida , central otago . holotype : amnz . male .\nbenevola meyrick , 1920 ( epichorista ) , voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientalei i microlepidoptera : 51 . tl : ? east africa , east africa ( landjoro ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\narmigera diakonoff , 1956 ( epichorista ) , proc . konin . neder . akad . weten . ( c ) 59 : 634 . tl : new guinea , british new guinea ( papua , mount tafa ) . holotype : bmnh . female .\nmesosceptra meyrick , 1920 ( epichorista ) , voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientalei i microlepidoptera : 53 . tl : kenya , east africa [ kenya ] ( mt . kenya ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\npassaleuta meyrick , 1920 ( epichorista ) , voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientalei i microlepidoptera : 53 . tl : kenya , east africa [ kenya ] ( mt . kinangop ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\nprodigiosa meyrick , 1920 ( epichorista ) , voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientalei i microlepidoptera : 52 . tl : kenya , east africa [ kenya ] ( mt . kenya ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\npsoropis meyrick , 1920 ( epichorista ) , voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientalei i microlepidoptera : 51 . tl : kenya , east africa [ kenya ] ( mt . kinangop ) . lectotype : mnhn . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 2 nd october , 1884 . ]\nin the transactions for 1882 . it contains nine additional species , of which eight are new , the ninth having been previously known from the hawaiian islands ; and also some corrections of classification .\ni propose to recast the definitions of the tortricid\u00e6 and grapholithid\u00e6 . thus : \u2014\ntortricid\u00e6 : lower median veins of hindwings almost always without basal pectination ; vein 2 of forewings rising before posterior third of lower margin of cell ; genital uncus of male developed .\ngrapholithid\u00e6 : lower median vein of hindwings pectinated with hairs towards base ; vein 2 of forewings rising before posterior third of lower margin of cell ; genital uncus of male not developed .\ni am indebted to professor fernald , well known as a special authority on this group , for the information on which this change is founded . he states that the genital uncus never occurs in the grapholithid\u00e6 , and considers that such genera as ctenopseustis , hereafter described , should be therefore referred to the tortricid\u00e6 ; which amounts to saying that the possession of the uncus is a more valuable systematic character than the possession of the basal pectination . as professor fernald has devoted much labour to the investigation of material from all parts of the world , there is little doubt that he is correct , and i have adopted his suggestion . i have not yet found leisure to examine the genitalia of all the tortricina of this region , but i have investigated a few species , which appear to confirm his views ; and in the case of the pyralidina i have found the same character valuable for family separation . the genital uncus ( when present ) is a hard cylindrical , more or less downwards - hooked , process from the apex of the abdomen , in the male , and in some groups of lepidoptera assumes complex forms .\nthe occurrence of the hawaiian chiloides straminea is interesting , and may be compared with the presence of the genus heterocrossa in both regions . probably they extend over the intervening space , but i have not at present any evidence of this . the other additional species are all of genera already recorded from new zealand , and mostly interesting as representatives of the old indigenous fauna . it seems probable that proselena , harmologa , and heterocrossa will be found to be richer in species than i had previously anticipated . i think that cac\u00e6cia alopecana is also peculiarly\ninteresting in another way , from its bearing on general theories of development , since it is my opinion that although now justifiably to be regarded as a species , it has reached this stage only within extremely recent times ; i think it would be interesting to experiment on the larv\u00e6 of this species with different food - plants , and conversely to try the effect of feeding c . excessana on phyllocladus .\nthorax smooth . antenn\u00e6 in male serrate , with whorls of moderate cilia . palpi long , straight , porrected , triangularly scaled . forewings with costa in male simple . hindwings broader than forewings . forewings with 12 veins , 7 and 8 separate , 7 to hindmargin , secondary cell well - defined . hindwings with 8 veins , 3 and 4 remote at base , 4 and 5 almost from a point , 6 and 7 approximated towards base .\nallied to bactra , stph . ( aphelia , stph . ) , but differing in the separation of veins 3 and 4 of the hindwings , and the longer palpi ; only the species here given is known .\n( chiloides straminea , butl . , ann . mag . nat . hist . , 1881 , 393 . )\nmedia , alis ant . ochreis , venis omnibus lineisque inter venas punctatis , puncto etiam disci postico nigrescentibus ; post . griseis .\nmale , female . \u201417\u201324 mm . head , palpi , antenn\u00e6 , and thorax pale ochreous . abdomen whitish . legs pale ochreous , posterior pair ochreous - whitish . forewings elongate , oblong , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin slightly sinuate , rather strongly oblique ; light ochreous ; all veins marked with fine fuscous or blackish lines ; intervenal spaces also marked each with a fine incomplete , often interrupted or dotted , fuscous or blackish line ; a larger dark fuscous dot in disc beyond middle ; inner margin dotted with black : cilia pale ochreous . hindwings grey , towards base lighter ; cilia white , with a grey line .\nrecalls some forms of bactra lanceolana , hb . , from which it is easiest separated by the structural characters .\nhamilton , taranaki , wanganui , and otaki ; common amongst rushes ( juncus ) in swampy ground , from january to march . also occurs in the hawaiian islands , from which it was originally described ; i have seen butler ' s type , and there is no doubt whatever of its identity ; probably therefore it will be found to range through all the pacific islands .\nthis generic name should be substituted for aphelia , stph . , of which lanceolana , hb . , is the representative in new zealand . i make this change on the authority of professor fernald , who has specially investigated the point , and is doubtless correct .\nmedia , alis ant . ochreo - rufis , area basali externe non angulata , fascia media perobliqua latiore recta , strigulaque subapicali saturatioribus , ciliis purpureo - fuscis ; post . flavido - albis , apice flavidiore .\nfemale . \u201420 mm . head , palpi , and thorax purplish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 ochreous - whitish . abdomen and legs yellow - whitish , anterior and middle pair suffused with reddish - fuscous . forewings broad , oblong , costa anteriorly very strongly arched , apex round - pointed , produced , hindmargin strongly sinuate , hardly oblique ; purplish - ochreous , obscurely strigulated with greyish - purple ; a slightly darker purplish basal patch , its outer edge extending from \u2155 of costa to \u2156 of inner margin , not angulated ; central fascia straight , broad throughout , greyish purple , suffused with bright reddish - ochreous on upper half posteriorly , running from middle of costa to anal angle ; a more distinct strigula from \u00be of costa to hindmargin below middle : cilia rather dark fuscous purplish . hindwings yellow - whitish , towards apex more yellowish , somewhat spotted with pale grey towards inner margin ; cilia yellow - whitish .\na handsome species , readily known by the different form of wing , straight outline of basal patch , and broad central fascia ; the costa is very much more strongly arched anteriorly than in any other species . although the male is not known to me , i have no doubt of the generic position .\nmagna , alis ant . albido - ochreis , linea disci breviore obscura , punctisque plerisque posticis sparsis nigris ; post . albidis .\nmale . \u201427 mm . head , palpi , and antenn\u00e6 whitish - ochreous , palpi externally fuscous - tinged . thorax pale yellowish - ochreous . abdomen and legs whitish - ochreous , anterior and middle pair infuscated . forewings elongate - triangular , costa slightly arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin hardly perceptibly sinuate , oblique ; whitish - ochreous ; a cloudy central streak from base to beyond middle more yellowish - ochreous , containing several small dots of black scales , and an ill - defined longitudinal blackish line in disc , extending from \u2153 \u2154 ; some fine scattered black dots towards hindmargin : cilia pale whitish - ochreous . hindwings and cilia whitish .\nsingularly distinct by its comparatively gigantic size , pale colouring , and blackish discal line .\narthur ' s pass , in january ; one specimen on the grassy mountain - side at 4 , 700 feet .\nparva , alis ant . fusco - ochreis , innotatis ; post . saturate griseis .\nmale . \u201412\u201314 mm . head , palpi , and thorax brownish - ochreous . antenn\u00e6 dark fuscous . abdomen dark grey . legs whitish - ochreous . forewings elongate - oblong , costa moderately arched , apex round - pointed , hindmargin straight , oblique ; uniform brownish - ochreous : cilia light brownish - ochreous . hindwings dark grey , posteriorly still darker ; cilia pale grey or whitish , with a grey line .\nclosely allied to p . siriana , meyr . , but lighter , more ochreous , and recognizable by the absence of any discal dot in the forewings , and the paler cilia of the hindwings .\ncastle hill ( 2 , 500 feet ) , and invercargill , frequenting swampy ground ; taken commonly in december and january .\nhaving obtained what i believe to be undoubtedly the male of this species , i find that there is no costal fold , and the species is therefore referable to proselena . as the male is distinctly marked , and these markings were lost in the dark suffusion of the female , i give a diagnosis and description of the former .\nparva , alis ant . l\u00e6te ochreis , albido - maculosis , fascia antica angusta obliqua , altera media latiore perobliqua cum tertia postica erecta sub medio confluentibus , hac lineas duas plumbeas metallicas includente , rufo - ochreis , nigro - mixtis ; post . saturate fuscis .\ncommon in arthur ' s pass from 2 , 600 to 3 , 000 feet , flying freely over thick herbage in january .\nlarva 16 - legged , rather stout , cylindrical , somewhat tapering at both ends ; dull grey ; dorsal slender , dark grey ; subdorsal indistinctly darker than ground - colour ; spots small , pale , dark - centred ; head and second segment dark fuscous . feeds on discaria toumatou , forming a shelter of\nvery dense web , and loose silken galleries , along the branches , i found these larv\u00e6 at the beginning of february , near castle hill ; from their habit i was led to expect one of the pyralidina . they are doubtless not confined to this food - plant .\nmedia , alis ant . albis , area basali bis secta externe perobliqua , fascia media cum macula cost\u00e6 postica tripunctata per dentem fere connexa , altera etiam e margine postico in angulum analem percurrente flavido - fuscis , nigro - mixtis ; post , albis , apice griseo - suffuso .\na very distinct species , but evidently allied to h . \u00e6nea and h . sir\u00e6a .\narthur ' s pass , at 4 , 700 feet , in january ; one specimen .\nmedia , alis ant . \u2642 ochreis , costa late ochreo - rufa , \u2640 dilute stramineis ; post . \u2642 griseis , apicem versus saturatioribus , \u2640 albis .\nmale . \u201421 mm . head , palpi , and thorax brownish - ochreous mixed with grey ; thorax hairy beneath . antenn\u00e6 stout , dark fuscous . abdomen grey - whitish . legs whitish - ochreous . forewings moderate , oblong , costal fold very short , costa moderately arched towards base , thence straight , apex obtusely rounded , hindmargin rounded , not oblique ; yellow - ochreous , becoming deeper towards inner margin ; a broad reddish - ochreous - brown streak along costa from base to apex , becoming deep ashy - grey towards costa ,\npointed at apex ; extreme costal edge whitish : cilia pale grey , tips whitish . hindwings grey , becoming dark grey posteriorly , costa suffusedly yellow - whitish ; cilia yellow - whitish , with an indistinct greyish line .\nfemale . \u201422\u201323 mm . head , palpi , and thorax yellowish - white . antenn\u00e6 whitish . abdomen and legs white , anterior and middle pair light ochreous . forewings as in male , but hindmargin straighter ; whitish - yellowish , interspersed with pale - greyish ; costa suffusedly white : cilia white , base whitish - yellowish . hindwings white , towards inner margin faintly suffused with very pale greyish ; cilia white .\nallied to h . \u00e6nea , but smaller , and distinguished in both sexes by the absence of yellow in the hindwings ; in the male also by the conspicuous dark costal stripe ; in the female by the pale yellowish forewings .\narthur ' s pass ; four specimens ( 1 male , 3 females ) taken in a grassy place at about 4 , 500 feet , in january .\nthorax smooth . antenn\u00e6 in male shortly ciliated . palpi moderate , porrected , second joint roughly scaled . forewings in male with strong costal fold . hindwings broader than forewings , lower median vein with strong basal pecten . forewings with 12 veins , 7 and 8 separate , 7 to hindmargin . hindwings with 8 veins , 3 and 4 from a point , 5 approximated to 4 at base , 6 and 7 from a point . abdomen in male with genital uncus well developed .\nprofessor fernald assures me that the genital uncus of the male ( the value of which as a divisional character he has been the first to discover in this group ) is never developed in the grapholithid\u00e6 , and that this species ( of which i sent him specimens ) should therefore be included in the tortricid\u00e6 , notwithstanding the pectination of the lower median vein , this latter structure being indeed also found in \u0153nectra , which is certainly referable to the tortricid\u00e6 . in this view i quite concur , and therefore place the species here , which involves the formation of a new genus for its reception as above , since it differs from \u0153nectra by the costal fold and separations of veins 7 and 8 of the forewings , and from the rest of the family by the basal pecten of the hindwings .\nfound to be very variable . moreover the development of the genital uncus proves that the genus must be transferred with the preceding to the tortricid\u00e6 ; it differs from \u0153nectra by the costal fold , from ctenopseustis by the stalking of veins 7 and 8 of the forewings , from both by the triple thoracic crest . the combination of characters in this genus is very interesting .\nthorax with a large erect crest on each side of back , and a small double crest behind . antenn\u00e6 in male shortly ciliated . palpi moderate , straight , porrected , second joint with appressed scales . forewings in male with strong costal fold . hindwings broader than forewings , lower median vein with strong basal pecten . forewings with 12 veins , 7 and 8 stalked , 7 to near below apex . hindwings with 8 veins , 3 and 4 separate , 3 , 4 , and 5 more or less closely approximated at base , 6 and 7 stalked . abdomen in male with genital uncus well developed .\nmale , female . \u201419\u201326 mm . forewings in male with apex less produced , hindmargin more perpendicular ; very variable ; markings always of same form but differing much in intensity , sometimes mixed with ochreous - greenish , or partially blackish ; in both males the markings are suffused with blackish towards costa ; in one female the whole dorsal half of wing beneath a straight line from middle of base to apex suffused with blackish , costal half unusually light . hindwings in male pale grey ; in female often more or less ochreous posteriorly .\nseven specimens ( 2 males , 5 females ) , taken at palmerston and taranaki , amongst forest ; in march .\nminor , alis ant . ochreo - rufis , area basali , fascia media obliqua inferius dilatata , maculaque cost\u00e6 postica interdum saturatioribus , s\u00e6pius obsoletis ; post . albidis , griseo - maculosis , apice rufescente ; antennarum ciliis longis .\ncilia reddish - ochreous - brown , becoming whitish - ochreous at tips , on anal angle dark grey . hindwings whitish , spotted with grey except posteriorly , apex reddish ; cilia whitish , with an obscure grey basal line .\ni am compelled to separate this species from c . excessana on account of the structural difference in the antenn\u00e6 of the male ; otherwise i should certainly have regarded it as a mere variety . it is constantly much smaller than the average of that species , but c . excessana is occasionally quite as small ; it is also much redder , and the hindwings are more clearly whitish , but these points are quite indefinable , and would not be sufficient for demarcation ; moreover i conceive that the diminished size and the reddish colouring of both larva and imago are the direct effect of the peculiar foodplant . but the antenn\u00e6 of the male are in c . excessana tolerably filiform , the joints hardly dilated , the ciliations not longer than the width of the joints ; whilst in c . alopecana they are conspicuously serrate , the joints almost triangular , and the ciliations much longer , fully twice the greatest width of the joints . these differences are quite constant , and must be regarded as sufficient .\nlarva 16 - legged , moderate , cylindrical , somewhat - tapering at both ends ; variable , yellowish to ochreous - fuscous ; segmental incisions and sometimes sides ochreous - carmine ; spots large , pale , in some lights whitish ; head and second segment ochreous - fuscous . feeds in spun shoots and between joined leaves of phyllocladus alpinus ( conifer\u00e6 ) , in january . pupa in the same position .\ni took two specimens in the forests on the bealey river ( 2 , 100 feet ) in january , and at the same time found larv\u00e6 feeding , from which i bred three more specimens in february .\nthis form of the name , which is orthographically the more correct , should be substituted for conchylid\u00e6 .\nthe pectination of the lower median vein of the hindwings in this genus is , so far as i can ascertain , confined to the female ; the male does not possess any trace of it . i had originally supposed that this was due to denudation in the case of the two or three male specimens which i possessed , but having since acquired more material , i find it to be the normal structure . i think however that the point is not less valuable for generic separation ; in the female of paramorpha , which is the nearest allied genus , this well - developed pecten does not exist .\nminor , alis ant . albis , griseo - irroratis , strigula e basi sub costa breviore , squamis paucis sparsis , interdum etiam striga disci media nigris ; post . griseo - albidis .\ncharacterized by the short black subcostal streak . the arrangement of the surface tufts of scales appears to be the same in all the species .\nminor , alis ant . dilutissime griseis , partim albo - conspersis , macula cost\u00e6 basali nigra , maculis cost\u00e6 sex parvis , aliisque disci plerisque obscuris fuscis ; post . griseo - albidis .\notira river ; one specimen amongst forest at 1 , 600 feet , in january .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nallogama meyrick , 1914 ( harmologa ) , trans . new zealand inst . 46 : 105 . tl : new zealand , wellington . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ncrypsidora meyrick , 1909 ( dipterina ) , trans . new zealand inst . 41 : 11 . tl : new zealand , invercargill , southland . holotype : bmnh . male .\nelephantina meyrick , 1885 ( proselena ) , trans . new zealand inst . 17 : 143 . tl : new zealand , arthur ' s pass , north canterbury . holotype : bmnh . male .\nemphanes meyrick , 1902 ( proselena ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1901 : 571 . tl : new zealand , mt . peel , nelson . holotype : bmnh . female .\nachrosta meyrick , 1902 ( harmologa ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1901 : 572 . tl : new zealand . mt . arthur , nelson . holotype : bmnh . male .\nepicura meyrick , 1911 ( harmologa ) , trans . new zealand inst . 43 : 86 . tl : new zealand . castle hill , mid canterbury . holotype : bmnh . male .\neribola meyrick , 1889 ( proselena ) , trans . new zealand inst . 21 : 156 . tl : new zealand , otira r . , westland . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nfraudulenta philpott , 1928 ( eurythecta ) , trans . proc . new zealand inst 58 : 363 . tl : new zealand , mt . arthur , nelson . holotype : nzac . male .\nhemionana meyrick , 1883 ( proselena ) , trans . new zealand inst . 15 : 43 . tl : new zealand , l . guyon , marlborough buller . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nsiriana meyrick , 1881 ( tortrix ) , proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 6 : 521 . tl : new zealand , hamilton , waikata . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nhave a fact about epichloe ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for epichloe ? write it here to share it with the entire community ."]}
{"id": 2162, "summary": [{"text": "the colorado river toad ( incilius alvarius ) , also known as the sonoran desert toad , is a psychoactive toad found in northern mexico and the southwestern united states .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "its toxin , as an exudate of glands within the skin , contains 5-meo-dmt and bufotenin . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "colorado river toad", "paragraphs": ["a large colorado river toad awaits her next meal beneath a refrigerator unit outside an arizona store .\nenter\nbufo alvarius\nor\nthe sonoran desert toad\n, also sometimes called\nthe colorado river toad\n.\nthe colorado river toad is a nocturnal toad in the family bufonidae . common names for this species are the colorado river toad and the sonoran desert toad . the first described specimen was a female collected in fort yuma , imperial county , california , in 1855 .\nre : new colorado river toads . . . . ( 20 ! ! ! )\nnew colorado river toads . . . . ( 20 ! ! ! ) - page 2\nthe colorado river toad is the largest native toad in the united states . it is also poisonous and should not be handled , especially by children .\nconduct research necessary to determine the feasibility for successfully establishing the colorado river toad in unoccupied habitat . if feasible , implement a pilot introduction into unoccupied habitat , and monitor the success of methods and establishment of the colorado river toad in unoccupied habitat .\nbaby colorado river toads are born as tadpoles , but grow quickly into toadlets after about one month .\nthe historical range of the colorado river toad in california extended along the floodplain of the lower colorado river ( lcr ) and in the southern imperial valley . historically , it was documented on the lcr from fort yuma to the blythe - ehrenberg region . the range likely extended along the lcr to extreme southern nevada , near fort mohave . the lower colorado river multi - species conservation program ( lcr mscp ) planning area is on the western edge of the historical range of the colorado river toad .\nthe colorado river toad is not federally listed . it is listed as threatened in new mexico . natureserve ranks the colorado river toad as secure on a national and global level . additionally , it is ranked as secure in arizona , imperiled in new mexico , and possibly locally extinct in california .\nclay county sheriff ' s deputies said david theiss , of kansas city , possessed a colorado river toad with the intention of using it as a hallucinogenic .\nhabitat loss and alteration in the lcr region likely have had an impact on colorado river toad populations . extensive use of pesticides after world war ii may have had an effect on this species . nonnative species to the lcr that have an effect on many native species , such as the american bullfrog and the spiny softshell turtle , may also affect colorado river toad populations along the lcr . illegal collection of the colorado river toad for use in the drug trade is also a threat to this species .\ntoad smoking ,\nwhich is a substitute for\ntoad licking ,\nis done by extracting venom from the sonoran desert toad of the colorado river . the toad ' s venom \u2014 which is secreted when the toad gets angry or scared \u2014 contains a hallucinogen called bufotenine that can be dried and smoked to produce a buzz .\ncolorado river toad adults are active foragers and feed on invertebrates , lizards , small mammals , and amphibians . colorado river toads have been known to eat beetles , wasps , ants , bees , termites , sun spiders , true bugs , butterflies and moths , spiders , mites , scorpions , grasshoppers , locusts , crickets , millipedes , and centipedes . tadpoles eat algae and aquatic insects . the colorado river toad is able to eat prey that is protected by sting mechanisms or defensive secretions .\nthe poisons of the colorado river toad ( b . alvarius ) and the giant toad ( b . marinus , also called the cane toad ) affect animals as large as dogs , in some instances causing temporary paralysis or even death . the chinese have long used dried toad poison to treat various ailments . contrary to\u2026\npredators include raccoons , possibly birds , other mammals , and reptiles . it has been observed that the defensive posture and skin toxins of the colorado river toad protects it from the striped skunk . it is likely that adult colorado river toads are safe from most predators due to the toxicity of their secretions and their large size .\nthe habitat conservation plan provides conservation measures specific to each species . listed below are the species specific conservation measures for the colorado river toad . click on the arrows to expand the table .\nbased on results of research conducted under conservation measures crto1 and within funding constraints of the lcr mscp , protect existing unprotected occupied colorado river toad habitat that is located through the research program .\nthese are highly endangered are they not ? i might be thinking of another toad species . i ' m from colorado\ntoad - smoking gains on toad - licking - b . alvarius in the wall street journal\ndeep toad - a movie filmed in arizona probes the wild world of toad - licking .\nand the colorado river toad is a protected species . possession of one can get you prison time if you ' re not an animal / reptile rehab person , or otherwise licensed . . .\nadult colorado river toads are carnivorous , meaning they eat other animals . they will eat most anything small enough to fit into their mouths including spiders ,\nbreeding habitat includes seasonal and permanent pools . preferred colorado river toad habitat is described as damp areas near permanent springs or manmade watering holes . they are also known to utilize artificial water bodies , such as canals , flood control impoundments , stock tanks , water irrigation ditches , and reservoirs . agricultural drains , dam seepages , irrigation canals , and backwaters along the lower colorado river are described as\nmarginal habitat\nfor this species . habitat for the colorado river toad when dormant or hiding places during active period includes rodent burrows , rocky outcroppings , or in hollows under watering troughs .\n2 . historical versus current abundance . both king ( 1932 ) and cole ( 1962 ) reported colorado river toads as common near tucson , arizona , and west to the colorado river . stebbins ( 1985 ) indicated these toads are widespread throughout the desert . today , while colorado river toads seem to be abundant at many desert localities in arizona , they appear to have declined in new mexico ( degenhardt et al . , 1996 ) and california ( jennings and hayes , 1994a ) .\nthe colorado river toad , also known as the sonoran desert toad , found in arizona , is toxic to dogs when they lick or swallow it . your pet may also suffer if a toad sits in the dog ' s drinking water for a long enough period . the poison in the toad ' s skin may produce effects ranging from severe discomfort to paralysis and death .\n4 . conservation . colorado river toads are listed as endangered by the new mexico department of fish and game ( degenhardt et al . , 1996 ) . jennings and hayes ( 1994a ) commented on the status of colorado river toads and noted that they appear to be extirpated from most or all sites in california and\n\u2026 some investigators have suggested that colorado river toads are imperiled throughout much of [ their ] range \u2026\nin southern arizona , these toads seem to be abundant at many desert localities .\nthe colorado river toad is currently restricted to the sonoran desert in lowland and riparian areas of southern arizona and adjacent corners of southeastern california , southwestern new mexico , and northeastern baja california , through most of sonora , and to seven miles west of guamuchil , sinoloa mexico . this species is found at elevations ranging from above sea level to 1 mile ( 1600 m ) . the colorado river toad is common throughout its range in arizona but has declined in california and new mexico .\nthe colorado river toad is a mainly terrestrial toad that occurs primarily in desert habitat , including mesquite / creosote lowlands , but also inhabits arid grasslands , oak - woodland habitat , riparian areas , and pine - oak - juniper forest . this species is found at elevations ranging from above sea level to 1 mile ( 1610 m ) . the colorado river toad has been observed in pine - oak woodlands , characterized by high densities of chihuahua pine , mexican pinyon , alligator bark juniper , and various oaks , and a native grassland in chihuahuan desert scrub . this species has also been observed associated with agave , ephedra , prosopis , slasola , yucca , gutierrezia , and grasses . the colorado river toad may have also expanded its range to agricultural areas when large - scale conversion of native habitat to agriculture took place .\ndevelop and implement a multiyear integrated research program to determine the range , status , habitat requirements , population biology , factors that currently limit colorado river toad abundance and distribution , and factors that have contributed to the decline of the species in the lcr mscp planning area .\nhill , willie james . 1961 . the developmental pattern of the colorado river toad ( bufo alvarius girard ) from stage one through twenty . thesis : ( m . s . ) - - arizona state university , 1961 - - biology . - ( 35 pages )\nwright ( 1966 ) reported a raccoon slitting the bellies of colorado river toads , avoiding the glandular skin and eating the entrails ; other predators may not have learned this means of feeding on these toads . musgrave and cochran ( 1930 ) report that colorado river toads will\ninflate to a remarkable degree and remain in this condition for some time\nwhen disturbed ( see photo in hanson and vial , 1956 ) .\ncolorado river toads , also called the sonora desert toad , have relatively smooth skin outside of the warts on their back legs . discover facts about colorado river toads with information from a published biologist in this free video on toads and amphibians . expert : dr . alan richmond bio : dr . alan richmond is the lecturer and curator of biology at the university of massachusetts . he is a well - published biologist and has a special interest in reptiles and amphibians . filmmaker : demand media\npretty soon the dept . of animal control will be working with peta in an informant style bust tactic to raid the homes where toad venom is being\nmanufactured\nand sold . most of these homes will be right near the colorado river where the toads are indigenous . = )\nthe colorado river toad breeds from may through august in ponds , slow - moving streams , temporary pools , or man made structures that hold water . in arizona , it usually breeds in temporary pools formed by monsoon rains . breeding and chorusing activity usually occurred one to three nights following rainfall events . however , it has also been found that while breeding activity is stimulated by rainfall , it is not necessary for reproductive activity . the persistence of the colorado river toad over a 6 - year time period has been observed in the absence of successful breeding through many seasons .\n[ via myth - busting cane toads in australia , toad - skin secretions , toad envenoming in dogs , tripping over psychoactive toads . ]\nf . home range size . dan beck ( unpublished data ) radio - tracked an adult colorado river toad for a period of 390 d in the tucson mountains , pima county , arizona . during that time activity centered around the release site , although movements of > 400 m were noted in a single day .\nclutch size is between 7 , 500 and 8 , 000 eggs per female . eggs are deposited in shallow water in pools . when compared to other frogs and toads , the colorado river toad develops from zygote to hatchling at a remarkably fast rate , taking less than 30 days for an egg to develop into a froglet .\nonly in rare instances do frogs cause any significant damage . some species ( toads , for example ) produce skin secretions that are toxic if ingested . this does not normally present a problem for people , and pets usually learn to avoid such frogs . a few species ( giant toad , colorado river toad ) produce especially copious or toxic secretions , and there have been cases in which dogs have died after biting them .\nr . parasites . goldberg and bursey ( 1991a ) reported four nematodes from the gastrointestinal tract of the colorado river toad ( aplectana itzocamensis , physaloptera sp . , physocephalus sp . , and oswaldocruzia pipiens ) . they also found one species of cestode ( nematotaenia dispar ) as well as a species of nematode from the lungs ( rhabdias americanus ) .\nsuper sale : colorado river toads ( adults ) 199 . 99 \u2022 red sliders turtles 4 . 99 \u2022 bearded dragon\u0092s 49 . 99 \u2022 ball pythons ( babies ) 29 . 99 \u2022 savannah monitors ( c . b . babies ) 19 . 99 \u2022 customer reviews / testimonials\nhumans will do pretty much anything . as evidence of this truth , look at toad sucking . this is not a metaphor . toad sucking is a real activity , not an urban myth . it is exactly described . you pick up a toad , insert part of it into your mouth , and suck . but it\u2019s not just any toad that gets sucked , and the toad sucking has a surprising payoff . there\u2019s no clear history of when this practice took off . but one thing is for certain\u2014toad sucking can be serious business .\nn . feeding behavior . colorado river toads are active foragers . prey includes beetles , grasshoppers , wasps , centipedes , millipedes , ants , termites , solpugids , spiders , snails , scorpions , great plains toads , couch ' s spadefoot toads , small lizards , and mice ( king , 1932 ; arnold , 1943 ; gates , 1957 ; cole , 1962 ; degenhardt et al . , 1996 ) . colorado river toads will eat almost any prey they can subdue and ingest , including those with defensive stinging capabilities ( cole , 1962 ; degenhardt et al . , 1996 ) .\n.\nthe toad involved is the sonoran desert toad , also called the colorado river toad , and carries the binomial bufo alvarius . it is not the closely related marine toad bufo marinus , as some people have insisted , prompted by the early olmec and mayan iconography . of course the licking myth is newspaper hype - - it is the venom that is active , and it is smoked . when the desert toad is stroked near the parotid glands in the neck region , there is the squirting out of this venom and when it is allowed to dry on a hard surface it takes on the texture of rubber cement . it contains up to 15 % 5 - meo - dmt , as well as n - methyl - 5 - methoxytryptamine ,\nfine art illustration of a colorado river or sonoran desert toad . the print is hand - signed by the artist and is guaranteed to arrive in perfect condition . the reproduction of this original pen and ink drawing is done on high quality acid - free archival paper . call 1 800 - 913 - 7906 for more information or to order by phone . click here for shipping info .\ncolorado river toads are impressive amphibians , the largest toads in the sonoran desert , with an equally impressive diet of insects , including the large palo verde wood borer beetles . each summer we are regularly visited inside our home by some of these toads . one in particular visited us for five consecutive years .\n~ albert most , bufo alvarius : the psychedelic toad of the sonoran desert . ( 1984 )\na 21 - year - old man has been accused of using a toad to get high .\nthe colorado river toad was completed on 3 . 18 . 2012 . the last toad i drew was supposed to be the last one for some time . but as i ' ve started putting together collections of animals for my cafepress store ( here ' s an example ) i needed a desert dwelling amphibian - and the sonoran desert toad fit perfectly , and was a lot of fun to draw to boot . i don ' t plan to draw any more toads in the near future , but if you have a suggestion please send me an email . the drawing is based on a photo by alice abela .\nin 1983 , albert most , the founder of the church of the toad of light ( yes that was a real thing ) was a big proponent of the recreational use of the sonoran desert toad ' s poison , and even wrote a booklet titled ;\nthe psychedelic toad of the sonoran desert\n. the booklet explained in great detail how to extract and smoke the toad ' s secretions .\nhe said some internet sites feature an instructional video on how to extract the toad ' s venom .\npresumed hybrids with woodhouse ' s toad have been found in central arizona . ( stebbins , 2003 )\ntake your dog to a veterinarian if there are unusual symptoms or the dog has eaten the toad .\nthe last verified record from california was in 1955 , from 7 km north of winterhaven , but there have been reports of records from near the arizona side of the colorado river : near the cibola national wildlife refuge ; on the parker strip in la paz county , arizona ; above the confluence of the gila and colorado rivers in yuma county , arizona ; and along the bill williams river , mohave county , arizona . ( thomson , wright , & shaffer , 2016 ) formerly found in extreme southeast california along the lower colorado river and in irrigated lowlands of the southern imperial valley . it is not known whether toads naturally occured in the imperial valley or if they expanded their range there after the development of agricultural irrigation . ( stebbins , 1951 - thomson , wright , & shaffer , 2016 ) outside of california , the species is found in southern arizona , extreme southwest new mexico , and in sonora and northwest sinaloa , mexico , and extreme northern baja california .\nh . aestivation / avoiding dessication . degenhardt et al . ( 1996 ) suggest that large size and smooth skin may predispose colorado river toads to desiccation , but there is no experimental evidence for this . indeed , larger size also means lower surface to volume ratio , thus relatively lower expectation of evaporation . there is no direct evidence for aestivation by the species , and it is not likely that they utilize any form of torpor to any greater extent than other species of bufo . dan beck ( unpublished data ) radio - tracked an adult colorado river toad that remained in the same burrow under a railroad tie from 26 september 1988\u201317 june 1989 . body temperature during that time ranged from 11 . 7 \u02dac\u201329 . 7 \u02dac . it is possible that during part of that period below the surface the toad may have been in a state of torpor or aestivation .\n4k big sonoran desert toad , catching pet reptiles & amphibians in az , ca , nm herping hd .\nexperts said it ' s possible to lick the toad ' s venom glands to achieve psychedelic effects . [\n4 . if your toad turns into a prince , stop licking it . you ' ve had enough .\ne . adult habitat . colorado river toads occur primarily in deserts , including mesquite - creosote bush lowlands , but are also found in arid grasslands , rocky riparian zones with sycamore and cottonwoods , and oak - walnut woodlands in mountain canyons ( schmidt , 1953 ; fouquette , 1970 ; stebbins , 1985 ; holycross et al . , 1999 ) .\nthe wart - covered quartet of colorado river toads , or bufo alvarius , began stealing the limelight from their larger , greener cousins on jan . 3 , when the police accused bob shepard , a 41 - year - old teacher at a local nature center , of possession of bufotenine , an illegal hallucinogenic chemical found in the venom of these toads .\nanonymous is correct . the venom has to be scraped off after the toad has been angered or made scared .\nin 1983 , albert most , the founder of the church of the toad of light [ . . . ]\nthe colorado river toad ( bufo = incilius alvarius ) is a large mainly terrestrial toad ranging in length from 4 . 3 to 7 . 4 inches ( 110 to 187 mm ) . it has leathery skin that ranges in color from olive brown to black with a few , low rounded bumps and enlarged glands on the back of the limbs . females contain reddish - colored warts in straight lines on the back . tadpoles of this species have a brassy coloration , rounded tail , flattened body , and can reach a size of 2 . 2 inches ( 57 mm ) total length .\nthe toad lives primarily in the sonoran desert of the united states and northern mexico . it is protected in california and new mexico but not threatened in the state of arizona . it is the largest native toad in north american measuring between 6 - 8 inches in length and the second largest among all toads only to the non - native cain toad .\nthe colorado river toad is a rewarding species to work with . individuals are very aware and seem almost to recognize their keepers . they are eating machines and individuals should be monitored closely as they tend to become very fat , very quickly . reducing the amount of food per feeding will help . be sure to know your local laws regarding this species . you may be able to avoid some serious persecution by the law with just a simple phone call . do the right thing and be responsible .\nit is illegal to have the poison from the toad , called bufotenin , in your possession in the state of california .\nsince that time there have been numerous deaths reported of people trying to get high from licking toads . most often from the non - native cain toad who ' s poison is significantly more toxic to humans than the sonoran desert toad ' s .\ni . breeding migrations . during dry , pre - monsoon periods , colorado river toads seek shelter , often in rodent burrows . with the onset of summer monsoon rains , adults move overland to breeding sites . the extent of these overland migrations has not been investigated . breeding usually occurs on one night , 2 or 3 d following a major rainfall event ( sullivan and malmos , 1994 ) .\nas for breeding and selling colorado river toads , good luck ! breeding them in captivity involves injecting ground up pituitary glands from other anura into mature female bufo abdomens to hormonally stimulate ovulation . i ' m still waiting to hear from the university library about my copy of the thesis this info comes from , but even the abstract makes it seem like a hell of a lot of work . . .\nthe first problem with toad licking is that it isn ' t just any toad that will get you high . the most famous culprit \u2014 one that has sent a lot of dogs on bad trips \u2014 is the cane toad . it and its general family , the family bufonidae , will secrete the stuff that can be sniffed , injected , or ingested to get people hallucinating .\nalso see the\ntextfiles\non toad toxins by david g . spoerke , m . s . , rph . , 1986\nclay county prosecutor daniel white said possessing the toad is not illegal , but using it to get high off its venom is .\nfrog and toad - in the desert by ron harton is a fun and well written piece about amphibian life in the desert .\ni have to admit , i am rather jealous ! i have tried to get out feelers on the possibility of getting a colorado river toad into canada and so far , i have been told rather blunty to give up . however , they said that about my pyxies , too , and now i have three of them ! i really love the last picture , of the two toads . . . the one on the left is such a cutie . . . i would pick that one for sure ! ! sigh . . . .\nwhite said that for years people experimented with\ntoad licking ,\nand now toad smoking is considered a substitute . to do so , a person heats up the frog ' s venom to break down its toxins and preserve the hallucinogen , which is dried .\nit has been several years since we last saw this , our favorite toad , but others of his species visit us each summer .\nof course the ( toad ) licking myth is newspaper hype \u2013 it is the venom that is active , and it is smoked .\nthe sonoran desert toad received national attention when a story was published by the new york times in 1994 about a teacher in california who became the first person to be arrested for possession of the toad ' s venom . bufotenin had been outlawed in california in 1970 .\noutside of california , this toad inhabits a variety of habitats including grasslands , arid desert lowlands , mountain canyons with oaks and sycamores , and pinyon - oak - juniper mountain forests . found near washes , river bottoms , springs , reservoirs , canals , irrigation ditches , stock ponds , streams , temporary pools , and sometimes away from water sources .\nthen in 2007 , a man in kansas city , missouri was found with the sonoran desert toad in his possession , and was charged with possession of a controlled substance after they determined that he had intended to use the toad and its secretions for recreational purposes . . .\nthe conservation status of the species is\nleast concern\n. however , in california the toad is classified as\nendangered\nand in\npolice found the toad when they went to a northern kansas city home to investigate a suspected meth lab . they later arrested david s . theiss , 21 , and charged him with three counts of possession of a controlled substance and one count of possessing drug paraphernalia \u2014 the toad .\nit is the largest toad in north america found most commonly in the sonoran desert of southern california , arizona , new mexico , and mexico .\nin 1984 , the first widely distributed description of smoking bufo alvarius toad - venom for its 5 - meo - dmt content came in the form of an extraordinary pamphlet titled \u201c bufo alvarius : the psychedelic toad of the sonoran desert by albert most ( venom press , denton , texas ) .\nwhether or not this small south - western underground culture of bufo alvarius toad - venom smoking had anything to do with the birth of the urban myth of cane toad licking the much more common bufo marinus toad is impossible to say , since there seems to be no basis to that the myth , and the few unfortunate youths who have been foolish enough to lick cane toads have done so because they have read reports of it in the media . this confusion between the common bufo marinus and the much rarer though very physically similar bufo alvarius toad may however have a fascinating historical precedent .\nbecause you cant trip off weed . . . people lick colorado river toads to ingest the 5 - meo - dmt out of it ' s excretory sacks . as some of us know , dmt , or dimethyltryptamine is an extremely powerful hallucinogen . people dont get high from licking these toads like people get high from weed . they trip out . kinda like acid , but different . research your shit before you call people stupid and make yourself look like an ass .\nmr . elam , who has taken an interest in caring for the toads , had developed some empathy for his wards .\none day you ' re sitting by the river ; the next you ' re a prisoner , being squeezed by a bunch of humans ,\nhe said .\nand does your opinion even count ? no . you ' re just a toad .\nas toads go , colorado river toads are relatively easy to care for , much in the same way as you would care for smaller species of bufo only on a larger scale . whereas a twenty gallon long tank my suffice for several fowler ' s toads bufo w . fowleri , bufo alvarius grows considerably larger much quicker and are notably more active , thus requiring a greater amount of space . a 50 to 75 gallon glass terrarium should be fine for two pairs of adults .\nmy own misadventures in toading are recorded within the pages of my book tryptamine palace which has an entire chapter dedicated to the sonoran desert toad . however what was probably my finest experience of smoking toad venom does not come from that chapter , and was supposed to be the very end of the book .\nlaw enforcement authorities have discovered that people are willing to go to great lengths to get high , including a troubling new method that features a frightened toad .\nurltoken urltoken in bc you could go herping and find some western toads ( bufo boreas boreas ) . this toad is a close relative of the california toad ( , bufo boreas halophilus ) the kind i have . mine are great pets and don ' t get humongous , so are easy to house and feed .\nand finally , no section on psychedelic experiences would be complete without raiding the erwoid vaults . the following account of smoking bufo alvarius toad venom comes from 2003 .\ni wish my cane toad was still alive . i didn ' t know they could tangle themselves upside down in submerged plant roots and drown themselves . : (\nit ' s diet consists of just about anything it can fit in its mouth . including just about all insects , spiders , some small rodents , and other kinds of toads and frogs . it is primarily nocturnal , meaning it spends most of it ' s day underground only coming out at night . it can usually be found in other small animal holes , taking shelter from the heat till the night time comes . it is a semi - aquatic toad , meaning that it needs some source of water consistently or it will dry out . they can usually be found in river basins or near reservoirs and ponds . during the winter months it burrows deep underground to stay warm , coming out once the monsoon rains start to flood the river basins in june . the toad is most active from june through august coming out to mate and feed .\nthe following status listings are copied from the april 2018 special animals list and the 2017 endangered and threatened animals list , both of which are published by the california department of fish and wildlife . if no status is listed here , the animal is not included on either cdfw list . this most likely indicates that there are no serious conservation concerns for the animal . to find out more about an animal ' s status , you can go to the natureserve and iucn websites to check their rankings . check here to see the most current complete lists . special animals list notes : 1 ) formerly bufo alvarius . between 2006 & 2009 the scientific name has been changed to cranopsis alvaria , to ollotis alvaria , to incilius alvarius , back to ollotis alvarius and then back to incilius alvarius . the common name has changed from colorado river toad to sonoran desert toad .\nthe venom of this toad is classed as a schedule 1 controlled substance under us law and it is illegal to possess the venom . possession of the toad in and of itself is not a crime in the usa , but of the three states where the toad is found in the wild , only arizona allows the species to be collected and then only with an arizona fishing license . however it is against arizona state law to remove the species from the state , fishing license or no fishing license .\nevery time i see a toad , i say that phrase . . .\ni ' m not not licking toads\n. . . classic ! oh homer : )\njohnson , t . r . talking toad and frog poster and cassette . ( includes 20 frogs found in missouri . ) missouri dep . conserv . , jefferson city .\nevery once in a while you read of someone who , upon hearing about toad - sucking gives it a go and winds up vomiting tremendously and winding up in a hospital . the concoction produced in bufo toad glands not only contains a hallucinogen , but a mix of other agents designed to make predators sick . dogs oddly enough seem to fare reasonably well , though they can get terrifically spaced out . for people , the best advice is to let toad - sucking remain the stuff of legend , and forget about trying it yourself .\nthe toad from yuma county , arizona , shown above on the top left , was found one night in august on a road between two plowed agricultural fields next to this agricultural drain northeast of yuma arizona , about 20 miles east of california . the sonoran desert toad utilized similar developed habitat in california along with undisturbed desert habitat before its disappearance in the state ( see the imperial county photos to the left . ) this begs the question , why does this toad still persist in similar agricultural habitat nearby in arizona and not in california ?\ni want to make clear that the toad emitting venom in the last photo was under minimal stress - it only hunched up like that during the actual emission ( i believe to protect its own eyes from the venom ) and showed no signs of discomfort before or after the actual emission . this is a long - term captive and tame toad that had little or no fear of humans . finally , the venom was not collected ; this was a demonstration carried out by a zoo official to illustrate the defensive mechanism of this toad species .\nin october , a kansas city man was charged with possessing a controlled substance after clay county authorities determined he possessed a toad with the intent to use its venom to get high .\nas a defense , sonoran desert toads use their large parotoid glands and other warty glands to excrete poisons that may cause paralysis and even death if ingested by dogs and other small animals . toads assume a butting pose , aiming the parotoid glands at an adversary . they also inflate to increase their body size . skin secretions have hallucinogenic properties . ( this is the toad involved in reports of toad licking or the smoking of dried parotoid gland secretions . some states have passed laws against toad licking or smoking , and classify the secretions of these toads as a controlled substance . )\nadults are 4 - 7 1 / 2 inches from snout to vent ( 10 . 1 - 19 cm ) . ( stebbins , 2003 ) the largest toad in california before its presumed extirpation .\neven dogs get into the act of sucking and licking toads . npr reported a cocker spaniel named lady , which became addicted to licking toads . lady had to go into doggie rehab . online chat rooms are filled with pet owner comments regarding their toad - licking dogs . in areas of texas where bufo alvarius is abundant , reports of toad - licking dogs acting whacked \u2013 out are common .\ndark olive green color and leathery skin . they are 110 - 187mm in length . a very large toad with cranial crests , elongate parotid glands , raised warts on hind legs ( robinson 2001 ) .\nis carniverous and is known to eat snails , beetles , spiders , grasshoppers , lizards , mice , and other smaller toad species . a long sticky tongue aids in catching prey ( mayhew 1968 ) .\nthis toad is common in the sonoran desert . it occurs in a variety of habitats including creosote bush desertscrub , grasslands up into oak - pine woodlands , and thornscrub and tropical deciduous forest in mexico .\nthey are an attractive species to the pet keeper due to their size and surprisingly calm and bold demeanor ( for a toad ) in captivity . they seem to tame much more readily than cane toads (\nhi ive been lurking for a while . it bugs me when people get wild caught sonoran desert toads . while they may be found in ca , and nm . most of the wc colorado toad come from arizona . in az with a valid fishing license you can take a bag limit of certain wild amphibians . the law also states that az native wildlife , cannot be sold , bought , or traded . they can only be given away . it ' s also against the law to take az native wildlife outside of the state . now im not saying you guys did anything wrong . i live in az so it bugs me when i see kingsnake ads with sonorans for sale . knowing they are illegaly been taken away from my state . other than that . your pics of your toads are great . sonoran are one of my favorite toads . i currently have a great plaines toad i caught in my backyard . it ' s mansoon season now . breeding season ! theres about 4 different toad species near me . i ' m outside of the range for sonorans though . i ' m hoping i can find another red spotted toad this year .\na large toad with relatively smooth skin , prominent cranial crests , and long parotoid glands behind the eyes . there is a large white wart near the corner of the mouth and large warts on the hind legs .\nmolecular neurobiology student manuscripts from the university of california at berkeley : toad venom . . . their toxicity & psychoactive effects - student paper in neurochemistry . the history and psychoactivity of bufo toads - student paper in neurochemistry .\nis nocturnal and more aquatic than most toad species . it is a solitary species , until the mating season in the summer months when large groups of toads gather at temporary pools to mate . if the toad is molested or bothered , it can secrete a poison which irritates the mucous membranes of most predators . this poison can affect animals as large as dogs , and can cause temporary paralysis or death ( mayhew 1968 , robinson 2001 ) .\nlaws pertaining to frogs vary from state to state . some rare species ( for example , houston toad , wyoming toad , pine barrens treefrog ) may be fully protected under federal or state laws . seasons and bag limits may apply to other species ( bullfrogs , for example ) . permits to remove frogs that are causing damage are available in some states . contact your state wildlife department to determine the legal status of frogs in your area .\ndid you know ? that , if the toad is molested or bothered , it can secrete a poison ( toxin is called bufotenine ) , which irritates the mucous membranes of most predators . this poison can affect animals as large as dogs , and can cause temporary paralysis or death . in humans it can cause powerful hallucinations when ingested and in large amounts may even be able to kill a person ( \u201cthe psychedelic toad of the sonoran desert\u201d ) .\nin their survey of 1994 , jennings and hayes noted that this toad is apparently extirpated from most or all of its sites in california . this is likely due to loss of habitat and to pesticide use brought about by modern agricultural methods . according to a california department of fish and game report , no toads have been collected or observed in california since 1955 . this toad has also declined in new mexico , but is abundant in many parts of arizona .\nwho ' s posterior is the sheriff ' s dept . licking , in regards to the prosecution of this case ? do you know there is a state park in arkansas named toad suck . makes ya think . . . .\n) and a full grown adult makes an impressive display animal that usually isn ' t hiding all the time like most ground dwellings true toads . they are unfussy eaters and an adult sonoran desert toad is quite capable of eating an adult mouse , though these should not consititute a significant part of the toad ' s diet due to the reports of complications in amphibians fed regularly with mice and rats . crickets and cockroaches , both captive cultured , are the best staples . our\nno we did not smoke or lick any of these toads . our toad catching was purely innocent at the time and it wasn ' t until afterwards when i researched the toads did we find out they have quite the history to them .\nthere are large elongate paratoid glands which lie beside and come into contact with the obvious cranial crests . this toad species has a white bump that marks the corner of each side of its mouth . its belly color is soft white . it is not so much a vocal species of toad , its call is rather subdued and sounds much like a short hoot , lasting about a second . in captivity , this species shuffles around frequently and these sounds of activity are often mistaken for snuffling vocalizations .\ninvestigators describe mr . shepard as friendly , intelligent and interested in helping others understand the powers of toad venom . he has even made an informational videotape for those who are prosecuting him , mr . elam said , and has helped guide their research .\ntoad licking has long been recognized as a stupid , risky way to try to get high . but do you know the biochemistry that determines how stupid and risky it actually , and how high you could get . let ' s squeeze some toads .\nif i were you i ' d get a rococco ( spelling ? ) or a marine toad instead - easier to come by , no drug implications , and marines can become very tame ( eating dog food out of a bowl for you ) .\ni wonder what the availability is on them in canada ? from what i have read of marine toads , they are poisonous and are a potential threat to native species , which means canada may not let them across the border . maybe i should start looking for a native toad species . i have yet to come across anything remotely amphibian in my own city yet i know they are out there . . . . . a nice canadian toad would suit me just fine ! thanks for the suggestions john .\nhere is a very random description of smoking toad from one of the true psychedelic pioneers , the spiritual advisor baba ram dass ( be here now ) who was formerly chiefly known as timothy leary\u2019s associate richard alpert , phd . ( the psychedelic experience . )\nno doubt thanks to enthusiastic descriptions such as this one albert most\u2019s pamphlet was popular underground reading ( non - pun intended ! ) through out the sonoran desert region . most and his friends even formed an informal \u201cchurch of the toad of light\u201d that was never officially incorporated , and a small but enthusiastic population of bufo alvarius toad - venom smokers has undoubtedly existed since this time . dried bufo alvarius venom was occasionally sold on the underground market as \u2018organic dmt\u2019 venom , and has been reported from los angeles to germany !\nraccoons have learned to pull a toad out of the water by its leg and flip it over on its back and start feeding on it ' s stomach , a strategy that keeps the raccoon far away from the toad ' s poison glands . the poison has been shown to be toxic to humans ( only very mildly so ) when consumed orally , but there are almost no poisonous effects when smoked . after inhalation users usually experience a warm sensation , euphoria , and strong auditory hallucinations . no long term effects have been reported .\nusers \u201cmilk\u201d the glands of the toad onto a mirror . when it is dry , the user can either take it orally or smoke it . users who use this drug will have symptoms consistent with a hallucinogenic drug , and many report being high anywhere between one and eight hours .\nwhile smoking toad venom might sound extreme , an even more disturbing method to get high possibly includes sniffing fermented human waste . vicky ward , manager of prevention services at tri - county mental health services in kansas city , said she has read e - mail warnings about a drug called jenkem .\nwhile mr . shepard has also been charged with possession of a handful of other hallucinogenic substances , including mescal cactus , psychedelic mushrooms and lsd , it is the toad venom , which mr . shepard told investigators he had dried and smoked , that has drawn attention in an otherwise routine drug bust .\njust as a bonus , toads secrete substances that weaken muscles and cause extreme nausea , too . so the overall effect of toad licking can cause a person to have vivid hallucinations , a racing heart , and muscles too weak to carry their constantly - vomiting body to the bathroom , let alone the hospital .\nall that aside , once one has a toad in their possession i don ' t believe they require special permits , unless that crazy bill went through a while ago\u2026 a quick search of the cites website didn ' t turn up any references for bufo alvarius . couple other bufo species , but not alvarius .\nadditionally , the researchers only used twenty - one toads in their study and the level of compounds varied dramatically from one toad to the next . their results from the twenty values give an average of 9 . 8 % of 5 - meo - dmt per gram of dried skin . while the actual level of 5 - meo - dmt contained in the venom may be somewhat higher than this study concluded , the variability in the amount of this compound present in any toad ' s venom may render this conclusion irrelevant in practicality . one may never be completely sure how much of the active compounds are actually present in any given dose . ( see\ni cannot tell by what logic we call a toad , a bear , or an elephant ugly ; they being created in those outward shapes and figures which best express the actions of their inward frames ; and having passed that general visitation of god , who saw that all that he had made was good . sir thomas browne , 1642 .\nas mentioned above , it is illegal to posses the toad in any state except arizona . in arizona it is legal to posses up to to 10 toads with a valid arizona fishing license . however , if it can be proven that the possession of the toads is for recreational drug use , it would constitute a criminal violation there as well .\nlike most toads , sonoran desert toads eat anything that it can overtake and capture , mainly a variety of invertebrates , but lizards , mice , and toads have also been observed in its stomach contents . sometimes this toad can be seen sitting at night under a street light , eating passing flying insects . tadpoles are presumed to eat algae and detritus .\nafter two weeks at 55\u00b0 f the toads were removed from the cold room and kept three hours at room temperature . they were then injected with 2ml . of beef pituitary extract , dissolved in absolute ethanol . the suspension was drawn into a 5 ml . luer - type syringe , and was injected with an 18 gauge needle . the injections were made with the toad placed with the dorsal region facing the palm of the hand , and the cloacal region pointing towards the finger tips . holding the toad in the above manner with the left hand , the injection was made in the lower left quadrant , about one - fourth inch into the abdominal region . care was taken to avoid injury to vital organs , especially blood vessels .\nthe main defense of this toad is a poison that it secretes from glands in the skin . although this poison won ' t typically kill an adult human , it can make you very sick if you handle the frog and get the poison in your mouth . dogs can get sick or die if they pick up the frog with their mouths and play with it ."]}
{"id": 2214, "summary": [{"text": "the congo lion ( panthera leo melanochaita ) is a lion population in central africa .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "formerly , it was recognized as a distinct subspecies under the scientific name panthera leo azandica , which was considered native to the democratic republic of the congo and western parts of uganda .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it was also known as the uganda lion . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "congo lion", "paragraphs": ["the congo lion or northeast congo lion ( panthera leo azandica ) , was proposed as a lion subspecies from the northeastern part of the democratic republic of the congo and western parts of uganda . it is also known as the\nuganda lion .\nthe congo lion ( panthera leo azandica ) or northeast congo lion , also known as the uganda lion , was proposed as a lion subspecies from northeastern d . r . congo and western parts of uganda . their taxonomic history dates back to the early 20th century .\nlocated in the democratic republic of the congo , but no evidence of lion presence was found . there is a single lion conservation unit in the\nin africa , lion populations once lived outside this strict savannah zone . for example , until recently a lion population was present in forest - savannah mosaics in gabon and the republic of congo ( \u201ccongo - brazzaville\u201d ) ( henschel\nregional strains or subspecies of african lion : panthera leo azandica ( north east congo lion ) , p l bleyenberghi ( katanga / southwest african lion ) , p l hollisteri ( congo lion ) , p l krugeri ( south african / southeast african lion of which the white lion is a colour variant ) , p l leo / p l berberisca ( barbary lion , extinct in the wild ) , p l melanochaita ( extinct cape lion ) , p l massaicus ( masai lion ) , p l nubica ( ethiopian / nubian / east african lion ) , p l roosevelti ( abyssinian lion ) , p l somaliensis ( somali lion ) , p l senegalensis ( senegal / west african lion ) , p l verneyi ( kalahari lion ) .\nissued a face value of 50 , 000 francs by the republic of congo .\ncongo silver african lion coins are an annual silver coin release of the republic of congo . the coins debuted with the 1 oz release in 2015 , and prior to the release of the 2016 10 oz congo silver african lion coin , there had never been larger weight coins . previous releases were limited to 1 oz silver coins .\nthe northeast congo lion has been around since 120 , 000 years ago , which was when scientists estimated that the lion subspecies had diverged from a common ancestor . they now live in the congo , but it is unlikely that they had originated there .\nthe congo landscape is home to people , wildlife , and the second largest rainforest in the world .\nthe reverse of each 2016 congo silver african lion coin bears the coat of arms for the republic of congo . in addition to the engravings of the nation\u2019s full name , the face value of the coin , and its weight , purity , and metal content , you\u2019ll find the crest of the republic of congo . featuring a lion in the center of the shield , a pair of massive elephant heads prop up the shield on either side .\nnortheast congo lion - - is extremely rare in the wild and in danger of becoming extinct . | tigers and other big cats | pinterest | extinct , lions and cat\ncongo is notorious for his grumpy attitude . he can be very aggressive and likes to settle arguments through fighting .\nbefore meeting congo , timon worries that he ' ll be squashed by the young elephant , and pumbaa attempts to comfort him by telling jokes . when the friends at last meet congo , the young elephant refuses to return to the pride lands . timon threatens to remove congo by force , and congo laughs , doubting timon ' s claim that pumbaa is stronger than him . he then challenges pumbaa to a fight , promising to think about returning to the pride lands if the warthog wins .\nin the congo river basin , virunga national park in the democratic republic of the congo , and the adjacent queen elizabeth national park in uganda may be a potential stronghold for lions in central africa , if poaching is curbed and prey species recover .\nyoung lions often leave their natal home in search of new territory and mates , roaming hundreds of kilometers if necessary . henschel believes this lion most likely swam across the congo river from the malebo region of the democratic republic of the congo , 250 kilometers away ; an area where other biologists have spotted lions in recent years .\nstronghold in queen elizabeth national park , uganda , and parc national des virunga , democratic republic of congo . oryx 43 : 60\u201366\nlions are known to live a few hundred kilometers ( miles ) away in democratic republic of congo and henschel said the animal could have swum across the congo river , one of the world ' s largest , and traveled over to gabon ' s savannah .\nthere\u2019s another release in the 2016 congo silver african lion coin series , and it\u2019s one of the three new products available in the young series . these coins debuted in 2015 , and continued in 2016 with the 1 oz coin\u2019s release . now , three additional weights are available in this silver coin series . the 2016 10 oz congo silver african lion coin is available in bu condition courtesy of jm bullion .\nwomen in the democratic republic of congo ( drc ) have faced many challenges as a result of ongoing conflict and social . . .\nsince 1996 , african lion populations have been assessed as vulnerable by iucn . they are killed pre - emptively or in retaliation for preying on livestock , and are threatened by depletion of prey base , loss and conversion of habitat . to address these threats , lion - human conflict needs to be reduced , and lion habitat and prey base increased . no captive individual of the congo lion population is registered in the international species information system .\ntoday , lowland rainforest stretches 1 , 000 kilometers to the north of the plateau , separating it from small lion populations in cameroon and the central african republic . to the south , the congo river separates gabon from the few remaining lions in the democratic republic of the congo . both the dense rainforest and the deep river are formidable obstacles for lions seeking new territory . but that\u2019s exactly what henschel thinks this lion was doing .\non the obverse of the 2016 10 oz congo silver african lion coin is the image of a male and female lion as they prowl the savanna for food . included in the larger surface area of this coin you\u2019ll find another female lion working with the pair , and the mountain in the background has more of its size and scope visible courtesy of the extra space .\nawf created the congo shipping project as a means to help . the civil war destroyed the infrastructure and the only means farmers along the banks of the congo and maringa rivers had to bring their goods to market . struggling for their own survival , they fled into the forest for food . to help farmers return to their fields\u2014rather than stay in forests and degrade those resources\u2014awf initiated the return of cargo boats to the congo and maringa rivers .\nthe lion population is inferred to have undergone a reduction of approximately 43 % over the past 21 years ( approximately three lion generations , 1993 - 2014 ) .\n, where since 1995 no sign of lion presence was detected during surveys . in\nfelid taxon advisory group ( aza ) : panthera leo . african lion fact sheet\n) jaguar conservation units . lcus are areas of known , occasional or possible lion range that one could consider an ecological unit of importance for lion conservation ( iucn\nincorporate \u201cpermanent\u201d lion distributions that more recent reports identify as such and , when possible , remove areas listed as having \u201cpossible , temporary , or occasional\u201d lion populations .\nthe democratic republic of congo itself is recovering from years of civil war and striving to rebuild the livelihoods of its people , infrastructure , and environment .\nbasic facts about congo lions .\ndefenders of wildlife . n . p . , 20 mar . 2012 . web . 28 nov . 2015 .\ntree - climbing lion , ishasha sector of the queen elizabeth national park , uganda .\nwe wanted to take a few minutes to close the story of male lion cabral .\n, but this number includes areas described as containing both occasional and probable lion populations .\nbauer h ( 2006 ) synthesis of threats , distribution and status of the lion from the two lion conservation strategies . in : second large carnivore workshop . cedc , maroua\nwe created lion areas by modifying lcus with updated information and observed land conversion or predictions of high human population density . we find broad agreement between our lion areas and lcus . there are important differences , however . our lion areas consider all places containing resident lion populations , not just those regions deemed important for lion conservation . in addition , our explicit habitat modelling allows for updated future assessments . it also permits us to understand where and how rapidly lion populations have become isolated , a subject we will address elsewhere .\nuntil recently , lions roamed throughout the plateau , a mosaic of forest and grassland spanning 200 , 000 square kilometers across southern gabon , congo , and the democratic republic of the congo . but the last confirmed lion sighting in gabon occurred in 1995 . and when henschel surveyed the area in 2001 and 2003 as part of a government - wide evaluation , he found more signs of poachers than of wildlife .\nn our new amazing animals video series urltoken gets up close and personal with some interesting animals . discover how animals mature , learn about their diet and find out if they are endangered . this week we are at bowmanville zoo . meet congo , an 11 - month - old lion . watch congo and his younger sister , gracie , meet each other for the first time . congo is the great - grandson of the late bongo , one of the most famous movie animals . bongo starred in the ghost and the darkness , george of the jungle and in the tv series animorphs\nvirunga is africa\u2019s oldest national park and a treasured world heritage site . it\u2019s the size of a small country , straddling the equator in democratic republic of the congo .\nallen , j . a . ( 1924 ) . carnivora collected by the american museum congo expedition . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 47 : 73\u2013281 .\ncongo is an elephant calf who lived during scar ' s reign . due to the poor conditions of the pride lands , he left to live in the jungle .\nthe two fight , and pumbaa wins the match . an impressed congo proclaims that he hasn ' t had so much fun in a long time and promises to\npack up his trunks\nand return to the pride lands . when timon questions him , congo explains that he plans to bring a few tree trunks with him .\none of the greatest threats to wildlife in the democratic republic of congo ( drc ) is loss of habitat due to land conversion , human encroachment , . . .\nthe congo shipping project has drastically reduced the amount of land lost to unsustainable farming practices . with your support awf can implement other programs that will limit habitat loss .\nan african lion climed so high on tree . . . . . . african rainforest in\n) is not very much different from the other seven species of lion . the name \u2018\nsituated between the lopori and maringa rivers , the congo landscape features mesmerizing scenery and wildlife . it holds the congo basin , home to 1 , 000 bird species , more than 400 fish species , three of the world\u2019s five great apes , 10 , 000 species of plants , and the second - largest tropical forest in the world .\neach of these 2016 10 oz congo silver african lion coins are in brilliant uncirculated condition . coins with a bu grade exhibit no signs of wear and tear , but do feature minor blemishes such as breaks in the luster , spotted surfaces , or contact marks .\nbeautiful trek thru ishasha forest which borders uganda and the congo . 600 species of birds and of coarse the tree climbing lions . another awesome day in the bush ! !\nthe 60 , 000 - square - kilometer bili - u\u00e9l\u00e9 domaine de chasse is the largest protected area in the democratic republic of congo ( drc ) and . . .\n, here ' s a young male lion photographed in uganda ' s kidepo valley national park .\nthis map contains our best estimates of lion areas\u2014places that , as best we can tell , likely have resident lion populations . human impacts delineate many of these areas . how human impacts have changed\u2014and will change\u2014give clues needed to understand past lion population trends and allows us to speculate about their future .\nlion areas across africa . lion areas ( light or dark green , outlined in purple ) , lcus ( orange outline ) , lion areas with boundaries identical to lcus ( light or dark green outlined in brown ) and protected areas with lions ( dark green ) . ( color figure online )\nfor this assessment , we do not aim to provide a new estimate of total lion numbers , we present no new data . a recent paper summarized and updated efforts to estimate the population size of the african lion leading to the most recent estimate of 32 , 000 lions in 67 lion areas ( riggio\ni didn\u2019t see spartacus again after this encounter , but the \u201clion king\u201d photo above went viral online .\n) survives in india . recent research has demonstrated that the lion in west and central africa is genetically different from the lion in east and southern africa and more closely resembles asiatic populations ( bertola et al .\nafrican lion distribution adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheet click here for detailed distribution ( iucn ) .\nit is known that hybrids between the barbary lion and other african lion subspecies are held in zoos . there are only a few remaining pure - bred barbary lions and careful management is required to avoid excessive inbreeding . it may , therefore , become necessary to analyse the dna of hybrids and to use those with the greatest proportions of barbary lion dna and the closest resemblance to the barbary lion ' s appearance . if the latter is the case , the barabary lion would be a recreation of the type rather than a restoration of the subspecies .\nyou can help protect one of man\u2019s closest relatives\u2014the endagered bonobo . vital supplies are needed for scouts \u0003in the faunal reserve of lomako - yokokala , a critical bonobo habitat in the democratic republic of congo .\nwe take the opportunity on this day to reflect on the past year in our lion conservation and research activities .\nthough we may have lost a lion ' s life recently . . . it appears new life is beginning .\nthe forest lion of gabon , captured by a remote video camera . ( photo : philipp henschel / panthera )\n. ) . as noted above , the area devoted to lion hunting is large and lindsey et al . (\ncentral africa may have sizable lion and prey populations , but they are poorly known , even by african standards .\n\u2018 is from it\u2019s area of distribution , which is in the north eastern part of the congo . they have a life span of approximately ten to fourteen years in the wild and inhabit the grassland areas .\nlion conservation units ( lcus ) . lion conservation units are expert opinions typically produced at meetings by freehand drawing of boundaries on maps . they can combine considerable experience and profound ignorance , of course , and beg objectively defined criteria . we used existing delineations ( step 1 ) . we occasionally made small modifications to them by adding small , adjacent areas of low human impact . since the creation of lcus in 2005 / 2006 , a number of detailed countrywide reports have produced updated lion range maps . we include these new data on lion distribution for the refined lion areas .\ni for the life of me cannot understand why the thought of the last giraffe standing in the congo gets such little attention . . the last giraffe in the drc are in imminent danger of disappearing forever . .\ntreves , a . , plumptre , a . j . , hunter , l . t . , & ziwa , j . ( 2009 ) . identifying a potential lion panthera leo stronghold in queen elizabeth national park , uganda , and parc national des virunga , democratic republic of congo . oryx 43 ( 01 ) : 60\u201366 .\nthe congo lions also belong to the subspecies of the african lion . however , this clade of african lions was the one that gave the birth to the asiatic lions ( including barbary lions / persian lions / european lions ) . like their endangered descendants from outside of the sub saharan africa , their population is also becoming extremely vulnerable . i think these african lions are the most suitable ones to get involved into the asiatic lion breeding program . reply\niucn ( 2006b ) conservation strategy for the lion in west and central africa . iucn ssc cat specialist group , yaounde\nhidden cameras planted as part of a chimpanzee study in southeastern gabon ' s bateke plateau have captured on tape a single male lion three times since january , said dr . philipp henschel , lion program survey coordinator for campaign group panthera .\nthe regional lion conservation strategies of 2006 defined \u201clion conservation units\u201d ( lcus ) . these are expert - defined regions intended to classify areas suitable for lions , an idea already in use by the conservation community following sanderson et al . \u2019s (\nseven additional lion areas are potential lion strongholds , which contain nearly 4 , 400 lions ( table s1 ) . these include two populations in west and central africa . the only remaining regions with potentially large numbers of lions that could act as future lion strongholds are angola , somalia , and the western half of south sudan . the data on lion populations in these regions are relatively poor , while political instability makes the protection of wildlife in some areas difficult in the near future .\ndespite only being a calf , congo is considerably broad and robust , with a strong physique and impressive fighting skills . his hide is pale gray in color , though his underbelly is pale , and his eyes are black .\nafrican wildlife foundation has helped farmers return to the congo river as a means of finding new markets for their goods . to improve livelihoods and reduce locals\u2019 reliance on wildlife hunting for survival , efforts like this need continued funding .\n) assessed lion range in west and central africa , they noted 20 lcus in the region . henschel et al . (\na lion bred on a farm in south africa for commercial use . photograph : stephane de sakutin / afp / getty images\nbreeders argue it is better that hunters shoot a captive - bred lion than further endanger the wild populations , but conservationists and animal welfare groups dispute this . wild populations of lions have declined by 80 % in 20 years , so the rise of lion farms and canned hunting has not protected wild lions . in fact , according to fiona miles , director of lionsrock , a big cat sanctuary in south africa run by the charity four paws , it is fuelling it . the lion farms ' creation of a market for canned lion hunts puts a clear price - tag on the head of every wild lion , she says ; they create a financial incentive for local people , who collude with poachers or turn a blind eye to illegal lion kills . trophy - hunters who begin with a captive - bred lion may then graduate to the real , wild thing .\nour two objectives address the need for an updated geographical framework onto which we can map the numbers of lions and the areas they occupy . countrywide estimates of lion numbers fail to capture the size and degree of isolation and consequent population viability . nor do they show the trans - boundary distributions of many lion populations . here we present all known lion population data in a single map .\na final component in assessing the status of lions determines which populations are \u201clion strongholds , \u201d by meeting the necessary requirements for long - term viability . the concept of a lion stronghold is not new and recent calls for lion conservation action have included the need to \u201c\u2026identify regional strongholds for the species that have the highest probability of persistence in the long - term\u201d ( treves et al .\npopulation estimates for each region after segregation based on size classes . in parenthesis is the number of lion areas in each size class\n: - ) four of the seven parks managed by african parks have known resident lion populations : garamba np ( drc ) , liuwa plain np ( zambia ) , majete wildlife reserve ( malawi ) , and zakouma np ( chad ) . african parks has implemented , supported and funded vital lion conservation management programmes in these areas and our continuing work is ensuring the long time survival of these populations . if you would like to support our lion conservation efforts as well as other lion conservation organisations , click on the link below\nwithin the congo landscape , years of civil unrest have virtually destroyed the infrastructure along the banks of the congo and maringa rivers that allowed farmers to bring their crops to market . as the civil war in the drc continued , impoverished farmers fled deep into the forest in search of food . this led to deforestation and an increase in the hunting and selling of bushmeat , which has reduced the number of bonobos to an estimated 30 , 000 to 50 , 000 left in the world .\nthree hours ' drive from the ranch is lionsrock , a former lion breeding farm transformed into a sanctuary for more than 80 abused big cats since it was bought by four paws . some come from local breeding farms , but four paws also rescues animals kept in appalling conditions in zoos in romania , jordan and the congo . unlike in the lion farms , the animals here are not allowed to breed , and instead live within large enclosures in their natural prides , family groups of up to 10 lions .\nproject life lion\nis a major campaign to vaccinate as many dogs as possible to guard against canine distemper . ( sunquist )\n) . densities of prey also vary widely when considering the variation in rainfall and soil type across lion range ( coe et al .\nlionsrock can rehouse another 100 lions but does not have space for every captive - bred lion in south africa . four paws and other charities working in south africa want a moratorium on lion breeding because they fear that if lion farms were abruptly outlawed thousands of lions would be dumped or killed . after its high court defeat , there is little sign that the south african government will take on the powerful lion breeders again any time soon .\nif we can stop people supporting those industries in the first place and make them aware of what ' s actually going on and what the life of a [ captive - bred ] lion is actually like , i believe there will be an outcry ,\nsays miles .\nthere ' s far more value for a live lion long - term .\nlike many african animals , the northeast congo lions are also an endangered species and the reason is loss of their habitat . their numbers have fallen by fifty percent in the last two decades . an international breeding program is trying to increase their population .\n. they are killed pre - emptively or in retaliation for preying on livestock , and are threatened by depletion of prey base , loss and conversion of habitat . to address these threats , lion - human conflict needs to be reduced , and lion habitat and prey base increased .\n) . we still decided to use these lcus , however , as a starting point and as an important international reference for lion conservation .\nchardonnet p ( 2002 ) conservation of the african lion : contribution to a status survey . international foundation for the conservation of wildlife , france\nwith your help , awf can continue working on vital programs like helping farmers sell their crops in faraway markets or reducing deforestation in critical bonobo habitat . donate for a cause that will help the people , their land , and wildlife conservation within the congo landscape .\nin sub - saharan africa , the lion conservation community works in the context of four regions : west , central , east , and southern .\nin the wild the average lifespan of a lion is up to 16 years , but in captivity , they often live 10 years beyond that .\n. ) as we define it , this domain is most of africa south of the sahara , excluding the tropical moist forests of west africa , the congo , patches of montane forests throughout east africa , and drier areas in the southwest , such as the namib .\ni would like to see images and have current news of lions in the garamba and virunga parks . i do not know of any lion conservation program in this country , i have no information about their situation , their numbers , and their current area of occurrence . the democratic republic of congo ( drc ) is fighting for the conservation of its last 35 giraffes in garamba . already the lions ? no information .\nintroducing the kabobo natural reserve in the democratic republic of congo ! this newly - created protected area is home to chimpanzees , hippos , elephants , and lions . wcs surveys here in recent years discovered new mammals and plants ( and likely amphibians ) previously unknown to science .\nhenschel p ( 2009 ) the status and conservation of leopards and other large carnivores in the congo basin , and the potential role of reintroduction . in : hayward mw , somers m ( eds ) reintroduction of top - order predators . blackwell publishing , oxford , pp 206\u2013237\nfor the convenience of the reader , there are 2 accepted lion sub - species \u2013 panthera leo persica ( asian / asiatic / south asian lion ) and the african lion ( p leo leo ) . these have differences in anatomy . the european lion ( p l europaea ) is now extinct . sub - saharan african lions are genetically and anatomically similar enough to be considered a single subspecies , but differences in size , mane , colour and behaviour has led to localised populations being considered subspecies by some taxonomists . they are possibly more analogous to\nbreeds\nas found in domestic cats .\ni would like to see images and have current news of lions in the garamba and virunga parks . i do not know of any lion conservation program in this country , i have no information about their situation , their numbers , and their current area of occurrence . the democratic republic of congo ( drc ) is fighting for the conservation of its last 35 giraffes in garamba . already the lions ? no information . reply\n) . those reports rightly generated considerable efforts to improve population estimates across africa . however , a recent meeting of the african lion working group in etosha , namibia , suggested that these regional lion conservation strategies had a poor follow - up and needed an urgent update ( see final communiqu\u00e9 from the 2\nwe compiled all of the most current available estimates of lion populations\u2014see supplementary materials . three continent - wide assessments provide the core of these data ( chardonnet\nmake a symbolic sea lion adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .\nits affinity for forest cover might have helped . two days after henschel saw the lion images he was at the park setting up more camera traps , placing most of them in typical lion habitat in the savannah . \u201cnone of those cameras have filmed that lion , \u201d henschel says . \u201cwhereas the cameras we set up in forest areas have filmed it repeatedly . \u201d henschel speculates that the forest might provide refuge from people , which the lion could now fear . \u201che seems to have adapted to a life in the forest . but how an animal that size hunts in the forest we don\u2019t know yet . \u201d\n1916 : the roar of a lion from the panama - california exposition in san diego , inspired dr . harry wegeforth to establish the san diego zoo .\n) ( table s3 ) . on the other hand , some lion areas were overlooked and not included in lcus ( table s4 ) . in the supplementary materials , table s5 highlights examples of lion populations showing differences between the major population assessments and compares them to the most recent data used for this analysis .\nif you have questions , we encourage you to reach out to jm bullion . our customer service team is available on the phone at 800 - 276 - 6508 , online using our live web chat service , and via our email address . check out our full selection of congo silver coins .\n) . supplementing these continent - wide reports , we added lion conservation strategies and action plans that highlight the status of lions in specific countries . we searched the primary articles these reports cite and newly published lion population surveys to obtain the most up - to - date data on lion numbers and distribution . most of these reports include expert opinions on lion numbers or structured surveys , not formal counts . we also include individual personal comments from the authors and colleagues on the numbers in supplementary materials . given how difficult it is to count lions this inevitably begs the question of how good are these expert opinions , an issue we address in \u201c\nshows the lion areas across the african continent by their respective size class . currently 27 countries across africa contain resident populations of free - ranging lions ( fig .\nrepeated mapping of areas which have at least the potential for lions because of their low human impacts may provide the only quantifiable measures of how savannah africa is shrinking from the lion\u2019s viewpoint . this is necessary , but definitely not sufficient . the lack of repeated , statistically credible lion counts , for well - defined areas is a striking omission , one that must be rectified if we are to assess not only the trends in lion numbers , but our success in reversing their declines .\nferreira sm , funston pj ( 2010 ) estimating lion population variables : prey and disease effects in kruger national park , south africa . wildl res 37 : 194\u2013206\n. ( 2015 ) the red list guidelines are ambiguous as to the inclusion or exclusion of fenced areas . their exclusion from the analysis would raise the inferred lion decline rate to 49 % . following through on our supposition that unmonitored lion populations have undergone an even higher rate than our monitored sample , this could potentially have been interpreted as a suspected rate of decline over 50 % , qualifying the lion as endangered . however , we did not exclude fenced populations from our assessment . hayward\nthere have been many subspecies of all four panthera species suggested ; however , many of the leopard and lion subspecies are questionable . recently it has been proposed that all sub - saharan populations of leopards are all the same leopard subspecies , and all sub - saharan populations of lions likewise belong to the same lion subspecies , as they do not have sufficient genetic distinction between them . some prehistoric lion subspecies have been described from historical evidence and fossils . they may have been separate species .\n) delineated lcus . they include national parks , hunting zones and other forms of land use . to determine the current extent and distribution of lion areas we further refined these lcus using additional data that we will describe in the sections to come : ( 1 ) user - identified land conversion , ( 2 ) human population density , ( 3 ) lion distribution from country - specific reports , and ( 4 ) additional data from recent lion population surveys . we utilised these four data layers to refine lion areas using the following , rule - based hierarchical system ( rule # 2 takes precedence over the information in rule # 1 , etc . ) :\n. 2014 ) . little is known about lion subpopulations in angola , central african republic and south sudan , but we fear drastic declines especially for the latter two .\nto apply the user - identified land conversion layer to the creation of lion areas , we converted the google earth products ( keyhole markup language , or kml files ) to a raster dataset in arcgis . then , we ran the boundary clean tool to remove cells of data too small to have an impact on lion distribution . we converted this raster to a polygon to smooth the lion area borders . both the original and cleaned versions of these layers are available as kml files from the authors on request .\nbauer h , de iongh hh , princee fpg , ngantou d ( 2003 ) research needs for lion conservation in west and central africa . comptes rendus biol 326 : 112\u2013118\n. ) conversely , the maps sometimes suggest areas with low human impact that connect existing protected areas\u2014as do the lcus . in some cases , lion areas extended beyond the lcus .\nlion breeders such as van der merwe are not so sure . she says her caged lions have little to do with canned hunting , but admits that if the authorities banned canned hunting ,\nit would probably not be good for us \u2026 there ' s a lot of people from overseas coming to shoot lions . all the people know you come to africa to shoot the lion or have a mount against your wall to say ' i ' ve shot a lion ' . they surely bring some money into south africa .\nwe evaluate the state of the african savannah with two objectives , namely estimating the areas of savannah still suitable for lion populations and estimating the lion populations themselves within these areas . if areas retain lions , the continent\u2019s top predator , they are likely to be reasonably intact ecosystems . by considering the size of savannah africa from the lion\u2019s perspective , we can assess how much of it remains in large , relatively intact areas , not yet heavily modified by human influence . clearly , smaller areas will still support less complete sets of species .\ndemand from the far east is also driving profits for lions breeders . in 2001 , two lions were exported as\ntrophies\nto china , laos and vietnam ; in 2011 , 70 lion trophies were exported to those nations . while the trade in tiger parts is now illegal , demand for lion parts for traditional asian medicine is soaring . in 2009 , five lion skeletons were exported from south africa to laos ; in 2011 , it was 496 . the legal export of lion bones and whole carcasses has also soared .\nit ' s definitely a rapidly growing source of revenue for these canned breeding facilities ,\nsays will travers of the charity born free .\nthe increase and volume are terrifying .\nin the meantime , the lion of gabon walks the forest paths alone\u2014an outlier in so many ways , but a hopeful sign that the remarkable dispersal of the past might happen again .\n) . these lcus arose from regional workshops held in 2005 and 2006 and maps included in the regional strategy reports delineate them . however , recent lion field surveys in west and central africa revealed that much of the information on lion distribution used for defining these lcus is either out of date or was not very accurate in the first place ( henschel et al .\napplying user - identified land conversion whenever possible and human population density where not , we examined each lcu and modified it as appropriate to create lion areas . for example , fig .\nit was originally hoped that the hybrids could be introduced into the wild to bolster the asian lion stock , but instead of hybrid vigour , the programme resulted in inbreeding depression . the hybrids have apparently weakened the asian lion ' s gene pool , resulting in lions with physical and mental defects and weakened immune systems . reports are suggestive of postzygotic incompatibility between the lion subspecies , however some of the defects are probably attributable to inbreeding of a limited gene pool ( hybrid or otherwise ) for mass - production and not simply to the lions being hybrids .\n) who assessed the risk of inbreeding in lion populations due to habitat loss . he determined that , \u201c\u2026to sustain a large out - bred population of lions , a continuous population of at least 50 prides , but preferably 100 prides , with no limits to dispersal is required . \u201d we took the average lion pride as containing approximately five adults ( bauer et al .\na lion has been spotted in gabon for the first time in nearly 20 years , raising hopes the animals long feared extinct in the country could be returning , conservationists said on thursday .\nasian lion = critically endangered . single population of ~ 250 mature breeding individuals , all occurring within one area . numbers are expected to suffer a decrease due to increasing conflict with people .\nin 1913 , heller gave the taxonomic name\npanthera leo nyanzae\nto lions in uganda . in 1924 , allen gave the trinomen\npanthera leo hollisteri\nto lions on the northern bank of lake victoria , before ugandan lions were seen as being of the same subspecies as those in the northeastern part of the democratic republic of the congo .\nhenschel is now the lion survey project coordinator for panthera , a global wildcat conservation organization . since last month\u2019s discovery , his group , along with the max planck institute for evolutionary anthropology\u2019s pan africa programme and the aspinall foundation , have repeatedly captured clear video footage of a male lion walking down a forest path in gabon\u2019s bat\u00e9k\u00e9 plateau national park\u2014an ecological wonder for more reasons than one .\nneck - bite common in many mating cats ( probably to induce temporary passiveness in female ) has become ritualized in the lion . ( light , brief bites in 60 % of observed matings )\nmap showing the new boundaries of the niokolo - guinea lion area after restriction of the niokolo - guinea lcu with user - identified land conversion . the original niokolo - guinea lcu ( orange outline ) , user - identified land conversion ( dark grey ) , protected areas ( dark green ) , and lion areas ( light green , outlined in purple ) . ( color figure online )\nhenschel p , azani d , burton c , malanda g , saidu y et al ( 2010 ) lion status updates from five range countries in west and central africa . cat news 52 : 34\u201339\nthe overall classification of the lion as vulnerable masks a dichotomy : we observe that sample lion subpopulations increased by 12 % in four southern african countries ( botswana , namibia , south africa and zimbabwe ) and in india , while an observed decline of 60 % in sample subpopulations outside these countries is inferred for the remainder of its african range . in other words , in the majority of its range the lion meets the a2 criterion for endangered with the inferred rate of decline over 50 % in three generations , but this trend is numerically mitigated by a small number of subpopulations in a restricted geographical range .\npieter kat , who founded the charity lion aid , says the lion walks are simply another income stream for breeders before their lucrative charges are sold on . van der merwe is doubtful that quinn ' s lion walks could replace the income the farm receives from selling its lions :\nwe keep them up until six months for attractions for the people so they can play with them and then we sell them to other lion parks ,\nshe says . she insists her ranch ' s website is wrong , and it does not hunt lions :\nwe sell them to other people who have the permit for lions . what they do with the lions is up to them . so we don ' t know what they do with the lions , but we don ' t do the canned hunting .\n) . if a lion area has at least 250 individuals but does not satisfy either requirement ( 2 ) or ( 3 ) , it is a potential stronghold . we explore these criteria in the \u201c\n) . whether trophy hunters and the reports they fund also consistently inflate lion numbers to ensure continued business should be detached from any heated rhetoric and viewed simply as the legitimate scientific question that it is .\nbecker ms , watson fgr , droge e , leigh k , carlson rs , carlson aa ( 2012 ) . estimating past and future male loss in three zambian lion populations . j wild manag . doi :\nloveridge a , searle a , murindagomo f , macdonald d ( 2007 ) the impact of sport - hunting on the population dynamics of an african lion population in a protected area . biol conserv 134 : 548\u2013558\nmedium - sized prey grabbed by rump with forepaws and brought down . killing bite to throat strangles prey ( may hold for as long as 10 minutes ) . while one lion grasps throat others begin to eat .\ndavidson z , valeix m , loveridge a , madzikanda h , macdonald d ( 2011 ) socio - spatial behaviour of an african lion population following perturbation by sport hunting . biol conserv 144 ( 1 ) : 114\u2013121\n. ( 2013 ) include numbers from 2002 and 2004 for areas where we believe the downward trend described above occurred . we therefore consider these sources to be insufficiently precautionary for our purpose and feel that an assessment on numbers is less robust than our assessment based on trends . considering the difficulty in interpreting lion numbers and the availability of an alternative ( see above ) , we decided not to use total lion numbers for the present assessment\nafrican lion = vulnerable . species population reductin of 30 % - 50 % over the past 2 decades ( 3 lion generations ) . recent surveys have shown that the lions of west africa are in serious decline - the number of mature individuals have been estimated by two separate recent surveys at 850 ( bauer and van der merwe 2004 ) and 1163 ( chardonnet 2002 ) . both estimates are well below the endangered level of 2500 .\nhunting areas are extensive , so the fate of lions depends on how well user - communities manage them . the same principle applies to lions within protected areas , with responsibility falling on protected area managers to secure these populations . finally , lions also occur well beyond protected areas , and how well one manages lion - human conflict will determine persistence there . yet , conflict outside protected areas can affect lion persistence within ( woodroffe and ginsberg\nmaps the 67 lion areas for four overlapping sub - regions and table s1 in the supplemental materials provides their details . our definition sometimes restricted lcus and sometimes split them into more than one area ( as in fig .\n\u201d section . given our simple criteria , 10 lion areas qualify . four of these are in east africa and six in southern africa ( table s1 ) . these strongholds span eight countries , contain roughly 19 , 000 lions in protected areas alone ( more than 50 % of the remaining lions in africa ) , and over 24 , 000 lions in the entire lion areas as delineated . no areas in west or central africa qualify .\nmr . grey , shown here on the left , was 18 years old when he died of natural causes in july 2012 ! this was quite an old age for a lion in the wild , and he\u2019s got the battle marks to prove it ! his eye was likely damaged by a waterbuck or kob long ago . he was frequently in the company of male lion twin , who was likely mr . grey ' s son .\nyet the amount of wildlife in the park remains low , and lion populations throughout africa are in trouble\u2014not just in the unusual mosaic of the bat\u00e9k\u00e9 plateau , but in the iconic serengeti of east africa as well . the international union for the conservation of nature lists the african lion as a vulnerable species . it estimated in 2012 that africa\u2019s lion population had decreased by at least 30 percent over the last 20 years , largely because of declines in natural prey and corresponding conflicts over livestock . those figures were based on studies conducted a decade ago , and some conservation groups believe lions number as few as 20 , 000 continent wide , down from 450 , 000 as recently as 1940 .\ndescriber ( date ) : linnaeus ( 1758 ) syst . nat . , 10th ed . , 1 : 41 kingdom : animalia phylum : chordata class : mammalia order : carnivora family : felidae ( fischer de waldheim 1817 ) subfamily : acinonychinae ( pocock 1917 ) - cheetah subfamily : felinae ( fischer de waldheim 1817 ) - small and medium - sized non - pantherine cats subfamily : pantherinae ( pocock 1917 ) - leopard , jaguar , lion , tiger , snow leopard genus : neofelis ( gray 1854 ) genus : panthera ( oken , 1816 ) species : panthera leo ( linnaeus 1758 ) - lion subspecies : panthera leo leo - african lion subspecies : panthera leo persicus ( meyer 1826 ) - asian lion species : panthera onca - jaguar species : panthera pardus - leopard species : panthera tigris - tiger genus : pardofelis ( severtozov 1858 ) - marbled cat genus : uncia ( gray 1854 ) - snow leopard\nhunting is banned in angola , cameroon , congo , gabon , ghana , malawi , mauritania , niger , nigeria , and rwanda . hunting is restricted to\nproblem\nanimals over in benin , botswana , burkina faso , central african republic , ethiopia , ivory coast , kenya , mali , mozambique , senegal , somalia , sudan , tanzania , togo , uganda , zaire , zambia and zimbabwe ( nowell & jackson 1996 ) .\nthe latest indication of wildlife recovery in gabon is a solitary male lion captured on a remote video camera that was set up to study chimpanzees . nobody knows how he got there , or why he\u2019s chosen the forest as his home .\n\u201cwe were basically looking at a very small image of the hindquarters of an animal , \u201d henschel says . \u201cthe second i saw it i was sure it was a lion . we went out to the nearest bar to celebrate . \u201d\npanthera is a genus of large , wild cats in the mammalian family , felidae , and includes the four , well - known living species of the lion ( panthera leo ) , the tiger ( panthera tigris ) , the jaguar ( panthera onca ) , and the leopard ( panthera pardus ) . these four extant cat species are considered unique in having the anatomical changes enabling them to roar . the cave lion is an example of an extinct member of this genus .\n1716 : a lion was first exotic animal exhibited in north america - boston , ma . housed at the home of captain arthur savage , later moved and exhibited at the home of martha adams ( 1720 ) before touring major new england cities\n2004 :\nlion camp\nopens at the san diego wild animal park featuring a 6 - member pride of lions . the 33 , 000 sq ft exhibit has a 40 - foot - long glass viewing window regular demonstrations of current animal training techniques\na long time i wanted to share information about the lions in uganda , but between one thing and another . . . i had already insert information about\nthe coalition of three\nin thread\nlion directory\n, you can also copy here .\n) reports , based on regional workshops and inventories during 2005 and 2006 , estimated a total lion population of approximately 33 , 000 individuals . these estimates are already out of date and included populations that we now know no longer exist ( henschel et al .\nan alternative use for the captive - bred lions might be tourism . we go for a\nlion walk\nwith martin quinn , a conservation educator and lion whisperer . this involves strolling through the veld with three adolescent white lions , which have been bred on moreson ranch and trained by quinn and his assistant , thompson . these striking white lions ( which tend to be very inbred , say animal welfare groups ) bound around us , rush on , and then lie in the grass , ready for an ambush . armed only with sticks , quinn and thompson control them , while warning us that they are still wild animals . it is an unnerving experience , but quinn hopes this venture will persuade moreson ranch that a live lion is worth more than a dead one ."]}
{"id": 2315, "summary": [{"text": "the crescent-tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , is a species of wrasse native to the pacific ocean from sulawesi to the line islands .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "this species can reach 8.7 cm ( 3.4 in ) in standard length .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "juveniles are white and black .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on caudal peduncle and caudal fin .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it can be found in the aquarium trade .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the crescent-tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "crescent - tail hogfish", "paragraphs": ["the crescent - tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins .\nthe holotype of the crescent - tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , possibly from bali , indonesia , 70 . 0 mm sl , nmv a18420 . source : s . michael , in gomon 2006 a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus , rec aus mus , suppl 30 . license : all rights reserved\na small slender hogfish with red and white stripes , the broader reddish stripes becoming blackish towards the rear , and a black spot on the gill cover . the pelvic fins are whitish and the tail has a large black spot often followed by white , yellow , red and / or black crescent - shaped bands posteriorly .\nhogfish are quite hardy and in time eat all the most common available fish foods . they do however , demand plenty of space to swim and for concealment .\nname from latin nouns ' sepia ' for ink and ' cauda ' for tail , refers to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .\nthe specific name sepiacaudus : is from the latin ' sepia ' ( ink ) and ' cauda ' ( tail ) in reference to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .\nhogfish ( bodianus ) get their name from the way they look for food in the substrate using their snout . they can regularly be seen blowing water down into the sand and in their natural habitat they often follow other fish which have disturbed it .\nthey can hide for long periods of time if kept with more aggressive species . hogfish can also be aggressive towards more docile species or those that resembles themselves . when fully grown they can become a threat to various invertebrates , e . g . worms , snails , small bivalves and crustaceans amongst others .\nbodianus after bodiano or pudiano , from the portuguese pudor , meaning modesty ( jordan & evermann , 1896 ) .\nmarine ; reef - associated ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . tropical\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 )\nthis species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\ngomon , m . f . , 2006 . a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species . rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 1 - 133 . ( ref . 75973 )\n) : 25 . 6 - 29 , mean 27 . 8 ( based on 72 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 \u00b10 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : little is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .\nthis species is known conclusively from indonesia : sulawesi ( near maluku ) and flores ( pomana besar ) , in the western pacific , and fiji and kiritimati atoll , line islands in the central pacific ( b . russell pers . comm . 2008 ) . it was recorded from sogod , cebu , philippines ( b . stockwell pers . comm . 2009 ) . the photograph was confirmed by m . gomon ( r . myers pers . comm . 2009 ) .\nthere is no population information avaiable for this species . this is an uncommon species .\na small species to at least 87 mm sl . it has photographed it at depths of 25 - 50 m , noting that adults occur in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , with juveniles observed at about 50 m ( b . russell pers comm . 2008 ) .\nthere are no known threats to this species . however , species is sought after by aquarium trade collectors .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nfrom the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we\u2019ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .\nholmes reef in the coral sea . the species occurs elsewhere in the tropical west - central pacific , from indonesia , the philippines , fiji , kiritimati atoll and the line islands .\ndiffers from the similar bodianus masudai ( not found in australian waters ) in having white pelvic fins , white interspaces , whereas they are yellow to white in b . masudai .\nbodianus sepiacaudus gomon 2006 , rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 33 , fig . 16 , pl . 2g - h . type locality : bali ( ? ) , indonesia .\n. the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t187576a8573103 . urltoken downloaded on 27 november 2015 .\nthis species searches through the sand for food , which can make the water cloudy and shakes up detritus .\nwhen a male is needed , a female changes sex and takes on the role .\nwrasses are nearly always seen in reef aquaria , since many of the species are both attractive and useful in battling a range of unwanted invertebrates like i . e . flatworms , pyramide snails . these fish live of everything from zooplankton to large crustaceans , sea urchins and the like .\nthe needs and behaviour of wrasses vary greatly , so it is vital to familiarize oneself with the specific species before buying one .\nbob fenner . the wrasses we call hogfishes - wet web media - ( english ) scott michael . 2002 . aquarium fish : the hogfishes , family labridae - advanced aquarist - ( english )\nscott w . michael . 2009 . wrasses and parrotfishes ( reef fishes series book 5 ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english )\nfroese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .\nminimum volume\nindicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .\nthis is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .\nhardiness\nindicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .\nin this case , a\nnormal\naquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26\u00b0c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .\nspecial aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .\nalways reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .\noften reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .\nreef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .\nreef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .\nnot reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .\nthis species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\neastern indian ocean , western pacific : bali ( indonesia ) , line islands ( kiribati ) ; probably more widespread .\n8 . 7 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 ) )\nreef - associated ; marine ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 )\nlittle is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .\n. it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) . this species can reach 8 . 7 cm ( 3 . 4 in )\njuveniles are white and black . adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on\nrussell , b . ( 2010 ) . bodianus sepiacaudus . in : iucn 2014 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 22 august 2014 .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2014 ) .\nbodianus sepiacaudus\nin fishbase . august 2014 version .\nmartin f . gomon ( 2006 ) .\na revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species\n. records of the australian museum , supplement 30 : 1\u2013133 .\nticking this option will unlock the ' my dive shop ' area for you . there you will be able to claim or create a business entity .\nmuch like a facebook page - you need to first have a personal account through which you can login and manage the business page .\nafter creating a personal account , you will be directed to ' my dive shop ' section where you can claim existing listing or create a new one .\nthis is your personal profile - we advise the username to relate to you . if you own or operate a business it will have its own page that you manage .\nplease use your real name - not the name of your business or nick name .\nurltoken is a site tailor made for the needs of the global scuba diving community . it is a completely neutral project , funded by independent entrepreneurs and not . . ."]}
{"id": 2336, "summary": [{"text": "gato del sol ( february 23 , 1979 \u2013 august 7 , 2007 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse best known for his win in the 1982 kentucky derby . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "gato del sol", "paragraphs": ["ransom also was a pretty good prophet when it came to gato del sol .\nwith the headline : gato del sol , 21 - 1 , rallies and wins the derby .\nplease click here to read a wonderful recent article from the courier journal about gato del sol .\nthe hancocks brought gato del sol home five years ago , and some people still are talking about it .\nexercise rider linda smithwick holds the reins of 1982 kentucky derby winner gato del sol . may 2 , 1982\nit makes one long for the days of 1982 winner gato del sol , who ran until he was six .\nkentucky derby countdown | gato del sol , 1982 remembering the 1982 kentucky derby winner . check out this story on urltoken urltoken\nhancock sold gato del sol to a german breeder , hoping he would turn out distance runners fit for european grass courses . but gato became a flop on two continents .\nhistory will not be kind to gato del sol . he will be remembered as one of the least accomplished winners of the kentucky derby .\ntwenty - three years later gato del sol trainer eddie gregson , known for always putting the horse first and foremost , became the next to decide against a preakness run . gato del sol came back in the belmont stakes , finishing second to conquistador cielo , beaten 14 lengths .\nthis writer said there were seven horses that had legitimate chances to win the ' 82 derby , and gato del sol wasn ' t one of them .\namerican pharoah is the fourth to complete the del mar futurity - kentucky derby double . the previous three were : tomy lee ( 1958 - 59 ) , gato del sol ( 1981 - 82 ) and silver charm ( 1996 - 97 ) . connections for both tomy lee and gato del sol passed on the preakness , a rarity then , unheard of now .\ngato del sol is only the seventh derby winner to come to the race via california and the santa anita derby . the most recent was affirmed in 1978 .\nthrough endurance and numerous close finishes in big races , gato del sol went out a millionaire , his $ 1 . 3 million ranking him 26th in career earnings .\nnatalie voss , in a story for the paulick report headlined \u2018triple frown\u2019 : derby dreamers who woke up before the preakness - included the tomy lee and gato del sol cases .\ntomy lee is one of three del mar futurity champions to go on and win the derby . the others are gato del sol ( 1981 futurity , 1982 kentucky derby ) and silver charm ( 1996 futurity , 1997 derby ) .\nalthough gato del sol had finished second in the blue grass stakes at keeneland the week before , he went off at 21 - 1 odds in the derby . and why not ?\nto the owners ' credit , they never stopped trying with gato del sol , whose sire , cougar ii , had been a grass champion as a 6 - year - old .\nparis , ky . \u2014 gato del sol ' s hair has turned white . this probably can be laid more to his age \u2014 25 \u2014 than to , say , worry .\nhouse focus works exclusively for the buyer , which makes us the only exclusive buying agent on the costa del sol .\nthe 1981 del mar futurity winner gato del sol was the first del mar futurity winner to win the kentucky derby the following year . others to complete the double were silver charm ( 1996 - 97 ) , american pharoah ( 2014 - 15 ) and nyquist ( 2015 - 16 ) .\ngato del sol raced until the age of six for hancock and peters , eventually switching to the turf . before his racing career concluded , he won or placed in 17 stakes events and earned $ 1 , 340 , 107 . when he retired in 1985 , gato del sol had tallied seven of 39 starts and a place in history as the 1982 kentucky derby winner .\nthe 1982 case study is slightly different , in that derby upsetter gato del sol skipped the preakness won by aloma\u2019s ruler . neither could cope with conquistador cielo in the belmont , where gato del sol was best of the rest , but aloma\u2019s ruler turned the tables in both of their ensuing meetings , memorably when they were second and fifth , respectively , in the travers .\nso it was only fitting with the tone of surprising reversals that eddie gregson , the winner ' s trainer , said that gato del sol would probably not run in the preakness stakes may 15 .\n! our goal is to save you money and make sure that fantastic place on the sunny costa del sol will be yours .\nin the fall of ' 83 , gregson lost gato del sol to charlie whittingham , who had trained cougar . maturity , an emphasis on grass races and whittingham ' s considerable expertise still couldn ' t produce another major win for gato del sol . what jockey angel cordero once said about gato applied to too many of his races :\nthe horse is what you would call a plodder ; he keeps running at the same pace all the way around the track .\ngregson said earlier this week that his entire stable would accompany him when he takes gato del sol to belmont . gregson will then race most of his stock in new york , at least through autumn .\nby keith williams , the c - j staci and arthur hancock found gato del sol , now 25 , was living in germany and brought him back to their paris , ky . , farm in august 1999 . about top jobs paris , ky . \u2014 gato del sol ' s hair has turned white . this probably can be laid more to his age \u2014 25 \u2014 than to , say , worry .\nthe arlington million had a strong field , including the champion mare royal heroine as well as gato del sol , yet john henry made it look easy , drawing off to win by a length and three quarters .\ngato del sol , who won the ' 82 derby against 18 horses whose remaining careers were just about as lackluster as his , won only four subsequent races before his owners finally retired him to stud the other day .\nhad gato del sol ' s owners , arthur hancock iii and leone peters , known what was ahead , they might have retired their horse the day after the derby . gato del sol was probably an $ 8 - million stallion then , but last november , before he ran eighth in the breeders ' cup turf stakes at hollywood park , hancock estimated that the horse ' s value had shrunk to about $ 2 . 5 million .\nwhen exceller , a prime racer and a disappointing stud , ended up in a swedish slaughterhouse , arthur ' s wife , staci , began to worry . she fretted that gato del sol might meet the same fate .\neddie gregson trained gato del sol , and eddie delahoussaye rode him . in the derby their horse went off as a long shot from a seemingly impossible post position \u2014 19 \u2014 and won by 2\u00bd lengths over laser light .\nthe last time the travers field included three different triple crown winners was in 1982 , when gato del sol , aloma\u2019s ruler , and conquistador cielo competed . none of those horses won , however , as runaway groom finished first .\nlaser light , who lost ground at almost every opportunity , was moving fastest of all on the outside , but gato del sol , under 11 right - handed cracks of delahoussaye ' s whip , was able to maintain his margin .\nit will be remembered as the topsy - turvy derby , the one in which the last finished first . by the end of the mile - and - a - quarter race today at churchill downs , gato del sol had come from last place in a field of 19 to win the 108th kentucky derby . so it was only fitting with the tone of surprising reversals that eddie gregson , the winner ' s trainer , said that gato del sol would probably not run in the preakness stakes may 15 . gato del sol , a son of cougar whose name translates from spanish as cat of the sun , finished 2 1 / 2 lengths ahead of laser light , who nipped reinvested by a neck for second . urltoken\ngato del sol is owned and was bred in kentucky by arthur hancock 3d and leone j . peters , who collected $ 417 , 600 from a record derby purse of $ 522 , 600 . otherwise , the gray colt ' s victory was a california production . both delahoussaye and gregson do their racing in california , as had gato del sol until he finished second in the blue grass stakes nine days ago . the colt ' s victory was his first in five starts this year .\ngato del sol has now earned $ 724 , 793 in winning three of 13 career starts . his other two victories were at del mar near san diego , where he won a maiden race last august , and the rich del mar futurity a month later . he also has been second in the blue grass and san felipe , third in the balboa and norfolk , and fourth in the santa anita derby .\nimmediately following the derby , trainer eddie gregson announced plans to skip the preakness s . - g1 and focus on the belmont s . - g1 , a race better suited to gato del sol ' s abilities . it would be the first time in 23 years that the derby winner opted to pass the preakness and a chance at triple crown splendor . unfortunately , gato del sol ' s belmont bid fell just short , as he finished second to eventual horse of the year conquistador cielo , who also won the metropolitan h . - g1 just five days earlier .\ngato del sol , a son of cougar whose name translates from spanish as cat of the sun , finished 2 1 / 2 lengths ahead of laser light , who nipped reinvested by a neck for second . the three had been running in that order early in the race - at the back of the pack . if the field had been stopped at that point and turned backward , the result would have been the same as it was at the finish : coming out of the first turn , gato del sol was 19th , laser light was 18th and reinvested 17th .\nas a juvenile , gato del sol ' s potential was evident when he captured the del mar futurity - g2 in september of 1981 . although it would be his last victory until the run for the roses , the gray colt was runner - up in the prestigious blue grass s . - g1 as his last prep race for the derby and also had placed in the norfolk s . - g1 , san felipe h . - g2 , and hollywood prevue s . no race carries quite the impact as the derby , however , and gato del sol , rallying from last in the field of 19 , crossed the wire first in the most coveted race in north america .\nstanding at stone farm , gato del sol never lived up to expectations at stud , although he did sire some useful horses . he was sold to stand in germany beginning in 1993 , as it was hoped that european breeding would nicely compliment the strong turf and distance aspects of his pedigree . six years later , after hearing the disturbing news of exceller ' s untimely death in a swedish slaughterhouse , the hancocks bought gato del sol back and immediately pensioned him . the derby winner now enjoys his days in retirement , spending his time in a paddock at his birthplace and enjoying the attention of visiting fans .\ngato del sol , who was gray in his youth , went off at 21 - 1 odds and won the derby in shocking style . on the track he never again approached such eminence , retiring at age 6 . his second career , as a stud , was uninspiring , to put it kindly .\ndublino gets even in the $ 300 , 000 del mar oaks g1 . . .\nit will be remembered as the topsy - turvy derby , the one in which the last finished first . by the end of the mile - and - a - quarter race today at churchill downs , gato del sol had come from last place in a field of 19 to win the 108th kentucky derby .\nbut suddenly , they were going nowhere and a second flight of horses ran by them as they moved into the final turn . reinvested stuck his big white nose in front for a few strides , but gato del sol passed him on the outside as they straightened away in the stretch . fast on the outside\nmay britt has some thoroughbred horse connections . in 1958 she was briefly married to actor and future horse - trainer edwin gregson , trainer of 1982 kentucky derby winner gato del sol . since 1993 she has been married to lennart ringqust , who was the second husband of penny chenery , the owner of secretariat .\ngato was like a fairy tale ,\nhancock said .\nit was like seeing a vision .\ngato del sol ( usa ) gr . h , 1979 { a1 } dp = 6 - 3 - 5 - 2 - 2 ( 18 ) di = 1 . 77 cd = 0 . 50 - 39 starts , 7 wins , 9 places , 7 shows career earnings : $ 1 , 340 , 107\nironically , linkage , the colt who beat gato del sol by 5 1 / 2 lengths in the blue grass , was sent to maryland after that race to prepare for the preakness . that decision to skip the derby was almost as surprising as gregson ' s to skip the preakness . ' a longrunning horse '\nthis year , the horse developed an ankle problem , and even though whittingham squeezed out that last win in the 1 1 / 2 - mile caballero two months ago , gato del sol still finished with a record of only 2 wins in 17 starts on the turf . even the grass wasn ' t greener .\nlaser light might also pass the preakness in favor of the belmont . like gato del sol , he gets better the farther he runs and his trainer , pat kelly , said earlier this week that the belmont was his ultimate goal . the last derby winner to skip the preakness was tomy lee in 1959 . unusual misfortunes\nringquist is now married to may britt , the former actress . not long removed from her native sweden , britt had a brief marriage to the late eddie gregson , a 19 - year - old fledgling actor , in the late 1950s . in 1982 , gregson trained gato del sol , winner of the kentucky derby .\ntomy lee returns to the winner\u2019s circle under bill shoemaker following the 1958 del mar futurity .\nthe third - longest shot on the board , gato del sol flew under everyone ' s radar and pulled a massive upset to win the 1982 kentucky derby at odds of 21 - 1 . though the field that assembled was arguably one of the weakest in recent years , he rallied from last to first to win by 2\nthe hancocks found that gato del sol had been sold to a farm in germany . they plunked down about $ 5 , 500 to buy him back \u2014 and another $ 12 , 500 or so to ship him back to kentucky . he ' s one of about 200 horses on their 2 , 000 - acre farm .\namerican pharoah ( 2015 ) and gato del sol ( 1982 ) are the only two to win from post # 18 . # 19 and # 20 only have one winner apiece : i\u2019ll have another ( 2012 ) , and big brown ( 2008 ) respectively . the only post to never host a derby winner is # 17 .\ngato del sol carried eddie delahoussaye through the 10 furlongs in 2 : 02 2 / 5 , creditable time considering this derby field had been considered the weakest in recent years . he returned $ 44 . 40 for $ 2 to win , the longest derby payoff since proud clarion paid $ 62 . 20 in 1967 . second largest crowd\nless jaundiced historians will remember gato del sol as a derby winner who raced into his sixth year , the first to last that long since tomy lee , winner of the race in ' 59 . he was still on the track as a 7 - year - old . but tomy lee made only three starts from ages 4 through 6 .\nin 1984 , at the age of nine , the mighty gelding was back for still another grueling season . in his first start that year , he was beaten by champion interco and kentucky derby winner gato del sol in the santa anita handicap after stumbling out of the gate . he was third behind the same pair in the san luis rey .\n( hank wesch was the turf writer for the san diego union and union - tribune for 25 years . he authored a book on del mar\u2019s history \u201cdel mar : where the turf meets the surf , \u201d in 2011 and has written del mar\u2019s \u201cstable notes\u201d for the past four years . )\ntheir absences left many racing people feeling that this was an unusually sub - par field . that the first two finishers were sent off at 21 - 1 and 18 - 1 would support that notion . also , gato del sol ' s winning time was the fourth slowest in the last 20 years , over a track that was otherwise fast today .\nthe california - bred colt would become the seventh horse to race at del mar after winning the kentucky derby , joining gato del sol ( 1982 kentucky derby winner ) , ferdinand ( 1986 ) , unbridled ( 1990 ) , silver charm ( 1997 ) , war emblem ( 2002 ) and giacomo ( 2005 ) . a son of lucky pulpit , california chrome drew post no . 5 with regular rider victor espinoza and is scheduled to meet five three - year - old rivals .\ngregson had said several times this week that he thought gato del sol would be at his best in the mile - and - a - half belmont stakes , three weeks after the preakness . but a mile and a quarter seemed long enough for him today . now gregson , hancock and peters will have to decide whether shortening him up only a sixteenth of a mile will really compromise his form .\ngato del sol went through all of 1984 without winning . even so , he probably ran his best post - derby races last year . he was beaten by a neck by interco in the san luis rey stakes at santa anita , ran third behind john henry and royal heroine in the arlington park million , and was second , a length behind both ends burning , in the oak tree invitational .\nthere were physical problems along the way . trainer eddie gregson wisely skipped the preakness , incurring the wrath of most of the state of maryland , and after a distant second - place finish to conquistador cielo in the belmont stakes , gregson wanted to bypass the travers at saratoga , too . but gato del sol did run in the travers , finished last and suffered a chipped knee that sidelined him for almost nine months after surgery .\nalthough known as the\nmost exciting two minutes in sports ,\nthe kentucky derby - g1 can take a lifetime to win , or in arthur b . hancock iii ' s case , four lifetimes , as he is a fourth - generation horseman but the first in his family to capture the elusive prize . in 1982 , gato del sol , a flashy gray homebred , brought derby glory to hancock ' s stone farm .\nuna de las asociaciones decanas en la pr\u00e1ctica del senderismo andaluz , con miembros muy activos y una variada oferta de rutas .\nfour horses won the del mar futurity as juveniles and then went on to win the kentucky derby . name the horses .\nnone of the four later wins - - which gave the 6 - year - old gray a career total of seven - - amounted to anything . there was an allowance race at saratoga in 1982 , three months after his derby victory ; in ' 83 , a win on the grass in the spring at hollywood park and a win in the minor cabrillo handicap at del mar in august ; and this year , a win in the obscure caballero handicap at hollywood may 18 , which was the last start in gato del sol ' s 39 - race career .\na kentucky derby winner from this century won just one more race in his career , at del mar . name the horse .\nthere were two things in gato del sol ' s favor , however . for openers , no one knew that he was running against one of the weakest derby fields in years . timely writer , who had won the flamingo stakes and the florida derby , and hostage , winner of the arkansas derby , were out with injuries . the lukewarm favorite was air forbes won , winner of the wood memorial and undefeated , but a colt who had run only four times .\nthe colt , born in 1979 , was bred in partnership by hancock and leone peters , a longtime client of stone farm ' s . hancock and peters had bought his dam , peacefully , as a yearling at saratoga and campaigned her to a stakes win . after she was retired to stone farm as a broodmare , she was bred to stone farm stallion and eclipse award winner cougar ii for two consecutive years . her second mating to the stallion produced gato del sol .\ngato ' s victory meant it was time to reward ransom . the boss had a chevy in mind . once again , hancock and ransom were not on the same page .\ncalifornia chrome had offered a small hint of things to come with a victory in del mar\u2019s graduation stakes for california - breds before the futurity setback .\nthe popular grey silver charm began his career with a second - place finish at del mar aug . 10 in 1996 , and followed it with a maiden victory aug . 24 and victory in the del mar futurity , then grade 2 , sept . 11 . he won the derby and preakness the following year .\nhowever , delve back a little and there are some intriguing links . here\u2019s a few posers to test your knowledge of the connections between the derby and del mar .\na kentucky derby winner of the 1990s had his first three races at del mar , finishing second , first , and first in those races . which horse was it ?\nwhen it was all over , sunday silence wore the derby roses with easy goer placing second . hancock had his second derby in seven years , having won in 1982 with gato del sol . horse racing is the sport of dreams , and there is no higher dream , no more colossal wish , no more powerful hope , than to be standing in the kentucky derby winner ' s circle on the first saturday in may . it has reduced grown men to tears . hancock had his second derby and sunday silence was the star , but still neither hancock nor the world could possibly anticipate the greatness that was sunday silence .\ngato del sol came away relaxed in last position and clear of horses , advanced on the outside under his own courage in the backstretch , picked up the field with a strong run completing the turn to take command before the furlong pole , was unaffected by reinvested leaning on him briefly and drew clear under strong right hand use of the whip into the final yards . laser light also relaxed in the early running , followed gato del sol around horses leaving the backstretch and was wide straightening away for the final stretch drive , loomed boldly but could not sustain his bid while gamely besting reinvested for the place . reinvested , intimidated by water bank leaving the half - mile marker and bothering cassaleria , swung slightly out on that rival getting room on the outside to follow gato del sol approaching mid - stretch , leaned in briefly under right hand urging and hung . water bank saved ground early , found room between rivals with a stretch bid and hung . muttering , well placed from the beginning , made a bid between horses entering the stretch and weakened slightly . rockwall finished well without being a threat . air forbes won responded with a strong run to reach the leaders completing the final turn and weakened late . star gallant was never a serious factor . majesty ' s prince bore out slightly while tiring . cupecoy ' s joy set the pace in comfortable fashion into the stretch turn before giving way . el baba , well situated closest to the pace , drew on even terms for the lead entering the stretch and weakened suddenly . cassaleria was being outrun when bothered by reinvested in the backstretch and never became a factor . royal roberto was outrun at all stages . bold style saved ground racing forwardly placed for six furlongs and tired . wolfie ' s rascal lost ground and dropped back early . new discovery gave a dull effort . real dare tired badly . scratched - rock steady .\nbaffert . callahan . espinoza . stevens . zayat . zetcher . all familiar names and faces at del mar for the summer and , as of last year , fall meetings .\nthis saturday , kentucky derby winner always dreaming , preakness stakes winner cloud computing , and belmont stakes winner tapwrit will square off in the mile - and - a - quarter travers stakes at saratoga . thirty - five years earlier , in 1982 , the three classic winners \u2014 gato del sol , aloma\u2019s ruler , and conquistador cielo \u2014 all met in the travers as well , but runaway groom , winner of the prince of wales stakes in canada , surprised them all in the stretch to win . in 1918 , the kentucky derby , the preakness , and the belmont winners all faced off in the travers stakes at saratoga , also with a surprising result .\nsince 1981 , six cashcall futurity participants have gone on to win the kentucky derby ( gato del sol , 1981 ; ferdinand , 1985 ; alysheba , 1986 ; thunder gulch , 1994 ; real quiet , 1997 ; and giacomo , 2004 ) . six have also come back to win the preakness ( tanks prospect , 1984 ; snow chief , 1985 ; alysheba , 1986 ; real quiet , 1997 ; point given , 2000 ; and lookin at lucky , 2009 ) . three have won the belmont stakes ( a . p . indy , 1991 ; thunder gulch , 1994 ; and point given , 2000 ) . eleven cashcall starters have won a breeders\u2019 cup race .\nhe had won only two races in his life , and the blue grass was his seventh non - winning performance since he had taken the del mar futurity in september of ' 81 .\nfusaichi pegasus is the third winner of racing ' s most coveted prize to be bred and / or raised at stone farm . gato del sol , winner of the 1982 derby , also was bred by stone and raised on stone ' s rich land . horse of the year sunday silence , winner of the 1989 derby and preakness s . - g1 , was raised by stone as well and later owned in partnership by hancock . in addition , secretariat ' s best son , risen star , who won the preakness and belmont s . - g1 in 1988 and was subsequently named champion 3 - year - old colt , also was bred , raised , and sold by stone .\n' ' we ' ll be sitting down and talking about it , ' ' peters said . ' ' it ' s up to our trainer . ' ' hancock and peters were represented in last year ' s derby by tap shoes , one of the favorites , who finished 14th . hancock is the eldest son of arthur hancock 2d , owner of claiborne farm , perhaps the most regal breeding farm in the country and the current home of several retired derby winners , including secretariat and spectacular bid . but the younger hancock went on his own after a dispute with his family and founded stone farm on an adjacent piece of land , where gato del sol was born and raised . a brilliant future\ndel mar renamed its escondido handicap in cougar ii ' s honor in 2007 . the 1 - 1 / 2 mile grade iii stakes for horses aged 3 and up is run on the main track .\nfor another thing , cupecoy ' s joy , a filly , ran one of the fastest three - quarter miles in derby history , and air forbes won and el baba , the second betting choice , tried to stay with her . all three horses paid the penalty . by the time they had to look down churchill downs ' long stretch , they were spent . gato del sol , who broke from the 18th post position , was in last place for a while , looped the field going down the backstretch and then was brought between horses by jockey eddie delahoussaye through the stretch . the horses who finished second , third and fourth - - laser light , reinvested and water bank - - also came from far back .\nthe 2005 kentucky derby was won at 50 - 1 by the californian - trained colt giacomo . he ran several good races afterwards , but his only subsequent victory was the 2006 san diego handicap at del mar .\nin 2005 , o\u2019neill saddled steviewonderboy , owned by entertainment mogul merv griffin , to victories in the del mar futurity and breeders\u2019 cup juvenile - - making the colt the future book favorite for a derby he wouldn\u2019t make .\nnow , for both of them , it\u2019s on to saturday\u2019s preakness , the second jewel in the triple crown series . a jewel which horses with strong del mar connections have both grasped , and declined to reach for .\nno kentucky derby winner has won del mar\u2019s richest race , the pacific classic in the same year . however , four 3 - year - olds beaten in the derby won the pacific classic later that year . name them .\nbut a look at the history of the del mar futurity , which will be run for the 67th time on wednesday ( september 3 ) , shows an admirable record for providing horses to watch when the triple crown series begins .\nwe continue straight at first , until we find a pair of little , ruined houses known as del consumo and del fielato . they used to be checkpoints for the products that arrived to the city of ronda . we continue through a clear piece of land that used be a sand mining area ( arenas de santander ) and then descend among the country houses of the ca\u00f1ada real del campo de gibraltar , with which we will also share our itinerary from now on . the track ends at the road from ronda to benaoj\u00e1n ( ma - 7401 ) . we will follow the road for 400m and then , after crossing it , continue down the track that goes to junta de los r\u00edos .\n1986 kentucky derby winner ferdinand won a memorable breeders\u2019 cup classic in 1987 over that year\u2019s derby winner alysheba . it was ferdinand\u2019s fourth win in a row , one of which came at the del mar summer meet . name that race .\nfour years ago loes fell in love with andaluc\u00eda and the spanish life . her passion for other cultures and languages made her professional career successful as international project manager , doing business with several countries in europe and south america . during these years in spain she built up a great local and international network on the costa del sol . a peoples person is what they call her , dedicated and honest . she will do everything in her power to make her clients walk away with greater than expected results and completely satisfied with their experience with house focus .\nin 2012 , o\u2019neill won the kentucky derby and preakness with a horse , i\u2019ll have another , who finished second to creative cause in the 2011 best pal stakes at del mar , but o\u2019neill opted not to run him in the futurity .\nin its 11th running , in 1958 , the del mar futurity produced a winner , english - bred tomy lee , who would wear the blanket of roses on the first saturday in may the following year through a victory in the kentucky derby .\nthe shock of that . . . really moved me and gave it some sense of urgency ,\nshe said .\nit was exceller that prompted me thinking , ` i want to keep an eye on him ( gato ) , and i want to know where he is at all times . '\nnyquist remained unbeaten after eight starts when he won the 2016 kentucky derby . he recorded his first graded stakes victories the previous year in the best pal stakes and the del mar futurity on the way to becoming champion 2 - year - old male .\nin recent years , trainer doug o\u2019neill has experienced the high of winning a del mar futurity and the low of missing the derby with the same horse . and the low of losing the futurity with one horse , and winning the kentucky derby with a stablemate .\nthe wide and stone paved path starts with a steep slope that twists and turns in between the almond trees , known as the cuesta del cachondeo . in front of the worn walls of the albacara , which were once plastered with rammed earth and lime , we find a fork on the road . the path runs alongside the wall and connects the puerta del viento ( gate of the wind ) , to the left , with the puerta de los molinos ( gate of the mills ) , to the right . after crossing the puerta del viento , we turn to a path which descends to the right . this path is made of slippery pebbles that can make the walk more difficult when it rains . if so , be careful not to fall and watch out for any passing vehicles .\nthe kentucky derby in spring may not always seem closely linked to california\u2019s great late - summer meet at del mar , especially given that derby 3 - year - olds often chase east coast races in summer such as the jim dandy stakes , haskell invitational , and travers stakes .\ndel mar racegoers one day in the 1990s who watched a colt finish fourth in a maiden special weight juvenile race over a mile \u2013 thus meaning he was still a maiden after six races \u2013 would have been surprised to learn that he would win the kentucky derby . name the horse .\namerican pharaoah made his racing debut at del mar on august 9 and finished fifth of nine , making behavioral and competitive mistakes that haven\u2019t been seen since , then returned to shine in the futurity . firing line broke his maiden in his second career start on the closing day of the fall meeting .\nthe gr - 141 continues its way to jimera de l\u00edbar after a level crossing and the bridge over the guadiaro . the path that we see by the river leads to the charco de la barranca and the cueva del gato . we will turn south , following the signs of the gr - 141 , gr - 249 and sl - a 138 . we will encounter the ruins of some old mills associated near the river banks and inns like the one of mar\u00eda joaquina , located on the left bank and easily recognisable for its two palm trees in the front patio , devoured by the red palm weevil . we can see again how the erosion removes the soil that hides the stone pavement .\nwe leave behind the municipality of ronda and enter that of benaoj\u00e1n . a road crosses the railway towards the pasada de gibraltar , fording the guadiaro river and resuming the ca\u00f1ada real together with the pr - 251 and heading to cueva del gato , estaci\u00f3n de benaoj\u00e1n and benaoj\u00e1n . we continue straight into a well marked trail , the camino viejo de ronda ( old road to ronda ) , which gradually climbs higher and higher through huge retamas ( a species of broom bush ) and groups of fan palms . asparagus plants , thorny brooms , buckthorns and wild olive trees also grow here . if we look up to the sky we will surely spot committees of griffon vultures , which are abundant in the area .\n' ' i ' ve pointed this colt for the kentucky derby ever since he won the del mar futurity as a 2 - year - old , ' ' gregson said . ' ' he ' s a longrunning horse , and win , lose or draw i wasn ' t planning on the preakness . ' '\nferdinand\u2019s del mar victory \u2013 the second in a four - race streak which also included the hollywood gold cup and the goodwood handicap ( now the awesome again stakes ) \u2013 was the cabrillo handicap . this ungraded event was run for the last time in 1990 , giving way when the pacific classic was inaugurated in 1991 .\nwe are now entering the sierra de grazalema natural park . at this point we can cross the ca\u00f1ada real del campo de gibraltar through the itineraries gr - 7 and pr - 251 to montejaque and to the boquete de mures . our choice is to follow the track that overlaps with the pr - 253 and the gr - 249 . we walk alongside railroad track and the guadiaro river . we will see the limestone mountainsides of the cerro de mures and the sierra del algarrobo to the west , dedicated to dry - land farming . after leaving behind the wide meadow known as vega of huertas nuevas , at the point where the guadiaro approaches the ca\u00f1ada real , we find a prominent and solitary ash tree .\nthere are plenty of reasons to play saturday at del mar , from the exceptional stakes races , headlined by the pacific classic , to the exceptional wager menu , topped by a $ 1 million guaranteed late pick 4 ( races 8 \u2013 11 ) . to help you bet the races , we welcome you to check out our free pacific classic wager guide , which is loaded with picks , analysis , wagering strategies and stats for the day\u2019s three graded stakes races . a full xpressbet account is not required to access the guide , however if you don\u2019t have an account , you must sign up for a trial account prior to downloading . xpressbet customers - log in & download non - xpressbet customers - sign up for a free trial account . no ssn or address required . plus , bet the races with us on saturday at del mar to split 3 million xb rewards points . first post from del mar is 5 : 00pm et and the pacific classic goes as race 8 , at 8 : 45pm et . watch the pacific classic live on the nbc sports network at 8 : 00pm et .\nwith years of experience working in real estate and banking in the netherlands , peter decided 11 years ago to start a new life in spain . during these 11 years he and his partner set up and managed successfully the restaurant el gato lounge in torremolinos . never losing his interest in real estate , they started renting out holiday properties for home owners several years ago . he would love to represent your interests and will be proud to arrange the best possible deal for you .\n\u201csteviewonderboy had such a great mind . i think it takes a brilliant two - year - old who also has a brilliant mind to win a race like the del mar futurity , \u201d o\u2019neill said . \u201csteviewonderboy just got stung by the injury bug early on in his three - year - old campaign or i think he would have been a factor in the derby . \u201d\nwe begin the first part of the gr 141 gran senda de la serran\u00eda de ronda ( great track of the serrania de ronda ) in plaza de mar\u00eda auxiliadora ( mar\u00eda auxiliadora square ) , also known as plaza del campillo . it is located in the historical centre of the city and near a row of natural balconies that look over the hoya del tajo ( river basin of the tajo de ronda ) , a great steep depression through which the guadalevin river runs . the quickest way to get here , taking the municipal tourism office next to the bull ring as reference , would be to get to the nearby plaza de espa\u00f1a and to cross the famous puente nuevo ( new bridge ) . then , we just have to follow armi\u00f1an and tenorio streets .\nthe neighbourhood of estaci\u00f3n de benaoj\u00e1n was built due to the construction of the bobadilla - algeciras railroad . it reached its peak in the mid - 20th century , when the delicatessen lived its best moments . the industrial restructuring of the 80s caused its decline and many abandoned factories remain as proof . nevertheless , we can still buy different pork products ( like manteca de lomo , zurrapa color\u00e1 , ca\u00f1a de lomo , salchich\u00f3n , etc . ) . in the last few years tourism activities have developed and we now find numerous restaurants and accommodations . from benaoj\u00e1n station we can follow several tracks of great interest . the one that takes you through the sl - a 139 towards the cueva del gato ( 2 . 2km long ) , and the one going up to the cueva de la pileta and through the sierra de grazalema natural park ( 3 . 2km ) are highly recommendable .\nwhy it was shocking : though he had won the prestigious del mar futurity as a juvenile , his three - year - old season had been less inspiring . from four races as a sophomore , he had failed to win and was fourth in the santa anita derby in his final prep , leaving questions as to whether or not he had peaked as a two - year - old .\nkentucky derby and preakness winner california chrome will make his turf debut in saturday ' s grade 1 , $ 300 , 000 hollywood derby at del mar . a neck third in the breeders ' cup classic , the art sherman - trained colt can make a push for horse of the year and champion three - year - old male with a victory in the 1 1 / 8 - mile turf affair .\namerican pharoah , who first showcased his talent winning the 2014 del mar futurity , was the derby favorite and obvious horse to watch . and it wasn\u2019t difficult to follow the yellow and blue dotted silks of owner ahmed zayat as jockey victor espinoza guided american pharoah on a wide - but - clear trip from the no . 18 post and prevailed by a length over a game firing line and gary stevens .\nreal quiet couldn\u2019t win at his first six race attempts in 1997 . he had finished third in four races prior to his del mar fourth - place finish . but he won two of his next three starts , including the hollywood futurity ( g1 ) , and the following year went closer than any horse between affirmed and american pharoah to completing the triple crown , losing the belmont stakes on the line by a nose .\nkentucky - bred and venezuelan - raced canonero ii finished fifth , 7 3 / 4 lengths behind june darling in the 1970 del mar futurity . the following may , however , he shocked the racing world with a 3 3 / 4 length victory in the derby . part of the six - horse \u201cfield\u201d in a race with 20 horses but technology for only 14 betting interests , canonero ii paid $ 19 . 20 to win and left horse players to wonder what his odds might have been as a solo option .\nafter a steep slope , we finally surmount the mountain pass of la muela , superb balcony to make a stop and to look back . up to here , the track coincides with the local trail sl - a 38 molinos del tajo ( mills of the tajo ) . this itinerary is also part of the montejaque - ronda section of the gr - 7 ( e / 4 ) and the small routes that lead to benaoj\u00e1n ( pr - a 251 ) and montejaque ( pr - a 253 ) , that converge from this point onwards .\nhowever , the filly lexie lou , winner of the queen ' s plate at woodbine and most recently the autumn miss at santa anita , is cross - entered to sunday ' s grade 1 matriarch for fillies and mare on turf . the hollywood derby is one of three stakes on the penultimate day of del mar ' s bing crosby season along with the native diver , a grade 3 event at 1 1 / 8 miles on polytrack ; and jimmy durante , a one - mile grade 3 turf affair for three - year - old fillies .\nfrom the small bridge that crosses the guadalcobac\u00edn river , we can see the point where the two rivers ( guadalcobac\u00edn and guadalev\u00edn ) meet . from this point onwards the river is known as guadiaro . black poplars , poplars , willows and ash trees grow on the river bank and barbels are easily spotted in its waters . further on , we will see a small stream , the arroyo del cupil , flowing into the guadiaro river . we leave the paved track and cross the railroad at the level crossing , after which we will find another fork in the road .\nonce we arrive at a mound on the road , we can look out to see a splendid panoramic of benaoj\u00e1n and its mountain range . afterwards , we will follow our path along the oak - covered mountainside . we will also find oaks , ardiviejas ( a type of rockrose ) , furzes , matagallos ( a type of nettle ) , and osyrises . on the other side of the river , in the paraje de la fresnedilla , we will observe the water supply facilities of benaoj\u00e1n and the old vegetable gardens of andalusi origin , which are still cultivated . after a small descent , the road crosses a bridge over the arroyo del agua ( stream of the water ) . once we have crossed the river , which is covered in rosebays , we can visit the ruins of the inn of arroyo del agua with the ruiniform cach\u00f3n background on the opposite bank . behind the walls and looking to the river , a part of the old stone paving is still preserved , as well as some fig trees and a marvellous laurel . it is here that the road turns into a small path . after a light ascent , we reach another fabulous hillock where the path cuts through the rock .\nowner : a . b . hancock iii / stone farm breeder : a . b . hancock iii & l . j . peters state bred : ky winnings : 39 starts : 7 - 9 - 7 , $ 1 , 340 , 107 at 2 : 1st del mar futurity ( g2 ) ; 2nd hollywood prevue s . ; 3rd norfolk s . ( g1 ) , balboa s . at 3 : 1st kentucky derby ( g1 ) ; 2nd san felipe h . ( g2 ) , blue grass s . ( g1 ) , belmont s . ( g1 ) at 4 : 1st cabrillo h . ; 2nd del mar invitational h . ( g2 ) at 5 : 2nd san luis rey s . ( g1 ) , oak tree invitational ( g1 ) ; 3rd santa anita h . ( g1 ) , budweiser million ( g1 ) , carleton f . burke h . ( g2 ) at 6 : 1st caballero h . ; 2nd premiere h . ( only 2 starts in last year ) went out a winner in the 1985 caballero handicap . at stud : stone farm / ky 1986 - 92 ; gestut goerlsdorf , germany 1993 - 99 returned to stone farm ( pensioned ) in august 2000 euthanized due to the infirmities of old age at stone farm , august 7 , 2007 . urltoken ( close )\nas it happened with the benaoj\u00e1n station , this neighborhood rose thanks to the construction of the algeciras - bobadilla railroad . the nice climate of the town , in which vegetable gardens and citrus fruits proliferate , did not come unnoticed by the tourists , who made the area the leading edge in rural tourism in the region of m\u00e1laga . from here we can make different itineraries : on one hand , across the ca\u00f1ada real del campo de gibraltar and the guadiaro , and through the proper town of jimera de l\u00edbar on the other . you can also practice canoeing , as the section of the river in between the stations of benaoj\u00e1n and jimera is perfect for doing so . several whitewater rafting competitions have been held here ."]}
{"id": 2353, "summary": [{"text": "the wallace 's hanging parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) also known as the flores hanging parrot , is a small ( length : 11 \u2013 12 cm ) parrot endemic to the island of flores .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this is an arboreal parrot .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "the male is predominantly green , with a red bill , a red spot on the throat , orange legs and dark red nape , bright red rump and uppertail-coverts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the female has the red on the throat reduced or absent .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this parrot qualifies as endangered as it has a very small range and population .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the main threat is habitat destruction .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the current population is estimated at between 2500 and 10000 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is named after alfred russel wallace , a british naturalist , explorer , geographer , and biologist . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "wallace ' s hanging parrot", "paragraphs": ["wallace ' s hanging parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) is a species of bird in the psittaculidae family .\nthe wallace ' s hanging parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) - also known as the flores hanging parrot - is endemic to the western parts of the island of flores in the lesser sunda islands of indonesia .\nhanging parrots general info and species listing . . . photos of the various hanging parrot species for identification\nspecies : scientific : loriculus flosculus . . . english : wallace ' s hanging parrot . . . dutch : flores hangparkiet . . . german : bl\u00fctenpapagei . . . french : loricule de walace\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\nthe wallace ' s hanging parrot is well camouflaged by its plumage and is , therefore , easily overlooked in the foliage . they are most commonly seen flying . their flight is rapid with whirring wing - beats . their calls are not particularly loud , but sharp and shrill .\nthe flores hanging parrot was , until fairly recently , thought to be extinct due to its very small range and population .\ncites lexicon of parrots birdlife international internet bird collection parrots : a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 xeno - canto wallace ' s hanging parrot , chartier , allen t . xc31397 parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . 2010 edition vanished and vanishing parrots , forshaw , 2017 . parrots in aviculture , low , 1992 .\nall other parrots on flores are much larger . tawny - breasted parrot - finch\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\ncollar , n . , de juana , e . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . flores hanging - parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ndue to its very small range and population , this parrot qualifies as endangered . the current population is estimated at between 2500 and 10000 . its main threat is habitat destruction due to deforestation .\n11 - 12 cm . arboreal parrot . male predominantly green , lighter on underparts , with red bill , elongated red spot on throat , orange legs and dark red nape , bright red rump and uppertail - coverts . female has red on throat reduced or absent .\nthis parrot qualifies as endangered because it has a very small range , in which its habitat is severely fragmented and declining in extent and quality , with rapid declines suspected in the population . its status is likely to deteriorate further if conservation measures are not implemented in the near future .\nthis is a small arboreal parrot , averaging 4 . 75 inches ( 11 to 12 cm in length ) . the male is predominantly yellowish - green , with a red bill , an elongated red spot on the throat , orange legs and dark red nape , bright red rump and uppertail - coverts . the bill is pale red with yellow tips . the iris of the male is orange ( hen brown ) and the feet are brownish - flesh in color .\nthe population is estimated to number 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the species ' s distribution seems to correspond with the two major natural forest types on flores : moist evergreen and semi - deciduous . these are being cleared for agriculture and the collection of firewood and construction materials . hence , the species is suspected to be in decline , although the likely rate of decline has not been estimated .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nendangered b1ab ( ii , iii , iv , v ) ver 3 . 1\n, where it is known from eight documented localities , at some of which it is locally common in groups of up to 20 birds ( birdlife international 2001 ) . at tanjung kerita mese , population density was estimated at c . 10 birds per hectare . the species is quite easily overlooked ; however , its overall rarity cannot be disputed , and its apparently restricted habitat and altitudinal range suggest that it must be both numerically constrained and susceptible to further habitat loss . recent records on rinca island from outside its known altitudinal range and preferred habitat\n. 2007 ) suggest that it may be more cosmopolitan in its distribution and therefore less threatened , but this requires further research .\n. 2007 ) . its range apparently closely equates to that of these two forest - types on flores , although it also visits degraded roadside habitat . it occurs chiefly in a narrow altitudinal band between 600 m and 1 , 200 m , but has been recorded down to sea - level in deciduous forest on rinca island\nhabitat destruction through the combined impacts of firewood collection , commercial logging , timber extraction for construction materials and clearance for agriculture together represent the most pertinent threat . the loss and fragmentation of forests is already extensive on flores , where no semi - evergreen forest below 1 , 000 m is included within gazetted protected areas . these threats are compounded by human population expansion , with large volumes of timber required for housing construction , and the fact that there is little or no governmental enforcement of laws . moist deciduous forest is currently being extensively cleared through land grabbing and establishment of agricultural areas , a factor that is inevitably reducing the range and population of this species . forest clearance continues in the coastal belt to make way for crops , and illegal logging continues in protected areas .\ncites appendix ii . two recent surveys have targeted endemic birds on flores . two sites at which this species occurs are proposed for establishment as protected areas : tanjung kerita mese and egon iliwuli ( on gunung egon ) .\nconduct a targeted survey for the species to identify important sites , with a view to affording them protection . conduct research into its status and habitat use ( with particular regard to feeding ecology and forest fragmentation ) such that long - term management of the species is facilitated . monitor trade across indonesia to investigate whether this presents a significant threat . support the rapid establishment of tanjung kerita mese proposed protected area along with additional intact stretches of forest at nggorang bowosie ( 220 km\n) . initiate awareness campaigns to elicit the support of local people in protecting forests .\nthis errata version of the 2014 assessment was created because the original publication was missing the red list criteria .\n( errata version published in 2018 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t22685428a123785052 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nforms a species - group with l . exilis and l . pusillus , and sometimes considered conspecific with former . monotypic .\n11\u201312 cm . green , lighter on underparts ; bill red ; throat with elongated red spot ; nape tinged orange ; rump and uppertail - coverts red ; legs orange . female has red on . . .\nmainly combinations of insect - like , short , staccato , high - pitched \u201ctsee\u201d or \u201ctsik\u201d notes .\nprimary semi - evergreen forest , chiefly 800\u20131000 m but with records down to 450 m .\nmost sightings in 1993 were in fruiting fig trees , and dependence or specialisation on this food resource judged likely .\nendangered . cites ii . previously considered vulnerable . a birdlife \u201crestricted - range\u201d species . surveys in 1993 found it to be locally common in the tanjung kerita . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 153 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nmale - mainly green in colour , orange tint on nape to upper mantle ; red rump and upper tail coverts ; long , red mark on throat ; green tail tipped with pale green ; outer tail feathers tipped with orange / red . bill orange / red . eye orange . female - as in male , but long , red mark on throat minimal or absent . eye brown .\ncalls made in flight are sharp and screeching ; same notes are made while perched but are softer . also emits some hoarse , abrupt notes in display .\naviary 2 x 1 x 2m ( 6 . 5 x 3 . 3 x 6 . 5 ft ) or large birdroom cage with tiled surround and well - drained floor .\nfruits such as : figs , apple , pear , banana , orange , pomegranate , mango , papaya , cactus fruits ; vegetables such as : carrot , celery , green beans and peas in the pod ; nectar made from : lactose - free baby cereal , honey , malt extract or molasses , mixed with filtered water and made fresh once or twice daily or , commercial lory nectar ; various millet seed mixes , canary grass seed , and small amount of niger and oats ( may be sprouted ) ; millet spray ( may be sprouted ) ; softened rusk , eggfood and mealworm larvae for rearing .\nenjoys bathing so provide overhead misters or shallow water bowls . provide regular supply of fresh , unsprayed flowering , willow , or elder branches for the birds to remove the bark .\nthis species is threatened by the combined impacts of firewood collection , commercial logging , timber extraction for construction materials and clearance for agriculture .\nfound from 450 - 1000m ( 1312 - 3280 ft ) in primary semi - evergreen forest . on rinca seen in coastal moist deciduous forest . apparently requires an abundance of fruiting figs .\noutside the breeding season birds gather in flocks of up to 20 individuals . are easily overlooked in the canopy ; noisy and conspicuous in flight .\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >\ntheir preferred habitat includes forest and wooded areas , as well astall secondary vegetation . outside the breeding season , they are usually seen in small family groups and small flocks of up to 10 birds . at times larger gatherings can be seen foraging in favored feeding areas , such as on flowering and fruiting trees .\nplease note that some sources consider this species extinct . the state that the only specimen collected in about 1875 on flores island may not have been a valid species and it disappearead after deforestation . ( references : fuller , e . extinct birds of the world ql676 . 8 . f85 1987 isbn 0 - 8160 - 1833 - 2 p . 13 ) .\nhens have brown irises and the red throat patch is much smaller or even absent in some females .\ntheir natural diet consists of nectar , fruits , buds , flowers and seeds .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nbirdlife is reviewing the status of this species for the 2018 red list . please click here to join the discussion\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : loriculus flosculus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 ."]}
{"id": 2358, "summary": [{"text": "apocorophium lacustre is a species of amphipod crustacean .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it lives in nearly fresh water ; it is white and up to 6 mm long .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it occurs mainly on the atlantic coast of north america , the north sea and the baltic . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "apocorophium lacustre", "paragraphs": ["kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\npolyyppikatka\nto\napocorophium lacustre ( vanhoffen , 1911 )\n.\nbenson , a . j . , 2018 , apocorophium lacustre vanhoffen , 1911 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 3 / 7 / 2018 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of apocorophium lacustre are found here .\n( of corophium lacustre vanh\u00f6ffen , 1911 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nwilson , e . 2002 . apocorophium lacustre a mud shrimp . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken\nm . j . de kluijver & s . s . ingalsuo ( 1999 ) .\ncorophium lacustre\n. macrobenthos of the north sea .\n( of corophium lacustre vanh\u00f6ffen , 1911 ) bousfield , e . l . ( 1973 ) . shallow - water gammaridean amphipoda of new england . cornell university press , ithaca . 312 pp . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of corophium lacustre vanh\u00f6ffen , 1911 ) lincoln , r . j . ( 1979 ) . british marine amphipoda : gammaridea . british museum ( natural history ) : london , uk . isbn 0 - 565 - 00818 - 8 . vi , 658 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of corophium lacustre vanh\u00f6ffen , 1911 ) bellan - santini , d . ; costello , m . j . ( 2001 ) . amphipoda . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels 50 : pp . 295 - 308 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhorton , t . ; lowry , j . ; de broyer , c . ; bellan - santini , d . ; coleman , c . o . ; corbari , l . ; daneliya , m . ; dauvin , j - c . ; fi\u0161er , c . ; gasca , r . ; grabowski , m . ; guerra - garc\u00eda , j . m . ; hendrycks , e . ; hughes , l . ; jaume , d . ; jazdzewski , k . ; kim , y . - h . ; king , r . ; krapp - schickel , t . ; lecroy , s . ; l\u00f6rz , a . - n . ; mamos , t . ; senna , a . r . ; serejo , c . ; sket , b . ; souza - filho , j . f . ; tandberg , a . h . ; thomas , j . ; thurston , m . ; vader , w . ; v\u00e4in\u00f6l\u00e4 , r . ; vonk , r . ; white , k . ; zeidler , w . ( 2018 ) . world amphipoda database .\nlecroy , s . e . ; gasca , r . ; winfield , i . ; ortiz , m . ; escobar - briones , e . ( 2009 ) . amphipoda ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college . pp . 941\u2013972 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nmaris , t . ; beauchard , o . ; van damme , s . ; van den bergh , e . ; wijnhoven , s . ; meire , p . ( 2013 ) . referentiematrices en ecotoopoppervlaktes annex bij de evaluatiemethodiek schelde - estuarium studie naar \u201cecotoopoppervlaktes en intactness index\u201d . monitor taskforce publication series , 2013 - 01 . nioz : yerseke . 35 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngrigorovich , i . a . , t . r . angradi , e . b . emery , and m . s . wooten . 2008 . invasion of the upper mississippi river system by saltwater amphipods . fundamental and applied limnology 173 ( 1 ) : 67 - 77 .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\na small amphipod that grows up to 6 mm . the body is subcylindrical and depressed . it has small eyes that are situated on extensions of the head .\nconstructs mud tubes on hydroids , submerged vegetation and other surfaces in fresh or slightly brackish waters .\nurosome segments fused ; lateral ridge distinct , uropods 1 and 2 inserted ventrally .\nuropod 1 peduncle outer margin with 7 - 8 spines , inner margin with 1 distal spine ; uropod 2 peduncle inner margin with 1 distal spine , outer margin with 3 - 5 setae .\nbarnes , r . s . k . , 1994 . the brackish - water fauna of northwestern europe . cambridge : cambridge university press .\nbratton , j . h . ( ed . ) , 1991 . british red data books : 3 . invertebrates other than insects . peterborough : joint nature conservation committee .\nhowson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]\nlincoln , r . j . , 1979 . british marine amphipoda : gammaridea . london : british museum ( natural history ) .\nmarine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) \u00a9 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .\nthe information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken\nmclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\ndepth range based on 231 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1 sample . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : - 99 - 23 . 39 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 23 . 731 - 23 . 731 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 327 - 0 . 327 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 209 - 35 . 209 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 4 . 870 - 4 . 870 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 133 - 0 . 133 silicate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 081 - 1 . 081 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : - 99 - 23 . 39 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nand up to 6 mm long . it occurs mainly on the atlantic coast of north america , the north sea and the baltic .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nfaasse , m . ; van moorsel , g . ( 2003 ) . the north - american amphipods , melita nitida smith , 1873 and incisocalliope aestuarius ( watling and maurer , 1973 ) ( crustacea : amphipoda : gammaridea ) , introduced to the western scheldt estuary ( the netherlands ) . < em > aquatic ecology . < / em > 37 ( 1 ) : 13 - 22 .\nlecroy , s . e . ; gasca , r . ; winfield , i . ; ortiz , m . ; escobar - briones , e . ( 2009 ) . amphipoda ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico . < em > in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college . < / em > pp . 941\u2013972 ."]}
{"id": 2362, "summary": [{"text": "the pacific sand sole , psettichthys melanostictus , is the only fish in the genus , psettichthys , in the , pleuronectidae , family .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is a flatfish and inhabits northeastern pacific waters where it lives on sandy bottoms . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "pacific sand sole", "paragraphs": ["planktonic sand sole . only 2 . 7 cm . click image to enlarge . photo : hildering\nspecies name : psettichthys melanostictus common name : pacific sand sole accessioned : tbd burke museum catalog number : burke museum of natural history and culture scanned by : matthew a kolmann scanner model : brucker skyscan 1173 voxel size : 50um comments : a sand sole caught by the 2016 biology of fishes course ( fhl 305a ) at friday harbor labs at jackson beach . image :\now i hope this little planktonic fish will be a . . . sole survivor .\nhabitat selection of juvenile sole ( solea solea l . ) : consequences for shoreface nourishment\nnortheastern pacific : bering sea coast of alaska to islas los coronados , northern baja california , mexico .\nsimilar to rock sole , which has higher arch in lateral line and shorter accessory dorsal branch .\nhabitat selection of juvenile sole ( solea solea l . ) : consequences for shoreface nourishment - sciencedirect\n\u201cthe single embedded sand flea remained a virgin , \u201d thielecke wrote . the results of her self - made sand flea experiment were published last month in travel medicine .\nthielecke was living in central madagascar , prime sand - flea country , for an eight - month stretch in 2011 . while working with people who were suffering from tungiasis , thielecke herself fell prey to a sand flea that tunneled deep into the sole of her right foot .\nsand sole are an excellent sportfish and are good eating . however , many of these sole are mistaken for california halibut and unnecessarily returned to the water because they do not meet the minimum size requirements for halibut . learn to differentiate between the different flatfish species . sandies live to about ten years of age .\naquarium example of a sole burying itself on the bottom - the hogchoker ( trinectes maculatus ) is a small sole found on the gulf coast . unlike the southern and gulf flounders , all species of soles are right - eyed .\nsand or mud - sand bottom in 5 to 167 fm . ; most abundant in 20 to 50 fm , rare below 100 fm . common in shallow coastal water from british columbia to california .\nfao species identification guide . the marine living resources of the western central pacific . vol 2 : cephalopods , crustaceans , holothurians and sharks\njoin me in the cold , dark , life - sustaining ne pacific ocean to discover the great beauty , mystery and fragility hidden there .\non mud or sand bottoms from 5 to 750 fm . commercial catches are from 40 to 550 fm .\nposted in daily musings . . . and tagged with california piers , capitola wharf , pier fishing in california , pierfishing , pismo beach pier , saltwater fish , saltwater fishing , sand sole , trinidad pier . rss 2 . 0 feed .\nthe worldfish center , c / o spc - secretariat of the pacific community , b . p . d5 , 98848 noumea cedex , new caledonia\nsand sole are in the right - eye flounder family . most easily identified by the fact that the first four to five dorsal rays are long and free ( seemingly disconnected ) . their coloring is generally gray to tan above with light speckling .\non sand bottom from 0 to 300 fm . young are intertidal . commercial quantities caught at 15 to 80 fm .\nwidely distributed on sand and mud bottoms from 10 to 465 fm . most abundant at about 100 to 250 fm .\nmarie - jos\u00e9e gagnon of the salmon coast research station quickly steered me in the right direction , believing it was most likely a species of sole .\nabundant off b . c . and alaska . good food fish . similar to butter sole , which has a low lateral line arch and longer accessory dorsal branch .\nadults are found on sand bottom ( ref . 2850 ) , usually in deep water ( ref . 9988 ) . feed on invertebrates and bottom fishes ( ref . 6885 ) . livers of large individuals are a rich source of vitamin a ( ref . 6885 ) . marketed fresh or as frozen fillets ( ref . 2850 ) . eaten steamed , fried , micro - waved and baked ( ref . 9988 ) . generally regarded as the premium pacific coast sole ( ref . 9988 ) .\neastern and western pacific : the bering sea coast of alaska , near the aleutian islands ( ref . 27436 ) to the west bering sea and to redondo beach , southern california , usa .\nin a suitable environment , the eggs develop into larvae , pupae and eventually adult sand fleas . the duration of the off - host phase depends on characteristics of the soil , ambient temperature and unknown factors . adult sand fleas carry wolbachia bacteria forming an endosymbiosis with the parasite ( heukelbach j et al . 2004a ) .\nin endemic areas , surgical extraction of burrowed sand fleas is the standard treatment . usually , this is done by the patients themselves or a care - giver .\nabundant off alaska . largest most valuable flatfish in the northeast pacific ; important as commercial and sport fish . similar to california halibut , which is often left - eyed , has larger mouth and less indented tail .\non sand and mud bottoms from 10 to 300 fm . most abundant at 30 to 70 fm from april through october and at 150 to 250 fm during winter .\nimportant commercially because of good size and excellent quality . most caught by trawl and marketed as fresh or frozen fillets . similar to flathead sole and bering flounder which have one row of teeth on upper jaw .\nit is plankton \u2013 the fuel of the food chain \u2013 that creates the dark , emerald waters of the northeast pacific . the plant - like plankton , known as \u201cphytoplankton\u201d , need light , oxygen and nutrients to grow .\nbalboa pier to the southeastern bering sea and aleutian islands from unalaska island to port heiden and gulf of alaska . ( and , i believe , the southern range designation came about due to pfic . on february 3 , 2005 our pfic reporter snookie caught a 15 - inch - long sand sole at the balboa pier , which was followed by a report on the message board that night . )\nexcellent food fish . regarded as a delicacy in california . sometimes confused with speckled sanddab , which has black speckling on body . positive identification of pacific sanddab , gulf sanddab , speckled sanddab , and longfin sanddab require full gill raker and lateral line scale counts .\nthe acute and chronic morbidity associated with tungiasis is the result of an inflammatory reaction around embedded female sand fleas , bacterial superinfection and likely also the release of wolbachia antigens after the death of the parasite .\nthe female sand flea burrows into the skin . the toes , sole , lateral rim of the foot and heel are predilection sites . 99 % of all lesions occur at the feet . itching and local irritation occurs as the female fleas develop fully and increase their body volume by a factor of 2000 within two weeks . due to bacterial superinfection of the lesions , abscesses , suppuration or lymphangitis can develop . multiple lesions and intense local inflammation restrict mobility .\nwith regard to the ectoparasites on the sand sole larva , marie - jos\u00e9e gagnon and moira galbraith have again been very generous with their knowledge . it is impossible to know the species from my photo but , due to the size , it is likely a recent infection and could be ( 1 ) first stage chalimus ; ( 2 ) lepeophtheirus bifidus \u2013 which , unlike most parasites of benthic marine species is host specific \u2013 only being found on the rock sole or possibly , ( 3 ) the isopod gnathia . i valued having affirmed too that adults and young live in different environments to eliminate competition for the same resources but also to provide a buffer or separation to prevent transfer of disease or parasites .\nbut wait , what are those two little zooplankton guys attached to the larval sole ? they are copepods , but what kind of copepod ? what does their presence mean ? are they parasitic ? and there i go down the marine id rabbit hole .\neschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann , 1983 . a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . boston ( ma , usa ) : houghton mifflin company . xii + 336 p . ( ref . 2850 )\nthe ultimate pier fishing resource for pacific coast pier anglers with over 350 new photos and illustrations added to this edition , including detailed , species - specific illustrations of fish - cleaning , rigging illustrations , and maps . the history and culture of each pier is thoroughly covered .\non mud , sand , or gravel bottoms from 0 to 205 fm ; most occur above 80 fm . usually found near shore . often enter brackish or fresh water , and young fish are often intertidal .\ntungiasis is a cutaneous parasitosis caused by the female sand flea tunga penetrans ( and in some areas also t . trimamillata it is also commonly known as pulga de areia , nigua , pique , bicho do p\u00e9 , bichodo porco or jatecuba , and in english - speaking countries , as jigger , sand flea or chigoe . tungiasis is a zoonosis and affects humans and animals alike ( heukelbach j et al , 2001 ) .\nthe waters of the northeast pacific are dark , making it very difficult to see into the depths . this means many people are inclined to believe that more life is found in tropical waters , where you can peer right down to the ocean bottom and see colourful fish swimming about .\nthis won\u2019t necessarily help prevent sand flea scourges in countries like madagascar , thielecke and her supervisor , hermann feldmeier , told science magazine , but it might help people who are already host to one flea avoid getting more .\na burrowed female sand flea is fertilized by a male only after it has started to feed on blood . the flea\u2019s hindquarters remain in contact with the air , providing an avenue for breathing , defecating and expelling eggs . during a period of 4 - 6 weeks the embedded sand flea undergoes different developmental stages , produces eggs and eventually dies in situ ( eisele m et al . 2003 ) . eggs are expelled and fall onto the ground .\nthielecke knew that the sand fleas tend to attract each other , though , so she made sure to wear shoes and socks every day to avoid getting another flea . and she didn\u2019t really mention it to anyone in the village .\nadult flounders often feed in shallow water at night . the abandoned depressions where flounder had lain in wait for prey , called\nbeds\n, are often clearly visible hours later , sometimes even on dry sand after tides have falled .\nclaude massin , sven uthicke , steven w . purcell , frank w . e . rowe , yves samyn ; taxonomy of the heavily exploited indo - pacific sandfish complex ( echinodermata : holothuriidae ) , zoological journal of the linnean society , volume 155 , issue 1 , 1 january 2009 , pages 40\u201359 , urltoken\nshe had a tetanus vaccine , so more serious infections weren\u2019t a worry , and she knew she could easily extract it if she needed to . besides , many of the people in her village had hundreds of sand fleas , scarring and sometimes nearly crippling them .\njuveniles of less than a year old feed on plankton and larvae of insects , juveniles of more than a year and adults feed on benthic fauna ( ref . 51442 ) . the adults burrow in the sand during daytime and search for food during nighttime ( ref . 173 ) .\nthe feet - particularly toes , sole , lateral rim , and heel - are predilection sites . ectopic tungiasis , usually seen with extensive infection often follows prolonged exposure in highly contaminated environments . infestation can occur in all parts of the body ( heukelbach et al . 2004c ) . bullous - type lesions have also been reported ( viviana l . et al . 2010 ) .\nit is remarkable that the taxonomy of one of the most valuable of tropical commercial species has remained so chaotic , despite recent monographs on the species ( bai , 1980 ; hamel et al . , 2001 ) . the main problem has been the lack of name - bearing types for two of the three indo - pacific sandfish species now recognized , which has led to a lack of understanding of the original concept of those species based on erroneous , subjective identifications from original descriptions .\nsurgical extraction should only be performed in an appropriately equipped health facility or by an experienced community health worker using sterile instruments . after removal of sand fleas the sore has to be dressed appropriately and the tetanus vaccination status needs to be verified and a booster vaccination given , if indicated . increasing the coverage of tetanus vaccination in tungiasis - endemic areas would provide a long - lasting protective effect .\nthese web pages present colored pictures ( courtesy of bill barss , odfw ) and a description of each species . fish descriptions include anatomical features which aid in species identification . size , range , habitat , known depths and other common names are also included . much of the text is taken from the alaska sea grant college program marine advisory bulletin no . 47 , guide to northeast pacific flatfishes , by donald e . kramer , william h . barss , b . c . paust and b . e . bracken , 1995 edition .\nthis fact helped thielecke understand that it hadn\u2019t reproduced\u2014most likely because she kept the flea separated from its male suitors and in a permanent , single - girl - in - the - foot - city \u201cwaiting period , \u201d as she called it . it also taught her something about the sand flea reproductive style : the males find the clusters of females , hidden alluringly just beyond a thin layer of skin , and make their move .\ndifferent mammalian species act as reservoirs for human infection . in rural areas these are predominantly pigs and bovines ; in resource - poor urban communities dogs , cats and rats ( heukelbach j . et al . 2004 ; witt l . et al . 2007 ; pilger d . et al . 2008 ) . transmission occurs when skin comes into contact with soil or floor where adult sand fleas have developed . infection may take place inside the house , peridomiciliary or in classrooms without solid floors . .\nbacterial superinfection may cause life - threatening complications , such as post - streptococcal glomerulonephritis , tetanus or gangrene ( heukelbach j . et al . 2004 ; feldmeier h . et al . 2002 ) . the traditional treatment , i . e . removal of embedded sand fleas with sharp , non - sterile instruments may lead to transmission of blood - borne pathogens such as hepatitis b and c virus , possibly also hiv ( feldmeier h et al . 2013a ) . these sequels impose additional costs on health - care systems .\ntheir flattened shape allows them to become nearly invisible on the bottom . for further camouflage , flounders flex and flutter their dorsal and anal fins to create a slight depression in the bottom and lift sand , sediment , and bits of shell and debris to cover themselves . often , only the fish ' s eyes protrude above the bottom , moving rapidly as they watch for potential prey . when an unwary fish or shrimp comes within striking distance , the flounder erupts from the bottom and gulps it ' s prey in an instant .\na\u2013d , holothuria ( metriatyla ) lessoni sp . nov . a , holotype ( the covering fine layer of sand was gently brushed away ) ; b , holotype ( top ) and paratype ( bottom ) ; c , black form ( ig 30768 / 5 ) ; d , mottled form ( ig 30768 / 4 ) . e , h . timama lesson , 1830 , original drawing ; f , h . timama lesson , 1830 , remaining fragment of holotype . photographs a & b by c . massin , c & d by s . purcell ; e & f by y . samyn .\nin resource - poor urban neighborhoods and in indigenous communities prevalence may be as high as 60 % in the general population and up to 80 % in children ( feldmeier et al . 2012 ) . the attack rate varies from setting to setting and may be as high as six newly penetrating sand fleas per individual per 24 hours during the peak transmission season ( heukelbach j et al . 2004b ) . in endemic communities age - specific prevalence follows a characteristic pattern with a maximum prevalence in children between 5 and 14 years old and elderly people ( heukelbach j et al . 2007 ) . these age groups are also most vulnerable for severe disease ( feldmeier h et al . 2003 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis page describes the two common flounders on the mississippi coast - the southern flounder and the gulf flounder . the focus in on the more common southern flounder , with information specific to the gulf flounder added where there are substantial differences .\nstatus : least concern ver 3 . 1 on iucn red list population trend : stable\nstatus : least concern ver 3 . 1 on iucn red list population trend : decreasing\nonly rarely will inshore anglers in mississippi encounter anything but southern or gulf flounders .\nthe broad flounder , paralichthys squamilentus , is similar but is rarely found in inshore waters . adults prefer depths of 100 - 220 meters . juveniles are found in shallower water , but seldom in estuaries or bays . as the name implies , the broad flounder ' s body is wider , with the body width being half the length or greater .\nanother 15 species of lefteye flounders are found in the northern gulf of mexico , but they are unlikely to be confused with the southern , gulf , or broad flounder .\nthe southern flounder and gulf flounder and other flatfish are compressed laterally and spend most of their life lying on the bottom or swimming along the bottom on their side . they have prominent eyes and a large mouth with large , sharp , pointed teeth .\nsouthern flounder and gulf flounder are known as left - eye flounders ; the eyes of the adults are always on the fish ' s left side . the opposite is true for other species of flounders , halibut , and all the species of soles , whose eyes are on the right side .\nthe left or\nup\nside of the southern and gulf flounders is light olive brown to dark brown or nearly black , with many blotches and spots of darker and lighter color . the eyeless\ndown\nsize side is white or dusky . gulf flounders are distinguished by three large dark eye - like spots , arranged in a triangle with a pair of spots about midway on the length of the fish and a third closer to the tail . southern flounders may also have scattered large spots but they are much more diffuse and gradually disappear as the fish grows older . the scales are small . as described below , flounders can modify their coloration and patterning to match the bottom .\nflounder lying in ambush and partially buried on a sandy bottom . click for a larger version .\nsouthern flounders are larger and live longer than gulf flounders . female southern flounders typically grow to about 28\n, while typical female gulf flounders reach only about 18\n. males of both species are smaller , typically reaching only 10 to 14\nin length . after their first year of life , males spend most of their lives offshore , seldom venturing into estuaries and bays . thus , the majority of flounders caught by anglers in inshore waters are females .\nflounders have small body cavities and lack a swim bladder , making it easier for them to maintain their position on the bottom .\nthe range of the southern flounder and the gulf flounder overlap , and both species are common in mississippi . southern flounder occur from north carolina , across the gulf of mexico , and southward into mexico , with the exception of both coasts of southern florida . the gulf flounder is found in a continuous range from north carolina , along both coasts of florida , across the gulf of mexico to texas .\nflounders are found in a wide range of salinity and water temperature , from shallow , low - salinity estuaries to nearshore and shallow offshore waters to depths of 200 feet . southern flounders commonly enter fresh water and have been found in rivers 100 miles from the coast . they prefer soft sediment bottoms and are found throughout the estuaries and in the mouths of bays , bayous , and channels , often around rock jetties , piers , and pilings .\nfemale southern flounders remain in brackish waters most of the year , only moving offshore to spawn in fall and winter . most adult males remain offshore year round .\ngulf flounders seem to prefer sandy bottoms , and typically stay further offshore as adults .\nfor flounders on the northern gulf coast , spawning occurs offshore in water depths of 60 to 200 feet between november and january , with a peak in december . females typically spawn every three to seven days over a period of about two months , typically producing 17 , 000 to 100 , 000 eggs in each session . larger females spawn more frequently and have larger clutches of eggs .\nthe fertilized eggs float to the surface and hatch in about two days , producing a larva about one tenth of an inch long . the translucent larvae drift with the currents and feed on plankton . at this stage they resemble most fish , with one eye on each side of their head . they swim upright with a side - to - side motion of the tail . as the larva mature they are transported by currents and tides into the shallow water of bays and estuaries .\nthe stages of the southern flounder from early larva through settlement as a juvenile . source : southern regional aquaculture center publication no . 726 , species profile , southern flounder , h . v . daniels . n . c . state university .\nnear the end of their larval period , 30 to 60 days after hatching and at a length of 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 inch , the larval flounder settle to the bottom and begin a strange and complex metamorphosis . the skeletal system , muscles , and nerves of the head gradually rearrange themselves and the right eye moves to the left side of the head . the body also adapts to allow the fish to lie on the bottom and swim with its left side up using an up - and - down motion . the two sides of the fish change color to suit its bottom dwelling lifestyle , dark on the upper side and white on the lower side . the transition is completed in two to three weeks when the fish is a \u00be inch to one inch juvenile .\nin flounders and other flatfish , the sex of the individual fish is not determined until after the metamorphosis is complete .\nthe young fish enter the bays during late winter and early spring , seeking shallow grassy areas near the gulf passes . as growth continues , they move farther into the bays and estuaries . some even enter coastal rivers .\nsmall southern flounder grow rapidly and may reach 12 inches in length by the end of their first year . females grow as much as three faster than males . female flounders grow rapidly for the first two years ; then their growth slows . approximate average lengths at each age for females are shown in the table . males seldom exceed 16 inches in length .\nsouthern flounders reach maturity at an age of about two years , though the age at maturity is reported to vary with location along the gulf coast . female southern flounders live for about seven years , while almost no males live past three years old . gulf flounders have shorter lifespans , about three years , though some studies suggest longer lives .\nduring the first year after hatching , both male and female southern flounders remain in shallow , brackish estuaries , and even in fresher water . they gradually move to deeper waters as they age , but remain within inshore estuaries during the first year . in the late fall , they congregate in large numbers in the lower portions of the estuaries near the gulf of mexico . as water temperatures cool , the fish move offshore into the gulf to spawn , often in mass movements triggered by the arrival of a cold front . the return to inshore waters during the later winter and spring is much more gradual .\nwhile flounders tend to remain in a small area while in inshore waters and often return to the same home area , the spawning migrations of individual flounders can cover large distances . in tagging studies on the coast of georgia and the carolinas , tagged southern flounders have been observed to move 300 to 400 miles .\nafter their first year of life , male southern flounders spend most of their lives offshore , seldom venturing into estuaries and bays . gulf flounders , especially males , seldom venture into inshore waters . thus , the majority of flounders caught by anglers in inshore waters are female southern flounders .\nsouthern flounders and gulf flounders are wonderfully adapted ambush predators that lie in wait on the bottom , hidden by extremely effective camouflage . they are able to change the coloration and patterning of their upper side to match the surrounding bottom . this is done with cells called chromatophores in the skin of their upper sides that are capable of moving a dark brown or black pigment called melanin . it is the same mechanism that allows squid and octopuses to camouflage themselves to match their surroundings .\ngulf flounders blending into the bottom near an off - shore reef as well as a southern flounder partially covered with sediment . source south carolina department of natural resources .\nsoon after hatching , flounder larvae eat mostly plankton . as juveniles , their diet consists mainly of fish spawn , crustaceans , polychaetes , and small fish . at a length of about six inches , they shift to the adult diet of fish and shrimp . adults favor schooling fish such as menhaden , anchovies , pinfish , grunts , pigfish , croakers , and mullet . a research project in mississippi showed that southern flounders\u2019 stomachs most frequently contained fish , with one - third also containing shrimp . it has been observed that as flounders get larger they don\u2019t eat larger fish like most other predatory fish , but simply eat more small fish .\nadult flounders consume from four to eight percent of their body weight daily . feeding activity is heaviest at water temperatures of 61 to 77\u00baf and during the three days following a first quarter moon and the three days before a new moon .\nas larvae and juveniles , flounders are preyed upon by a variety of fish . as adults , their camouflage and bottom dwelling lifestyle provide effective protection from most potential predators . dolphins and sharks are known to feed on adult flounders .\nflounders are popular sportfish and food fish throughout their range . on the northern gulf coast , flounders are popularly regarded as one of the\nbig three\nof sportfish , along with red drum ( redfish ) and spotted seatrout ( speckled trout ) . large flounders are referred by proud anglers as\ndoormats .\nflounders are caught not only on conventional hook and line tackle and techniques but by gigging . fishers walk or pole a small boat along the shore in very shallow water and shine a bright light onto the bottom to aid in spotting flounders , which are then speared with a gig . successful gigging requires relatively clear water and a calm night with little wind to ruffle the surface . keen eyesight and concentration are needed to discern the faint outline or the eyes of a camouflaged and buried flounder .\nmost of the commercial catch of flounder occurs as incidental catch in shrimp trawls , though scattered individual commercial fishermen using gigs or rod and reel also fish for the market .\nbroiled flounder , often stuffed with crabmeat , is one of the classic seafood dishes of the northern gulf coast . flounders are also enjoyed fried , baked , sauteed , and raw as sashimi . flounders have mild flavored white flesh , and may be cooked as whole fish or as filets .\nthe status of both the southern flounder and the gulf flounder is listed as\nleast concern\non the iucn red list , though the population status of the gulf flounder is described as decreasing .\nflounders offer significant potential for aquaculture , due to their attractiveness as a table fish , their fast growth rate , and their tolerance for wide ranges of water temperature and salinity . research is being conducted with southern flounder in texas and north carolina . an aquaculture program in new hampshire with the similar winter flounder is being pursued for stock enhancement .\nthe flounder fishery of the gulf of mexico , united states : a regional management plan , gulf states marine fisheries commission , publication no . 83 . includes an detailed and extensive biological description of southern and gulf flounders .\nspecies profile , southern flounder , h . v . daniels , southern regional aquaculture center publication no . 726 , north carolina state university\nsouthern flounder , natural history and fishing techniques in south carolina , dr . charlie wenner and john archambault educational report no . 20 , south carolina department of natural resources\neach link opens in a new window . close the new window to return here . some of these videos show flounder species other than the southern flounder or gulf flounder , but do illustrate typical flounder behavior .\nsouthern flounder eating a bull minnow - filmed in an aquarium , featured above . source : low country estuarium\ngreek , psetta = grouper + greek , ichthys = fish ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 325 m ( ref . 6793 ) . temperate ; 64\u00b0n - 33\u00b0n , 179\u00b0w - 118\u00b0w\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 63 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2850 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 72 - 88 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 53 - 66 ; vertebrae : 37 - 39 . dorsal origin above point in front of eye . caudal rounded . pectorals small .\ninhabits sandy bottoms . feeds on fishes , worms , crustaceans and mollusks ( ref . 6885 ) .\n) : 1 . 3 - 8 . 7 , mean 5 . 2 ( based on 314 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00451 - 0 . 01844 ) , b = 3 . 09 ( 2 . 92 - 3 . 26 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 \u00b10 . 67 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 2 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 37 of 100 ) .\n: missing argument 2 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\n: missing argument 3 for checkecotox ( ) , called in / var / www / html / summary / speciessummary . php on line 1995 and defined in\nprimarily landed at piers from monterey bay north . best bets : seacliff state beach pier , capitola wharf , santa cruz wharf , pacifica pier , candlestick state park pier , berkeley pier , point pinole pier , fort baker pier , del norte street pier in eureka and the \u201cb\u201d street pier in crescent city .\ngenerally taken on cut bait such as anchovy , sardine or squid . live grass shrimp and pile worms also make good bait . most often landed on high / low leaders fished on the bottom but many are also taken in the bay area by fishermen using the live bait sliding rigging common for flounder . hooks should be size 6 to 4 .\nif you appreciate ken ' s writings on fishing , please consider making a donation for this unique content . your support will help ken to continue publishing knowledgeable and entertaining articles .\nken is an outdoor writer who has traveled and fished the shores of california for more than 50 years . read more\nflatfishes are unique in that the skull is asymmetrical with both eyes on the same side of the head . flatfish begin life like symmetrical fish , with an eye on each side of the head . a few days after hatching , one eye begins to migrate and soon both eyes are close together on one side . flatfish spend the rest of their lives on or near the bottom with the eyed side facing up . the blind side is usually a paler color than the eyed side . if the right eye migrates to the left side , the flatfish is left - eyed ( sinistral ) . if the left eye migrates to the right side , the fish is right - eyed ( dextral ) .\nto identify a flatfish , there are several physical characteristics that are often used . among these are the shape of the arch in the lateral line , and the presence or absence of an accessory dorsal branch to the lateral line and anal spine ( see figure below ) . other common characteristics used in flatfish species identification are size of mouth , teeth , body shape and ridge between the eyes .\nflatfish are in the order pleuronectiformes . worldwide there are more than 500 species of flatfishes , in 6 or 7 families . flatfishes include flounders , soles , turbots , halibuts , sanddabs , plaices , and tonguefishes . flatfishes found in north american waters are in two broad categories - one includes the families bothidae and pleuronectidae , and the other includes the families cynoglossidae and soleidae .\nthe colored pictures were taken at sea or on freshly landed fish . special thanks is given to the commercial fishermen and processors for their help in making the fish available for photographing .\nright - eyed . eyed side uniform dark grayish brown to olive brown . blind side dirty white to light gray . scales darker at edges . body shape elongate diamond . caudal fin crescent - shaped . lateral line nearly straight with slight curve over pectoral fin ; accessory dorsal branch absent . mouth very large with two rows of large , sharp arrow - shaped teeth . maxillary extends beyond posterior margin of lower eye . no fang - like tooth on vomer ( bone in roof of mouth ) . left eye on dorsal ridge ( visible from blind side ) . 2 gill rakers on the second upper arch . anal spine absent . preopercle c - shaped ( not angular ) . anterior nostril on blind side has small flap . dorsal fin origin at middle of eye .\nto 86 cm ( 34 inches ) and up to 17 pounds . often large , and females are bigger than males .\nsoft bottoms from 10 to 400 fm . most common at 150 to 220 fm .\ncommon in waters of alaska through oregon . taken primarily in trawls . not of high commercial value due to poor flesh quality . used traditionally as animal feed , but human consumption increasing .\npicture : bill barss , odfw text : alaska sea grant marine advisory bulletin no . 47\nright - eyed . eyed side light to dark brown or grayish brown with yellow or green mottling . blind side white . dorsal and anal fins edged with bright lemon yellow . body shape oval . caudal fin rounded to broad v - shape . lateral line has low arch over pectoral fin ; long accessory dorsal branch extends past gill cover . mouth small . teeth blunt , strongest on blind side . maxillary extends below anterior part of eye . eyes small . space between eyes flat , narrow . anal spine strong . scales on eyed side rough , extend onto fin rays .\npicture : bill barss , odfw . text : alaska sea grant marine advisory bulletin no . 47 .\nright - eyed . eyed side reddish brown to dark brown or black , usually with brown or grey mottling . fins dark ; dorsal and anal fins broad . blind side white . body deep oval shape . caudal fin rounded . lateral line has slight curve over pectoral fin ; long accessory dorsal branch reaches to midpoint of body . mouth small . maxillary extends to below anterior part of lower eye . eyes large , closely set . high , bony ridge between eyes with tubercle or blunt spine at each end . has 2 or 3 bony tubercles on head behind upper eye . anal spine present . first 9 to 12 dorsal fin rays are on blind side . origin or dorsal fin level with lower corner of mouth .\nedibility very good . similar to spotted and hornyhead turbots , which have 4 to 6 dorsal fin rays inserted on blind side .\nright - eyed . eyed side brown or grayish brown ; may be mottled with darker spots . fins blackish toward edges . blind side smudgy off - white to dark brownish gray . body elongate with very small scales . caudal fin rounded . lateral line nearly straight ; accessory dorsal branch absent . mouth very small . maxillary extends to below anterior of lower eye . teeth mostly on blind side ; teeth flat and incisor - like . eyes large and bulging , with upper eye posterior to lower eye . space between eyes convex . anal spine absent . soft , flabby body is slippery , because of large amounts of slime .\nto 76 cm ( 30 inches ) and up to 10 pounds . average size in trawl catch is about 1 pound .\ncommon and widely distributed . important commercially ; marketed as fillets . good flavor and good keeping qualities . poor flesh quality often found for fish caught below 300 fm .\nright - eyed . eyed side usually uniform brown to olive brown but may have white speckles . dorsal and ventral fin edges dark . blind side white to pale yellow tinged with reddish brown . body elongate , diamond shaped . small head is slender and pointed . caudal fin nearly square with slight point at center . lateral line nearly straight with slight curve ; long accessory dorsal branch . mouth small and asymmetric . jaws stronger on blind side . maxillary extends to anterior edge of lower eye . high , narrow ridge between eyes . anal spine strong . scales smooth at anterior part of body and rough at posterior .\nto 61 cm ( 24 inches ) . average size in commerical catch ( mostly females ) is about 14 inches and 3 / 4 pound .\nimportant commercial species caught by trawl . good flavor . may have iodine flavor that is acceptable and even desirable in some markets .\nright - eyed . eyed side dark olive brown to reddish gray - brown , sometimes with dusky blotches . blind side with white and translucent areas ; dorsal and anal fins have dusky blotches . pores under eye . lateral line with little arch and no dorsal branch . upper jaw is narrow in the middle and has 1 row of teeth .\nsilty or muddy bottoms from 0 to 575 fm . ( common 55 to 135 fm ) .\nalmost always right - eyed . eyed side greenish brown to dark brown or black with lighter blotches . blind side white to milky white . body large and stout with elongate diamond shape . caudal fin has crescent shape often indented near edges ( double truncate ) . lateral line has high arch over pectoral fin , accessory dorsal branch absent . mouth large with two rows of teeth on upper jaw and one row on lower jaw . maxillary reaches to below middle of lower eye . area between eyes flat to slightly concave . anal spine present . scales small and smooth on both sides of body .\nto 267 cm ( 105 inches ) and 500 pounds . there are unverified reports of fish over 9 feet and 700 pounds . average size in commercial catch is 30 to 40 pounds .\nsea of japan and sea of okhotsk north to gulf of anadyr . bering sea south to point camalu , northern baja california .\nfound from 3 to 600 fm . mostly in 15 to 150 fm in summer , but deeper in winter .\nleft - eyed . eyed side dull light brown , mottled with brown or black and sometimes yellow or orange . blind side off - white to tan . body oval , with large scales . caudal fin only slightly rounded . lateral line nearly straight ; accessory dorsal branch absent . mouth medium sized with maxillary extending below anterior part of lower eye . eyes large . anals spine absent . gill rakers on lower limb of first arch are 12 to 16 . scale count in lateral line is 61 to 70 .\nto 41 cm ( 16 inches ) . to 2 pounds ; most weigh less than 1 / 3 pound .\nsea of japan , aleutian islands , bering sea , and south to cape san lucas , baja california .\nright - eyed . eyed side uniform light to dark brown . blind side white , sometimes with pink traces . body shape oval to round . caudal fin longest in middle and slightly indented near edges . lateral line with low curve over pectoral fin ; accessory dorsal branch absent . mouth large . maxillary extends to below or slightly beyond middle of lower eye . upper jaw with two rows of small , arrow - shaped teeth ; one row of teeth on lower jaw . posterior edge of lower jaw rounded . eyes medium - sized with broad space between them . anal spine strong .\nto 70 cm ( 28 inches ) and 8 pounds . average size in trawl catch is about 1 to 2 pounds .\nbering sea and aleutian islands through gulf of alaska to coronado islands , northern baja california .\nright - eyed . eyed side uniform light brown to gray . edges of dorsal and ventral fins dark or dusky . pectoral fin on eyed side very long and mostly black . blind side off - white to dusky . body elongate . caudal fin rounded with rays longest in center , forming a broad v . lateral line nearly straight . mouth very small . maxillary extends to below anterior edge of lower eye . snout rounded . eyes large with ridge between them . anal spine strong . scales small .\nto 61 cm ( 24 inches ) . average size about 10 inches and 1 / 2 pound .\nabundant and excellent food fish . commonly marketed\nrexed\nwhich is head off and gutted .\nright - eyed . eyed side gray to olive to dark brown or black , mottled with lighter or darker shades , sometimes spotted with yellow or red . dorsal and anal fins have dark blotches or bars ; fins may be yellowish near tail . body thick , oval to round . caudal fin rounded or in shape of a broad v . lateral line has high arch ; accessory dorsal branch short . mouth small with fleshy lips . maxillary extends below anterior edge of eye . teeth more strongly developed on blind side . eyes small . anal spine strong . scales rough , tuberculate on eyed side .\nto 61 cm ( 24 inches ) and 6 pounds . weight is usually between 1 and 1 . 5 pounds .\nin sea of japan and sea of okhotsk . from bering strait south to tanner bank off southern california .\non rocky , pebbly , or sandy bottoms form 0 to 200 fm . most are caught in 20 to 40 fm .\nright - eyed . eyed side light green or gray to brown with fine , dark brown to black speckles . skin on eyed side has the feel of fine sandpaper . dorsal and anal fins often have dull yellow on edges . blind side white . body shape elongate to oval . caudal fin rounded . lateral line has slight curve over pectoral fin ; accessory dorsal branch short to moderate . mouth large with large teeth . maxillary extends below middle of lower eye . eyes small with flat , wide space between them . anal spine strong . first few dorsal fin rays elongate and mostly free of membrane .\nfrom near shore to about 100 fm . a shallow water species usually found shallower than 40 fm . prefers sandy bottom .\nfine food fish . common and often caught by sport fishermen from shore . a minor part of the commercial trawl catch .\nbelongs to the right - eyed family , but can also be left - eyed . eyed side olive to dark brown or almost black . unpaired fins white to yellow to orange with black bars . blind side white to creamy white . body shape oval . caudal fin nearly square or slightly rounded . lateral line with slight curve over pectoral fin ; accessory dorsal branch absent . mouth small . maxillary extends below anterior part of lower eye . eyes small with lower eye anterior to upper eye . space between eyes flat . head slender , pointed . anal spine strong . scattered rough tubercles ( star - like scales ) on eyed side .\nto 91 cm ( 36 inches ) and 20 pounds . usual size is 12 to 14 inches .\nin sea of japan and sea of okhotsk . from chukchi sea , bering sea , and aleutian islands south to los angeles harbor , california .\ncommon . important sport fish . highly regarded as food fish , but has moderate commercial value . processing difficult due to rough skin , and needs to be deep skinned to remove unappealing , dark fat layer .\n4034 fairview industrial drive se : : salem , or 97302 : : main phone ( 503 ) 947 - 6000 or ( 800 ) 720 - odfw [ 6339 ] do you have a question or comment for odfw ? contact odfw ' s public service representative at : odfw . info @ urltoken share your opinion or comments on a fish and wildlife commission issue at\nfree and easy to use , the open science framework supports the entire research lifecycle : planning , execution , reporting , archiving , and discovery .\nfish can be categorized many ways ; for example , mark bittman , author of how to cook everything , divides fish into 11 categories . for simplicity\u2019s sake , we have identified five . generally , you can substitute any fish within one category for another , although you\u2019ll notice differences in taste .\nsign up for our daily newsletter for more great articles and tasty , healthy recipes .\njoin our newsletter for free recipes , healthy living inspiration , and special offers .\n\u00a9 2018 urltoken is part of the allrecipes food group . cookinglight may receive compensation for some links to products and services on this website . offers may be subject to change without notice . all rights reserved . use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms of use privacy policy ( your california privacy rights ) . ad choices | eu data subject requests\ngreek , eos = dawn , aurore + greek , psetta = grouper ( ref . 45335 )\nnamed after david starr jordan , great inciter of ichthyology in the usa ( ref . 6885 )\nmarine ; demersal ; depth range 0 - 550 m ( ref . 6793 ) . temperate ; 67\u00b0n - 31\u00b0n , 172\u00b0e - 117\u00b0w\nmaturity : l m 44 . 0 , range 40 - 44 cm max length : 53 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56527 ) ; 70 . 0 cm tl ( female ) ; common length : 42 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 56527 ) ; max . published weight : 3 . 7 kg ( ref . 56527 ) ; max . reported age : 35 years ( ref . 55701 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 87 - 101 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 67 - 79 ; vertebrae : 41 - 44 . dorsal origin over middle part of eye . caudal longest in middle , ending in a broad ' v ' . pectoral fins large , bluntly pointed .\n) : 1 - 8 . 6 , mean 5 ( based on 420 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00661 ( 0 . 00411 - 0 . 01061 ) , b = 3 . 10 ( 2 . 97 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 16 ; tm = 7 - 8 ; tmax = 35 ; fec = 400 , 000 ) .\nprior r = 0 . 35 , 2 sd range = 0 . 21 - 0 . 57 , log ( r ) = - 1 . 05 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 25 , based on : 1 m , 1 k , 7 tgen , 2 tmax , 2 fec records"]}
{"id": 2374, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow steppe lemming ( eolagurus luteus ) is a species of rodents in the family cricetidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in china , kazakhstan , and mongolia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is temperate desert . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "yellow steppe lemming", "paragraphs": [": narrow dark brown spinal stripe ; ventral fur gray to yellow ; tail white ; winter fur more yellow than summer fur .\nbolonina , n . 1960 . tumors induced by methylcholanthrene in the steppe lemming . a transmissible strain of lemming sarcoma ( ls ) .\nmohi aldeen , k . , c . finn . 1970 . the implantation of blastocysts in the russian steppe lemming (\na steppe lemming usually stays within six meters of its burrow . it will deplete the food supply around the burrow , then begin to maintain peripheral , temporary burrows that allow it to forage in more distant areas .\nbreeding interval steppe lemmings breed about six times per year between april and september .\nsteppe lemmings are an important prey base for many carnivores of the steppe . in addition , their presence in an area can limit the success of other voles .\nsemb - johansson , a . , c . engh , e . ostbye . 1993 . reproduction , litter size and survival in a laboratory strain of the norwegian lemming (\nsteppe areas are regions with sufficient rainfall to support grasses , but too little moisture to support forest growth .\nis an herbivore feeding primarily on the above ground portions of plants . steppe lemmings have a preference for austrian wormwood (\nthis species is used in research related to cancer and exposure to toxic chemicals . steppe lemmings are also kept as pets .\nsteppe lemmings are prey for many predatory mammals and birds including : steppe polecats , ermines , weasels , foxes , domestic cats , eagle owls , buzzards , harriers , and kestrels . they avoid predation by lying flat on the substrate , staying under the cover of vegetation , entering their burrows , or by hiding in natural crevices or temporary burrows .\nmal ' kova , m . , n . pal\u2019chekh , v . yakimenko , l . kuz\u2019min . 2004 . the spatiotemporal structure of rodent populations in the steppe zone of western siberia .\nyoung are altricial , and they are cared for by the female in a nest area , which , in the case of steppe lemmings , is located within the burrow . the nest is commonly located at a depth of 25 to 30 cm below the surface . it is spherical in form and lined with soft grasses . female steppe lemmings are known for their aggressive nature in protecting young . males take no part in caring for the young .\nwhen population densities are high , the presence of steppe lemmings can be destructive to the ecosystem . in some cases they will reduce vegetation such that only hardy plants such as wormwood remain . in extreme situations where predation is limited ,\ninhabits eurasian steppes , feeding on grasses and herbs , and depending on the cover these provide to avoid predation . steppe lemmings are found in particular abundance in areas of mixed feather grass and sheep\u2019s fescue , but also in growths of wormwood (\ncommuncate via scent marking and vocalization . scent marking is used to delineate territory and establish dominance . calls are used for various social interactions including warning others of danger and making threats . female steppe lemmings are particularly vocal just prior to giving birth .\n, males are usually promiscuous , though some species are monogamous . male and female steppe lemmings are only found living together in shared burrows before the birth of young . following this event , the male will move to another burrow and avoid involvement in raising the young . some female\nlemmings are famous for their mass migrations . steppe lemmings , though they are not true lemmings , also participate in mass migrations . smaller scale migrations often occur locally as populations move from one food source to another due to seasonal changes in availability . however , mass migrations can occur in years when population densities rise too high due to mild autumns that allow continued breeding , or due to a lack of predators .\n) , but will also take herbs , grasses , lichens , roots , tubers , and bulbs . the average daily food intake is 10 . 7 g in the summer . during this time only the best portions of the plant are eaten . the remains are left out or packed into the burrow and will serve to provide the animal with nourishment when other food is scarce . steppe lemmings are able to process large amounts of abrasive vegetation because they possess continuously growing molars ( and incisors ) .\nsteppe lemmings breed primarily between the months of april and september , though winter breeding does sometimes occur . the length of the estrus cycle is seven days , and implantation takes place six or seven days following fertilization . during the normal breeding season a female will produce about six litters each consisting of three to seven young . litters tend to be largest in the spring . the female gives birth to young weighing about 1 g each after a gestation period of approximately 20 days . although data are unavailable for\nsteppe lemmings are burrowers that dig two types of burrows , domicile burrows and temporary burrows . the domicile burrow commonly has two to three openings , but only one distinct main entrance surrounded by a mound of raised earth . the main passage heads down at an angle of 30 to 40 degrees to a depth of up to 90 cm . a spherical nest area , located in the main passage , varies in size from about eight to 12 cm in diameter . there are also numerous blind ended passages , used when the animal is threatened , that extend up from the main burrow to within several centimeters of the surface . separate , shallower , temporary burrows located within three meters of the main burrow are also used in times of danger .\nsteppe lemmings are relatively small arvicolines having masses that vary seasonally from an average of 22 g in the winter to 34 . 8 g in the summer . the combined length of the head and body ( for adults ) ranges between 80 to 120 mm . females are slightly larger than males . lagurus can be distinguished from lemmiscus by possession of a tail that is shorter than the hind foot , with lengths ranging from 7 to 19 mm . the eyes are small , and the pinnae are short , rounded , and lack an antitragus . the dorsal pelage is gray to gray - brown with a central black stripe running longitudinally , while the ventral pelage is light in color . sexual dimorphism in size or color is uncommon in arvicolinae . the pedes are almost completely covered in fur and have four pads . females have eight teats .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : a widespread species with no known major threats . listed as least concern .\ndistributed in china , kazakhstan , russia and mongolia . main part of the range is in china , n xinjiang ( smith and xie in press ) . in mongolia found in dzungarian govi desert and parts of trans altai govi desert ( sokolov and orlov , 1980 ) . recently recorded in ikh nartiin chuluu nature reserve in eastern govi . at the end of xix century used to be common in caspian and kazakhstan deserts and semi - deserts , but western part of the range drastically has drastically shrunk . currently western limit of the range is at zaisan basin , kazakhstan ( gromov and erbaeva 1995 ) . in russia found in s altai near the border with kazakhstan and china .\nthis species experiences population fluctuations on a yearly basis , with large populations observed in 1993 ( n . batsaikhan pers . comm . ) , 1996 , 1997 and 2002 ( d . avirmed pers . comm . ) , however , the most recent estimate in 2005 found small population sizes ( d . avirmed pers . comm . ) . in kazakhstan and russia it is rare .\npossible habitat degradation through grazing by increasing numbers of livestock . drying of water sources and droughts also threaten this species , although it remains unclear if these represent natural environmental changes or are driven by anthropogenic activity . these are not considered to be major threats to the survival of the species .\nleast concern in china , data deficient in russia . in mongolia approximately 50 % of the species\u2019 range occurs within protected areas .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t7782a115086020 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\nis found on the steppes of eurasia from the dnieper river of ukraine in the west to the yenisey river northeast of kazakhstan in the east . the range extends through kazakhstan into northwest china and northern mongolia while reaching its southern limit at the tien shan range . the northern limit of the range occurs at about 55\u00ban . in the pleistocene the range of the genus\n, the northern subspecies , is found in the northern european portion of the former u . s . s . r . and in northern kazakhstan . the isolated subspecies\n) . when feather grass dominates the flora , lemmings tend to be found in places lacking vegetation , such as in rocky areas . in general they prefer loose soils that allow for easier burrowing .\nwhen living near agricultural lands , individuals often take up residence in fields and , in some cases , they have been known to live in storage buildings . however , as plowing damages their burrows , they must frequently make temporary moves away from the cultivated fields . this requirement leads to relatively low populations in agricultural areas .\ndiagnostic molar characteristics include five closed enamel loops in m3 , with the elongated posterior loop angled labially , and an m1 with seven to eight closed enamel loops . the skull is flat in profile and the zygomatic arches are wide and heavily built . the sagittal crest is absent .\ngeographic variation includes trends of increasing body size and narrowing of the dorsal stripe from west to east . individuals also tend to have paler fur to the east and south . more specific differences between the subspecies include :\nhave a postpartum estrus allowing mating to occur following parturition . this , in combination with early sexual maturation and short gestation periods , leads to the high reproductive potential of\n. females reach sexual maturity at 21 to 140 days . variability in sexual maturation age is due largely to delayed maturation in those females born in late autumn . males tend to mature slightly earlier than females , but no information is available on variability in male maturation age .\n( mohi aldeen and finn , 1970 ; nowak , 1999 ; ognev , 1964 ; pokrovskij , 1970 ; semb - johansson , et al . , 1993 )\nbreeding season primarily april to september , but some mating occurs in the winter .\nlifespans are approximately 0 . 5 to 2 . 0 years . one source lists the maximum longevity for\nas 3 . 8 years . most probably live no longer than one year .\nthis species is primarily crepuscular ( active in the late evening and early morning ) . it has also been characterized as nocturnal , though it sometimes remains active through the day . male and female arvicolines typically maintain territories , which are marked using glandular secretions . females engage in competition for resource - rich territories , while competition in males is focused on gaining access to females .\nrevealed differences in distribution when population densities differed . in the spring , when population densities were low ( 6 . 1 individuals per hectare ) ,\nlived in territorial family groups consisting of about six individuals . each family group occupied an average territory of 0 . 2 hectares , and was separated from other groups by 73 . 3 m . in the autumn , when population densities were higher ( 34 . 0 individuals per hectare ) , no family groups could be distinguished .\n( formozov , 1996 ; mal ' kova , et al . , 2004 )\nadam rountrey ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor , instructor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nreferring to a burrowing life - style or behavior , specialized for digging or burrowing .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .\nthe kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .\nplaces a food item in a special place to be eaten later . also called\nhoarding\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\na terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .\na grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\n, arvicolidae ) over - mark and adjacent - mark the scent marks of same - sex conspecifics .\nformozov , a . 1996 . adaptive modifications of behavior in mammals of the eurasian steppes .\nfauna of the ussr : mammals volume iii , no . 8 : voles ( microtinae )\n. washington , d . c . : smithsonian institution libraries and the national science foundation .\nkrebs , c . 2001 . voles and lemmings . pp . 628 - 633 in d macdonald , s norris , eds .\nmammals of the u . s . s . r and adjacent countries : mammals of eastern europe and northern asia vol . vii rodents\noku , y . , j . wei , j . chai , i . osman , j . wei , l . liao , m . asakawa , k . hagiwara , k . kobayashi , m . ito . 2002 . meriones meridianus and lagurus lagurua as alternative definitive hosts of echinococcus multilocularis and e . granulosus .\npokrovskij , a . 1970 . seasonal changes in biological cycles in some rodents and the problem of absolute age determination .\nralls , k . 1976 . mammals in which females are larger than males .\n) . pp . 329 - 337 in n stenseth , r ims , eds .\n, vol . linnean society symposium series no . 15 . london : academic press : harcourt brace & co . .\nde magalh\u00e3es , j . 2006 .\nhuman ageing genomic resources\n( on - line ) . accessed march 19 , 2006 at urltoken .\nto cite this page : rountrey , a . 2006 .\nlagurus lagurus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmusser , guy g . , and michael d . carleton / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ncomments : gromov and polyakov ( 1977 ) and gromov and erbajeva ( 1995 ) excellently covered morphology , geographic distribution , and phylogeny ; cranial and dental morphology also described by hinton ( 1926a ) . the three synonyms were originally appied as species to samples of eolagurus from early and middle pleistocene sediments , but are now regarded as extinct subspecies of e . luteus ( gromov and polyakov , 1977 )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\n{ { t ( ' get _ image _ for ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . priceperimage ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . add _ to _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . update _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . add _ notes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . project _ codes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . select _ project _ code ' ) } } { { projectcode } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . download _ will _ be _ saved _ to _ dropbox ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . calculate _ price _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . save _ to _ cart _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' site _ specific . getty . request _ preview ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . usage _ rights _ restrictions ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ restrictions _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ title ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ check _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . download _ button ' ) } }\nmix and match royalty - free images , videos , and editorial with packs that never expire . *\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . fivepackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . tenpackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' compared _ with _ single _ price ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . price ) } ) } }\nno use as a complete program , for sequential use with other bbc clips , for unofficial association with bbc , or in a manner that brings bbc into disrepute . additional bbc motion gallery restrictions apply \u2013 see section 3 ( g ) of applicable getty images license agreement . please contact getty images for any use of this clip for education / learning purposes . cannot be used by clients located in the territories indicated : china - greater\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a license is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection ."]}
{"id": 2382, "summary": [{"text": "whiteleg shrimp ( litopenaeus vannamei , formerly penaeus vannamei ) , also known as pacific white shrimp , king prawn , is a variety of prawn of the eastern pacific ocean commonly caught or farmed for food . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "whiteleg shrimp", "paragraphs": ["the most common species substitution was farmed whiteleg shrimp ( l . vannamei ) sold as \u201cwild\u201d shrimp and \u201cgulf\u201d shrimp ;\nwhiteleg shrimp ( vannamei ) output to cross 4 . 5 lakh tonnes in 2017\nen - whiteleg shrimp , fr - crevette pattes blanches , sp - camar\u00f3n patiblanco .\nthis guide from the fao cultured aquatic species information programme provides information on farming whiteleg shrimp .\nproteasome properties of hemocytes differ between the whiteleg shrimp penaeus vannamei and the brown shrimp crangon crangon ( crustacea , decapoda ) .\nproteasome properties of hemocytes differ between the whiteleg shrimp penaeus vannamei and the brown shrimp crangon crangon ( crustacea , decapoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nindia\u2019s whiteleg shrimp or vannamei output is expected to see an overall 10 per cent growth hike over 2015 - 16 .\nkitani h , 1993 . morphology of postlarvae of the whiteleg shrimp penaeus vannamei . nippon suisan gakkaishi , 59 ( 2 ) : 223 - 227 .\nthis species is native to the eastern pacific ocean - ranging from mexico to peru . whiteleg can be found on muddy bottoms at depths of 0 \u2013 240 feet .\nwhiteleg shrimp is native to the pacific ocean and is farmed in central and south america as well as in asia . our product portfolio includes hatchery diets for the larval and post - larval stages as well as grower and broodstock diets .\nrosenberry b , 2003 . world shrimp farming , no . 16 . shrimp news international . san diego , california , usa .\nthe whiteleg shrimp is native to the eastern pacific coast from sonora , mexico in the north , through central and south america as far south as tumbes in peru , in areas where water temperatures are normally > 20 \u00b0c throughout the year .\nhas led to serious price depression in the international markets . similarly , farm gate value for 15\u201320 g size whiteleg shrimp has steadily decreased from usd 5 / kg in 2000 to about usd 3 . 0\u20133 . 5 / kg in 2005 .\n\u203a litopenaeus vannamei ( boone , 1931 ) \u203a pacific white shrimp \u203a penaeus ( litopenaeus ) vannamei \u203a penaeus sp . at - 2008 \u203a penaeus vanameii \u203a penaeus vannameii \u203a white pacific shrimp \u203a white shrimp\naquaculture in belize formally began in 1982 with the development of ten acres ( 4 ha ) of experimental ponds by a private company , in the southern part of the country . this initiative was designed to test certain primary production functions of the whiteleg shrimp (\nrosenberry b , 1995 . ecuadorian white shrimp prices - - january to november 1994 . shrimp news international , 20 ( 1 ) : 24 .\naquaculture in belize formally began in 1982 with the development of ten ( 10 ) acres ( 4 ha ) of experimental ponds by a private company , in the south of the country . this initiative was designed to test certain primary production functions of the whiteleg shrimp (\nmost mislabeling relates to whether the shrimp was caught in the wild , a problem that cuts both ways\u2014either saying shrimp is wild - caught when it ' s not , or failing to say it ' s wild - caught when it is . according to warner , one of the most common instances of mislabeling was for farmed whiteleg shrimp to be passed off as wild - caught , especially as wild - caught from the gulf .\ncite as : \u00abvolstorf , jenny . 2018 . pacific whiteleg shrimp ( findings ) . in : fishethobase , ed . fishethobase research group . world wide web electronic publication . version 1 . 22 . www . fishethobase . fair - fish . net . \u00bb \u00a9 fair - fish international\nlightner dv , 1996 . a handbook of shrimp pathology and diagnostic procedure for diseases of cultured penaeid shrimp . world aquaculture society , baton rouge , la .\nreplacement of non - environmental friendly and costly fishmeal and artemia in shrimp feeds .\nmatsuda , keishi , and marcy n . wilder . 2010 . difference in light perception capability and spectral response between juveniles and sub - adults of the whiteleg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei as determined by electroretinogram . fisheries science 76 : 633\u2013641 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s12562 - 010 - 0253 - 3 .\naparicio - sim\u00f3n , benjamin , manuel pi\u00f1\u00f3n , radu racotta , and ilie s . racotta . 2010 . neuroendocrine and metabolic responses of pacific whiteleg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei exposed to acute handling stress . aquaculture 298 : 308\u2013314 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2009 . 10 . 016 .\nshrimp is displayed for sale in galveston , texas , in 2010 . americans eat 3 . 8 pounds of shrimp per capita , more than any other seafood item .\nby 2012 , 89 percent of the shrimp consumed in the u . s . was imported . most of the domestically produced shrimp is caught in 19 states , with 70 percent coming from the gulf of mexico . about 21 percent comes from the pacific northwest in the form of smaller coldwater shrimp , often called\nocean shrimp .\nshrimp are highly resilient to overfishing because they have a short lifespan , are fast growers and produce many young . farmed whiteleg shrimp have been ranked on the \u201cavoid\u201d list by environmental organizations . this ranking is due to pollution including - nutrient effluent discharge , use of banned antibiotics and habitat degradation . in addition - depending on the country - management practices are sometimes non - existent or poorly enforced .\nnicaragua : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .\necuador : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .\nmoss sm , 1998 . proceedings us marine shrimp farming biosecurity workshop . usmsfp publications .\nzhang , peidong , xiumei zhang , jian li , and guoqiang huang . 2006 . swimming ability and physiological response to swimming fatigue in whiteleg shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . comparative biochemistry and physiology part a : molecular integrative physiology 145 : 26\u201332 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cbpa . 2006 . 04 . 014 .\nwhile also suggesting two additional principles to be considered by the noc committee , the southern shrimp alliance\u2019s comments included a presentation to noaa\u2019s office of international affairs and seafood inspection titled \u201coverview of fraud in shrimp trade . \u201d this presentation provided a broad overview of historical issues confronted by the domestic shrimp industry regarding competition with falsely labeled and fraudulently - traded imported shrimp .\ncosta rica : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .\nmore than one - third of u . s . shrimp may be mislabeled , study says\naccording to gavin gibbons , a spokesperson for the national fisheries institute \u2014the leading trade group for the u . s . seafood industry\u2014many shrimp buyers don ' t view wild and farmed shrimp as interchangeable . they may buy some wild shrimp for higher - end uses and farmed shrimp for other uses , and often place specific orders far in advance , depending on market prices .\nfarm discharges , causing self - pollution in shrimp growing areas as well as viral disease outbreaks .\nto meet this growing appetite , the shrimp aquaculture industry has grown dramatically since the 1980s . farmed shrimp usually can be produced for a lower price and generally comes from southeast asia and india .\nmercier , laurence , elena palacios , \u00e1ngel i . campa - c\u00f3rdova , dariel tovar - ram\u00edrez , roberto hern\u00e1ndez - herrera , and ilie s . racotta . 2006 . metabolic and immune responses in pacific whiteleg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei exposed to a repeated handling stress . aquaculture 258 : 633\u2013640 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2006 . 04 . 036 .\nmexico : camar\u00f3n blanco , white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .\npanama : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) , camar\u00f3n patiblanco .\ncolombia : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) , camar\u00f3n caf\u00e9 .\nnational marine fisheries service , 2004 . tokyo wholesale shrimp prices . internet urltoken accessed 30 september 2004 .\nyu , xiaoming , xiumei zhang , yan duan , peidong zhang , and zhenqing miao . 2010 . effects of temperature , salinity , body length , and starvation on the critical swimming speed of whiteleg shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . comparative biochemistry and physiology part a : molecular integrative physiology 157 : 392\u2013397 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cbpa . 2010 . 08 . 021 .\nintroduced species remark in thailand ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]\nintroduced species remark in venezuela ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]\nintroduced species remark in india ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]\nintroduced species remark in china ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]\nsuppliers of pathology expertise no specific institutes or laboratories named , but shrimp pathology expertise is now readily available .\nadvances and innovations for managing shrimp diseases speaker : dr . gourav rathore , deputy director , nbfgr , lucknow\nmpeda chairman a jayathilak states the coastal shrimp aquaculture production has grown consistently during the last couple of years .\n. social conflicts remain , but the shrimp culture industry employs thousands of rural people , who would be far worse off without it . the adoption of more eco - friendly shrimp culture practices should further reduce such conflicts .\nif shrimp are sold directly to processing plants , specialized teams for harvesting and handling are commonly used to maintain shrimp quality . after sorting , shrimp are washed , weighed and immediately killed in iced water at 0\u20134 \u00b0c . often sodium metabisulphate is added to the chilled water to prevent melanosis and red - head . shrimp are then kept in ice in insulated containers and transported by truck either to processing plants or domestic shrimp markets . in processing plants , shrimp are placed in iced bins and cleaned and sorted according to standard export sizes . shrimp are processed , quickly frozen at - 10 \u00b0c and stored at - 20 \u00b0c for export by ship or air cargo . due to an increasing demand , no taxes and higher profit margins , many processing plants operate value - added product lines .\nboyd ce , 1989 . water quality management and aeration in shrimp farming . alabama agricultural experiment station , auburn .\nhawaii department of agriculture , 2004 . kauai\u2019s ceatech shrimp farm under state quarantine . news release nr04 - 04 .\nintroduced species remark in united states exclusive economic zone ( eez ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]\noverall , americans eat 3 . 8 pounds of shrimp per capita , more than any other seafood item . shrimp is now the most highly traded seafood product by value in the u . s . and around the world .\nalso common , though to an extent that was harder to quantify , was gulf shrimp that was sold simply as\nshrimp ,\nwith no information on the source . she considered that to be a lost marketing opportunity , denying producers the chance to get the price premium that many consumers are willing to pay for wild - caught shrimp .\ntaw , n . 2005 . indonesia shrimp production . presented in the indonesian shrimp farmers session of world aquaculture 2005 , may 9\u201313 , 2005 , nusa dua , bali , indonesia . charoen pokphand , jakarta indonesia . 18 pp .\nthe situation is different for farmed shrimp , however . most foreign farmed shrimp is on monterey bay aquarium ' s\navoid\nlist because of concerns about habitat destruction , overfishing of other organisms to serve as feed , waste pollution , spread of diseases , and overuse of chemical treatments . some shrimp farmers in thailand have even been linked to human trafficking .\nfox jm ; treece gd , 2000 . shrimp nutrition and feed management . in : haws mc , boyd ce , eds . methods for improvement of shrimp farming in central america . managua , nicaragua : uca press , 65 - 90 .\nthe close relation between skretting and farmers helps the farmers achieve their goals . watch our video from shrimp farming in vietnam .\neach were paired in glass aquaria with a 0 . 5 g - piece of fresh shrimp meat put in the middle .\n) , the husbandry of other penaeid species has also been attempted in belize . these include the exotic pacific blue shrimp (\nconcluding that wild - caught shrimp imports from mexico , amongst other products , carried \u201cparticularly high levels\u201d of possible iuu infection .\nsenanan w ; tangkrock - olan n ; panutrakul s ; barnette p ; wongwiwatanawute c ; niphonkit n ; anderson dj , 2007 . the presence of the pacific whiteleg shrimp ( litopenaeus vannamei , boone , 1931 ) in the wild in thailand . journal of shellfish research , 26 ( 4 ) : 1187 - 1192 . urltoken ; = 10 . 2983 % 2f0730 - 8000 % 282007 % 2926 % 5b1187 % 3atpotpw % 5d2 . 0 . co % 3b2\nquackenbush ls ; keeley ll , 1987 . vitellogenesis in the shrimp , p . vannamei . american zoologist , 26 : 810a .\nwith regard to the area devoted to shrimp farming in 2004 , there were 6 888 acres ( 2 789 ha ) under production with fourteen farms in operation . this represents a 12 . 5 percent of the overall area under the tenureship of shrimp farmers .\nthe ngo community has expressed no known concerns with regards to the social impacts of shrimp farming , or other forms of aquaculture .\ninnovations in shrimp culture \u2013 farmers perspective speaker : mr . saji chacko , senior vice president , onaway industries , navsari , gujarat\ntreece gd , 2002 . inland shrimp farming in west texas . global aquaculture advocate , 5 ( 3 ) : 46 - 47 .\nin addition to the comments from the southern shrimp alliance , the noc committee received dozens of comments from other individuals , businesses , governments , and non - governmental organizations . some of these also highlighted continuing significant concerns with iuu fishing and seafood fraud in shrimp trade .\nall shrimp farmers are becoming acutely aware of the growing need to farm shrimp in a responsible , traceable and low impact manner which can enhance biosecurity , and help protect the environment , whilst producing shrimp in a cost efficient manner . the newly developed intensive bacterial floc and super - intensive systems may have potential to address all of these concerns and should be investigated more thoroughly . in order to continue the growth of shrimp farming smoothly in the long term , domestic consumption should be promoted ( as in china ) to supplement the problematic export markets .\nsuch rules can lead , for instance , to a bag of shrimp that is native to north america being marked\nproduct of india .\nwas the shrimp processed in india or somehow mixed up ?\nshe asks .\nwe don ' t know .\nperu : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) , langostino ( used for all species of litopenaeus ) .\nare very efficient at utilizing the natural productivity of shrimp ponds , even under intensive culture conditions . additionally , feed costs are generally less for\nboyd ce ; clay jw , 1998 . shrimp aquaculture and the environment . scientific american , 278 ( 6 ) : 42 - 49 .\njory de , 2003 . stock domestication and genetic improvement in shrimp culture . aquaculture magazine , 29 ( 2 ) : 66 - 72 .\nthere were fourteen shrimp farms operational in belize at the end of 2004 . these farms were utilizing four distinct husbandry systems . these were :\nforty percent of the 20 shrimp species or categories collected and identified were not previously known to be sold in the u . s . ;\nthe farmed shrimp supply chain is complex , consisting of approximately 400 , 000 producers worldwide , numerous processing plants , and multiple distributors , the aquarium notes on its website .\nthis makes it difficult for consumers to know the origin of their shrimp and how it was farmed .\nalcivar - warren a , 2004 . us marine shrimp farming industry report . online at www . usmsfp . org . accessed 30 september 2004 .\nthe policy responses have dealt with : disease management , aquatic pollution , the movement of exotic species , education and training , diversification of the shrimp farming industry , and the integration of small - , and medium - scale producers in shrimp farming , tilapia farming and other aspects of aquaculture .\nadapting to a new reality : shrimp nurseries speaker : mr . s chandrasekhar , area manager , india & south asia , inve aquaculture , thailand\neurofish , 2004 . fishinfo network : market report on shrimp , may 2004 . online at www . eurofish . dk . accessed 27 august 2004 .\nlightner dv ; redman rm , 1998 . shrimp diseases and current diagnostic methods . aquaculture , 164 ( 1 / 4 ) : 201 - 220 .\nthe next most important market is the european union ( importing 183 000 tonnes in the first half of 2005 ) , which favours small ( 31 / 40 count ) , whole , frozen shrimp . japan , whose market mainly requires large headless ( 16 / 20 count ) shrimp , is typically supplied by\nthe mislabeling that oceana uncovered can interfere with people ' s ability to choose their shrimp according to whatever matters to them , whether it be taste , price , or environmental concerns .\nif everything is simply called ' shrimp , '\nsays warner ,\nconsumers are left in the dark .\nfinally , nfi\u2019s comments also downplayed mislabeling concerns regarding certain seafood species , including shrimp , indicating that the following \u201cshould represent lower concern\u201d to the noc committee : \u201cspecies that are mislabeled within the same genus or within the same acceptable market name grouping , e , g , shrimp , cod or grouper . \u201d\nlethargy , anorexia , dark coloured shrimp ; reduced feeding & growth rates ; often increased surface & gill fouling with various epibiotic & epicommensal organisms ; severely affected larvae & postlarvae may exhibit a white midgut line through the abdomen ; acute mbv causes loss of hepatopancreatic tubule & midgut epithelia & , consequently , dysfunction of these organs , often followed by secondary bacterial infections ; linked with high mortalities ( > 90 % ) in late postlarvae & juvenile shrimp in many culture facilities ; usually juvenile & adult p . monodon are more resistant to mbv than larval shrimp ; mbv may predispose infected shrimp to infections by other pathogens ;\naquatic network , 2003 . shrimp - farming report strong on attack , weak on focus . online at urltoken ; = 1 . accessed 27 august 2004 .\nmassaut l , 1999 . mangrove management and shrimp aquaculture . research and development series no . 44 . alabama , usa : auburn university , 45 pp .\ntreece gd , 2001 . shrimp maturation and spawning . ujnr technical report no . 28 : 121 - 134 . online at urltoken accessed 29 july 2004 .\nhad higher frequency of antenna - to - body contact with males than with females . no such difference in males and neither females nor males of snapping shrimp\ndiversification of brackishwater aquaculture with special reference to indigenous species of shrimp speaker : dr . k k vijayan , director , central institute of brackishwater aquaculture , chennai\namericans eat more shrimp than any other seafood product , yet they are often given little information about where it comes from or even if it is wild or farmed . in our 2014 shrimp testing report , we found that 30 percent of the 143 shrimp products sampled from 111 vendors visited nationwide were misrepresented . of the 70 restaurants visited , 31 percent sold misrepresented products , while 41 percent of the 41 grocery stores and markets visited sold misrepresented products . highlights include :\nyesterday , the southern shrimp alliance submitted formal comments to the national ocean council ( noc ) committee regarding \u201cprinciples\u201d to be used in determining which seafood species are \u201cat risk\u201d for illegal , unreported , and unregulated ( iuu ) fishing and seafood fraud . in those comments , the southern shrimp alliance observed that the \u201cpossible principles\u201d identified in the request for comments published in the federal register strongly support a determination that shrimp is a seafood species \u201cat risk\u201d for iuu fishing and seafood fraud .\nwyban , j . a . & sweeney , j . n . 1991 . intensive shrimp production technology . high health aquaculture , hawaii , usa . 158 pp .\nhe h ; lawrence al , 1993 . vitamin c requirements of the shrimp penaeus vannamei . . aquaculture , 114 ( 3 / 4 ) : 305 - 316 .\nin 2004 , the volume of exported shrimp continued to increase in a significant way . total farmed shrimp exports were 16 . 86 million pounds ( 7 664 tons ) valued at bz $ 84 . 28 million ( us $ 42 . 14 thousand ) , with an increase in export volume of 5 . 6 percent . for this time period however , there was a decline of 8 . 2 percent in export value when compared to the 2003 scenario . the downward trend in export value has been as a result of a continued decline in global shrimp prices since 2000 due to increased volumes of shrimp by the asian countries , at very low and competitive prices .\nfarmed shrimp production in belize is expected to remain fairly stable for the next two years . shrimp farmers have been hesitant to continue farm expansion over the past years and are examining options that would ostensibly allow them to survive the current crisis . while improvements in shrimp farming technology are expected to gradually lower production costs , with strong price declines such as those experienced in the past years , farmers are in the process of reducing operational costs at the farm level and improving on production per unit area over time .\nboyd , c . e . & clay , j . w . 2002 . evaluation of belize aquaculture ltd : a superintensive shrimp aquaculture system . report prepared under the world bank , naca , wwf and fao consortium program on shrimp farming and the environment . published by the consortium and obtainable through naca , bangkok , thailand . 17 pp .\naquacop , 1977 . observations on the maturation and reproduction of penaeid shrimp in captivity in a tropical medium . aquaculture workshop , ices , may 1977 , brest , france .\nall commercial aquaculture production activities are in the hands of the private sector . after some vacillation in the mid - , and late - 1990s , a shrimp farmers association was formed in belize in mid - 2000 . the association has a broad mandate that is to conceptually attend all issues relating to the interest and livelihood of the shrimp farmers .\nacutely infected shrimp show reduced food consumption ; lethargy ; high mortality of 100 % within 3\u201310 days of onset of clinical signs ; loose cuticles with white spots of 0 . 5\u20132 . 0 mm diameter , most apparent inside the carapace ; moribund shrimp often have pink to reddish - brown colouration due to expansion of cuticular chromatophores & few if any white spots\nkulakovskii ee ; baturin ya , 1979 . the sinus gland of the shrimp eualus gaimardi and its state related to environmental salinity variations . tsitologiya , 21 : 1200 - 1203 .\nshrimp may be america ' s favorite seafood , but consumers may not always get what they ask for . according to dna analyses conducted by the environmental advocacy group oceana , 35 percent of shrimp sold in u . s . grocery stores and restaurants was improperly labeled by species or type , raising questions about food safety and complicating efforts to promote sustainability .\nin its report on shrimp , oceana found misrepresentation almost everywhere it looked : farmed shrimp passed off as wild or\ngulf caught ,\none species swapped for another , unidentified mixing of species . the problem was worst in new york city , where 43 percent of shrimp samples were improperly labeled , and almost as bad in washington , d . c . , and the gulf coast , with mislabeling in 30 percent of the samples . portland , oregon , had the best result , with a mislabeling rate of only 5 percent .\noddly , the group also found some unknown shrimp species , or at least species that weren ' t usually considered fit for human consumption . of the 20 species the oceana team identified , eight were not previously known to be on the market for consumption . these included coral\ncleaner\nshrimp that pick parasites off reefs and are popular in the aquarium trade .\naccording to oceana ' s warner , a problem with foreign shrimp is that asian shrimp farms might be using toxic chemicals that are banned in the u . s . and consumers can ' t always rely on the mandatory country - of - origin label system , she says , because the rules state that only the last country where seafood was processed must be listed .\nacutely infected shrimp show rapid reduction in food consumption ; lethargy ; high mortality rates with cumulative mortalities reaching 100 percent within 3 to 10 days of the onset of clinical signs ; acutely infected shrimp often have loose cuticle with white spots ( which represent abnormal deposits of calcium salts by the cuticular epidermis ) of 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 mm in diameter that are most apparent on the inside surface of the carapace ; in many cases moribund shrimp display a pink to reddish - brown colouration due to expansion of cuticular chromatophores & few if any white spots\ncaillouet cw , 1972 . ovarian maturation induced by eyestalk ablation in pink shrimp , penaeus duorarum ( burkenroad ) . proc . world maricul . soc . , 3 : 205 - 225 .\njohnson sk , 1996 . summary of key virus diseases of shrimp aquaculture . prepared for the texas senate natural resources interim subcommittee , texas a & m ; university , 19 april 1996 .\npreston np ; clifford hc , 2002 . genetic improvement of farmed shrimp : summary and implications of a global survey . global aquaculture advocate , 5 ( 1 ) : 48 - 50 .\noverall , 30 % of the shrimp products surveyed in grocery stores lacked information on country of origin , 29 % lacked farmed / wild information and one in five did not provide either .\nakiyma dm , 1986 . the development of a purified diet and nutritional requirement of lysine in penaeid shrimp . phd thesis . texas , usa : texas a & m ; university college station .\nmoss sm ; arce sm ; argua bj ; otoshi ca ; calderon fro ; tacon agc , 2001 . greening of the blue revolution : efforts toward environmentally responsible shrimp culture . in : browdy cl , jory de , eds . the new wave , proceedings of the special session on sustainable shrimp culture , aquaculture 2001 . the world aquaculture society , baton rouge , louisiana , usa .\nthere has been a slowly increasing demand for shrimp in world markets , as capture fisheries stagnate and people became more affluent and conscious of healthy food choices . despite the increased demand , the price for\nbrock ja , 1997 . special topic review : taura syndrome , a disease important to shrimp farms in the americas . world journal of microbiology & biotechnology , 13 ( 4 ) : 415 - 418 .\nclifford hc , 2000 . personal communication . in : haws mc , boyd ce , eds . methods for improving shrimp farming in central america : fertilization . managua , nicaragua : uca press , 304pp .\nkureshy n ; davis da , 2002 . protein requirement for maintenance and maximum weight gain for the pacific white shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . aquaculture , 204 ( 1 / 2 ) : 125 - 143 .\nmagarelli pc , 1981 . nutritional and behavioral components of reproduction in the blue shrimp , penaeus stylirostris , reared under controlled environment conditions . phd thesis . tucson , arizona , usa : university of arizona .\ncultured shrimp harvested from ponds ( after 4\u20135 months at 15\u201325 g ) , are on - grown for 2\u20133 months and then transferred to maturation facilities at > 7 months of age when they weigh 30\u201335 g .\ncastille fl ; lawrence al , 1989 . the effect of deleting dietary constituents from pelleted feeds on the growth of shrimp in the presence of natural foods . j . world aquacul . soc . , 20 : 22a .\nsecretariat of the convention on biological diversity , 2004 . solutions for sustainable mariculture penaeus [ litopenaeus ] vannamei - avoiding the adverse affects of mariculture on biological diversity - b . case study shrimp farming , 51 - 52 .\ntreece gd ; fox jm , 1993 . design , operation and training manual for an intensive culture shrimp hatchery . texas a & m ; university sea grant college program publication tamu - sg - 93 - 505 , 183pp .\ntreece gd ; yates me , 1990 . laboratory manual for the culture of penaeid shrimp larvae . texas a & m ; university sea grant college program , bryan , tx , pub . 88 - 202 ( r ) .\narcos fg ; racotta is ; ibarra am , 2004 . genetic parameter estimates for reproductive traits and egg composition in pacific white shrimp penaeus ( litopenaeus ) vannamei . aquaculture , 236 ( 1 / 4 ) : 151 - 165 .\nbradfield jy ; berlin rl ; rankin sm ; keeley ; ll , 1989 . cloned cdna and antibody for an ovarian cortical granule polypeptide of the shrimp p . vannamei . biol . bull . , 177 : 344 - 349 .\nlaubier - bonichon a ; laubier l , 1976 . reproduction control with the shrimp p . japonicus fao tech . conf . aqua . kyoto , japan fir : aq / conf . / 76 / e . 38 , 6pp .\nextensive and semi - intensive ponds are harvested by draining the pond at low tide through a bag net installed in the outlet sluice gate . if the tide does not allow harvesting , the water can be pumped out . in some larger farms , harvesting machines pump shrimp and water up to the pond bank where they are dewatered . intensive ponds may be harvested similarly and small 2\u20136 man seine nets are dragged around the pond to corral shrimp to the side of the pond from where they are removed by cast or dip net or perforated buckets . partial harvesting is common in asian intensive culture after the first 3 months . in thailand , artificial sluice gates are temporarily installed inside one corner of the pond to harvest closed system ponds . shrimp are then trapped in nets attached to this temporary gate when the pond is pumped out . in super - intensive systems , the shrimp are simply harvested with large scoop nets when required for processing .\nbonami jr ; hasson kw ; mari j ; poulos bt ; lightner dv , 1997 . taura syndrome of marine penaeid shrimp : characterization of the viral agent . journal of general virology , 78 ( 2 ) : 313 - 319 .\nabandoning the suffering paradigm we are able to discover other and at least as meaningful criteria for animal welfare , like e . g . joy , the opposite of pleasure . another criterion , deception , has been investigated with the shrimp species\ngriffith , d . r . w . , and j . m . wigglesworth . 1993 . growth rhythms in the shrimp penaeus vannamei and p . schmitti . marine biology 115 : 295\u2013299 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00346347 .\nduronslet m ; yudin ai ; wheller rs ; clark wh jr , 1975 . light and fine structural studies of natural and artificially induced egg growth of penaeid shrimp . proc . world maricul . soc . , 6 : 105 - 122 .\nlightner dv , 1995 . taura syndrome : an economically important viral disease impacting the shrimp farming industries of the americas including the united states . proceedings of the annual meeting of the united states animal health association , 99 : 36 - 52 .\nthese results clearly show that misrepresentation and mislabeling of shrimp is prevalent in the marketplace . lack of clear labeling not only leaves consumers in the dark , but it also hurts honest fishermen who are trying to sell their products into the market .\ndittel ai ; epifanio ce ; cifuentes la ; kirchman dl , 1997 . carbon and nitrogen sources for shrimp postlarvae fed natural diets from a tropical mangrove system . estuarine , coastal and shelf science , 45 ( 5 ) : 629 - 637 .\nlightner dv , 1996 . the penaeid shrimp viruses ihhnv and tsv : epizootiology , production impacts and role of international trade in their distribution in the americas . \u2018revues scientifique et technique office interantional des epizooties\u2019 15 ( 2 ) : 579 - 601 .\notoshi , clete a . , scott s . naguwa , frank c . falesch , and shaun m . moss . 2007 . shrimp behavior may affect culture performance at super - intensive stocking densities . global aquaculture advocate march / april : 67\u201369 .\nkumlu , metin , serhat t\u00fcrkmen , mehmet kumlu , and o . tufan eroldo\u011fan . 2011 . off - season maturation and spawning of the pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei in sub - tropical conditions . turkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 11 .\nalthough not mentioned in wwf / traffic\u2019s comments , the latest official statistics show significant growth in the volume of imports from areas identified by these ngos . for example , the official statistics indicate that through the first third of this year , frozen non - breaded warmwater shrimp imports from pakistan are over 1 , 000 % larger than they were during the first four months of 2014 . in fact , the total volume of shrimp imports from pakistan between january and april of this year is more than what the united states has imported from that country in any single year since 2001 . further , frozen non - breaded warmwater shrimp imports from mexico are 90 % higher through the first four months of this year than they were over the first four months of 2014 . and the total volume of frozen non - breaded warmwater shrimp imported from argentina into the united states in 2014 was larger , by a substantial margin , than any previous year , with imports remaining at nearly the same level in 2015 .\notoshi ca ; montgomery ad ; look am ; moss sm , 2001 . effects of diet and water source on the nursery production of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei . journal of the world aquaculture society , 32 ( 2 ) : 243 - 249 .\nparnes s ; mills e ; segall c ; raviv s ; davis c ; sagi a , 2004 . reproductive readiness of the shrimp litopenaeus vannamei grown in a brackish water system . aquaculture , 236 ( 1 / 4 ) : 593 - 606 .\nobaldo , leonard g . , and reiji masuda . 2006 . effect of diet size on feeding behavior and growth of pacific white shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . journal of applied aquaculture 18 : 101\u2013110 . doi : 10 . 1300 / j028v18n01 _ 07 .\nkitani , hiroshi . 1986 . larval development of the white shrimp penaeus vannamei boone reared in the laboratory and the statistical observation of its naupliar stages . nippon suisan gakkaishi 52 : 1131\u20131139 . doi : 10 . 2331 / suisan . 52 . 1131 .\nparker , j . c . , conte , f . s . , macgrath , w . s . & miller , b . w . 1974 . an intensive culture system for penaeid shrimp . proceedings of the world mariculture society , 5 : 65\u201379 .\nbray wa ; lawrence al , 1992 . reproduction of penaeus species in captivity . in : fast a , lester aj , eds . culture of marine shrimp : principles and practices . amsterdam , netherlands : elsevier sci . publ . , 93 - 170 .\nkitani h , 1986 . larval development of the white shrimp penaeus vannamei boone reared in the laboratory and the statistical observation of its naupliar stages . bull . jap . soc . of sci . fish . , 52 ( 7 ) : 1131 - 1139 .\nmiddleditch bs ; missler sr ; hines hb ; mcvey jp ; brown a ; ward dg ; lawrence al , 1980 . metabolic profiles of penaeid shrimp : dietary lipids and ovarian maturation . journal of chromatography , 195 ( 3 ) : 359 - 368 .\nbalakrishnan , gunalan , soundarapandian peyail , kumaran ramachandran , anand theivasigamani , maheswaran chokkaiah , and pushparaj nataraj . 2011 . growth of cultured white leg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone 1931 ) in different stocking density . advances in applied science research 2 : 107\u2013113 .\nbut it ' s not just about the taste or the pricing ; it ' s also about sustainability . farmed and wild shrimp are not equal when it comes to environmental impact , says the monterey bay aquarium . ( also learn about illegal fishing . )\nis expected to become more competitive , due mainly to the saturation of export markets and reduction in world economic growth , as well as the emergence of non - tariff barriers in shrimp trade . additionally , the industry will need to accommodate importing countries requirements on :\nrye m , 2002 . applied genetic improvement programs for shrimp species \u2013 the selection approach . in : book of abstracts , was annual meeting , beijing , people\u2019s republic of china . world aquaculture society , baton rouge , louisiana , usa , p . 664 .\nyano , i . , r . a . kanna , r . n . oyama , and j . a . wyban . 1988 . mating behaviour in the penaeid shrimp penaeus vannamei . marine biology 97 : 171\u2013175 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00391299 .\nchang pohshing ; lo chufang ; wang yuchi ; kou guanghsiung , 1996 . identification of white spot syndrome associated baculovirus ( wsbv ) target organs in the shrimp penaeus monodon by in situ hybridization . diseases of aquatic organisms , 27 ( 2 ) : 131 - 139 .\nvickery , rachel , kathleen hollowell , and melissa hughes . 2012 . why have long antennae ? exploring the function of antennal contact in snapping shrimp . marine and freshwater behaviour and physiology 45 : 161\u2013176 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 10236244 . 2012 . 699644 .\nthe participation of the ngo community in issues of aquaculture development is limited to the conservation - oriented ngo ' s . the involvement of these ngo ' s with issues relating to shrimp farming or other aspects of aquaculture has been relatively limited . the most significant intervention of the conservation - oriented ngo ' s was by the belize audubon society ( bas ) in the early - 1990s in regard to the impacts of shrimp farming on waterfowl , and in more recent times the probable impacts of tilapia on the ecology of the crooked tree lagoon .\nakiyama dm ; coelho sr ; lawrence al ; robinson eh , 1989 . apparent digestibility of feedstuffs by the marine shrimp penaeus vannamei boone . nippon suisan gakkaishi = bulletin of the japanese society of scientific fisheries , 55 ( 1 ) : 91 - 98 ; 28 ref .\nbalboa , william a . , timothy l . king , and paul c . hammerschmidt . 1991 . occurrence of pacific white shrimp in lower laguna madre , texas . proc . annu . conf . southeast . assoc . fish . and wildl . agencies 45 : 288\u2013292 .\nsanudin , noorsyarinah , audrey daning tuzan , and annita seok kian yong . 2014 . feeding activity and growth performance of shrimp post larvae litopenaeus vannamei under light and dark condition . journal of agricultural science 6 : p103 . doi : 10 . 5539 / jas . v6n11p103 .\nmomoyana k ; hiraoka m ; nakano h ; koube h ; inouye k ; oseko n , 1994 . mass mortalities of cultured kuruma shrimp , penaeus japonicus , in japan in 1993 : histopathological study . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 141 - 148 .\nin belize shrimp farming is at a transition between stage iv ( accelerated development ) and stage v ( immature development ) - where the development of aquaculture is accelerated as a result of the activities of producers and institutions , and where production is predominantly oriented to the generation of income .\nbarnette p ; khururat o ; sananan w ; tangkrad - olan n ; upatham s ; pantuwatana s ; wongwiwatanawute c , 2006 . the prevalence of taura syndrome virus , white spot syndrome virus and yellow head virus in wild shrimp species in thailand . in : icais conference proceedings . urltoken\nfor shrimp farming to succeed to the stage of ' mature development ' , where it is self - sufficient at an advanced technological level and external assistance or aid from donor agencies is not required - it is necessary to synthesize and implement a definitive and comprehensive development plan for the sector .\nbailey - brock jh ; moss sm , 1992 . penaeid taxonomy , biology and zoogeography . in : fast aw , lester lj , eds . marine shrimp culture : principles and practices . developments in aquaculture and fisheries science , volume 23 . the netherlands : elsevier science , 9 - 27 .\nvaradharajan , d . , and n . pushparajan . 2013 . food and feeding habits of aquaculture candidate a potential crustacean of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei , south east coast of india . j aquac res development 4 : 5 . doi : 10 . 4172 / 2155 - 9546 . 1000161 .\nsuper - intensive farming systems with one stocking and one harvest per cycle after four to five months - stocking densities were 500 000 pl ' s per acre ( 1 235 million pl ' s per ha ) with yields of 9 700 lbs / acre / crop ( 10 890 kg / ha / crop ) of shrimp tails and harvested shrimp being in the medium to large size classes ( 15 - 18g ) , the system is based on re - circulation technology with a diminished demand for water , and little or no immediate effluents : the system also relies heavily on artificial aeration .\nthe aquarium ' s seafood watch program considers u . s . - caught wild shrimp to be a\nbest choice\nor\ngood alternative\nfrom an environmental point of view , thanks to rigorous fisheries laws that reduce unintended bycatch of turtles , marine mammals , and other threatened organisms .\ntakahashi y ; itami t ; kondo m ; maeda m ; fuji r ; tomonaga s ; supamattaya k ; boonyaratpalin s , 1994 . electron microscopic evidence of bacilliform virus infection in kuruma shrimp ( penaeus japonicus ) . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 121 - 125 .\nparnes , s , e mills , c segall , s raviv , c davis , and a sagi . 2004 . reproductive readiness of the shrimp litopenaeus vannamei grown in a brackish water system . aquaculture 236 : 593\u2013606 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2004 . 01 . 040 .\nlu y ; tapay lm ; brock ja ; loh pc , 1994 . infection of the yellow head baculo - virus ( yhv ) in two species of penaeid shrimp , penaeus stylirostris ( stimpson ) and penaeus vannamei ( boone ) . journal of fish diseases , 17 ( 6 ) : 649 - 656 .\nmoss , dustin r . , and shaun m . moss . 2006 . effects of gender and size on feed acquisition in the pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei . journal of the world aquaculture society 37 : 161\u2013167 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1749 - 7345 . 2006 . 00022 . x .\ninouye k ; miwa s ; oseko n ; nakano h ; kimura t ; momoyama k ; hiraoka m , 1994 . mass mortalities of cultured kuruma shrimp penaeus japonicus in japan in 1993 : electron microscopic evidence of the causative virus . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 149 - 158 .\nnakano h ; koube h ; umezawa s ; momoyama k ; hiraoka m ; inouye k ; oseko n , 1994 . mass mortalities of cultures kuruma shrimp , penaeus japonicus , in japan in 1993 : epizootiological survey and infection trials . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 135 - 139 .\nbaloi , manecas , rafael arantes , rodrigo schveitzer , caio magnotti , and luis vinatea . 2013 . performance of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei raised in biofloc systems with varying levels of light exposure . aquacultural engineering 52 : 39\u201344 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaeng . 2012 . 07 . 003 .\nthe oceana team tested shrimp from 111 vendors ( 70 restaurants and 41 grocery stores ) in the second half of 2013 , and found that 35 percent had at least some mislabeled products\u201431 percent of the restaurants and 41 percent of the grocery stores . when calculated by overall volume , the mislabeling rate was 30 percent .\nthe major market for shrimp is the united states of america , which was expected to import approximately 477 000 tonnes worth usd 3 . 1 billion in 2005 , 1 . 8 times more than the 264 000 tonnes imported in 2000 . the united states of america was traditionally supplied with small frozen or processed headless shrimp from latin america . more recently , the united states of america has looked to asia to supply its increasing demand ( 1 . 9 kg / capita in 2004 ) . major suppliers to the united states of america in 2005 were thailand , ecuador , india , china and viet nam . however , the rapidly increasing production of\naquacop , 1975 . maturation and spawning in captivity of penaeid shrimp : p . merguiensis de man , p . japonicus bate , p . aztecus ives , metap . ensis de haan , and p . semiculcatus de haan . proceedings of the 6th annual meeting of the world mariculture society , 6 : 123 - 132 .\nluchiari , a . c . , a . o . marques , and f . a . m . freire . 2012 . effects of substrate colour preference on growth of the shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone , 1931 ) ( decapoda , penaeoidea ) . crustaceana 85 : 789\u2013800 . doi : 10 . 1163 / 156854012x650232 .\nthat means , in part , more testing and more inspecting by the fda , says williams of the southern shrimp alliance .\nthe agencies are doing a heck of a job ,\nhe says .\nbut they need more resources , more manpower , and more dollars if you want to see better enforcement .\nbrock ja ; gose r ; lightner dv ; hasson k , 1995 . an overview on taura syndrome , an important disease of farmed penaeus vannamei . swimming through troubled water . proceedings of the special session on shrimp farming , san diego , california , usa , 1 - 4 february , 1995 . , 84 - 94 .\nyou , kui , hongsheng yang , ying liu , shilin liu , yi zhou , and tao zhang . 2006 . effects of different light sources and illumination methods on growth and body color of shrimp litopenaeus vannamei . aquaculture 252 : 557\u2013565 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2005 . 06 . 041 .\nwhite shrimp are short - lived prawns with ranges that include the gulf of mexico and the eastern coast of the united states from florida to new york . this species is the largest prawn in its range , reaching lengths of nearly 8 inches ( 20 cm ) , and is one of the more highly sought seafood species wherever it lives . it therefore supports a highly lucrative fishery in the gulf of mexico and in the southeast united states . along with true crabs , lobsters , and other prawns , the white shrimp is a decapod ; it has ten legs , and it is covered with a spiny exoskeleton that provides it some protection from potential predators .\n) . the growth performance of this aspect of the sector is reflected in the increase in export production and revenues from 189 thousand pounds ( 86 tons ) and bz $ 1 . 8 million ( us $ 900 thousand ) respectively in 1990 to 15 . 9 million pounds ( 7 227 tons ) and bz $ 91 . 8 million ( us $ 45 . 9 million ) respectively in 2003 . in 2004 , the volume of exported shrimp continued to increase in a significant way . total farmed shrimp exports were 16 . 86 million pounds ( 7 664 tons ) valued at bz $ 84 . 28 million ( us $ 42 . 14 million ) .\nalikunhi kh ; poernomo a ; adisufresno s ; budiono m ; busman s , 1975 . preliminary observations on induction of maturity and spawning in penaeus monodon ( fabricius ) and penaeus merquiensis ( de man ) by eyestalk extirpation . bull . shrimp cult . res . cent . jepara , 1 ( 1 ) : 1 - 11 .\ngarza - torres , rodolfo , rafael campos - ramos , and alejandro m . maeda - mart\u00ednez . 2009 . organogenesis and subsequent development of the genital organs in female and male pacific white shrimp penaeus ( litopenaeus ) vannamei . aquaculture 296 : 136\u2013142 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2009 . 08 . 012 .\noceana ' s study of shrimp mislabeling , released thursday , is part of a broader effort to uncover and address fraud in the american seafood marketplace . in february 2013 , oceana released a study of mislabeling in finfish , which found that one - third of the fish sold at retail outlets was not what the label said it was .\n\u2022 escapes : escapees from shrimp farms have negative or at most unpredictable influences on the local ecosystem [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] , for example as competitor for food and space [ 9 ] [ 12 ] [ 11 ] or distributor of pathogens [ 9 ] [ 11 ] ( taura syndrome virus [ 10 ] ) .\nis conducted in tidal areas where minimal or no water pumping or aeration is provided . ponds are of irregular shape , usually 5\u201310 ha ( up to 30 ha ) and 0 . 7\u20131 . 2 m deep . originally , wild seeds entering the pond tidally through the gate , or purchased from collectors were used ; since the 1980s hatchery reared pl are stocked at 4\u201310 / m\u00b2 . shrimp feed mainly on natural foods enhanced by fertilization , and once - daily feeding with low protein formulated diets . despite low stocking densities , small shrimp of 11\u201312 g are harvested in 4\u20135 months . the yield in these extensive systems , is 150\u2013500 kg / ha / crop , with 1\u20132 crops per year .\njohn williams , the executive director of the southern shrimp alliance , agrees that his producers sometimes miss out on fetching a higher price .\nthose who live around the gulf coast can look at or taste the product and know where it comes from , but people in other parts of the country aren ' t as aware ,\nhe says .\nrivera - vel\u00e1zquez , g . , l . a . soto , i . h . salgado - ugarte , and e . j . naranjo . 2008 . growth , mortality and migratory pattern of white shrimp ( litopenaeus vannamei , crustacea , penaeidae ) in the carretas - pereyra coastal lagoon system , mexico . revista de biolog\u00eda tropical 56 : 523\u2013533 .\npontes , cibele soares , maria de fatima arruda , alexandre augusto de lara menezes , and patr\u00edcia pereira de lima . 2006 . daily activity pattern of the marine shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone 1931 ) juveniles under laboratory conditions . aquaculture research 37 : 1001\u20131006 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 2109 . 2006 . 01519 . x .\nrodr\u00edguez , sergio rend\u00f3n , emilio mac\u00edas regalado , jos\u00e9 antonio calder\u00f3n p\u00e9rez , arturo n\u00fa\u00f1ez past\u00e9n , and rafael sol\u00eds ibarra . 2007 . comparison of some reproductive characteristics of farmed and wild white shrimp males litopenaeus vannamei ( decapoda : penaeidae ) . international journal of tropical biology and conservation 55 . doi : 10 . 15517 / rbt . v55i1 . 6071 .\nproteasome activities in shrimp hemocytes . hemocytes from crangon crangon showed fluorescence after incubation with specific substrates for a try - , b chy - , and c cas - like activities . the bars represent 20 \u03bcm . d no fluorescence was detected when hemocytes were simultaneously incubated with the substrate for chy - like activity and the inhibitor epoxomicin . the bar represents 20 \u03bcm\nwakida - kusunoki , armando t . , luis enrique amador - del angel , patricia carrillo alejandro , and cecilia quiroga brahms . 2011 . presence of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone , 1931 ) in the southern gulf of mexico . aquatic invasions 6 : s139\u2013s142 . doi : 10 . 3391 / ai . 2011 . 6 . s1 . 031 .\npalacios , elena , ilie s . racolta , and acuacultores de la paz . 1999 . spawning frequency analysis of wild and pond - reared pacific white shrimp penaeus vannamei broodstock under large - scale hatchery conditions . journal of the world aquaculture society 30 : 180\u2013191 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1749 - 7345 . 1999 . tb00865 . x .\nreaction kinetics of proteasome activities of shrimp hemocytes . means , n = 3 . a trypsin - like activity of penaeus vannamei , b trypsin - like activity of crangon crangon , c chymotrypsin - like activity of penaeus vannamei , d chymotrypsin - like activity of crangon crangon , e caspase - like activity of penaeus vannamei , and f caspase - like activity of crangon crangon"]}
{"id": 2387, "summary": [{"text": "the pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) is a neotropical cuckoo with a long graduated tail and a short crest .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is one of three species of neoptropical cuckoo which are known to be brood parasites . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "pavonine cuckoo", "paragraphs": ["pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) is a species of bird in the cuculidae family .\nthese long - legged and long - tailed cuckoos have variable breeding habits . three of them are brood - parasitic species , the striped cuckoo ( tapera naevia ) , and the two species of genus dromococcyx , the pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) and the pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) . these three species occur in south america and central america , except the pavonine cuckoo which is only present in ne south america .\nthe pavonine cuckoo is a medium - sized , long - tailed cuckoo found in the understory of forests of south america . the pavonine cuckoo is known to be a brood parasite , laying its eggs in the nests of other species . but otherwise very little is known of the behavior of this widespread but reclusive species , which is heard far more often than it is seen .\nthis reed warbler is raising the young of a common cuckoo , the best - known cuckoo .\ncuckoo ' s nest\nredirects here . for other uses , see cuckoo ' s nest ( disambiguation ) .\nin some species the migration is diurnal , as in the channel - billed cuckoo , or nocturnal , as in the yellow - billed cuckoo .\nthe pavonine cuckoo is rare and difficult to see as it does not move much and remains inconspicuous . it favors terra firme and mature floodplain forests . it is known to range at elevations of up to 900 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in\nthe african cuckoo was identified as a separate species on the basis of its call .\nsome species , like the asian emerald cuckoo ( chrysococcyx maculatus ) exhibit iridescent plumage .\n, the god of desire and longing , whereas in japan , the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love .\nthe plumage typically is a dull grayish brown , but some , such as the bronze cuckoos\u2014shining bronze - cuckoo ( chrysococcyx lucidus ) , horsfield ' s bronze - cuckoo ( chrysococcyx basalis ) , and so forth\u2014are brightly colored or iridescent . cuckoo genera differ in the number of primary wing feathers as below .\nin this case , raising the cuckoo chick is less of a cost than the alternative\u2014total clutch destruction .\nthis species is a recent split from fork - tailed drongo - cuckoo surniculus dicruroides . both were previously lumped as\nasian drongo - cuckoo\nin southeast asia . the square - tailed , however , is the only one to reach palawan , the south - easternmost of the philippine islands . in the rest of the philippines the resident is philippine drongo - cuckoo surniculus velutinus . a final drongo - cuckoo inhabits the moluccas .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nother species of cuckoo lay\ncryptic\neggs , which are dark in color when their hosts ' eggs are light .\nquite a number of species of cuckoo , such as the well - known european cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) , practice brood parasitism , laying eggs in the nests of other bird species for rearing . such an instinctual behavior adds to the diversity and wonder of the animal world and has made the cuckoo a well - known bird , especially the unforgettable sight of a small parent bird feeding a very large cuckoo nestling\u2014a nestling that may have ejected the parent bird ' s other eggs or nestlings from the nest .\nmost species of cuckoo are sedentary , but some undertake regular seasonal migrations and others undertake partial migrations over part of their range .\nthe cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host ' s , and the cuckoo chick grows faster ; in most cases the chick evicts the eggs or young of the host species . the chick has no time to learn this behavior , so it must be an\nkarubian , j ; carrasco , l ( 2008 ) .\nhome range and habitat preferences of the banded ground - cuckoo (\ncuckoo chicks start to mimic the cries that their foster parents ' young make from the moment they hatch , a scientist has proved .\nstoddard mc , stevens m ( july 2011 ) .\navian vision and the evolution of egg color mimicry in the common cuckoo\n.\nthe cuckoo family gets its english and scientific names from the call of the common cuckoo , which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks . some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls , for example the koels of asia and australasia . in most cuckoos the calls are distinctive to particular species , and are useful for identification . several cryptic species are best identified on the basis of their calls .\n. the pavonine cuckoo has multi - toned rufous head and neck with a dusky streak from behind the eye . the rest of the underparts are pale . the throat and breast are unmarked ( no black specks ) . it has a buffy superciliary line from above the eye . the tail is long , broad , and graduated with long and ornate rump feathers and uppertail coverts . it forages on the ground where it extends the wings and tail to flush insects before it chases and catches them . it is similar to the\nthe cuckoo family gets its english and scientific names from the familiar , two - note call of the common cuckoo , which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks . some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls , for example the koels of asia and australasia . in most cuckoos , the calls are distinctive to particular species , and are useful for identification . several cryptic species have been identified on the basis of their calls .\nlevaillant ' s cuckoo ( below ) \u2014 quite a large cuckoo of arid woodlands\u2014 parasitizes mostly turdoides babblers , such as arrow - marked babbler t . jardineii , but also uses chestnut - bellied starling spreo pulcher as a host . these hosts are resident in the dry country but they breed in the wet season , and that is when levaillant ' s cuckoo arrives . after the wet season it is an intra - continental migrant back to the equatorial primary forests .\nthis article is part of project cucuiformes / idae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each cuckoo , including made - up species .\nseveral koels , couas , and the channel - billed cuckoo feed mainly on fruit ( corlett and ping 1995 ) , but they are not exclusively frugivores . the parasitic koels and channel - billed cuckoo in particular consume mainly fruit when raised by fruigivore hosts such as the figbird and pied currawong . other species will occasionally take fruit as well .\n, being around the same size as the channel - billed cuckoo . the subfamily coccyzinae are arboreal and long tailed as well , with a number of large insular forms . the\nnot globally threatened . a solitary cuckoo , uncommon to rare , not well known , and sensitive to habitat disturbance . its distribution is patchy and discontinuous , though the . . .\nthe other ani \u2014 the yellow - eyed greater ani c . major \u2014 and guira cuckoo are only in south america , favoring , respectively , marshy edges and dry brushy country .\nantonov , anton ; stokke , bard g . ; moksnes , arne ; roeskaft , eivin ( 2008 ) .\ndoes the cuckoo benefit from laying unusually strong eggs ?\n.\nabout 56 of the old world species and 3 of the new world species are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other birds ( payne 2005 ) . the best - known example is the european common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) . the cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host ' s , and the cuckoo chick grows faster ; in most cases , the chick evicts the eggs or young of the host species . the chick has no time to learn this behavior , so it must be an instinct passed on genetically . the mother still feeds the cuckoo chick as if it were her own , the chick ' s open mouth serving as a sign stimulus for the host to feed it ( campbell 1996 ) .\ndifferent species and even populations of cuckoo select different host species , laying eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host . this also seems to have been aided by natural selection , as some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own , leading to those eggs least like the host ' s being thrown out of the nest ( campbell 1996 ) .\nin central & south america , squirrel cuckoo piaya cayana is common and do seem\nsquirrel - like\nas they move through the canopy . a very small version is little cuckoo ( left ) . several south american cuckoos are migratory , moving to the equator in the southern winter ( our summer ) . one of these is ash - colored cuckoo c . cinereus . in july 1975 , i discovered this tiny cuckoo on the banks of the amazon river at leticia where it proved to be a first record for colombia ( hilty & brown 1986 ) . it was one of my best personal finds , even though i didn ' t know what it was at the time . i showed the bird to others and together we sorted it out using meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) .\ngaines , d . , and s . a . laymon . 1984 . decline , status and preservation of the yellow - billed cuckoo in california . w . birds 15 : 49 - 80 .\ncuckoos have played a role in human culture for thousands of years , appearing in greek mythology as sacred to the goddess hera . in europe , the cuckoo is associated with spring , and with cuckoldry , for example in shakespeare ' s love ' s labours lost . in india , cuckoos are sacred to kamadeva , the god of desire and longing , whereas in japan , the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love .\n, but there are exceptions . the anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests , although this behaviour is not completely cooperative ; a female may remove others ' eggs when laying hers .\navil\u00e9s jm , stokke bg , moksnes a , r\u00f8skaft e , asmul m , m\u00f8ller ap ( november 2006 ) .\nrapid increase in cuckoo egg matching in a recently parasitized reed warbler population\n.\nin the far east are four species of drongo - cuckoo , named for a resemblance to drongos ( genus dicurus ) . this ( right ) is square - tailed drongo - cuckoo . notice it has a shiny plumage like a drongo . here it looks to be consuming a hairy caterpillar . it parasitizes a variety of bulbuls , babblers and tit - babblers . no drongo is known to be a host .\n38\u201340 cm ; 116\u2013163 g . the largest hawk - cuckoo . adult dark morph is brown above , ashy - grey on crown , nape and neck , tail barred brownish grey and black , tipped . . .\nlaymon , s . a . , and m . d . halterman . 1987 . can the western subspecies of the yellow - billed cuckoo be saved from extinction . w . birds 18 : 19 - 26 .\nbogert , c ( 1937 ) birds collected during the whitney south sea expedition . 34 , the distribution and the migration of the long - tailed cuckoo ( urodynamis taitensis sparrman ) . american museum novitates 933 12 p .\nthey tend to conform to the classic shape , with ( usually ) long tails , short legs , long narrow wings and an arboreal lifestyle . the largest species , the channel - billed cuckoo , also has the most outsized\nthis is a trick to hide the egg from the host , and is exhibited in cuckoos that parasitize hosts with dark , domed nests . some adult parasitic cuckoos completely destroy the host ' s clutch if they reject the cuckoo egg .\nsome host species may directly try to prevent cuckoos laying eggs in their nest in the first place \u2013 birds whose nests are at high risk of cuckoo - contamination are known to ' mob ' cuckoos to drive them out of the area .\nmost of the nest - building cuckoos are monogamous , but the anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests . their behavior is not completely cooperative ; a female may remove others ' eggs when laying hers ( payne 2005 ) .\nthe common cuckoo shown at near right is typically gray male from a population in china . to the far right is a ' hepatic ' ( rufous ) morph female in its first autumn . females of this and other cuculus species often have gray morphs and hepatic morphs . this particular hepatic morph female represents california ' s first and only record of this old world species . long - distance migration can sometimes spin off vagrants on the ' wrong ' side of the pacific . there are a handful of records of common cuckoo and oriental cuckoo c . optatus in alaska , but this one was found by friends ( lois goldfrank , steve gerow ) at watsonville , in nearby santa cruz co . , and lingered from 28 sep\u20132 oct 2012 .\nfemale parasitic cuckoos sometimes specialize and lay eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host . some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own , leading to those eggs least like the host ' s being thrown out of the nest .\ncuckoos are birds of variable size with slender bodies , long tails , pointed wings , down - curved bills , and strong legs . the feet are zygodactyl : the two inner toes pointed forward and the two outer toes pointed backward . cuckoos range in size from the little bronze cuckoo , at 17 grams ( 0 . 6 ounces ) and 15 centimeters ( 6 inches ) , to the channel - billed cuckoo , at 630 grams ( 1 . 4 pounds ) and 63 centimeters ( 25 inches ) .\nthere are four species of lizard - cuckoos in the caribbean , almost all are single - island endemics and each has a dramatic long and impressive tail , and an equally dramatic long bill . this is puerto rican lizard - cuckoo ( above right ) .\non the other hand , the large forest species of south america often follow swarms of army - ants . these species belong to the genus neomorphus . they are uncommon to rare , and the banded ground - cuckoo ( neomorphus radiolosus ) is evaluated as endangered due to forest destruction .\nsome hosts do not exhibit egg rejection behavior and the cuckoo eggs look very dissimilar from the host eggs . it has also been shown in a study of the european cuckoos that females will lay their egg in the nest of a host that has eggs that look similar to its own .\nthe parasitism is not necessarily entirely detrimental to the host species . a 16 - year dataset was used in 2014 to find that parasitized crows ' nests were more successful overall ( more likely to produce at least one crow fledgling ) than cuckoo - free nests . the researchers attributed this to a strong - smelling substance secreted by cuckoo chicks when attacked that repels predators , and commented\ninteractions that have been clearly classified as ' parasitic ' or ' mutualistic ' might be more complex . perhaps we need to look more closely at these interactions before giving species such tags or labels\n.\nthe roadrunners are fairly common in their habitat . the striped cuckoo is variably common to uncommon while the dromococcyx species are rare and local , as the neomorphus . all are resident in their range . they are sensitive to habitat disturbance , land clearance and overgrazing which destroys the low vegetation , and some species have restricted range .\nthe majority of cuckoo species , including malkohas , couas , coucals , and roadrunners , and most other american cuckoos , build their own nests . most of these species nest in trees or bushes , but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs . though on some occasions non - parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species , the parent still helps feed the chick .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe stripped cuckoo is the smallest of this subfamily with a length of 26 - 29 cm . this species frequents the open country with scattered trees , low seasonally wet grasslands , clearing in forest , brush at tropical forest edge and roadsides . it feeds on large insects and caterpillars , and forages alone on the ground . it often sways from side to side and fans the alula , probably to flush insects .\nthe three cuckoos mentioned represent different subfamilies . the variation among the cuculidae ranges from parasitic songsters that lay eggs in the nests of other birds ( the classic old world cuckoo ) to rangy ground - feeders in the new world to secretive skulkers whose gurgling\nwater - bottle\ncalls dominate an african swamp . this diversity supports the feeling among some that these wonderfully strange birds might better be separated into several families .\npayne , r . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . large hawk - cuckoo ( hierococcyx sparverioides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\npayne , r . , de juana , e . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . lesser cuckoo ( cuculus poliocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe final subfamily [ crotophaginae ] consists of three species of anis ( genus crotophaga ) \u2014 all of them all - black birds like the smooth - billed ani ( right ) \u2014 and one species in the genus guira , the guira cuckoo ( below ) which is sort - of like a blonde ani . all these birds forage on the ground or in small bushes in small flocks . they are communal birds that often roost together , and are co - operative breeders .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . moluccan cuckoo ( cacomantis aeruginosus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 10 july 2018 ) .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dromococcyx pavoninus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 15 side a track 44 seq . a )\nel individuo se manifest\u00f3 espont\u00e1neamente desde el estrato bajo , en un borde de selva marginal secundaria del r\u00edo paran\u00e1 con capueras y vegetaci\u00f3n cerrada . posado en un gajo visible y bastante confiado , marcaba ac\u00fasticamente su territorio . el canto de este registro presenta cierta variaci\u00f3n con respecto al habitual .\nindividuo vocalizando de manera espont\u00e1nea perchando a menos de un metro de altura del suelo en un sector de vegetaci\u00f3n arbustiva aleda\u00f1o a un camino de la isla . todo el sector se encontraba rodeado de ba\u00f1ados .\nid accurancy : 95 % . habitat : low montane second growth forest . distance to mic : 20 m . tascam dr - 100mkii reference : 150409 _ 0037\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 16 side a track 2 seq . b )\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nproposed race perijanus ( from sierra de perij\u00e1 , on n colombia\u2013nw venezuela border ) generally considered inseparable . monotypic .\nvery patchily from colombia # r # r , venezuela and guyana through e peru and bolivia to brazil ( s to mato grosso , paran\u00e1 , s\u00e3o paulo and rio de janeiro ) , paraguay and n argentina ( misiones ) ; recorded once in e ecuador ( napo ) # r .\n27\u201330\u00b75 cm ; 40\u00b75\u201354 g . adult small - headed , thin - necked , dark above , with scaly feathers edged white on outer webs ( frosted appearance ) , crown , face . . .\ncall a whistled \u201cp\u00fc\u00fc , pee , p\u00fc\u00fc - pe - pe\u201d , first note lowest , last note . . .\nlowland tropical evergreen forest , montane evergreen forest , scrub thickets , tangled forests with . . .\nbrood - parasitic : hosts include species with closed or bag - shaped nests ( tyrannidae , formicariidae ) . eggs white with purplish spots ; 21 mm . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na bird looking around while perched on a low branch above the forest floor .\nphilgunson , scott olmstead , dubi shapiro , douglas meyer , rodrigo y castro , josef widmer , nick athanas , caduagne , joe tobias .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nmost cuckoos reside in forests , but some prefer more open country . most are insect eaters , with hairy caterpillars , which are avoided by many birds , being a specialty .\nparasitic female cuckoos are grouped into gentes ( singular\ngens\n) , that is , populations favoring a particular host species ' nest , with each gens laying eggs that match those of the host species in color and pattern . brood parasites , such as cuckoos , which use multiple host species to raise their chicks , evolve different gentes , each one specific to its host species . this specialization allows the parasites to lay eggs that mimic those of their hosts , which in turn reduces the chances of the eggs being rejected by the hosts . there is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another .\nnon - parasitic cuckoos , like most other non - passerines , lay white eggs , but many of the parasitic species lay colored eggs to match those of their passerine hosts .\nthe young of all species are altricial ( newly hatched young are relatively immobile , have closed eyes , lack feathers , and must be cared for by the adults ) . non - parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly , and some new world species have the shortest incubation periods among birds ( payne 2005 ) .\ncuckoos are often highly secretive and in many cases best known for their wide repertoire of calls . calls are usually relatively simple , resembling whistles , flutes , or hiccups ( brooke and horsfall 2003 .\nalthough cuckoos are diurnal , many species call at night ( payne 2005 ) .\nthe following is the systematics of the family cuculidae including coucals and anis as subfamilies within this taxon .\ngenus cursoricoccyx \u2014 fossil ( early miocene of logan county , u . s . ) \u2014neomorphinae\ncuculidae gen . et sp . indet . \u2014 fossil ( early pliocene of lee creek mine , u . s . : olson 1985 )\ngenus eocuculus \u2014 fossil ( late eocene of teller county , u . s . )\nbrooke , m . de l . , and j . a . horsfall . 2003 . cuckoos . in c . perrins ( ed . ) , firefly encyclopedia of birds . firefly books . isbn 1552977773 .\ncorlett , r . , and i . ping . 1995 . frugivory by koels in hong kong . memoirs of the hong kong natural history society 20 : 221 - 222 .\nfeduccia , a . 1996 . the origin and evolution of birds . new haven : yale university press . isbn 0300064608 .\nkaiser , g . w . 2007 . the inner bird ; anatomy and evolution . vancouver , bc : ubc press . isbn 9780774813433 .\nolson , s . l . 1985 . section vii . c . cuculidae . in d . s . farner , j . r . king , and k . c . parkes ( eds . ) , avian biology 8 : 110 - 111 .\npayne , r . b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford university press . isbn 0198502133 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 5 november 2008 , at 18 : 58 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\nhas been thought to be closely related to c . rochii , the two sometimes being treated as conspecific ; dna data , however , do not support a sister relationship between them # r . c . lepidus has been placed in present species , but available evidence does not support that treatment . monotypic .\nn pakistan # r and kashmir e through himalayan foothills to khasi and naga hills , n myanmar and n indochina , and across china ( including taiwan and hainan , where seems to be resident # r # r ) to ussuriland , korea and japan . winters in sri lanka and e africa .\n22\u201327 cm ; 40\u201359 g . adult male slate - grey above , tail and uppertail - coverts contrastingly blackish , tail with white tip and white spots at sides ; bend of wing . . .\nloud , husky chattering song , \u201ceat your ch\u00f3ky pepper\u201d , comprising six notes at 1 . . .\nforests , both broadleaf and pine , scrub , second growth ; in ussuriland in broadleaf forests of . . .\ninsects , mainly caterpillars ( geometrids , noctuids ) , also beetles , hymenoptera , mantids .\nmigratory , entire breeding population apparently moving sw or s to wintering grounds . winters in . . .\nnot globally threatened . few data on abundance ; common to fairly common locally in nepal . populations depend on maintaining habitat and numbers of its host species . not . . .\nusually treated as conspecific with h . bocki . thought to be closer to h . varius , the two forming a clade with h . bocki as sister # r . monotypic .\nhimalayas from n pakistan and india to nepal , naga hills , manipur and meghalaya , thence e to china ( sichuan , n to lower yellow r valley ) , taiwan , and s to myanmar , thailand and indochina . winters mainly from ne india and thailand s to s & e india , peninsular malaysia , andaman is # r , greater and lesser sundas and philippines .\nin breeding season , calls at dawn and at sunset into night ( especially during overcast weather ) , a . . .\ndeciduous and evergreen wooded areas , especially with oaks ( or oak - rhododendron in nepal ) , also in . . .\ninsects , mainly caterpillars ( including hairy species ) ; also hemiptera , crickets , grasshoppers , beetles , bugs , roaches , ants and spiders ; . . .\nbreeds apr\u2013jul in w himalayas , apr\u2013jun in assam ; eggs apr\u2013may in myanmar ( where vocalizes late feb\u2013jun ) . brood - . . .\nmainly migratory : most individuals , at least from n of range and over most of china , move s to . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common or fairly common breeder in many parts of range , notably thailand , nepal and india , and considered abundant in bhutan , but . . .\noften subsumed within cuculus but shows notable morphological differences ( e . g . in wing shape and tail - barring ) , and genetic data support this grouping # r .\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe other major question is how many families to create out of the diversity in the cuculiformes . sibley & ahlquist ( 1990 ) and sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) settled on five families but the handbook of the birds of the world account ( payne 1997 ) considers these five groups to be subfamilies , and further separates the malkohas and couas as another subfamily , making six subfamilies in all . then the malkohas and the couas are given\ntribe\nstatus , thus forming at least seven distinctive groups of cuckoos . i recommend that birders learn all seven groups , and that you search for each as you enjoy birding the world . here are the hbw six subfamilies :\nprum et al . ( 2015 ) matched molecular evidence with fossil evidence to construct a phylogeny of modern birds . their evidence showed that the old world subfamily cuculinae diverged from the new world coccyzinae group about 22 million years ago ( mya ) and that the combined clade of old and new world cuckoos diverged from the coucals about 32 mya .\nsmooth - billed and groove - billed c . sulcirostris anis are very widespread species in the neotropics , and both reach north into the united states in south florida and south texas , respectively . smooth - bills , though , have become quite scarce and hard to find in florida ; groove - bills are interesting because vagrants can turn up widely throughout the u . s . ( i have chased three in california and finally got the third one ) . a recent survey on their u . s . status , plus good identification points , is in mlodinow & karlson ( 1999 ) .\nwas at intervales np , brazil , on 31 july 2010 . the party of\n( at the top ) and the lone bird ( bottom of page ) were both taken at porte jofre , pantanal , brazil , on 21 july 2010 . the\nwas taken from a blind in kruger nat ' l park , south africa , in july 1996 . the\nwas at rajah sikatuna park , bohol , philippines on 20 dec 2005 . the drying\nat mt . makiling , luzon , philippines , on 10 dec 2005 . dan singer shot the\nwere taken , respectively , at huzu , china , on 23 june 2004 , and watsonville , california , on 28 sep 2012 . the male\nwas at kalkapa reserve , ghana , on 29 nov 2013 . both shots of\nwere of a single male at antwikwaa , ghana , on 3 dec 2013 . the\nwas in puerto princesa np , palawan , philippines , on 23 dec 2005 . the\nwas in the hills above the baliem valley , irian jaya , new guinea , in aug 1994 . the\nwas at the olobogu river grasslands , sulawesi , indonesia , on 1 oct 2011 .\nwas in shirttail canyon , monterey county , california , on 19 oct 2014 . marc fenner photographed the\nabove lagartos , costa rica , on the road to monteverde , in april 1990 . kevin j . zimmer photographed the\nat el valle , panama , on 29 mar 2010 . sarah hamilton took the photos of\nthat was netted and banded at the big sur ornithology lab , monterey co . , california , on 4 june 2003 . the\nwas along the rio cuiba , pantanal , brazil , on 22 july 2010 . the\nwas amongst a small party at ft . lauderdale , florida , on 21 dec 2006 .\nuncredited photos \u00a9 don roberson . credited photos \u00a9 blake matheson , dan singer , marc fenner , kevin zimmer , and sarah hamilton of big sur ornithology lab , as credited , and used with permission ; all rights reserved .\npayne , robert b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford univ . press , oxford .\nbeehler , b . m . , and t . k . pratt . 2016 . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics , princeton univ . press , princeton , n . j .\ncollar , n . j . , and a . j . long . 1995 . taxonomy and names of carpococcyx cuckoos from the greater sundas . forktail 11 : 135 - 150 .\nfry , c . h . , s . keith , and e . k . urban , eds . 1988 . the birds of africa . vol iii . academic press , london .\nhilty , s . l . , and w . l . brown . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton univ . press , princeton , n . j .\nmeyer de schauensee , r . 1966 . the species of birds of south america and their distribution . livingston publ . , narbeth , pa .\nmlodinow , s . g . , and k . t . karlson . 1999 . anis in the united states and canada . n . am . birds 53 : 237 - 245 .\npayne , r . b . 1997 . family cuculidae ( cuckoos ) , pp . 508\u2013607 in handbook of the birds of the world ( del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , & j . sargatal , eds . ) . vol . 4 . lynx edicions , barcelona .\nprum , r . o . , j . s . bery , a . dornburg , d . j . field , j . p . townsend , e . m . lemmon , and a . r . lemmon . 2015 . a comprehensive phylogeny of birds ( aves ) using targeted next - generation dna sequencing . nature 526 : 569\u2013573 .\nsibley , c . g . , and j . e . ahlquist . 1990 . phylogeny and classification of birds : a study in molecular evolution . yale univ . press , new haven , ct .\nsibley , c . g . , and b . l . monroe , jr . 1990 . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale univ . press , new haven , ct . .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\nthe cuckoos are generally medium - sized slender birds . the majority are arboreal , with a sizeable minority that are terrestrial . the family has a cosmopolitan distribution , with the majority of species being tropical . some species are migratory . the cuckoos feed on insects , insect larvae and a variety of other animals , as well as fruit . many species are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other species , but the majority of species raise their own young .\nthe chestnut - breasted malkoha is typical of the phaenicophaeinae in having brightly coloured skin around the eye .\nin size , but where it exists , it can be either the male or the female that is larger . one of the most important distinguishing features of the family are the feet , which are\n, meaning that the two inner toes point forward and the two outer backward . there are two basic body forms , arboreal species ( like the\n) which are more heavy set and have long tarsi . almost all species have long tails which are used for steering in terrestrial species and as a rudder during\nin the arboreal species . the wing shape also varies with lifestyle , with the more\n. the subfamily phaenicophaeinae are the non - parasitic cuckoos of the old world , and include the couas , malkohas , and ground - cuckoos . they are more terrestrial cuckoos , with strong and often long legs and short rounded wings . the subfamily typically has brighter plumage and brightly coloured bare skin around the eye . the\nare another terrestrial subfamily of long tailed long legged and short winged cuckoos . they are large heavyset birds with the largest , the\nof the cuckoos are generally soft , and often become waterlogged in heavy rain . cuckoos often sun themselves after rain , and the anis hold their wings open in the manner of a\nplumage , whereas others have bright and elaborate plumage . this is particularly true of the\nplumage . some cuckoos have a resemblance to hawks with barring on the underside ; this apparently alarms potential hosts , allowing the female to access a host nest .\nthe young of some brood parasites are coloured so as to resemble the young of the host . for example , the\nin plumage is uncommon in the cuckoos , being most common in the parasitic old world species .\ncuculinae is the most widespread subfamily of cuckoos , and is distributed across europe , asia , africa , australia and oceania . amongst the phaenicophaeinae cuckoos the malkohas and asian ground - cuckoos are restricted to southern asia , the couas are endemic to madagascar and the yellowbill widespread across africa . the coucals are distributed from africa through tropical asia down into australia and the solomon islands . the remaining three subfamilies have a new world distribution , all three are found in both north and south america . the coccyzinae reaches the furthest north of the three subfamilies , breeding in canada , whereas the anis reach as far north as florida and the typical ground - cuckoos the south west united states .\nspecies breeding at higher latitudes migrate to warmer climates during the winter due to food availability . the\n, which breeds in new zealand , flies to its wintering grounds in polynesia , micronesia , and melanesia , a feat described as\nperhaps the most remarkable overwater migration of any land bird .\nwithin africa , ten species make regular intra - continental migrations that are described as polarised ; that is , they spend the non - breeding season in the tropical centre of the continent and move north and south to breed in the more arid and open savannah and deserts .\nthis is the same as the situation in the neotropics , where no species have this migration pattern , or tropical asia , where a single species does . 83 % of the australian species are partial migrants within australia or travel to\n, including noxious hairy types avoided by other birds . they are unusual among birds in processing their prey prior to swallowing , rubbing it back and forth on hard objects such as branches and then crushing it with special bony plates in the back of the mouth .\n, specialised in taking lizards . larger , ground types such as coucals and roadrunners also feed variously on snakes , lizards , small rodents , and other birds , which they bludgeon with their strong bills . ground species may employ different techniques to catch prey . a study of two\nran and pounced on prey . both species also showed seasonal flexibility in prey and foraging techniques .\n, although some studies in eastern australia found several species participated in the non - breeding season , but were mobbed and unable to do so in the breeding season .\nthey snatch prey flushed by the cattle and enjoy higher foraging success rates in this way .\n. other species occasionally take fruit as well . couas consume fruit in the dry season when prey is harder to find .\nthe cuckoos are an extremely diverse group of birds with regards to breeding systems .\nand is suspected to occur in the other coucals , perhaps explaining the reversed sexual dimorphism in the group .\n( see below ) . most of these species nest in trees or bushes , but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs . though on some occasions non - parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species , the parent still helps feed the chick .\nnon - parasitic cuckoos , like most other non - passerines , lay white eggs , but many of the parasitic species lay coloured eggs to match those of their passerine hosts .\n. non - parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly , and some new world species have the shortest incubation periods among birds .\nthese species are obligate brood parasites , meaning that they only reproduce in this fashion . in addition to the above noted species , yet others sometimes engage in non - obligate brood parasitism , laying their eggs in the nests of members of their own species in addition to raising their own young . the best - known example is the european\nthey have two distinct layers with an outer chalky layer that is believed to provide resistance to cracking when the eggs are dropped in the host nest .\ncuckoos have various strategies for getting their egg into a host nest . different species use different strategies based on host defensive strategies . female cuckoos have secretive and fast laying behaviors , but in some cases , males have been shown to lure host adults away from their nests so that the female can lay her egg in the nest .\n, with each gens specializing in a particular host . there is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another .\nparasitic cuckoos that show the highest levels of egg mimicry are those whose hosts exhibit high levels of egg rejection behavior .\n. calls are usually relatively simple , resembling whistles , flutes , or hiccups .\nand to attract a mate . within a species the calls are remarkably consistent across the range , even in species with very large ranges . this suggests , along with the fact that many species are not raised by their true parents , that the calls of cuckoos are innate and not learnt . although cuckoos are diurnal , many species call at night .\nhackett , s . j . ; et al . ( 2008 ) .\na phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history\n.\npayne r . b . ( 1997 )\nfamily cuculidae ( cuckoos )\n, pp . 508\u201345 in del hoyo j , elliott a , sargatal j ( eds ) ( 1997 ) . handbook of the birds of the world volume 4 ; sandgrouse to cuckoos lynx edicions : barcelona . isbn 84 - 87334 - 22 - 9\nellis , d ; kepler , c ; kepler , a ; teebaki , k ( 1990 ) .\nhockey , p ( 2000 ) .\npatterns and correlates of bird migrations in sub - saharan africa\n.\nchan , k ( 2001 ) .\npartial migration in australian landbirds : a review\n.\nkaiser , g . w . ( 2007 ) the inner bird ; anatomy and evolution . ubc press . vancouver . isbn 978 - 0 - 7748 - 1343 - 3 .\nchouteau , philippe ; raymond fenosoa ( 2008 ) .\nseasonal effects on foraging behaviour of two sympatric species of couas in the western dry forest of madagascar\n.\nbell , h ( 1986 ) .\nthe participation by cuckoos in mixed - species flocks of insectivorous birds in south - eastern australia\n.\nsmith , s ( 1971 ) .\nthe relationship of grazing cattle to foraging rates in anis\n.\ncorlett , r ; ping , i ( 1995 ) .\nfrugivory by koels in hong kong\n.\ngoymann , w ; wittenzellner , a ; wingfield , j ( 2004 ) .\ncompeting females and caring males . polyandry and sex - role reversal in african black coucals ,\nrobert b . payne , michael d . sorenson , karen klitz ( 2005 ) the cuckoos : cuculidae . oxford university press . p . 127"]}
{"id": 2418, "summary": [{"text": "the rufous-tailed hummingbird ( amazilia tzacatl ) is a medium-sized hummingbird that breeds from east-central mexico , through central america and colombia , east to western venezuela and south through western ecuador to near the border with peru .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "the larger escudo hummingbird from isla escudo de veraguas in panama is commonly considered a subspecies of the rufous-tailed hummingbird .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "this is a common to abundant bird of open country , river banks , woodland , scrub , forest edge , coffee plantations and gardens up to 1,850 m ( 6,070 ft ) . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "rufous - tailed hummingbird", "paragraphs": ["is identical to the rufous - tailed hummingbird , except for its larger size . since the\ncolorful rufous - tailed - hummingbird - i love the colors of this one . | humming birds | pinterest | hummingbird , colorful birds and bird\nthe specific plants that rufous - tailed hummingbirds obtain nectar from would not be able to survive without the birds to pollinate them . some examples of plants pollinated by rufous - tailed hummingbirds include :\njackson , j . , w . bock , m . hutchins , d . olendorf . 2002 . rufous - tailed hummingbird . pp . 465 in\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds ( along with many other hummingbird species ) have such high metabolic rates that they often go into torpor during the night to conserve energy .\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds may nest in loose colonies . they have been observed stealing nest materials from their neighbors .\nthe hummingbirds do differ from race to race . the handleyi race is larger and heavier than the average rufous - tailed hummingbird . it is also a slightly darker bronze - green . the fuscicaudata race is smaller than an average rufous - tailed hummingbird . the jucunda race has a longer bill in relation to its size with narrow margins in the outer rectrices .\nonly occurs on the caribbean island\nescudo de veraguas\nin panama , confusion with the mainland rufous - tailed is unlikely .\nthe rufous - tailed hummingbird ( amazilia tzacatl ) - also known as rieffer ' s hummingbird - is a common central and south american hummingbird that can be found in the open country , along river banks and the forest edge , in woodland and scrub , as well as plantations and gardens up to 1850 m ( 6000 ft ) .\nid 90 % . the hummingbird was perched facing away from me in dark , dense vegetation , so i never got a good look at it . the size of the bird , its bill , and back colors ( in poor light ) looked like either a snowy - bellied hummingbird or rufous - tailed hummingbird . song had none of the nasal quality of snowy - bellied , and is ( to me ) identical to the rufous - tailed in xc47068 . recording was normalized to - 6 db .\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds may form very loose nesting colonies . they are generally more sedentary in humid regions and are diurnal or crepuscular , depending on the region .\nalthough there is little research on the lifespans of hummingbirds , researchers estimate an average hummingbird lives 3 to 5 years . the longest recorded living female was a broad - tailed hummingbird , found in colorado at age 12 . in captivity , they can survive about 10 years .\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds feed on nectar and arthropods . hummingbirds extract nectar from plants with their hollow , extensile tongues that are forked at the tip . they feed on a wide variety of plants including\nimmature rufous - tailed hummingbirds are darker and grayish towards the belly . the feather - edgings on the face and crown often have a bronzy edge . the upper mandible of younger individuals is often black .\nmales and female the rufous - tailed hummingbirds differ slightly in physical appearance . the males are larger , weighing 5 . 5 g . male rufous - tailed hummingbirds also have longer bodies . the maximum length of a male rufous - tailed hummingbird is about 11 cm . they have a straight bill , which is medium sized , fleshy red with a dark tip , and an upper mandible that is blackish . the upper parts of the male ' s body , the flanks and belly , are golden green to bronze - green . the throat is a glittering golden green and sometimes has a turquoise gleam in certain light . the belly is ashy gray to grayish - brown . the tail has traces of bronze - green and copper .\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds are polygynous . hummingbirds only have contact with the opposite sex for a few moments during fertilization . males are very territorial and often claim an area of flowers as their own during mating season .\nfemales usually lay two eggs per clutch . incubation lasts 15 to 16 days . young leave the nest when they are between 18 and 22 days old . young rufous - tailed hummingbirds are fed by the female for 58 days .\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds live primarily in central - east , possibly northeast mexico to central panama . the northernmost populations most likely migrate to the pacific and caribbean coast of mexico for the winter months ( guerrero and yucatan ) . the migratory patterns of rufous - tailed hummingbirds in other parts of central america are unknown . however , seasonal movements occur from colombia through ecuador . also , several individuals of this species have been recorded in southern texas in the summer and autumn .\nother synonyms catalan : colibr\u00ed amaz\u00edlia tzacatl czech : kolibr\u00edk rezavoocas\u00fd , kolib\u0159\u00edk rezavoocas\u00fd danish : brunhalet amazilie german : braunschwanzamazilie , braunschwanz - amazilie english : dusky - tailed hummingbird , reiffer ' s hummingbird , rieffer ' s hummingbird , rufous tailed hummingbird , rufous - tailed hummingbird , rufous - tailed or escudo hummingbird spanish : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia colirrufa , amazilia de cara rufa , amazilia rabirrufa , amazilia rubirrufa , amazilia tzacatl , colibr\u00ed cola canela , colibr\u00ed cola rojiza , colibr\u00ed colirufa spanish ( colombia ) : amazilia colirrufa , amazilia colirufo spanish ( costa rica ) : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( spain ) : amazilia tzacatl spanish ( honduras ) : amazilia rubirrufa , colibr\u00ed colirufa spanish ( mexico ) : colibr\u00ed cola canela , colibr\u00ed cola rojiza spanish ( nicaragua ) : amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( panama ) : amazilia colirrufa spanish ( peru ) : colibri de cola rufa spanish ( venezuela ) : amazilia colirufa , diamante colirrufo finnish : ruostepyrst\u00f6kolibri french : ariane \u00e0 ventre gris , ariane \u00e0 ventre gris ou a . de handley , ariane de rieffer , colibri \u00e0 ventre gris hungarian : rozsd\u00e1sfark\u00fa amaz\u00edlia italian : amazilia codarossiccia , colibr\u00ec codarossiccia japanese : haibaraemerarudohachidori japanese : \u30cf\u30a4\u30d0\u30e9\u30a8\u30e1\u30e9\u30eb\u30c9\u30cf\u30c1\u30c9\u30ea latin : amazilia [ tzacatl or handleyi ] , amazilia fuscicaudata , amazilia tzacati , amazilia tzacatl , amazilia tzacatl tzacatl , amazilis fuscicaudata , amazilis tzacatl , trochilus tzacatl lithuanian : rusvauodeg\u0117 amazilija dutch : roodstaartamazilia , roodstaartkolibrie norwegian : rusthalekolibri polish : szmaragdzik brazowosterny , szmaragdzik br\u0105zowosterny russian : \u0433\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f , \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0445\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f , \u0440\u044b\u0436\u0435\u0445\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438 - \u0430\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f slovak : kolibr\u00edk hrdzavochvost\u00fd swedish : roststj\u00e4rtad kolibri , roststj\u00e4rtad smaragd , roststj\u00e4rtsmaragd chinese : \u68d5\u5c3e\u8702\u9e1f chinese ( traditional ) : \u68d5\u5c3e\u8702\u9ce5\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds are common or very common in most of their range . the birds have been able to adapt to man - made habitats and are therefore found around agricultural , suburban and urban areas . they are listed as appendix ii by cites .\nformerly considered a separate species , the larger escudo hummingbird from isla escudo de veraguas in panama is now mostly treated as its subspecies .\nnesting is fairly specialized for rufous - tailed hummingbirds . their favorite sites to build nests are on horizontal branches in smaller trees and shrubs . the nests are usually 2 to 5 meters off the ground . sometimes the nests are built in the fork of a branch .\nis a medium - sized hummingbird . it has a distinctly rufous - colored tail , from which its named is derived , and a bright pink bill . like other hummingbirds , it feeds on nectar and small insects . it can be highly territorial over feeding areas . the\nis perhaps the most common species of hummingbird at forest edge and in gardens and cultivated areas from southern mexico south to northwestern south america .\nthe hummingbird society . date unknown .\nfrequently asked questions\n( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthe male ' s throat is green , in the female ' s is edged whitish . the crown , back and flanks are green tinged golden . the abdomen is pale greyish . the vent and rump are rufous . the slightly forked tail is also rufous but with a dusky tip .\nfemale rufous - tailed hummingbirds are smaller than the males and have slightly different coloration . females have a mass of around 5 . 2 g and their body length is usually about 8 cm . there is a grayish sub - terminal bar on the throat feathers and they have a white belly .\nweller , a . a . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . rufous - tailed hummingbird ( amazilia tzacatl ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nannenberg / cpb . 2001 .\nhummingbird\n( on - line ) . fun facts about hummingbirds . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\nthere has been co - evolution between hummingbirds and the flowers they feed upon . hummingbird flowers have very distinct characteristics that serve to attract hummingbirds . they also have other characteristics to insure that pollination occurs . many flowers are specially adapted to allow pollen to be deposited on hummingbirds in such a way that the pollen will reach another flower . this is a critical step in the process of plant reproduction . hummingbird beaks are also specially adapted to feed from hummingbird flowers .\ngates , l . , t . gates . 2003 .\nhummingbird behavior\n( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\nhummingbirds are important to humans because of their role in pollination . rufous - tailed hummingbirds often pollinate important crops such as banana and coffee . also , since these birds eat insects , they can play a very active role in pest control . they are also important in ecotourism and are popular amoung birdwatchers .\nthis medium - sized hummingbird averages 10 - 12 cm ( or 4 - 4 , 8 inches ) in length and weighs about 5 . 2 g ( or 0 , 2 oz ) .\nsometimes done in a sputtering series . the notes sung include one or more shrill notes that rise and accelerate . the male hummingbird ' s song is whistled in a deliberate rhythm . for example :\nother synonyms catalan : colibr\u00ed amaz\u00edlia tzacatl czech : kolib\u0159\u00edk rezavoocas\u00fd danish : brunhalet amazilie german : braunschwanzamazilie english : rufous - tailed hummingbird , rufous - tailed hummingbird ( rufous - tailed ) spanish : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia colirrufa , amazilia de cara rufa , amazilia rabirrufa , amazilia rubirrufa , amazilia tzacatl , colibr\u00ed cola canela ( grupo tzacatl ) , colibr\u00ed cola rojiza , colibri colirrufo , colibr\u00ed colirufa spanish ( colombia ) : amazilia colirrufa spanish ( costa rica ) : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( spain ) : amazilia tzacatl [ tzacatl group ] spanish ( honduras ) : amazilia rubirrufa , colibr\u00ed colirufa spanish ( mexico ) : colibr\u00ed cola canela ( grupo tzacatl ) , colibr\u00ed cola rojiza , colibri colirrufo spanish ( nicaragua ) : amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( panama ) : amazilia colirrufa ( grupo tzacatl ) spanish ( peru ) : colibri de cola rufa spanish ( venezuela ) : amazilia colirufa finnish : ruostepyrst\u00f6kolibri french : ariane \u00e0 ventre gris , ariane \u00e0 ventre gris ( nominal ) , ariane \u00e0 ventre gris [ tzacatl ] hungarian : rozsd\u00e1sfark\u00fa amaz\u00edlia italian : amazilia codarossiccia , colibr\u00ec codarossiccia japanese : haibaraemerarudohachidori , haibaraemerarudohachidori ( tzacatl guru - pu ) japanese : \u30cf\u30a4\u30d0\u30e9\u30a8\u30e1\u30e9\u30eb\u30c9\u30cf\u30c1\u30c9\u30ea , \u30cf\u30a4\u30d0\u30e9\u30a8\u30e1\u30e9\u30eb\u30c9\u30cf\u30c1\u30c9\u30ea ( tzacatl \u30b0\u30eb\u30fc\u30d7 ) latin : amazilia tzacatl , amazilia tzacatl [ tzacatl group ] , amazilia tzacatl tzacatl , trochilus tzacatl lithuanian : rusvauodeg\u0117 amazilija dutch : roodstaartamazilia , roodstaartamazilia ( tzacatl groep ) , roodstaartkolibrie norwegian : rusthalekolibri , rusthalekolibri ( tzacatl gr . ) polish : szmaragdzik brazowosterny , szmaragdzik br\u0105zowosterny russian : \u0433\u043e\u0431\u0430\u043a\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f , \u043a\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0435\u0432\u043e\u0445\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0442\u0430\u044f \u0430\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f , \u0440\u044b\u0436\u0435\u0445\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0431\u0440\u0438 - \u0430\u043c\u0430\u0437\u0438\u043b\u0438\u044f slovak : kolibr\u00edk hrdzavochvost\u00fd swedish : roststj\u00e4rtad kolibri , roststj\u00e4rtad smaragd [ tzacatl group ] chinese : \u68d5\u5c3e\u8702\u9e1f chinese ( traditional ) : \u68d5\u5c3e\u8702\u9ce5\nthe rufous - tailed hummingbirds primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , herbs , shrubs and epiphytes , favoring heliconias and bananas . they use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .\nhummingbirds have one of the highest basal metabolic rates of any birds due to their very small size , their type of flight , and the amount energy needed to sustain their flight . the average hummingbird metabolic rate is 1600kcal / kg / day .\nrufous - tailed hummingbirds are found primarily on the edges of humid evergreen forest , banana or coffee plantations , human habitations , and clearings . these birds are not usually found inside the dense forest but often in second growth and semi - open areas . these thicket - rich regions are found in south america and are in gallery forest and montane zones . the elevation at which these birds occur vares from region to region . their altitudinal distribution is correlated with the flowering periods of food plants . in costa rica and panama through the subtropical belt , rufous - tailed hummingbirds are found in lower montane zones , from sea - level up to 1200 m . in colombia and the islands of panama their habitat consists of primary forest as well as bushy coastal habitats , even beaches . in the andes , the hummingbirds can be found up to 2500 m , occasionally even higher . some races in southwest colombia range from the lowlands into the subtropical zone with wet , open forest up to 2500 m .\nthe main cause of mortality for hummingbirds is predation of eggs and chicks in the nest . predation on adult hummingbirds is uncommon . this is due to the agility hummingbirds possess in flight . some known predators of hummingbird eggs , chicks and adults include : domestic cats (\nhas a generally green body ; the green of the throat and breast of the male is more glittering . it also has a bright pink red bill ( with a black tip ) and a bright rufous tail . it is one of several similar in appearance to several other species of\nas is the case with other hummingbird species , the chicks are brooded only the first week or two , and left alone even on cooler nights after about 12 days - probably due to the small nest size . the chicks leave the nest when they are about 20 - 26 days old .\nincubation lasts 15 to 16 days and is only done by the female . young leave the nest when they are between 18 and 22 days old . once hummingbirds fledge , they wait for their parents in a distinct spot that is usually not far from the nest . they do not follow their parents around as they forage , but rather wait to recieve food . once the female fills her crop with nectar , small insects and spiders she returns to feed her young . the young rufous - tailed hummingbirds are fed this way for 58 days . males do not provide any parental care .\nthey may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .\npacha quindi ( quechua for \u201cland of hummingbirds\u201d ) is one of the most spectacular places i have ever visited and when i say it has changed my life i\u00b4m not exaggerating . pacha quindi is set deep in a beautiful cloud forest and holds the record in number of hummingbird species recorded . it is also a home to many other fascinating birds . . .\npacha quindi reserve is a treat to any nature enthusiast . for the truly rugged hiker here is over 20km of well maintained cloud forest trails with beautiful vistas . just as special is the easily reachable hummingbird garden what doesn ' t just have feeders , but is stocked with flowering trees and shrubs which attract birds which normally don ' t use feeders . there is . . .\nhummingbirds have a unique form of flight that is somewhat insect like . the speed of a hummingbird ' s flight depends on the size of the bird . the average number of wing flaps is around 53 per second in normal flight . they are able to fly in all directions including forward , side to side , and even backwards . they are able to accomplish this through their highly modified and muscular bodies . also they are able to control the angle between their body axis and the axis of wing rotation . they also have a very unique ability to hover .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened . it is endemic to isla escudo de veraguas in the caribbean , off the coast of bocas del toro , panama ( s . olson per g . graves in litt . 1996 ) . it was glimpsed occasionally in march 1958 , and five specimens were collected during five days in march 1962 ( s . olson per g . graves in litt . 1996 ) .\npartners in flight estimate the total population to number 0 . 5 - 4 . 99 million individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . the subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened , however more recent surveys have found the species to be abundant , albeit within an extremely small range ( s . olson per g . graves in litt . 1996 ) .\nthe subspecies handleyi has been observed feeding on the flowers of low bushes in coastal areas ( wetmore 1968 ) .\nthe small size of isla escudo de veraguas makes the subspecies handleyi inherently susceptible to extinction . there are many potential threats , including hurricanes , fire , establishment of non - native species and development for tourism .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\n( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; jackson , et al . , 2002 )\nthe average wingspan for all hummingbirds is somewhere between 2 and 2 . 4 cm . the males often have larger wingspans than females .\n( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; ridgway , 1892 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 )\nrange wingspan 2 to 2 . 4 cm 0 . 79 to 0 . 94 in\nbreeding occurs at different times of the year throughout their range . in the northern parts of central america , nesting can occur from december through september . in mexico , breeding season is from march through august . in costa rica , breeding is guided by the dry season and peaks in january through may . along the pacific slope , breeding occurs from may through november . along the caribbean slope breeding occurs in october through january . breeding in south america and panama occurs in january through april .\nmaterials used for nest construction include plant down , yellowish - brown to grayish - brown fibers , cobwebs and pieces of dead leaves . the exterior of their nest is decorated heavily with bits of lichen and sometimes moss . these materials are usually formed into a compact cup nest . if a nest is destroyed or lost , construction of a new nest may start within a week .\n( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 )\nthese birds can be highly aggressive and territorial at rich clumps of flowers . intruders such as larger hummingbirds , butterflies , and euglossine bees are sometimes attacked with a diving flight .\n( jackson , et al . , 2002 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 )\nwe do not have information on home range for this species at this time .\n, followed by a pause . males sing most during the early morning from dawn to sunrise . they sing on scattered perches near flowers or in small loosly assembled groups near flowers .\nthe male hummingbirds use song to claim their territories . if another male attempts to enter , usually a loud chatter will be sung by the territory owner . intruders such as larger hummingbirds , butterflies , and euglossine bees are sometimes attacked with a diving flight .\n. they also feed on a number cultivated tree species , especially banana and coffee trees . they feed on small insects and spiders by taking them from leaves and branches , a method called gleaning . they are very territorial when feeding , and intruders are attacked with diving flights .\ndue to their high metabolic rates , hummingbirds require a large amount of food in order to survive . they may need to eat several times their body weight in nectar in one day .\n( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; grant and grant , 1968 )\nholly borchardt ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nfound in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude , in areas with a mediterranean climate . vegetation is dominated by stands of dense , spiny shrubs with tough ( hard or waxy ) evergreen leaves . may be maintained by periodic fire . in south america it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nhumans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals . ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nliving in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .\nhummingbirds . net . date unknown .\nabout hummingbirds\n( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\nbirds - n - gardens . com . 2002 .\nall about hummingbirds\n( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\nbaker , c . 2003 .\ncosta rica , birds\n( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\n, vol . 8 - 11 , 2nd edition . farmington hills , mi : gale group .\nritchison , g . 2003 .\navian energy balance & thermoregulation\n( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .\ndel hoyo , j . , a . elliott , j . sargatal . 1999 .\nto cite this page : borchardt , h . 2004 .\namazilia tzacatl\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nclosely related to a . castaneiventris , but not , as claimed , to a . yucatanensis and a . rutila . race handleyi has been treated as a distinct species on basis of being \u201cconsiderably larger and heavier\u201d and \u201cslightly darker bronze - green above\u201d ( hbw ) , but considered disqualified by zone of morphometric intergradation with nominate in bocas del toro archipelago ; genetic evidence also unfavourable to species status # r , and material in usnm shows no colour difference in plumage ; however , difference in size exceptional ( effect size for wing length 11 . 1 , score 4 ) , while narrow zone of intergradation scores 2 , so species status almost achieved . validity of race fuscicaudata has been questioned , but supported by morphometric characters . form a . bangsi is a hybrid of present species and a . rutila . five subspecies recognized .\n\u2013 e mexico ( s veracruz , n oaxaca ) s to wc panama ( w dari\u00e9n ) .\n( fraser , 1840 ) \u2013 n & w colombia ( cauca and magdalena valleys ) and w venezuela ( w lara , w t\u00e1chira ) .\n( heine , 1863 ) \u2013 lowlands and w slope in w colombia ( choc\u00f3 ) and w ecuador ( s to w loja ) .\nweller & schuchmann , 1999 \u2013 andes of sw colombia ( upper r guiza , in nari\u00f1o ) .\n( unsexed ) 7 g . male has bill straight , medium - sized , fleshy red with dark tip , . . .\nsong quite variable , typically a phrase of 2\u20134 thin high - pitched notes that is repeated , e . g . \u201ctsee . . .\nedges of humid evergreen forest , clearings , plantations of bananas or coffee , human habitations ; . . .\nnectar and arthropods . found in all strata from near the ground to the more open sides of tree crowns ; frequently gathers in some numbers . . .\nalmost year - round . in n middle america , nesting records dec\u2013sept ; in mexico , mainly mar\u2013aug , correlated with moulting period . . .\nin humid regions generally more sedentary than in arid areas ; more or less all year round . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . common to very common in most of range , e . g . canal zone of panama . less abundant in regions with tropical dry forest , dense . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nas currently constituted , this genus is not monophyletic # r ; more thorough sampling of taxa required before a clearer picture can be presented . in hbw , species currently placed herein were spread out over six genera , with additional recognition of agyrtria , polyerata and saucerottia , and relocation of some species in leucippus and hylocharis .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ncalls given while perched in secondary woodland , near a dense patch of psychotria flowers .\nmultiple amazilia tzacatl at feeders , chasing other hummingbirds including at least one heliodoxa jacula and a male discosura conversii .\nrecording clipped from a longer dawn song session and edited using audacity . longer unedited . wav file available upon request .\nhumid secondary shrubbery in transition to dry valley . reference : lxxixa 591 - 600 ( amatza1 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nits range stretches from east - central mexico , through central america and colombia , east to western venezuela and south through western ecuador to near the border with peru .\nthe bill is almost straight , colored red with a black tip . the upper bill may appear all black .\nmany native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .\nthey also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .\nmales establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .\nthe female is responsible for building the cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location , typically about 1 - 6 m high in a tree , shrub or bush . she lines the nest with soft plant fibers and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing . the nest is typically found on a low , thin horizontal branch .\nthe average clutch consists of two white eggs , which she incubates alone for about 15 to 19 days , while the male defends his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the young are born blind , immobile and without any down .\nthe female alone protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly partially - digested insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . the female pushes the food down the chicks ' throats with her long bill directly into their stomachs .\nits call sounds like a low chut . the male ' s is a whistled tse we ts\u2019 we or tse tse wip tseek tse .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : amazilia tzacatl . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 296 , 641 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 784 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nis slightly forked ( not square - tipped ) , and the upper surface of the central rectrices is mostly green is mostly green . the undertail coverts are the same color as the belly . also , the color of the belly in the southern ( yucatan ) subspecies of\n) is cinnamon buff ; this subspecies occurs in the yucatan peninsula and and in guatemala and belize .\n, which is known from only a few sites in the magdalena valley in colombia . the\nadult male : upperparts ( including the wing coverts ) green , except for chestnut - brown lores , uppertail coverts , and rectrices . remiges black with a slight purple sheen . throat , upper breast and sides green ; on some individuals , feathers of the throat and foreneck have narrow dull white edges , producing a scalloped effect . lower breast gray , belly and tibia white , undertail coverts chestnut - brown .\nadult female : similar to male , but lower breast paler gray . throat and foreneck have a scalloped appearance ( more pronounced than in males ) , due to narrow dull white feather edges .\njuvenile :\nlower breast and sides washed somewhat with cinnamon ;\nalso the feathers of the lower back and rump are narrowly tipped with chestnut - brown .\nthe preformative molt is complete , as is the definitive prebasic molt . molt occurs year - round in costa rica , but peaks from april - november .\njuvenile and hatching year ( hy ) / second year ( sy ) females have a black maxilla ; feathers of the upperparts are tipped with cinnamon ; the throat feathers are edged whitish creating a scaled appearance ; and the belly and vent are washed with buff - yellow . after hatching year ( ahy ) females are similar except that the upperparts lack the cinnamon feather tips .\nhy / sy males has a black maxilla , which gradual turns red on the basal 75 % .\nbill : distal half of the maxilla , tomia , and tip of mandible dull black . rest of bill red , brighter at base .\ntotal length : 9 cm ( ridgely and greenfield 2001 ) , 9 . 1 cm ( hilty and\nwing length , males : mean 58 . 8 mm ( range 56 . 3 - 60 . 9 mm , n = 10 )\nwing length , females : mean 55 . 8 mm ( range 53 . 8 - 60 . 1 mm , n = 10 )\ntail length , males : mean 33 . 2 mm ( range 31 . 1 - 34 . 8 mm , n = 10 )\ntail length , females : mean 32 . 5 mm ( range 31 . 0 - 34 . 6 mm , n = 10 )\nculmen ( from base ) , males : mean 22 . 7 mm ( range 21 . 1 - 24 . 9 mm , n = 10 )\nculmen ( from base ) , females : mean 23 . 6 mm ( range 23 . - 24 . 8 mm , n = 10 )\nwing length , males : mean 68 . 1 mm ( range 67 . 5 - 68 . 7 mm , n = 4 )\ntail length , males : mean 40 . 6 mm ( range 40 . 0 - 41 . 5 mm , n = 4 )\nculmen ( from base ) , males : mean 24 . 5 mm ( range 24 . 4 - 27 . 6 mm , n = 4 )\nculmen ( from base ) , females : 25 . 8 mm ( n = 1 )\n= 12 ; hartman 1954 ) ; female , mean , 4 . 72 g ( s . d . \u00b10 . 10 ,\n= 10 ; hartman 1954 ) ; mean 5 g . s . d . \u00b10 . 3 ,\nsummary of the extent of the breeding , wintering , migration and year - round range of this species in the western hemisphere , including canada , u . s . a . and mexico :\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\ncosta rica jade tours is a local tour company in beautiful manuel . . .\ncosta rica jade tours is a local tour company in beautiful manuel antonio . we offer the best activities and tours to help make all your vacation dreams come true . contact us so we can help you discover the most exciting adventures and exotic treasures from this spectacular land . you may never want to leave !\njason came to pick us up for our birding tour and it was pouring . he said this meant the birds will be seeking shelter and not be out for us to see . we decided to drive to rain maker with him anyways in hopes that the rain would stop . it just kept on raining though . so he said we would . . .\nthis bbc wildlife magazine and national geographic published destination offers a 2 hour guided tour by the owners . $ 40 per person . tour start times : 8am , 10am , 1pm , 3pm . reservation required . free coffee .\nmy photography group spent a day at the nature pavilion , photographing dozens of tropical bird and animal species . this is a special place ! the owner does a marvelous job of attracting wildlife to the viewing areas . if you visit costa rica , and are at all interested in viewing and / or photographing dozens of different birds , including hummingbirds , you must include the . . .\ngreetings from paradise ! thanks for taking the time to write up this review and rank the nature pavilion as a top destination not to be missed ! it was a pleasure meeting you and the entire group as we photographed the beautiful birds from the covered viewing areas . thanks again for your support ! dave & dave\nsee all 386 reviews of dave & dave ' s costa rica nature . . .\n, banana , and coffee flowers ( greenberg et al . 1997 ) . since nectar is low in protein , they also feed on small insects ( remsen et al . 1986 ) . this species is also a common visitor to human - made feeders filled with a sugar - water mixture .\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nthe cracidae are a neotropical family of 50 species of galliform birds , many of which are threatened . through a literature review , we evaluated current knowledge of cracid food habits and established general dietary patterns . diet has been relatively well documented for 17 species , anecdotal information is available for 19 species , and no information is available for 14 species . fruit is the . . . [ show full abstract ]\naunque las especies ex\u00f3ticas pueden tener efectos negativos sobre los organismos nativos , en algunos casos pueden proveer recursos abundantes . el uso de estos recursos puede tener importantes implicaciones para los patrones de uso de h\u00e1bitat , movimientos y din\u00e1mica poblacional de los animales nativos . en este trabajo describimos la dieta de una poblaci\u00f3n de penelope perspicax , una especie . . . [ show full abstract ]\nabundance and endemism in the cauca guan ( penelope perspicax ) : ecology or his - tory ? - in general , species with restricted distributions tolerate a narrow range of conditions and tend to have low densities . the cauca guan ( penelope perspicax ) is a cracid endemic from colombia . between octo - ber 2002 and september 2003 we conducted monthly surveys in the santuario de fauna y flora ot\u00fan quimbaya . . . [ show full abstract ]\nfield estimates of incubation periods of brood parasitic cowbirds ( molothrus spp . ) indicate that they are unusually short given the sizes of their eggs . as a consequence , cowbirds usually hatch before host young , even though cowbird eggs are frequently larger . field - estimated incubation periods , however , have an inherent uncertainty because of intermittent attendance by incubating birds , and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nin general , species with restricted distributions tolerate a narrow range of conditions and tend to have low densities . the cauca guan ( penelope perspicax ) is a cracid endemic from colombia . between october 2002 and september 2003 we conducted monthly surveys in the santuario de fauna y flora ot\u00fan quimbaya ( sffoq ) . here we present the habitat use by the cauca guan , its density in the central . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 2427, "summary": [{"text": "the cuban funnel-eared bat ( chilonatalus micropus ) is a species of bat in the family natalidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is one of two species within the genus chilonatalus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in colombia , cuba , the dominican republic , haiti , and jamaica . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "cuban funnel - eared bat", "paragraphs": [", cuban funnel - eared bats . however , bahaman funnel - eared bats are slightly larger than\nthe expedition gave a great insight into techniques used to study the cuban greater funnel - eared bat and also shaped invaluable relationships with local collaborators and helped to identify new prospective edge fellows .\nthe mexican funnel - eared bat is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nnothing is known of the longevity / lifespan of bahaman funnel - eared bats .\nthis cave provides the hot , humid conditions apparently needed for breeding and is 40\u00b0c in the deepest chamber ! it\u2019s home to cuban boas , giant crabs and 13 species of bat , but the cuban greater funnel - eared bat is special as it\u2019s only found in this one cave , it\u2019s evolutionarily unique and is also threatened .\n\u201cthere is a consortium of cuban bat researchers who are working together to increase knowledge about threatened cuban bat species more broadly . we [ the edge of existence programme ( edge ) at zsl ] are also hoping to develop a conservation project on this species in the near future with cuban experts , so watch this space ! \u201d\nlike most species of bat , the cuban greater funnel - eared has a diet which consists largely of moths , crickets and beetles , as well as any small insects scaling the cave walls ( mancina 2016 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mexican funnel - eared bat ( natalus stramineus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mexican funnel - eared bat ( natalus stramineus )\ntitle =\narkive species - mexican funnel - eared bat ( natalus stramineus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nlittle information is available on the general reproductive behavior of bahaman funnel - eared bats . members of the family\nbahaman funnel - eared bats are listed as\nvulnerable\nunder the iucn ' s standards for threatened species .\ntheir most prominent feature , as their name suggests , is their ears which are akin to funnels . the cuban greater funnel - eared bat is quite small , ranging between 3 . 5 to 5 . 5 centimetres in length , most commonly of a brown , grey or reddish fur .\nnatalus primus , or the cuban greater funnel - eared bat , has only recently been rediscovered after previously having been thought to be extinct . the species is endemic to cuba and is currently known from just a single cave \u2013 cueva la barca on the far western tip of the country . from the order\nnothing is known of the reproduction or mating systems of bahaman funnel - eared bats , but they are most likely polygynous .\nbahamian funnel - eared bats are nocturnal . generally colonies of bahaman funnel - eared bats leave their roost 30 minutes after sundown . agile flyers , they are able to forage among dense foliage for their insect prey . the most intense foraging activity among\na priority for zsl\u2019s edge of existence programme that is found solely on the island is the cuban greater funnel - eared bat , but very little is known about it . in fact , it was thought to be extinct until a population was found in a remote underground cave , cueva la barca , in 1992 .\nwith necessary roosting habitat . during their active hours bahaman funnel - eared bats forage for insects in the dense understory of surrounding forests .\nnothing is specifically known about the home range of bahaman funnel - eared bats . their home ranges are likely centered around their roosting caves .\n, meaning \u201cfunnel - eared\u201d , the bats are known for their slender bodies , as well as their unusually long tails ( mancina 2016 ) .\nroosting in dark , humid caves , the mexican funnel - eared bat typically inhabits the most remote parts of the cave system , and forages within dry forest scrub , from sea level up to mid - elevations ( 1 ) .\ninsectivorous bat species , such as bahaman funnel - eared bats , can have an enormous effect on insect populations in the vicinity of their colonies . many insects that bats prey on are agricultural pests , making them highly beneficial to agriculture .\nno predators of bahaman funnel - eared bats have been recorded . being active at night reduces their exposure to diurnal predators . as with most bat species , owls and climbing snakes may pose a threat to adults in flight and roosting animals , respectively .\nin the absence of any significant threats to the species\u2019 survival , the mexican funnel - eared bat is not thought to be the target of any specific conservation measures . however , a future conservation priority for this species , and perhaps many other bat species with which it shares its habitat , would be to protect its roosting caves ( 1 ) .\nthe mexican funnel - eared bat inhabits islands in the lesser antilles north of the st lucia channel , including anguilla , antigua , barbuda , dominica , guadeloupe , martinique , marie galante , martinique , montserrat , nevis and saba , and perhaps also saint maarten ( 1 ) .\nas dusk approaches , small squeaks echo through dark , hollow caves and out towards the setting sun . the inside so dark that human eyes could not adjust , the high - pitched noise of the small mammals are the only indication of life underground in cuba . hanging from the roof , delicately , the cuban greater funnel - eared bat prepares itself to leave in flocks from the cave , beginning its nightly ritual to gather and hunt .\ncharacteristically give birth to a single young towards the end of the dry season . females gather in maternity colonies to give birth to and raise their young . offspring are relatively large , often close to 50 % of their mothers\u2019 weight . the closely related mexican funnel - eared bat (\ncaptions and credits for images , from top - down : \u2013 feature image : dr oliver wearn , 2017 for zoological society of london \u2013 close - up : [ edited ] \u2013 dr oliver wearn , 2017 for zoological society of london reference list : \u2013 mancina , c . 2016 . natalus primus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t136777a22032828 . urltoken downloaded on 05 march 2017 \u2013 zsl\u2019s edge species description : cuban greater funnel - eared bat .\noccurs about two hours after leaving the roost . bahaman funnel - eared bats are such agile flyers that they are rarely caught in mist nets . for this reason , little is know about their natural history .\nas the mexican funnel - eared bat is believed to have a fairly large population , being locally common on at least four islands , and its habitat is not thought to be declining at a significant rate , it is not presently considered threatened with extinction . this bat\u2019s cave habitat is however threatened by both mining and tourism activities and , like many other island inhabitants in the caribbean , this species is vulnerable to the destructive effects of hurricanes and volcanic eruptions ( 1 ) .\nthis bat is frequent to locally common ( genoways et al . , 2005 ) . not so abundant in dominican republic ( inchaustegui pers . comm . ) .\nfemale bahaman funnel - eared bats form maternity colonies in which they give birth to and care for their young . females are completely responsible for the care of their young . giving birth to just one offspring per event means that females allocate all of their efforts to the single young .\n. the fur is reddish to chestnut brown dorsally and pale yellow on the ventral surface . there is no evidence of sexual dimorphism in bahaman funnel - eared bats . the wings are relatively long and narrow , their thumbs are short , and almost completely enveloped in the skin of the wing .\nbahaman funnel - eared bats are found exclusively in bahamian dry - deciduous forests . the forest found on great abaco is more lush and has a taller over story than the low scrubby forest type which dominates much of watling . deep caves , where hot and moist conditions are maintained continuously , are the single most important habitat requirement . these caves provide\nthe timing of breeding in the mexican funnel - eared bat is unknown , but the finding of a pregnant female in august in guadeloupe suggests it is around this time . a single young is born each year after a relatively long gestation period of around eight to ten months , and for the first few months after birth the different sexes of juveniles may be segregated within the cave . these bats have a relatively slow reproduction rate , but this is offset by the fact that they live much longer than most mammals of a similar size ( 4 ) .\n\u201cfrom fossils , we know it was previously found in lots of other places in cuba , but has undergone a massive decline more recently . we know that this happened for lots of other bat species in cuba and the caribbean as well , with many faring even worse and going completely extinct ( ~ 20 % of bat species ) . this still remains a big mystery for the caribbean region . through clearing habitat , there is no doubt that humans have had a large negative impact on the species . \u201d\nit is assumed that habitat clearance has driven this decline , due to the caves they previously inhabited having conditions change to that in which the bat cannot survive . additionally , says dr wearn , the repeated and natural changes in sea level and climate have potentially played a part in the decline .\nthis bat is an obligate cave roosting species . its biology is poorly known . it is insectivorous . a female with an embryo was caught in december ; and two lactating females were found in july ( genoways et al . , 2005 ) . 15 to 17 caves used by the species in cuba .\n\u201cthe high humidity and temperature is partly maintained by the heat of the bats themselves , but also the decomposing guano [ bat droppings ] on the cave floor ! we don\u2019t know why they need these conditions , but it could be something to do with their breeding biology and the conditions needed by the newborn bats . there is still lots to discover about this unique species ! \u201d\nhave , as the name suggests , very large , funnel - shaped ears . these allow them to detect faint sounds and return echoes from their echolocation pulses . the ears of these bats are covered in small papillae , which may increase auditory sensitivity . like other mammals , they are likely to use olfactory and tactile cues in communication as well .\nusing sound recording devices , it was possible to listen for and record the ultrasonic call of the bat to find out where it goes each night , and how far away from the cave it ventures . camera trap surveys were also used to find out which holes it was using to exit the cave , and then assess the surrounding forest for invasive species , such as feral pigs and black rats . carolina also trialled 3d mapping of the cave through photogrammetry \u2013 using photography to survey the area .\nspecies in the family natalidae are named for their characteristic large , funnel - like ears . the external ear is covered in small glandular papillae . a special characteristic of male natalids is known as the \u201cnatalid organ\u201d . located near the base of the muzzle , it is a rounded projection made up of sensory cells . the exact function of the organ is unknown , but it is specific to natalids . the tip of the nose is capped with a small , fleshy tragus that is not considered a true noseleaf . the fragile skull is elongate , with a swollen braincase and a narrow , tubular rostrum .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\niucn 2003 and iucn / ssc action plan ( 2001 ) \u2013 lower risk ( lc ) as natalus micropus .\nincludes brevimanus and macer ; see varona ( 1974 ) and timm and genoways ( 2003 ) . formerly included tumidifrons ; but see ottenwalder and genoways ( 1982 ) who revised both species ; also see hall ( 1981 ) . kerridge and baker ( 1978 ) treated only the nominate subspecies .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nincludes brevimanus and macer ; see timm and genoways ( 2003 ) . formerly included tumidifrons see hall ( 1981 ) .\nmedell\u00edn , r . ( chiroptera red list authority ) & schipper , j . ( global mammal assessment team )\njustification : listed as near threatened because historically only 15 caves ( locations ) are used by the species , and there is great pressure on them which is causing a population decline but at a rate of less than 30 % over the past 10 years . almost qualifies as threatened under criterion a2c .\nthis species is known from cuba , jamaica , hispaniola , and providencia islands ( colombia ) ( simmons , 2005 ) .\ncolombia ( colombian caribbean is . ) ; cuba ; dominican republic ; haiti ; jamaica\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species was formerly included in n . stramineus , but is clearly distinct from that species ; see morgan ( 1989 ) , morgan and czaplewski ( 2003 ) and simmons ( 2005 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as vulnerable because it is only known from a single cave ( and therefore , one location ) , with an area of occupancy ( aoo ) under 20 km 2 , and with a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat that might result in the taxon becoming critically endangered or extinct in a very short time .\nrediscovered in 1992 , this species was previously thought to be extinct . a recent subpopulation of this species is known from one cave on the western tip of cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) , but fossils occur at several sites on cuba and the isla de pinos ( silva taboada 1979 ) .\nthis species is known from a single cave , probably including a few thousand individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . fossil remains suggest a former wider distribution throughout cuba and isla de pinos ( silva - taboada 1979 ) , the bahamas and cayman islands ( tejedor 2011 ) .\nthis species roosts in caves . it is known from a single cave ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . this species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . copulation in n . primus has been observed to take place in april , and pregnant females of this species have been captured in may ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . it has been found to feed mostly on moths , crickets and beetles , and less frequently on other insect orders : hymenoptera ( formicidae ) , neuroptera , diptera , homoptera and hemiptera ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) .\nhabitat loss and human intrusion in the cave are the main threats ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) . in addition the ongoing collapse of the roof of the cave can upset the thermal balance in this hot cave . climatic changes could also interrupt the thermal cave balance and result in extinction of this species ( l . d\u00e1valos pers . comm . )\nprotecting the cave is the most important priority , this must include limitation of access by non - authorized personnel ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) .\nexperts across the globe have assessed over 79 , 800 species on the iucn red list - but more needs to be done . our goal is to assess 160 , 000 species by 2020 to guide vital conservation .\nthis species is known to exist in one , solitary \u2018hot cave\u2019 in remote cuba .\nno direct conservation projects are currently under way , but education programmes have begun .\nthe bats\u2019 chosen caves are known as \u2018hot caves\u2019 with near 100 % humidity and temperatures sitting around 40 - degrees celsius . dr oliver wearn , a conservation scientist who works on zsl\u2019s edge of existence ( evolutionarily distinct & globally endangered ) programme ( of which this species is one part ) elaborated on this point :\nthis species is unique from the natalids family , evolving independently on the tree of life for approximately 50 million years according to dr wearn . however , the species\u2019 numbers have been declining dramatically , for reasons which can be assumed \u2013 though not proven \u2013 to be primarily due to their limited extent of occurrence to a singular cave , as well as their restricted numbers .\ndr wearn says that most of cuba\u2019s lowland forests ( where the bats endemic to the caves habituate ) have been cleared for agriculture , and this clearance continues to this day .\ntobacco and sugarcane growth are the two largest contributors to the loss of natural land in the region , but the newest threat to the species is , perhaps , tourism . the us and cuba have created many relationships in the past few years that have encouraged tourism in the country \u2013 particularly cuba\u2019s natural landmarks and caves . considering the only known location for natalus primus lies about 500m from the coast , it is fortunate that the area resides in a national park . however , risks do include changes in the structure of the forests around the cave , perhaps due to logging , and simply its small population size which creates an inherent vulnerability .\nbecause numbers are so low in the wild , and there is much still undiscovered about the species , there are no real rehabilitation or conservation efforts currently underway . however , dr wearn says that the edge of existence programme at zsl is hoping to develop this at some stage .\n\u201cnothing is currently being done to actively rehabilitate this species , \u201d he says . \u201cwhilst this will no doubt be essential in the future , we still don\u2019t know enough about the species to even know how to go about this . we need to understand how large the population is , what it requires and aspects of its breeding biology and ecology in order to devise something that will be really effective . \u201d\ndr wearn points out that whilst this is the case , some conservation education programmes do exist .\nconjour aims to spread the word on conservation work around the world . along with this , we want to give factual , species - specific information that encourages further understanding of the incredible animals that share this planet with us . if you see anything that needs correcting or could use improvement , please get in touch by emailing us here . .\nwe\u2019re passionate about conservation and want to educate more people about the plight of wildlife in this stunning \u2013 but disappearing \u2013 world of ours . we also undertake and support conservation projects and we ' d love you to help us do so . we have big plans for the future , and would love passionate conservationists to be a part of it .\nsee our about page for more info , and get in touch if you ' d like to help .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nzsl\u2019s dr oliver wearn and dr carolina soto navarro are working to conserve the world\u2019s most evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered ( edge ) species . joined by two erasmus darwin barlow expedition attendants , josh blackman and katia sanchez ortiz , they embarked on an exhibition to cuba to do just that .\nits inherent vulnerability due to its small population size is a threat to the species , but there is also another concern . the cave lies a mere 250 metres inside the boundary of the guanahacabibes national park , and if the bats are foraging outside of the park , they could be vulnerable to future threats such as habitat destruction due to logging . so it was important for the team to learn more about this species and its distribution patterns to protect the population .\nthe hope is that the findings will help to shape future conservation efforts to protect this important edge species and its habitat .\na blog for lovers of zsl london zoo , bringing you extraordinary animal facts and exclusive access to the world ' s oldest scientific zoo .\nwe ' re working around the world to conserve animals and their habitats , find out more about our latest achievements .\nfrom the field to the lab , catch up with the scientists on the cutting edge of conservation biology at zsl\u2019s institute of zoology .\na day in discovery and learning at zsl is never dull ! the team tell us all about the exciting sessions for school children , as well as work further afield .\nevery month , one of the pieces held in zsl\u2019s library and at zsl whipsnade zoo will feature here as artefact of the month .\nread extracts from zsl ' s award winning members ' magazine , wild about .\nthe chagos archipelago is a rare haven for marine biodiversity . hear from the team about our projects to protect the environments in the british indian ocean territory ( biot ) .\nzsl institute of zoology researchers are embarking on an exciting fieldwork expedition to nelson\u2019s island in the chagos archipelago . throughout the month , the team will share their research and experiences on an uninhabited tropical island !\nzsl works across asia , from the famous national parks of nepal to marine protected areas in the philippines . read the latest updates on our conservation .\nan open access journal for research at the interface of remote sensing , ecology and conservation .\n# oneless - the campaign to make london free of single - . . .\napply to be a zsl fellow today from only \u00a341 . 50 and join . . .\nthe zoological society of london is incorporated by royal charter - registered charity in england and wales no . 208728 . principal office england - company number rc000749 - registered address regent ' s park , london , england nw1 4ry\necholocation detecting objects by reflected sound . used by bats and odontocete cetaceans ( toothed whales , dolphins and porpoises ) for orientation and to detect and locate prey . genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below \u2018family\u2019 and above \u2018species\u2019 . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a \u2018binomial\u2019 latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . taxonomy the science of classifying organisms , grouping together animals which share common features and are thought to have a common ancestor . tragus a soft cartilaginous projection extending in front of the external opening of the ear . in bats , it plays an important role in filtering returning echoes in echolocation .\ntjedor , a . ( 2006 ) the type locality of natalus stramineus ( chiroptera : natalidae ) : implications for the taxonomy and biogeography of the genus natalus . acta chiropterologica , 8 : 361 - 380 .\nwilson , d . e . and reeder , m . d . ( 2005 ) mammal species of the world . a taxonomic and geographic reference . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker\u2019s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .\nmacdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .\nnature picture library 5a great george street bristol bs1 5rr united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4675 fax : + 44 ( 0 ) 117 911 4699 info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\n( dalquest , 1950 ; grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 ; koopman , et al . , 1957 )\n) breeds during the late dry season and has a gestation period of about 10 months .\n( grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 ; koopman , et al . , 1957 )\nbreeding season birth occur in the late dry season , suggesting that mating occurs after the late dry season .\necholocate using high frequency pulses , up to 170 khz . this gives them a detailed picture of their environment . whether\n( dalquest , 1950 ; grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 ; koopman , et al . , 1957 ; miller , 1903 )\nsteven burns ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , chris yahnke ( editor , instructor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nused loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nthe process by which an animal locates itself with respect to other animals and objects by emitting sound waves and sensing the pattern of the reflected sound waves .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nhaving a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\ninternational union for conservation of nature and natural resources . 1995 .\niucn the world conservation union\n( on - line ) . accessed november 26 , 2006 at urltoken .\nbuden , d . 1987 . a guide to the identification of the bats of the bahamas .\ngrzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 .\nurltoken\n( on - line ) . accessed october 22 , 2006 at urltoken .\nkoopman , k . , m . hecht , e . lidecky - janecek . 1957 . notes on the mammals of the bahamas with special reference to bats .\nmiller , g . 1903 . the mammals of the andaman and nicobar islands .\nto cite this page : burns , s . 2006 .\nchilonatalus tumidifrons\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis species is known from cuba , isle of pines ( simmons 2005 ) . known from one cave ( turvey pers . comm . )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 2429, "summary": [{"text": "the dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) is a species of forest-dwelling grouse native to the rocky mountains in north america .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is closely related to the sooty grouse ( dendragapus fuliginosus ) , and the two were previously considered a single species , the blue grouse . ", "topic": 19}], "title": "dusky grouse", "paragraphs": ["dusky grouse are a recently identified species . the species formerly known as blue grouse (\ndusky grouse are most likely to be confused with spruce ( franklin ) grouse in montana . male spruce grouse , however , are considerably smaller than male dusky grouse and have a black breast patch . female spruce grouse have white under parts with conspicuous black barring , while female dusky grouse are bluish - gray beneath .\ndusky grouse are a food source for many predators found in the surrounding areas .\ndusky grouse are game birds across their range and are hunted for their meat .\none of north america\u2019s largest grouse , the dusky grouse used to be considered the paler , interior subspecies of the blue grouse . recent dna evidence supports the spilt of the blue grouse into two separate species , the dusky grouse and the sooty grouse . the male\u2019s deep booming call is hard to locate .\nadult males are mainly dark ( especially sooty grouse ) with a yellow ( sooty grouse ) or purplish ( dusky grouse ) throat air sac surrounded by white , and a yellow ( sooty grouse ) or yellow to red ( dusky grouse ) wattle over the eye during display .\nthe sooty grouse is found from british columbia south to california . the sooty grouse was the blue grouse until 2006 when the blue grouse was split into two species , the sooty grouse and the dusky grouse . the dusky grouse is found in the rocky mountains , from the southern yukon and northern british columbia , south into northern arizona and western new mexico .\noften take advantage of an opportunity to eat a dusky grouse if it arises . other predators include\nfemale dusky grouse ( shown ) are easy to distinguish from males of either species , but difficult to distinguish from female sooty grouse .\ndusky grouse nest on the ground , usually in an open area concealed by understory vegetation and shrubs .\nthe dusky grouse is the third largest grouse in north america , and one of the largest in the world . the two sage - grouse are the only larger american species .\nthe dusky grouse and the sooty grouse were considered to be the same species , the blue grouse , until the american ornithologists\u2019 union split them in 2006 based on dna evidence .\nthe approximate distribution of sooty and dusky grouse in north america . map modified from schroeder ( 2004 ) .\ntill very recently , the dusky grouse and sooty grouse were considered subspecies of the blue grouse . this has ceased to be the case , and each is a separate species . both continue to be collectively called blue grouse .\ndusky grouse is the second largest grouse in the us after the sage grouse . they have a wide distribution , and their population numbers are holding their own for the last few decades .\n, and disperse seeds from berry bushes throughout the ecosystem . in addition , dusky grouse may carry several parasites .\nmainly leaves , flowers and conifer needles . dusky grouse , especially juveniles , will also eat small invertebrates . back to top\nin addition , the spruce grouse and siberian grouse have been considered part of this genus .\neagles . the best defense for dusky grouse is their camouflage and ability to fly . these abilities sometimes keep them from becoming prey but are not uniformly successful as dusky grouse are not very accomplished fliers . they are only able to fly in relatively short bursts compared to the aerial predators that pursue them , as such ; camouflage is their best defense against raptors . terrestrial predators have a much harder time catching dusky grouse . many predators eat the eggs out of the nests , which are located on the ground . this gives dusky grouse a high mortality rate at a very young age .\ndusky grouse are upland game birds that provide many hunters with a great opportunity to enjoy the mountainous areas they inhabit along with an appetizing meal for their dinner table .\nthe number of tail feathers a bird has is usually constant within a species ( and usually numbering around 10 ) . the dusky grouse , however , can have from 15 to 22 .\nthe approximate distribution of core areas for sooty and dusky grouse in washington . the line is an approximation and \u2018hybrids\u2019 are common near the line . map modified from schroeder ( 2005 ) .\nmale dusky and sooty grouse perform a hooting display when they are on breeding territories during the spring . each hooting display consists of a sequence of 5 - 7 low frequency \u2018hoots\u2019 that are detectable from 100 meters ( dusky grouse ) to more than 2 kilometers ( sooty grouse ) . the males of both species also utter a single \u2018whoot\u2019 note when they are displaying to a female that is detectable from about 2 kilometers . male dusky grouse perform a \u2018flutter jump\u2019 which is a loud flight that is detectable from about 1 kilometer . male sooty grouse exhibit a similar behavior called \u2018landing on loud wing\u2019 display where they create an unusually loud noise at the end of a short flight , often while landing in a tree .\n) in 2006 based on dna evidence . sooty grouse live along the pacific coast , from northern canada to southern california in the sierra madre mountains . on the other hand , dusky grouse are found in inland north america , following the rocky mountains and other nearby montane regions .\npatch of violet - red skin on neck surrounded by white feathers is displayed during courtship . formerly ( with sooty grouse ) known as blue grouse .\ndusky grouse move between alpine environments at the tree line where they spend their winters and down into lower lying areas high in food sources in the summer time . they tend to use the same areas year after year . the young birds follow their mother and continue to migrate between these areas as they get older . these birds usually travel short distances , but in some instances dusky grouse travel up to 30 miles between their summer and winter ranges .\ncones . it is high in protein and fats and provides these birds with a nutrient - rich diet that helps them through these cold months . during the summer months , dusky grouse feed on a variety of berries produced by\nthe dusky grouse has a large range , not specifically quantified but common in the western united states and canada . it is native to these two nations and prefers boreal or temperate forest ecosystems . the global population of this bird has not been specifically determined , as it is considered common , but it does not appear to meet population decline criteria that would necessitate inclusion on the iucn red list . the current evaluation status of the dusky grouse is least concern .\ndusky and sooty grouse are found throughout western north america . their range extends from the southern portions of alaska and the yukon , south along the pacific coast to northern california and east to the rocky mountains ( new mexico to alberta ) . in washington , dusky and sooty grouse are found in mountainous areas wherever open coniferous forests are present . they are closely associated with true fir and douglas fir forests in winter and habitats that are often more open during summer .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\nduring late summer and early autumn , dusky grouse move from open breeding areas to dense conifer forests at higher elevations ; this altitudinal migration is typically a short distance , but can be as much as 30 miles , much of which is undertaken on foot . most grouse leave their breeding grounds by october and return by early april .\nin warm months , the sooty grouse eats seeds , berries , and insects . in the winter , the sooty grouse eats conifer needles . some sooty grouse are short distance migrators and , depending on where the food is , travel to either higher or lower elevations .\nmale dusky grouse in washington are characterized by indistinct tail bands ( if present at all ) , 20 tail feathers , and red bare patches on the side of their neck which they expose during display . they also perform a quiet hooting display .\nhartkom , f . l . 1956 . montana blue grouse . montana wildlife . june .\nsooty grouse nest on the ground , usually in an open shrubby area surrounded by forest .\nsooty grouse habitat is variable , but often includes forests , ridgetops , and avalanche chutes .\na group of grouse has many collective nouns , including a\nchorus\n,\ncovey\n,\ndrumming\n,\ngrumbling\n, and\nleash\nof grouse .\nbendell , j . 1955 . disease as a control of a population of blue grouse .\nthere is little information on dusky grouse population numbers and trends . overall , populations appeared stable between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 300 , 000 , with 56 % living int he u . s . , and 44 % in canada . the species rates a 12 out of 20 on the continental concern score . dusky grouse is a u . s . - canada stewardship species and is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top\nmarshall , w . h . 1946 . cover preferences , seasonal movements , and food habits of richardson ' s grouse and ruffed grouse in southern idaho . wilson bull . 58 : 42 - 52 .\nadults have a long square tail , gray at the end ( lighter in the sooty grouse ) .\n, these plants are a prominent food source for dusky grouse this time of year . during the winter months , while most other animals found in mountainous areas have migrated to lower elevations , dusky grouse spend their time near the tree line at high elevations . they spend most of the winter roosting in douglas fir and lodgepole pines feeding on the cones and needles these trees produce . these high elevation areas not only provide major food sources , but tend to have less predation during this time of year , as most predators follow the larger game animals to lower elevations .\ndusky grouse : this species occurs as a resident from the yukon and northwest territories , through much of british columbia , and south through the rocky mountains to arizona , colorado , and new mexico . its preferred habitats include burned areas , montane forests , slashes , and subalpine forest clearings .\nall species have healthy populations , except for some population decline and habitat loss of the sooty grouse at the southern end of its range in southern california , and the siberian grouse which is considered near - threatened .\nspends most of its time on the ground foraging , but will also forage for buds in deciduous trees and needles in coniferous trees . during winter , dusky grouse spend most of their time in coniferous trees eating needles . in general , they vocalize from the ground and rather infrequently . back to top\ndusky grouse have a fairly short lifespan , with 50 percent of the birds lost in the first year . the birds that survive past the first year have an average lifespan of about three years . in areas with ample food and very low predation , birds have been known to survive up 14 years .\ndusky grouse have exhibited a very minor decrease in population over the last 40 years . there are an estimated 3 , 000 , 000 mature individuals in the wild , and the decrease is so small that the species is still listed as ' least concern ' by the international union for conservation and nature ( iucn ) .\npartridges , grouse , turkeys and old world quail often flock together to forage for small creatures , seeds , and buds . most look for food on the ground although the spruce grouse also forages in the trees for pine and spruce needles .\nalthough populations of wild turkeys have made a wonderful , successful comeback since their decline earlier in the twentieth century , all five species of grouse that occur in sagebrush and grasslands ( sage - grouse , sharp - tailed grouse and prairie chickens ) have threatened and declining populations . these declines are due to degradation and conversion of their grassland habitats to agriculture and other development .\nthe mating behavior of dusky grouse takes place in the spring to mid - summer and is initiated by the hooting of males beginning in late march and continuing until mid - july . males claim and defend a mating territory by fanning out their tail feathers , hoping , and clapping their wings . dusky grouse are both lekking and non - lekking birds . this means the males either gather in a preferred area to challenge each other for females ( lekking ) or the males go out individually in search of females ready for mating . the males continue to hoot into the mid - summer months to try and attract females that have lost their clutch and are willing to mate again .\nin the breeding season dusky grouse inhabit open , relatively dry mixed and conifer forest from the ponderosa pine zone to the subalpine fir zone , and adjacent shrub - steppe , grassland , aspen groves , and alpine meadows . in lodgepole pine and engelmann spruce forests at elevations above 5 , 000 feet , they may be largely , but not entirely , replaced by spruce grouse . they winter in dense conifer stands , often at a higher elevation than their breeding habitat .\nzwickel , fred c . , and james f . bendell . 2005 . dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) . species account number 015 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database\nthe dusky grouse still occupies all or nearly all of its original range in washington . although it is vulnerable to habitat loss from activities such as grazing and logging , most of its range is in rugged mountains or other territory sparsely settled by humans . it is popular as a game bird , but its fall migration into dense forest reduces hunting mortality .\nwashington department of fish & wildlife\u2019s priority habitat and species management recommendations . volume iv : birds . blue grouse ( dendragapus obscurus )\nthe sooty grouse is is 15 - 21 inches in length . the male sooty grouse is gray to bluish - gray with a red to yellowish - orange comb over its eyes . it has a yellow neck sac surrounded by white . the female is spotted brown with a dark tail . male sooty grouse in the rocky mountains have a red neck sac instead of a yellow one .\nthe sooty grouse is found in bush areas in coastal rain forests , burned areas , mountain forests , and subalpine forest clearings .\njohnsgard , p . a . 1973 . grouse and quail of north america . u . of nebraska , lincoln . 553 pp .\nto aid in walking in their snowy winter environments , ruffed grouse and ptarmigans have evolved \u201cnatural snowshoes\u201d . in ruffed grouse , scales on their toes have extensions to keep them from sinking into snowdrifts , while ptarmigans have a profusion of feathers on their feet for this purpose .\nmussehl , t . w . 1961 . blue grouse population study . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 13 pp .\nmussehl , t . w . 1962 . blue grouse population study . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 17 pp .\nin summer , dusky grouse feed on the ground on leaves , flowers , buds , berries , conifer needles , and insects . in winter , they forage in trees for needles of pines , firs , and other conifers . in many parts of their washington range larch and pine needles are the predominant food source . young birds eat mostly insects , especially in the first 10 days of life .\na large , dark forest grouse of inland regions of the western u . s . and canada . until recently , this and the sooty grouse were considered to make up one species under the name blue grouse . slow - moving and inconspicuous , but often surprisingly tame . most likely to be noticed ( at least by sound ) in spring , when males\nsing\nincessantly to attract mates , a series of deep hoots .\nherman , m . f . 1980 . spruce grouse habitat requirements in western montana . ph . d dissertation , university of montana , missoula .\nthe phasianidae are known for their elaborate courtship displays that frequently utilize raised tails that are spread to reveal intricate patterns . male sage grouse , sharp - tailed grouse , and prairie chickens take these displays a step further by displaying communally at traditional \u201clekking \u201c sites where birds inflate prominent neck and\nblackford , j . l . 1958 . territoriality and breeding behavior of a population of blue grouse in montana . condor 60 : 145 - 158 .\nskinner , m . p . 1927 . richardson ' s grouse in yellowstone national park . wilson ' s bull . 39 : 208 - 214 .\nblackford , j . l . 1963 . further observations on the breeding behavior of a blue grouse population in montana . condor 65 : 485 - 513 .\nschladweiler , p . 1975 . seasonal food habits of montana blue grouse . state of mt , proj . no . w - 120 - r - 6 .\ndusky grouse are usually found singly , not in flocks ( except for hens with young ) , and are generally fairly wary . males sing from the ground or from a low perch such as a stump . the usual song is a series of five soft , very low - pitched hoots that can rarely be heard beyond 100 feet . to attract females , males also strut with tails raised and fanned , and neck feathers spread , revealing patches of bright skin .\nmussehl , t . w . 1963 . blue grouse brood cover selection and land - use implications . journal of wildlife management 27 ( 4 ) : 546 - 555 .\nrogers , g . e . 1963 . blue grouse census and harvest in the united states and canada . j . wildi . manage . 27 : 579 - 585 .\nin north america , the members of the phasianidae occur in tundra , grasslands , and forest . three species of ptarmigan crouch in the far northern tundra and alpine habitats of the rocky mountains while the sage - grouse , sharp - tailed grouse , and prairie chickens display in sagebrush and grasslands of the west . deciduous and coniferous forests are home to the wild turkey and four grouse species . introduced species live in a variety of hawaiian habitats while the ring - necked pheasant is now common in north american grasslands .\nde juana , e . , kirwan , g . m . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmale 47\u201357 cm , c . 1245 g ; female 44\u201348 cm , c . 850 g . relatively large grouse ; male mostly grey or slate - coloured , lacking black breast of\nmussehl , t . w . 1962 . some physical characteristics of ground vegetation used by blue grouse broods . nw sec . , the wildi . soc . , missoula . 11 pp .\nmussehl , t . w . , and t . h . leik . 1963 . sexing wings of adult blue grouse . j . wildi . manage . 27 : 102 - 106 .\ndusky grouse winter at high elevations in conifer stands . in early spring , they descend to lower altitudes , where they prefer forest edges and openings . broods may be found quite far from timber during summer and early fall . in the bridger mountains in early summer , broods were often observed in grass - forb areas ( with arrow - leaf balsamroot being dominant ) ; increased use of deciduous thickets was observed in late july to august ( mussehl 1958 ) . see also martinka 1970 for habitat comments from the sapphire mountains .\nmussehl , t . w . 1962 . effects of land - use practices on blue grouse habitat ( breeding areas ) . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 5 pp .\nmussehl , t . w . 1965 . blue grouse population study ( side effects of insecticides used in spruce budworm control ) . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 41 pp .\nmussehl , t . w . 1958 . blue grouse production , movements , and populations in the bridger mountains , montana . m . s . thesis . montana state university , bozeman . 34 pp .\nafter the eggs have hatched , the chicks are protected from predators and intruders by their mother who will hiss and flap her wings to scare the intruder from the chicks . male dusky grouse have no part in parental care . after the chicks have reached 10 to 28 days of age , the mother and her chicks begin to separate while feeding , but the mother can often be found perched over her chicks , keeping a watchful eye for intruders . by early autumn , the young stop following the mother and become independent , after which they begin grouping with other adults .\nschladweiler , p . and t . w . mussehl . 1969 . use of mist - nets for recapturing radio - equipped blue grouse . joural of wildlife management 33 ( 2 ) : 443 - 444 .\nin north america , the phasianidae is represented by twenty - six species in seventeen genera . this total includes several introduced and native species such as the wild turkey , prairie chickens , and various species of grouse .\nmale sooty grouse in washington are characterized by light gray tail bands , 18 tail feathers , and yellow bare patches on the side of their neck which they expose during display . they also perform a loud hooting display .\nschladweiler , p . , t . w . mussehl and r . j . greene . 1970 . age determination of juvenile blue grouse by primary development . journal of wildlife management 34 ( 3 ) : 649 - 652 .\nmartinka , r . r . 1970 . structural characteristics and ecological relationships of male blue grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ( say ) ) territories in southwestern montana . ph . d thesis . montana state university , bozeman . 73 pp .\ndusky grouse tend to stay in smaller groups during the warmer months and form larger flocks during the winter , when they spend most of their time in the tree tops eating needles and cones . in the summer months , the largest flocks are generally comprised of a female with her chicks , about 6 or 7 birds . during the winter , groups of 15 to 20 birds have been observed . this occurs because of the food and cover density during these times . in areas where food is not as plentiful , small groups can be unusual as many move to join larger groups when food becomes scarce . during the summer , these birds spread out through areas rich with resources , such as\ndusky grouse communicate socially through a series of chirps and peeps throughout the year . these sounds are very subtle to the human ear and are hard to distinguish from other forest birds . they are used to alert each other to predators , and are particularly common between a mother and her young . if the mother and young get separated , the mother will call her young with a series of deep clucks that sound similar to the hoot males give during the breeding season . during the mating season , a male will use hooting to communicate with females . in association with the hoots , males clap their wings together , producing a loud series of thumps . this call is used to defend their territory and also to call females .\nschladweiler , p . 1968 . blue grouse population and life history study . montana dept . of fish and game . job compi . rep . , proj . no . w - 91 - r - 9 , job no . ii - c . 12 pp .\nstabler , r . m . , n . j . kitzmiller , g . m . clark , t . w . mussehl and p . schladweiler . 1969 . hematozoa from mountain blue grouse . jour . parasit . 55 ( 4 ) : 830 - 832 .\npartridges , grouse , turkeys and old world quail are members of the phasianidae ( pronounced fah - see - ah - nih - dee ) , a family of one hundred and eighty - seven species in fifty - six genera found on all continents except for south america and antarctica .\nduring mating season , the male sooty grouse often perches on a log or post and calls out with a loud booming hoot that can be heard for miles . the comb over his eyes stands up , and he fans out his tail and puffs out his neck to display his neck sac .\nmussehl , t . w . p . schladweiler , and r . weckwerth . 1971 . forest grouse . pp . 142 - 152 in t . w . mussehl and f . w . howell ( eds . ) , game manaqement in montana . montana department of fish and game , helena . 238 pp .\nan order of five families found on most continents ( some taxonomic systems only recognize four of these , classifying the fifth as a sub - family ) , the galliformes ( pronounced gal - lih - for - meez ) include \u201cfowl\u201d like birds such as guineafowl , pheasants , grouse and turkeys , and the wild ancestor to the domestic chicken .\nthe female sooty grouse lays 5 - 10 eggs in a scrape lined with pine needles and grass . the nest is usually hidden under a bush , log , rocky overhang , or small tree . the female incubates the eggs and cares for the chicks . the chicks hatch after 25 days and soon begin foraging for food . they fledge in seven to ten days .\npheasants , partridges , grouse , and turkeys are mostly ground - dwelling birds , although many forage or roost in trees during the winter . they do not migrate long distances , although they often use different habitats seasonally . they are omnivores , eating mostly plant matter in the winter and insects in the summer . many of the males in this family have loud and dramatic displays . nests are built on the ground , and clutch size is usually large . the young are precocial , able to walk and feed themselves within a few hours of hatching .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthis species has a large range , which spreads from northern canada to california across the internal western united states and canada .\n( rich et al . 2004 ) trend justification : this species has undergone a small or statistically insignificant decrease over the last 40 years in north america ( data for dendropagus obscurus and d . fuliginosus combined , from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count : butcher and niven 2007 ) .\nthe species occurs in a variety of pine and fir forest habitats from sea level to 3 , 600 m close to the tree line .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nstill fairly common . affected by forest management . may increase after clearcuts , but then declines as these grow up ; does very poorly in even - aged tree farms as compared to original old - growth forest .\ndeciduous and mixed forests in mountains in summer ; conifer forests at higher elevations in winter . prime summer habitat is where forest meets open country , such as sagebrush flats . in winter , these birds favor dense forests of conifers .\nforages mostly on ground in summer , mostly in trees in winter , especially in areas with heavy snow cover .\n5 - 10 , sometimes 2 - 12 . pale buff , usually speckled with brown . incubation is by female only , 25 - 28 days . young : usually leave nest within a day after hatching , and follow female ; young find all their own food . female often fearless in defense of eggs or young , standing her ground when approached closely . young can make short flights at age of 8 - 9 days , are full - grown at about 13 weeks .\nusually leave nest within a day after hatching , and follow female ; young find all their own food . female often fearless in defense of eggs or young , standing her ground when approached closely . young can make short flights at age of 8 - 9 days , are full - grown at about 13 weeks .\nconifer needles , leaves , insects . diet in summer is mostly leaves , flowers , buds , berries , and conifer needles ; also many insects . very young birds may eat more insects than adults . in winter feeds mostly on needles of conifers , including pines , hemlocks , firs , douglas - firs .\nin breeding season , male gives deep song punctuated with short flights , wings fluttering loudly . in peak display , male struts on the ground with tail raised and fanned , neck feathers spread to reveal patches of bright skin . female mates with male , then departs . nest site is on ground , under cover such as shrub , log , rock ledge . nest a shallow scrape , lined with dead twigs , needles , leaves , a few feathers .\nmost birds move in autumn from fairly open breeding areas to dense coniferous forest . in most parts of range , this involves moving uphill to spend the winter , an unusual kind of altitudinal migration . maximum known travel is about 30 miles , but most go shorter distances . birds may migrate entirely by walking or may intersperse short flights .\nmale gives a series of deep hoots , whoop , whoop , whoop , whoop , whoop , increasing in tempo and volume .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nin the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .\neach map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird\u2019s \u201cclimatic range . \u201d\nthe darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .\nthe outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .\nthe first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird\u2019s suitable climate may shift in the future\u2014one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .\nyou can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .\nthe darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .\nturkeys and chickens tend to get all of the attention . spread the love and learn about six other fowl .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright by : the macaulay library at the cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , all rights reserved .\nusing personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;\ncalculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of\nobservations versus availability of habitat\n.\nspecies that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,\npoint observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .\nspecies associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :\n) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .\nadams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .\ndobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .\nforesman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .\nhart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .\nhutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .\nmaxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .\nwerner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .\nin winter they eat mainly conifer needles . in summer they eat a mixed diet of insects , green plants and berries . the young eat mainly insects ( mussehl 1971 ) .\nbrood movement in summer is generally less than 0 . 5 mile . brood break - up appeared concurrent with fall dispersal , in late august to early september and had lateral and altitudinal components . brood range densities were 27 ( 1957 ) and 34 ( 1958 ) in a 1 square mile area ( mussehl 1958 ) .\nhatching dates in the bridger mountains ranged from may 25 to july 11 , with the peak the 3rd week of june ( mussehl 1958 ) . near fortine , hatching dates were june 10 to august 15 ; broods ranged from 1 to 10 young .\nmarks , j . s . , p . hendricks , and d . casey . 2016 . birds of montana . arrington , va . buteo books . 659 pages .\naldrich , j . w . 1963 . geographic orientation of american tetraonidae . journal of wildlife management 27 : 529 - 545 .\namerican ornithologists\u2019 union [ aou ] . 1998 . check - list of north american birds , 7th edition . american ornithologists\u2019 union , washington , d . c . 829 p .\ncasey , d . 2000 . partners in flight draft bird conservation plan montana . version 1 . 0 . 287 pp .\nehrlich , p . , d . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder\u2019s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster inc . new york . 785 pp .\nhoffmann , r . s . 1960 . summer birds of the little belt mountains , montana . occasional papers of montana state university no . 1 , missoula .\nhutto , r . l . , and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service . u . s . forest service general technical report rmrs - gtr - 32 , ogden , utah .\njohnsgard , p . a . 1992 . birds of the rocky mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . lincoln : university of nebraska press . xi + 504 pp .\njoslin , gayle . 1980 . wildlife inventory and hard rock mining impact analysis of the west cabinet mountains and lake creek valley , lincoln county , montana . mtfwp 91 pgs + 47 pgs app .\nlandusky mining inc . , zortman , mt . assisted by hydrometrics , helena , mt . , 1985 , operating permit application for an extension of landusky mining incorporated operations , phillips county , montana . june 12 , 1985\nlenard , s . , j . carlson , j . ellis , c . jones , and c . tilly . 2003 . p . d . skaar\u2019s montana bird distribution , 6th edition . montana audubon , helena , mt . 144 pp .\nmontana bird distribution committee . 2012 . p . d . skaar ' s montana bird distribution . 7th edition . montana audubon , helena , montana . 208 pp . + foldout map .\nmontana dept . of state lands , 1978 , preliminary environmental review for the proposed granting of an underground mining permit to beartooth coal company , incorporated , for the reopening of an underground coal mine in the area of bearcreek , carbon county , montana . july 10 , 1978 .\nsibley , d . 2014 . the sibley guide to birds . alfred a . knopf , new york , ny . 598 pp .\nskaar , p . d . , d . l . flath , and l . s . thompson . 1985 . montana bird distribution . montana academy of sciences monograph 3 ( 44 ) : ii - 69 .\nskaar , p . d . 1969 . birds of the bozeman latilong : a compilation of data concerning the birds which occur between 45 and 46 n . latitude and 111 and 112 w . longitude , with current lists for idaho , montana , wyoming , impinging montana counties and yellowstone national park . bozeman , mt . 132 p .\nstearns - roger inc . , 1975 , environmental baseline information of the mount vernon region , montana . january 31 , 1975 .\ntvx mineral hill mine , amerikanuak , inc . , gardiner , mt . , 2002 , yearly summary of wildlife observation reports . 1990 - 2002 letter reports .\nu . s . forest service . 1991 . forest and rangeland birds of the united states : natural history and habitat use . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service agricultural handbook 688 . 625 pages .\nusdi fish and wildlife service . , 1961 , a detailed report on fish and wildlife resources affected by mcnamara dam and reservoir , blackfoot river project , montana . june 1961 .\nwalcheck , k . c . 1999 . the lewis and clark expedition : montana\u2019s first bird inventory through the eyes of lewis and clark . lewis and clark interpretive association , great falls , montana .\nzackheim , k . 1973 . exhibit h : wildlife study . in ash grove cement co . files .\n. you can download select species by searching or when you ' re on a taxa page like class , order , and family .\nif you find the information on birdweb useful , please consider supporting seattle audubon . donate\nthis group , the\nchicken - like\nbirds , consists of medium to large terrestrial birds . they are quick flyers , better adapted for short bursts of speed than sustained flight . they are fast runners and spend much of their time on the ground . washington has two families :\nfemales provide all parental care . nests are a shallow scrape in the ground , sometimes with little or no cover , sparsely lined with dead twigs , needles , leaves , and feathers . females lay and incubate 1\u201312 buffy , lightly speckled eggs ( normally 4\u20139 ) . the young leave the nest within a day after hatching . females tend the young , but do not feed them .\n, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthese two taxa were originally regarded as separate species , but were considered conspecific for much of the twentieth century . however , in 2006 the american ornithologists ' union re - split them , following the dna - based work of barrowclough et al . ( 2004 ) . whose results supported the earlier work of brooks ( 1929 ) who regarded the two taxa as separate species based on morphology , behavior and vocalizations .\nthe precise ranges of the two species are well - defined in the south , separated by extensive areas of unsuitable forest - free habitat , but somewhat uncertain in the north of the range of the genus where there is no separation ; barrowclough et al . ' s study did not include these northern populations .\nadult females of both species are mottled brown with dark brown and white marks on the underparts .\nthey mainly eat pine needles , but also green plants , berries , and insects in summer .\ntheir breeding habitat is the edges of conifer and mixed forests in mountainous regions of north america and eurasia . their range is closely associated with that of various conifers . the nest is a scrape on the ground concealed under a shrub or log .\nmales sing with deep hoots on their territory and make short flapping flights to attract females .\nlate pleistocene fossil species that have been described are dendragapus gilli ( western and west - central usa ) , initially placed in a distinct genus palaeotetrix , and dendragapus lucasi ( known only from fossil lake , usa ) .\ncopyright : wikipedia . this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from urltoken . . . additional information and photos added by avianweb .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\noften lumped with d . fuliginosus , which has yellow , not red , exposed breast patch in display ( 3 ) ; distinct pale tailband ( 2 ) ; and differences in hooting song # r , involving usually five vs usually six syllables ( \u201choots\u201d ) given at both lower pitch ( 50\u2013100 hz vs 110\u2013150 hz ) and lower volume ( audible to 40 m vs loud and audible to 500 m ) ( at least 2 ) ; genetic data support the split , but also suggest present species has n and s populations that do not conform to current subspecific divisions # r ; races sierrae and howardi of d . fuliginosus , sometimes placed in present species # r . proposed race flemingi ( s yukon ) usually included in richardsonii # r . four subspecies recognized .\n( douglas , 1829 ) \u2013 w canada from se yukon and sw northwest territories s through british columbia and w alberta to n usa ( n idaho and perhaps nw montana ) .\nswarth , 1931 \u2013 sw canada ( sc british columbia ) s through e washington to ne oregon , most of idaho , w montana and n & w wyoming .\n( say , 1823 ) \u2013 rocky mts from c wyoming s through utah and colorado to n & e arizona and w new mexico . may formerly have ranged e to w south dakota , although more likely introduced there .\nbehle & selander , 1951 \u2013 ne nevada ( snake range , ruby mts and toiyabe range ) , s idaho and w utah ( deep creek mts ) .\nmale song consists of series of five far - carrying hooting notes , usually delivered from on or . . .\nwide range of habitats in mountain zones , with greater preference for shrub - steppe and grassland . . .\nwinter diet consists almost entirely ( c . 90\u201399 % ) of needles , but including buds , twigs and cones , of firs (\nlays late apr\u2013jun , mostly from mid may . promiscuous ; males dispersed , on territories that are occupied year after year , although . . .\naltitudinal shifts between breeding and wintering grounds reported for most areas ; in winter . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . global population c . 3 , 000 , 000 mature individuals . still occupies most of original very large range , with some contractions due to . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nincludes , in tetraonini , all taxa that have commonly been separated in families meleagrididae and tetraonidae .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires ."]}
{"id": 2435, "summary": [{"text": "pteraster militaris , the wrinkled star , is a species of starfish in the family pterasteridae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in the northern pacific ocean , the arctic ocean , the barents sea and the northern atlantic ocean . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "pteraster militaris", "paragraphs": ["katie gale set\npteraster militaris\nas an exemplar on\npteraster militaris ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 )\n.\nworms - world register of marine species - pteraster militaris ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 )\nbrooding biology of the sea star pteraster militaris ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) : energetic and histological evidence for nutrient translocation to brooded juveniles\npteraster militaris has longer arms and a softer , more wrinkled skin than its close relative , pteraster tesselatus . the fans of marginal spines on adjoining mouth plates are not joined together by a continuous membrane as in p . tesse\nbrooding biology of the sea star pteraster militaris ( o . f . m\u00fcller ) : energetic and histological evidence for nutrient translocation to brooded juveniles - sciencedirect\nkatie gale marked the classification from\nworld register of marine species ( worms )\nas preferred for\npteraster militaris ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 )\n.\nsimilar species : pteraster pulvillus is similar but has shorter arms and 8 - 15 branches on the spines supporting the paxillae .\npicton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . pteraster militaris ( o f m\u00fcller , 1776 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09\nto barcode of life ( 10 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 12 publications ) ( from synonym pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 175 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 28 publications ) ( from synonym asterias militaris o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 16 nucleotides ; 10 proteins ) to global biotic interactions ( globi ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym asterias militaris o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) to pesi ( from synonym pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology echinodermata collection ( 48 records ) to itis\nthe color of p . militaris is white , pale yellow or orange . it has five , sometimes red - tipped , arms . a third member of this family , p . obscurus has 6 - 8 arms .\ntypical for the pterasteridae family members are the spined papillae on the dorsal side . a soft skin is covering the spines , giving the surface of these sea stars a untidy , bumpy appearance . there are two to five spines on each papilla , in contrast to the similar , but smaller , pteraster pulvillus , on which the papillae have 8 - 15 spines . p . militaris may reach a diameter of 85 mm , while p . pulvillus does not exceed 40 mm .\n( of pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) ludwig , h . ( 1886 ) . echinodermen des beringsmeeres . zoologischer anzeiger . bd 1 ( 1886 ) : 275 - 296 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 293 [ details ]\n( of asterias militaris o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) m\u00fcller , o . f . ( 1776 ) . zoologiae danicae prodromus : seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres , nomina , et synonyma imprimis popularium . hafniae , typiis hallageriis . 1 - 274 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 234 [ details ]\n( of asteriscus militaris ( o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) ) m\u00fcller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 44 [ details ]\n( of pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of asterias militaris o . f . m\u00fcller , 1776 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of pterasterides aporus ( ludwig , 1886 ) ) ludwig , h . ( 1886 ) . echinodermen des beringsmeeres . zoologischer anzeiger . bd 1 ( 1886 ) : 275 - 296 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 293 [ details ]\nhansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nbrunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nlinkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]\nclark , a . m . ; downey , m . e . ( 1992 ) . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman & hall identification guides , 3 . chapman & hall . london , uk . isbn 0 - 412 - 43280 - 3 . xxvi , 794 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nsouthward , e . c . ; campbell , a . c . ( 2006 ) . [ echinoderms : keys and notes for the identification of british species ] . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , 56 . field studies council : shrewsbury , uk . isbn 1 - 85153 - 269 - 2 . 272 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nintegrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npawson , d . l . , d . j . vance , c . g . messing , f . a . solis - marin & c . l . mah . ( 2009 ) . echinodermata of the gulf of mexico . pp . 1177\u20131204 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college s . [ details ]\ntrott , t . j . ( 2004 ) . cobscook bay inventory : a historical checklist of marine invertebrates spanning 162 years . northeastern naturalist . 11 , 261 - 324 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nm\u00fcller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 128 [ details ]\ndilman a . b . ( 2014 ) . deep - sea fauna of european seas : an annotated species check - list of benthic invertebrates living deeper than 2000 m in the seas bordering europe . asteroidea . invertebrate zoology . vol . 11 . no . 1 : 25\u201342 [ in english ] . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis is a circumpolar species , found in the arctic as well as the northern parts of the pacific and atlantic ocean , as far south as the north sea and new foundland .\nclassification from world register of marine species ( worms ) selected by katie gale - see more .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nextracted from sea stars of british columbia , southeast alaska and puget sound by philip lambert .\nthe aboral side of body is inflated and the oral side flat . a supra dorsal membrane supported by the spines of the paxillae covers the true aboral surface to create a nidamental chamber . in the centre of this membrane is a large opening ( osculum ) . many smaller spiracles pierce the rest of the membrane . on each side of the ambulacral furrow is a wide actinolateral membrane supported by long spines ; between the spines are small holes , each guarded by an operculum , which lead to the nidamental chamber ; water enters here and is expelled through the osculum . no oral intermediate plates .\nclick on the image below to view an expanded illustration for this taxon . if more than one illustration is available for a species ( e . g . , two subspecies may be illustrated ) then links to the separate images will be provided below .\ncircumboreal ; in the north pacific , from the bering sea to northern oregon and to the sea of japan ; in the north atlantic , on the norwegian coast and to cape cod , u . s . a . found at depths of 10 to 1100 metres , usually on mud , but in less than 30 metres on rocky substrates . in the arctic , it is found on rock and a mixture of rock and mud .\nbc ministry of environment : bc species and ecosystems explorer - - the authoritative source for conservation information in british columbia .\nrecommended citation : author , date . page title . in klinkenberg , brian . ( editor ) 2017 .\n[ efauna . bc . ca ] . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . [ accessed :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmah , c . l . ( 2014 ) world asteroidea database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken\nasteroidea of the north pacific and adjacent waters , part 1 . phanerozonia and spinulosa\ndescription : small starfish with short arms . the spines at the edges of the arms are webbed together by a membrane . colour reported to vary from white through yellow to red . up to 15cm in diameter .\ndistribution : northern north sea , in more than 100m . possible record from 36m , ross - shire . widespread in the arctic to southern norway .\ndistribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .\noccurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed\nabundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .\nplease use this form only for a single type of error . if you see multiple errors on the page for this species , please report these in separate forms by clicking on this button again after submitting this form\nthank you for highlighting this error . we appreciate your assistance in maintaining high quality control standards\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .\nthese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .\n: advances in fish science and technology , pp 86\u2013103 . ed . by j . j . connell , farnham , surrey , england : fishing news books ltd . 1980\n: biochemical and physiological approaches to shellfish nutrition . proceedings of second international conference on aquaculture nutrition . in press . ( 1983 )\nackman , r . g . and c . a . eaton : some contemporary applications of open - tubular gas liquid chromatography in analyses of methyl esters of longer chain fatty acids . fette seifen anstr - mittel\nackman , r . g . and j . mclachlan : fatty acids in some nova scotian marine seaweeds . a survey for octadecapentaeonoic and other biochemically novel fatty acids . proc . trans . nova scotian inst . sci .\nackman , r . g . , c . s . tocher and j . mclachlan : marine phytoplankter fatty acids . j . fish . res . bd can .\nbergmann , w . and h . a . standbury : contributions to the study of marine products . xiv . astrol . j . org . chem .\nbrody , j . : fishery by - products technology , 232 pp . westport connecticut : avi publishing co . inc . 1965\nchristie , w . w . : lipid analysis , 338 pp . oxford : pergamon press 1973\nchuecas , l . and j . p . riley : the component fatty acids of the lipids of some marine phytoplankton species . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .\nfalk - petersen , i . - b . : reproductive and biochemical studies of the asteroid\nfalk - petersen , i . - b . and j . r . sargent : reproduction of asteroids from balsfjorden , northern norway : analyses of lipids in the gonads of\nferguson , j . c . : the annual cycle of fatty acid composition in a starfish . comp . biochem . physiol .\nfolch , j . , m . lees and g . h . sloane - stanley : a simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissues . j . biol . chem .\ngunstone , f . d . : an introduction to the chemistry and biochemistry of fatty acids and their glycerides , 209 pp . london : chapman & hall ltd . 1967\ngurr , m . i . and a . t . james : lipid biochemistry : an introduction , 247 pp . london and new york : chapman & hall 1980\njohns , r . b . , p . d . nichols and g . j . perry : fatty acid composition of ten marine algae from australian waters . phytochem .\nkarnovsky , m . l . and a . f . brumm : studies on naturally occurring glyceryl ethers . j . biol . chem .\nkozhina , v . p . t . a . terekhova and v . i . svetachev : lipid composition of gametes and embryos of the sea urchin\nliefkens , w . , j . j . boon and j . w . de leeuw : on the occurrence of alkyl - and alk - 1 - enyl - diacylglycerides in the lugworm\nmorris , r . j . and f . culkin : marine lipids : analytical techniques and fatty acids ester analyses . oceanogr . mar . biol . a . rev .\nmalins , d . c . , j . c . wekell and c . r . houle : composition of the diacylglyceryl ethers and triglycerides of the flesh and liver of the dogfish (\nmetzman , m . s . , a . mastroianni and j . f . strauss : fatty acid composition of unfertilized and fertilized eggs of the sea urchin\nninno , r . e . , m . a . p . de torrengo , j . c . castuma and r . r . brenner : specificity of 5 - and 6 - fatty acid desaturases in rat and fish . biochim . biophys . acta\nparadis , m . and r . g . ackman : potential for employing the distribution of anomalous non - methylene - interrupted dienoic fatty acids in several marine invertebrates as part of food web studies . lipids\npascal , j . - c . and r . g . ackman : long chain monoethylenic alcohol and acid isomers in lipids of copepods and capelin . chemy phys . lipids\nrodegker , w . and j . c . nevenzel : the fatty acid composition of three marine invertebrates . comp . biochem . physiol .\nsargent , j . r . : the structure , metabolism and function of lipids in marine organisms .\n: biochemical and biophysical perspectives in marine biology , vol . 3 . pp 149\u2013212 . ed . by d . c . malins and j . r . sargent . london : academic press 1976\nsargent , j . r . : ether - linked glycerides in marine animals .\n: marine biogenic lipids , fats and oils , ed . by r . g . ackman , cleveland , ohio : c . r . c . press inc . ( in press ) . ( 1983 )\nsargent , j . r . and k . j . whittle : lipids and hydrocarbons in the marine food web .\n: analysis of marine ecosystems , pp 491\u2013533 . ed . by a . r . longhurst . london : academic press 1981\nshaw , n . : lipid composition as a guide to classification of bacteria .\n: advances in applied microbiology , vol . 17 . pp 63\u2013109 . ed . by d . perlman , new york : academic press 1974\nsnyder , f . : enzymatic systems that synthesize and degrade glycerolipids possessing ether bonds . adv . lipid res .\ntakagi , t . , c . a . eaton and r . g . ackman : distribution of fatty acids in lipids of the common sea urchin\ntodd , d . and g . p . rizzi : biochemistry of the \u03b1 - glyceryl ethers . i . distribution in mammalian tissues and in starfish . proc . soc . exp . biol . med .\nsargent , j . r . , falk - petersen , i . b . & calder , a . g . marine biology ( 1983 ) 72 : 257 . urltoken\nboolootian , r . a . : physiology of echinodermata , 822 pp . new york : interscience publishers 1966\ndor\u00e9e , c . : the occurrence and distribution of cholesterol and related bodies in the animal kingdom . biochem . j .\neilertsen , h . chr . , s . falk - petersen , c . c . e . hopkins and k . tande : ecological investigations on the plankton community of balsfjorden , northern norway . program for the project , study area , topography and physical environment . sarsia\nfalk - petersen , i . b . : reproductive and biochemical studies of the asteroid\nfewster , m . e . , b . j . burns and j . f . mead : quantitative densitometric thin - layer chromatography of lipids using copper acetate reagent . j . chromat .\nkossel , a . und s . edlbacher : beitr\u00e4ge zur chemischen kenntnis der echinodermen . hoppe - seyler ' s z . physiol . chem .\nlee , r . f . and j . hirota : wax esters in tropical zooplankton and nekton and the geogranhical distribution of wax esters in marine copepods . limnol . oceanogr .\nlee , r . f . , j . hirota and a . m . barnett : distribution and importance of wax esters in marine copepods and other zooplankton . deep - sea res .\nlee , r . f . , j . c . nevenzel and a . lewis : lipid changes during the life cycle of marine copepod\nmalins , d . c . and u . varanasi : the ether bond in marine lipids .\n: ether lipids , chemistry and biology , pp 297\u2013312 . ed . by f . snyder . new york and london : academic press 1972\nmalins , d . c . , j . c . wekell and c . r . houl\u00e9 : composition of the diacylglyceryl ethers and triglycerides of the fish and liver of the dog fish (\nsargent , j . r . : the structure , function and metabolism of lipids in marine organisms .\n: biochemical and biophysical perspectives in marine biology , vol . 3 . pp 150\u2013212 . ed . by d . c . malins and j . r . sargent . london : academic press 1976\n: marine biogenic lipids , fats and oils . ed . by r . g . ackman . cleveland , ohio , c . r . c . press inc . 1982 . ( in press )\nsargent , j . r . , r . r . gatten , e . d . s . corner and c . c . kilvington : on the nutrition and metabolism of zooplankton . xl . lipids in\nsargent , j . r . , r . f . lee and j . c . nevenzel : marine waxes .\n: chemistry and biochemistry of natural waxes , pp 50\u201391 . ed . by p . e . kolattukudy . amsterdam : elsevier 1976\nshick , j . m . , k . c . edwards and j . h . dearborn : physiological ecology of the deposit - feeding sea star\n: ciliated surfaces and animal - sediment interactions . mar . ecol . prog . ser .\nshick , j . m . , w . f . taylor and a . n . lamb : reproduction and genetic variation in the deposit - feeding sea star\nsloan , n . a . : aspects of the feeding biology of asteroids . oceanogr . mar . biol . a . rev .\nl . in morecambe bay , lancashire , england . j . nat . hist .\nvaver , v . a . , n . a . pisavera and l . d . bergelson : diol lipids , xxl : the high ethyleneglycol content of marine invertebrate lipids . chem . phys . lipids\nvaver , v . a . , n . a . pisavera b . v . rosynov , a . n . ushakov and l . d . bergelson . diol lipids , xx . alkyl and alk - l - enyl ethers of ethanediols in lipids of starfish . chem . phys . lipids\nfalk - petersen , ib . & sargent , j . r . mar . biol . ( 1982 ) 69 : 291 . urltoken\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\npresent addresse : d . j . mcclary , department of zoology and portobello marine laboratory , university of otago , po box 8 , portobello , new zealand .\npresent addresse : p . v . mladenov , marine science and aquaculture research centre and portobello marine laboratory , university of otago , po box 56 , dunedin , new zealand .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\ngray from the gulf of elat , red sea . cah . biol . mar . 14 : 547\u2013553\nanderson , j . m . ( 1966 ) . aspects of nutritional physiology . in : boolootian , r . a . ( ed . ) physiology of echinodermata . interscience publishers , new york p . 329\u2013357\nboolootian , r . a . : reproductive cycles ( 1966 ) . in : boolootian , r . a . ( ed . ) physiology of echinodermata . interscience publishers , new york , p . 561\u2013613\nchapman , d . m . ( 1977 ) . eriochrome cyanin as a substitute for haematoxylin and eosin . can . j . med . technol . 39 : 65\u201366\nemson , r . h . , wilkie , i . c . ( 1980 ) . fission and autotomy in echinoderms . oceanogr . mar . biol . a . rev . 18 : 155\u2013250\nforgeron , f . d . ( 1959 ) . temperature and salinity in the quoddy region . manuscr . rep . ser . fish . res . bd can . ( atlantic oceanographic group , st . andrews , new brunswick ) 1 : 1\u201323 + appendices\ngaligher , a . e . , kozloff , e . n . ( 1971 ) . essentials of practical microtechniques . lea & febiger , philadelphia\ngeise , a . c . , pearse , j . s . ( 1974 ) . introduction : general principles . in : geise , a . c . , pearse , j . s . ( eds . ) reproduction of marine invertebrates . i . academic press , new york , p . 9\ngrant , a . , tyler , p . a . ( 1983a ) . the analysis of data in studies of invertebrate reproduction . i : introduction and statistical analysis of gonad and maturity indices . int . j . invertebrate reprod . ( amsterdam ) . 6 : 259\u2013269\ngrant , a . , tyler , p . a . ( 1983b ) . the analysis of data in studies of invertebrate reproduction . ii : analysis of oocyte size / frequency data and comparison of different types of data . int . j . invertebrate reprod . ( amsterdam ) . 6 : 271\u2013283\n( stimpson ) : somatic maintenance comes before reproduction . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 48 : 169\u2013183\nin block island sound . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 162 : 273\u2013289\nhumason , g . l . ( 1981 ) . animal tissue techniques . w . h . freeman , san francisco\nkanatani , h . ( 1969 ) . induction of spawning and oocyte maturation by l - methyladenine in starfishes . expl cell res . 57 : 333\u2013337 ( 1969 )\nwith a note on male - on - female superposition . annotnes zool . jap . 56 : 189\u2013195\nlawrence , j . m . ( 1987 ) . a functional biology of echinoderms . johns hopkins university press , baltimore\nlist , r . j . ( 1963 ) . smithsonian meteorological tables . sixth revised ed . smithsonian institution . washington\n. in : burke , r . d . , mladenov , p . v . , lambert , p . , parseley , r . l . ( eds . ) echinoderm biology . balkema , rotterdam , p . 163\u2013168\nmenge , j . l . , menge , b . a . ( 1974 ) . role of resource allocation , aggression and spatial heterogeneity in coexistence of two competing intertidal starfish . ecol . monogr . 44 : 189\u2013209\n. pubbl . staz . zool . napoli ( i : mar . ecol . ) 8 : 313\u2013325\nmurdoch , j . h . ( 1984 ) . breeding patterns of two species of northwestern atlantic sea cucumbers ( echinodermata : holothuroidea ) . honours thesis . mount allison university , sackville , canada\nnimitz , sister m . a . ( 1971 ) . histochemical study of gut nutrient reserves in relation to reproduction and nutrition in the sea stars\nfrom the rockall trough . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 65 : 195\u2013211\npantin , c . f . a . ( 1946 ) . notes on microscopical technique for zoologists . cambridge university press , cambridge\nkoehler , a common antarctic asteroid . phd dissertation , stanford university , stanford , california\npearse , j . s . , beauchamp , k . a . ( 1986 ) . photoperiodic regulation of feeding and reproduction in a brooding sea star from central california . int . j . invertebrate reprod . dev . ( amsterdam ) 9 : 289\u2013297\npearse , j . s . , mcclary , d . j . , sewell , m . a . , austin , w . c . , perez - ruzafa , a . byrne , m . ( 1988 ) . simultaneous spawnings of six species of echinoderms in barkley sound , british columbia . int . j . invertebrate reprod . dev . ( amsterdam ) . 14 : 279\u2013288\npennington , j . t . ( 1985 ) . the ecology of fertilization of echinoid eggs : the consequences of sperm dilution , adult aggregation and synchronous spawning . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 169 : 417\u2013430\n( fisher ) , in the monterey bay region . ph . d . dissertation . stanford university , stanford , california\nstrathmann , r . r . , strathmann , m . f . ( 1982 ) . the relationship between adult size and brooding in marine invertebrates . am . nat . 119 : 91\u2013101\nfrom the rockall trough . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k . 62 : 869\u2013887\nwalker , c . w . ( 1980 ) . spermatogenic columns , somatic cells and the microenvironment of germinal cells in the testes of asteroids . j . morph . 166 : 81\u2013107\nwalker , c . w . ( 1982 ) . nutrition of gametes . in : jangoux , m . , lawrence , j . m . ( eds . ) echinoderm nutrition . balkema , rotterdam , p . 449\u2013636\nzar , j . h . ( 1981 ) . biostatistical analysis . prentice - hall inc . , englewood cliffs , new jersey"]}
{"id": 2463, "summary": [{"text": "the ferruginous pygmy owl ( glaucidium brasilianum ) is a small owl that breeds in south-central arizona in the united states , south through mexico and central america , to south america into bolivia , paraguay and argentina .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "in central america and south america , it is the most widely distributed pygmy owl and is probably one of the most numerous owl species in those areas .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "it is found in a wide range of semi-open wooded habitats in these areas", "topic": 24}], "title": "ferruginous pygmy owl", "paragraphs": ["glaucidium brasilianum ( j . f . gmelin , 1788 ) \u2013 ferruginous pygmy - owl , tecolote baje\u00f1o , ferruginous pygmy owl\nproudfoot , g . , r . johnson . 2000 . ferruginous pygmy - owl .\nfigure 1 . distribution of the ferruginous pygmy - owl in north and middle america .\n3 . cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl . 9 / 24 / 99 website : urltoken\na new species of ferruginous pygmy - owl from argentina : glaucidium brasilianum stranecki n . ssp\n) , elevational preferences , and habitat . due to its wide geographic range , the ferruginous pygmy - owl overlaps with many other species of pygmy - owl .\nferruginous pygmy - owl feeds mainly on grasshoppers and also eats scorpions , cicadas , reptiles , and birds .\nthe ferruginous pygmy owl is a very small owl with no ear - tufts . grey , brown and red morphs are known to exist , as well as intermediates .\nthere is little information to be found on the lifespan of ferruginous pygmy - owls .\nphoto of pygmy owl in saguaro courtesy of the arizona game and fish department .\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owls ( glaucidium brasilianum cactorum ) are one of three subspecies of the ferruginous pygmy - owl . they have longer tails than most owls , are reddish - brown with a cream colored belly and have a crown that is lightly streaked . cactus ferruginous pygmy - owls have yellow eyes and no ear tufts .\n2003 .\nurltoken\n( on - line ) . ferruginous pygmy - owl biology . accessed 03 / 19 / 03 at urltoken .\nferruginous pygmy - owls and bighorn sheep are two of the roving species that could be affected .\nferruginous pygmy - owls are monogamous , and usually form pairs in their first fall after hatching .\nrainforest conservation fund . 2003 .\nferruginous pygmy - owl\n( on - line ) . accessed 04 / 07 / 03 at urltoken .\n) , elevational preferences , and habitat . fortunately the distribution of peruvian pygmy - owl has little or no overlap with other species of pygmy - owl . in the andes , peruvian\nbreeding interval ferruginous pygmy - owls breed once a year . eggs are layed in april or may .\n2003 .\nsonoran desert conservation plan\n( on - line ) . cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl . accessed 03 / 19 / 03 at urltoken .\nthe cactus ferruginous pygmy owl in pima county : at one time , the pygmy owl was described as\nof common occurrence ,\nnot uncommon ,\nand\nfairly numerous\nin southern arizona . 1 today , the owl numbers are very low and , until recently , very little was known about the owl . some of the pygmy owls ' habitat is found in the fastest growing areas of tucson .\nto fool its prey , ferruginous pygmy - owl evolved so - called false eyes : patches of dark feathers on the back of its head that look like eyes .\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owls mainly eat small birds , lizards , insects , small mammals , frogs and earthworms .\nthe ridgway ' s pygmy - owl is also much more rufous in color than the mountain pygmy although this is not necessarily obvious in the field ( without a mountain pygmy to compare to ) . the most obvious visual difference between the mountain and ridgway ' s pygmy - owls are the white markings on their heads . the mountain pygmy - owl has white spots and the ridgway ' s pygmy - owl has white streaking . last and most noticeable of the visual differences is the tail barring . the ridgway ' s pygmy - owl has light brown ( to orangey brown ) tail bars where the mountain pygmy has white tail bars .\ncenter for biological diversity .\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owl ( glaucidium brasilianum cactorum )\n( on - line ) . accessed 04 / 07 / 03 at urltoken .\nferruginous pygmy owls are non - migratory and are found in the southwestern united states , central america , and south america .\nproudfoot , g . , s . beasom . 1997 . food habits of nesting ferruginous pygmy - owls in southern texas .\nproudfoot , g . a . 1996 . natural history of the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl . master ' s thesis , texas a & m ; univ . , kingsville . close\nstatus : the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl was listed as federally endangered in 1997 . the species was listed because current and historical evidence suggests a significant population decline has occured in arizona , and that the the owl has been nearly extirpated .\nother small owls in the same habitat and range of the ridgway ' s pygmy - owl include elf owl and the screech - owls . these other small owls that could be possibly confused are all strictly nocturnal . the elf owl is much smaller in size and lacks the clear chest and crown streaks of the ridgway ' s pygmy - owl . the screech - owls all have ear tufts and also lack the pygmy - owl ' s clear chest streaks .\nferruginous pygmy - owls were heard very frequently in both thick forests and shrubby woodlands , often calling from within the thickest foliage .\njust when i was enjoying the sudden freedom from ferruginous pygmy owls ( hereinafter the owl ) , those professional pests at the center for biological diversity and defenders of wildlife ( hereinafter the pests ) are asking for the owl to be relisted as endangered .\nus forest service department of agriculture . 1999 .\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owl ( glaucidium brasilianum cactorum )\n( on - line ) . accessed 03 / 19 / 03 at urltoken .\nyoung : the young are similar in plumage to the adults . just like the ferruginous pygmy - owl the young do not develop their white markings until they mature . as a juvenile owl the white spots on the crown are not developed . the northern pygmy juvenile is still distinguishable from the ferruginous pygmy , in the small range where they could possibly overlap , by his white tail bands ( the ferrug . having reddish - brown bands ) .\nthe ferruginous pygmy - owl is a diurnal and crepuscular owl feeding mostly on insects , such as grasshoppers , crickets , caterpillars , other large insects and scorpions . in addition , their diet consists of birds , small mammals , amphibians , and reptiles ( often lizards ) . like the northern pygmy - owl , the ferruginous pygmy - owl is a bold and ferocious daytime predator , sometimes attacking prey larger than itself , such as american robins or young domestic fowl . there are even records of attacks on captive guan , the owl grabbing on firmly to the guan and tearing at it , eventually wearing it out and killing it .\n1 . u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1997 .\ndetermination of endangered status for the cactus ferruginous pygmy owl in arizona .\nfederal register . volume 62 ( 46 ) .\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owls live in the desert habitat of southern arizona in the southwestern united states , and northwestern mexico . they live at\nu . s . fish and wildlife service ( 1997 ) endangered and threatened wildlife and plants : determination of endangered status for the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in arizona . us fed . regist . 62 : 10730\u201310747\nin recent decades , the subspecies known as cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl declined substantially in arizona and was listed as endangered between 1997 and 2006 . in 2012 , environmentalists filed suit calling for it to be listed again .\n. these juveniles are best distinguished from ferruginous by voice , habitat , and elevation .\na federal judge removed the pygmy owl ' s critical habitat status in september 2001 . she stated that the u . s . fish and wildlife\n) are very small owls , with a large rounded head , a pair of prominent black marks ( false\neye spots\n) on the nape , and a relatively long tail . ferruginous pygmy - owl is the largest species of\nthe ferruginous pygmy - owl is endangered in arizona and facing loss of habitat in both texas and arizona . although it is endangered in north america ( arizona ) , it is still quite frequent over much of its mexican range . the owl is generally sedentary although its range expands after the fledging of the young .\nthere is no known migratory movements of this owl . the northern pygmy is believed to be largely sedentary . except for winter downslope movements and juvenile dispersals there are no further records of movements for this owl . further studies are needed .\nan opportunistic predator , the ferruginous pygmy - owl has a diet as diverse as its distribution , including insects , reptiles , amphibians , birds , and small mammals . foraging rates peak during twilight hours , around sunrise and sunset . because of its small size , long tail , and atypical diurnal and crepuscular behavior , the ferruginous pygmy - owl may easily be mistaken for a passerine . when agitated , it perches with its tail cocked upward or jerks its tail up and down and from side to side .\nreproduction : the cactus ferruginous pygmy owl nests in cavities in trees or cacti such as the organ pipe or saguaro . the pygmy owl begins nesting activity late winter to early spring . 3 three to five eggs are laid in late april\u00admay . 2 the eggs are incubated for about twenty - eight days . the young are fed by both parents . the young fledge twenty - seven to thirty days after hatching . 2\nabbate , d . , a . ditty , s . richardson and r . olding . 1996 . cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl survey and nest monitoring in the tucson basin area , arizona - 1996 . phoenix , az : arizona game and fish dep . close\nin 2013 , readers of birdwatching voted ferruginous pygmy - owl one of the birds they want to see most . so , as the great texas birding classic winds down , we thought you\u2019d enjoy this list of 10 things you might not know about the diminutive bird :\nferruginous pygmy - owl is the spud webb of birds . webb , all five feet seven inches and 133 pounds of him , played 12 seasons in the nba , in which the average player is a foot taller and 90 pounds heavier . the pygmy - owl is no bigger than a bluebird and weighs about 2 . 5 ounces , yet it has been known to prey on the larger and significantly heavier gambel\u2019s quail and hispid cotton rat .\nthe oldest recorded northern pygmy - owl was a male , and at least 3 years , 11 months old when he was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in oregon .\npygmy - owl calls elicit a strong mobbing response from many passerines , including many warblers and vireos . imitation of this vocalization often attracts more small passerines than pishing does .\ndiet : the owl is an opportunistic predator feeding on what is available . the prey ranges from insects to mourning doves which outweigh the owl by two and a half times .\nthe 18th annual great texas birding classic wraps up tomorrow , may 15 . one species that participants may locate is ferruginous pygmy - owl , a small bird of semi - open wooded areas . it can be found at the king ranch and a few other ranches in south texas .\nferruginous pygmy - owls nest in natural cavities of trees , stumps , or cactuses ( depending on what is available ) . the cavities that they nest in are often the made by woodpeckers (\nyes , the owl could have a bright future if the pests would get behind this push to domesticate it . i can almost taste the deep fried owl now . what a treat !\ncartron , jean - luc e . ; richardson , w . scott ; proudfoot , glenn a . 2000 . chapter 1 : the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl : taxonomy , distribution , and natural history . in : cartron , jean - luc e . ; finch , deborah m . , tech . eds . ecology and conservation of the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in arizona . gen . tech . rep . rmrs - gtr - 43 . ogden , ut : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , rocky mountain research station . p . 5 - 15\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owl are threatened by habitat loss , particularly the loss of at least 85 % of arizona\u2019s riparian areas due to development , livestock grazing , water withdrawal and other factors . climate change may worsen other threats , particularly the spread of invasive species and an increase in fires .\nthe cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl is a small bird , averaging 6 . 5 inches in length and weighing 2 . 5 ounces . overall , the owl is reddish - brown with a cream - colored belly striped with the rufous coloring . the crown is lightly streaked and the eyes are yellow . black and white spots on the nape suggest eye spots . 1 the owl has a relatively long tail and no ear tufts . this owl is diurnal . its call , consisting of a monotonal ' put - put - put ' note , 2 can be heard during dusk and dawn .\nhabitat : current information allows only a broad general description of where the owl has historically and currently occurred in arizona . the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl occurs in a variety of habitats , including river bottom woodlands , mesquite bosques , desert scrub , and plains and desert grasslands . 1 typical throughout these habitats are fairly dense woody thickets with trees and cacti large enough to provide nesting cavities . 3\ndefenders of wildlife is funding critical research on population trends of cactus ferruginous pygmy - owls on both sides the u . s . - mexico border . unfortunately , this science continues to confirm that the status of the western population of pygmy - owls is in dire straits . in fact , research done in 2006 by university of arizona research specialist aaron flesch showed that the pygmy - owl population in sonora , mexico \u2013 immediately south of the arizona border \u2013 has suffered a 26 percent decline since 2000 .\nthe center first petitioned to protect the owl in 1992 , and following three successful lawsuits secured an endangered listing in 1997 . we won the owl 732 , 000 acres of critical habitat in 1999 . but developers fought back in 2001 , with the tacit support of the bush administration , and their lawsuit seeking to remove the pygmy owl ' s endangered status overturned the bird ' s listing in 2006 . the argument was that pygmy owls exist in mexico and thus can be allowed to go extinct in the united states ( though the service ' s own biologists opposed the owl ' s delisting ) .\nelevations below 4 , 000 feet ( 1 , 200 m ) . the owl prefers desertscrub thickets , trees and large cacti for nesting and roosting . in the sonoran desert the owl often lives where ironwood , mesquite , acacia , saguaro and organ pipe cacti can be found . the vegetation provides good cover for its favorite prey of birds , lizards , insects , small rodents , frogs and earthworms . cactus ferruginous pygmy - owls are fierce hunters and can kill a dove twice their size . the vegetation also shields it from larger birds of prey . the pygmy - owl is diurnal and hunts during the day .\nin arizona the ferrug occurs in saguaro desert , mesquite , and cottonwood - mesquite habitats . in texas it is now mostly confined to remaining patches of mesquite , ebony , and cane along the lower rio grande ( may also be found in live oak forests of kenedy and willacy counties ) . in general , the ferruginous pygmy is a lowland bird found in more arid habitats than the northern pygmy - owl .\nferruginous pygmy - owls live in a variety of habitats throughout the americas . they are found in cold temperate lowlands , subtropical , and tropical areas . they can be found in habitats ranging from deserts to rainforests .\nboth pygmy - owls have two black patches ( outlined in white ) on their nape that vaguely resemble a pair of extra eyes . the ridgway ' s pygmy - owl has a greenish yellow bill and bright lemon yellow iris ( eyes ) . this owl lacks ear tufts . length is 6 3 / 4\n( slightly smaller than a white - crowned sparrow ) and the sexes are alike .\nrichardson , w . scott ; cartron , jean - luc e . ; krueper , david j . ; turner , lauren ; skinner , thomas h . 2000 . chapter 3 : the status of the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in arizona : population surveys and habitat assessment . in : cartron , jean - luc e . ; finch , deborah m . , tech . eds . ecology and conservation of the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in arizona . gen . tech . rep . rmrs - gtr - 43 . ogden , ut : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , rocky mountain research station . p . 27 - 46\nproudfoot , g . a . and s . l . beasom . 1996 . responsiveness of cactus ferruginous pygmy - owls to broadcasted conspecific calls . wildl . soc . bull . no . 24 : 294 - 297 . close\nwe ' ll continue to advocate for the species throughout the steps toward new protection , and we ' re still funding pygmy owl research in mexico as we work with pima county on the sonoran desert conservation plan .\ntoday the big bird - friendly ranches of south texas are the best places to find ferruginous pygmy - owl in the united states . since floods along the rio grande in july 2010 , the species has been absent from its traditional haunts near the mexico border , including bentsen - rio grande valley state park and santa ana national wildlife refuge .\npresently , the appearance of the owl on a person\u2019s property signals a rapid depreciation in the value of that property as it then becomes owl habitat and must be dedicated to the owl . the answer is obvious . the owl must be domesticated and raised like chickens . there is no shortage of chickens . and if a chicken crosses the road to get to your property , you are at liberty to introduce it to the wonders of the fricassee .\nthe ferruginous pygmy - owl ' s call is a long series of repeated hollow whistles which can be easily imitated by humans . howell and webb ( 1995 ) claim that calls may sometimes end with a series of\nhigh , yelping twitters\nwhile stiles & skutch ( 1989 ) suggest a\nsharp bark or whinny\nterminates some calls .\n, but northern pygmy - owls are spotted rather than streaked , have whiter tails , and different vocalizations .\nin late in the winter or early spring cactus ferruginous pygmy - owls begin nesting in the cavities of trees or cacti like the saguaro and organ pipe . these holes have often been made by woodpeckers . owlets leave their nest 28 days after hatching .\nin : cartron , jean - luc e . ; finch , deborah m . , tech . eds . ecology and conservation of the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in arizona . gen . tech . rep . rmrs - gtr - 43 . ogden , ut : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , rocky mountain research station . p . 5 - 15\nin : cartron , jean - luc e . ; finch , deborah m . , tech . eds . ecology and conservation of the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in arizona . gen . tech . rep . rmrs - gtr - 43 . ogden , ut : u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , rocky mountain research station . p . 27 - 46\nproudfoot , g . a . and a . a . radomski . 1997 . absence of hematozoa from ferruginous pygmy - owls ( glaucidium brasilianum ) in southern texas . j . helminthol . soc . wash . no . 64 : 154 - 156 . close\nthe keys to the distinction between the three us pygmy - owls is color , call , habitat , white markings , and tail barring . the ridgway ' s pygmy has a much lower elevation habitat , living in the saguaro ( cactus ) and riparian desert habitats of southern arizona and mesquite ( dry ) habitats in the rio grand areas of southern texas . the mountain pygmy - owl is generally associated with montane forest habitats . same hold true south of the us .\n) are very small owls , with a large rounded head , a pair of prominent black marks ( false\neye spots\n) on the nape , and a relatively long tail . peruvian pygmy - owl is a relatively larges species of\nhabits : the ferruginous pygmy owl is a partly diurnal bird , and may be seen in bright daylight on exposed perches , and may also sing by day . principal activity is at dusk or around dawn , and they are sometimes vocally active on clear , calm nights . roosts during the daytime within the shelter of foliage in trees or bushes , but always seems alert . when excited , this owl will cock its tail and flick it from side to side . flight is undulating with rapid wingbeats and gliding .\njehl , d . march , 17 2003 . rare arizona owl ( all 7 inches of it ) is in habitat furor .\nferruginous pygmy - owls can be heard calling more frequently around sunrise and sunset . sounds that they make include whistled hoot and took noises , and high yelping twitters . male calls are lower in tone than females . males give territorial - advertisement calls and females vocalize through chitters .\nforests , which are characterized by low canopy heights and relatively low diversity of flora ( borges et al . 2004 ) . ferruginous pygmy - owls occur in undisturbed habitat as well as in or around human settlements , from small villages to large cities ( proudfoot and johnson 2000 ) .\nsubspecies : there are 2 races of ferruginous pygmy - owl here in the us . one to four other owls may be considered additional races in central america but further research needs to be done for these classifications to be agreed upon . g . b . cactorumis is found from s arizona south along the west coast of mexico . g . b . ridgwayi is found from southern texas e and s mexico to panama .\nthe owl uses a perch - and - pounce hunting method , and it raids nest cavities of golden - fronted woodpecker and other birds .\nrange : historically , this subspecies appears to be geographically isolated into eastern and western populations . the western population ranged from lowland , central arizona to the states of colima and michoacan , mexico . the eastern population ranged from southern texas into the states of tampulipas and nuevo leon , mexico . 1 currently , the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl range is similar to the historic range , but the number of owls is much smaller . 1\nin response to predators such as hawks , owls , snakes , and raccoons , ferruginous pygmy - owls either go into a vertical position and move their tail back and forth , or maintain an errect position with feathers close to their body . nestlings sometimes spread out their wings and puff themselves up .\na study conducted on the king ranch in texas recorded the owl preying on northern cardinal , blue grosbeak , eastern meadowlark , and other songbirds .\nthe tiny , fierce pygmy owl has become synonymous with wild sonoran desert : endangered species act protections for the owl initiated a new era of urban planning in southern arizona . within the bird ' s critical habitat areas , the u . s . fish and wildlife service limited development to just 20 percent of most properties , driving the large - scale sonoran desert conservation plan that became a model for endangered species urban planning nationwide .\none of the most important invasive species in the sonoran desert is buffel grass , which was widely planted as a forage grass . in sharp contrast to the patchy distribution of native vegetation , buffel grass forms a continuous cover , allowing fires to travel across large areas , killing saguaros and other native plant species that are not well adapted to fires . the extended droughts being wrought by climate change are increasing this fire risk and further threatening the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl .\nthese conflicts are unnecessary . just allow the owl to be freely taken and create a market for this new , exotic , and formerly endangered food source .\nferruginous pygmy - owls are presumed monogamous , forming pairs during the fall of their first year after hatching , and nesting the following spring . incubation and nestling development each last about 28 days . females incubate 2\u20137 eggs , and both adults provide food for nestlings . adults attend to fledglings until dispersal , 7\u20138 weeks after fledging .\nthe list of possible prey in the northern pygmy - owl ' s diet is quite large . this may include all of the small mammals , small to medium sized birds , reptiles , larger insects , and amphibians within their range . the owl ' s preference seems to be mice , birds , and large insects with studies indicating that about 90 % of their diet is comprised of small mammals and birds . this little owl is a bold and ferocious daytime predator . it will kill birds such as gambel ' s or california quail that are more than twice its weight . to see a northern pygmy come tumbling out of a tree with its talons firmly locked into an american robin , that is half again its size , is an impressive sight and reminder of how fearless it is .\nwhen the owl is domesticated and raised for profit , we will be chock - a - block in owls around here . they will start appearing on menus throughout the sonoran region as a low fat , high protein , exceptionally tender alternative to chicken . chick - fil - a , the colonel , and all the fast food outlets will be substituting owl meat for chicken . the sub - species will have been saved . owl farmers will prosper by selling their eggs and even feathers .\nconsider the economic impact when it designated 731 , 000 acres critical habitat for the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl in 1999 . the u . s . fish and wildlife service is expected to redesignate their critical habitat by april 2003 , and it is hoped their habitat will double as a result . it is presently on the u . s . endangered species list . they are also in the cites , appendix ii which allows the owls to be traded commercially only if it doesn ' t harm their survival .\nunlike screech - owls and northern saw - whet owls , northern pygmy - owls are not known to take up residence in human - made nest boxes .\nare generally rufous (\nferruginous\n) in color , especially east of the andes , but the plumage also may be a duller brown or gray - brown . this species shares the common\nare opportunistic predators with diverse diets . they feed mostly on insects , but also on birds , reptiles , amphibians , and small mammals . they are diurnal and feed mostly during sunrise and sunset . in order to kill birds and some lizards the ferruginous pygmy - owl bites just behind their prey ' s head , while other lizards are swallowed whole . insects are usually decapitated and only the soft body parts of them are eaten . mammals are eaten piece by piece . specific examples of what these owls feed on inlude grasshoppers and crickets (\nare very small and reach a size of only about 6 inches tall . they have round heads with black eyespots on the back , no ear tufts , and yellowish eyes . adults often have white eyebrows , and white streaks on their heads . the body of the owl is reddish - brown in color with white streaks . the long tail is also reddish - brown . their wings often have white streaks as well . the underparts are white . males and females look very similiar to one another , but the females are slightly larger and more reddish in coloration . juveniles look like adults , but their heads are often grayer and their eye spots lighter . ferruginous pygmy - owls are similar to northern pygmy - owls ,\nnorthern pygmy - owls raise a pair of tufts on the sides of their head when threatened by a predator , such as a hawk or a cat . they also have a pair of spots on the back of the neck that look a little like eyes . scientists think these markings may help fool attackers or mobbers into thinking the owl is watching them .\ncommon and widespread in the american tropics , this little owl enters our area only in southern texas and arizona , where it is now uncommon to rare . it is often active by day , and may feed on small birds at times ; songbirds in its range all recognize its whistled call , and will gather around to mob and harass the owl when they discover it .\ns sometimes are active by day , although they primarily are crepuscular . they prey on large insects and small vertebrates , including small birds that may be almost as large as the owl .\nwhen they find extra food , northern pygmy - owls often cache their prey in tree cavities , or by hanging the prey on thorns , as shrikes are famous for doing .\nyoung : although the white streaking on the forehead and head is not developed on the juvenile ferruginous , the rust tail bars are , making identification possible . the young also have a high - pitched rattle begging call .\nin the sonoran desert scrub , the owl can be found in associations of ironwood , palo verde , mesquite , acacia , bursage , and columnar cactus such as saguaro and organ pipe . 3\n* small owl with dark brown and spotted upperparts and greyish white streaked underparts * small head with whitish eyebrows and yellow eyes . dark breast and pretty long tail * size : about 16 cm\n. the upperparts often are rufous (\nferruginous\n) but also may be duller grayish brown ; the underparts are white , marked with broad streaks that are the same color as the upperparts . the crown also has fine white streaks .\nthese owls are most active near dawn and dusk . they are either solitary or in pairs for mating purposes . in order to move within trees , they walk and hop from branch to branch . they also rapidly beat their wings in order to make short , direct flights . ferruginous pygmy - owls perch in trees similarly to other owls , with their tails straight downward . allopreening is done between paired adults , fledglings , and nestlings .\nlike most owls the key to identification seems to be their primary call . the ridgway ' s pygmy has much shorter spaced calls often referred to as a\npopping\nprimary call where the mountain pygmy ' s\ntoots\nare given in pairs ( toot - toot toot - toot ) and spaced much further apart . see the audio recordings tabs in each species to hear their sounds .\na natural recording of seven episodes of calls while surrounded by several species of small birds . i spotted a blue - and - yellow tanager , masked gnatcatcher , an unidentified small woodpecker , and two or three other small morning birds calling while the pygmy - owl remained at 6 to 7 meters high in a small tree . located 10 meters from a river flowing east from the nearby large dammed lake south of salta .\nnorthern pygmy - owls are widespread in the mountains of western north america , and they\u2019re active during the day , which gives you a good chance of finding them . but they\u2019re also small and unobtrusive as they sit and wait for prey to approach them , so you\u2019ll need to be observant . the two best ways to find them involve your ears : you may hear them giving high , evenly spaced tooting calls . or you may hear a commotion of chickadees and other small birds scolding and calling as they mob an owl they\u2019ve discovered . try to find the agitated birds and you may find the owl that they\u2019re trying to drive away .\n) by its larger size , longer tail with a greater number of transverse pale buffy bars ( 5 - 7 bars on the upper surface of the tail , or 3 - 5 bars on the under surface of the tail , as opposed to 2 - 4 whitish bars on the tails of species in the least pygmy - owl group ) , and by the presence of narrow pale streaks ( not small pale spots ) on the crown .\nholt , d . w . , berkley , r . , deppe , c . , enr\u00edquez rocha , p . , petersen , j . l . , rangel salazar , j . l . , segars , k . p . , wood , k . l . , christie , d . a . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . ferruginous pygmy - owl ( glaucidium brasilianum ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nfor a tiny bird , the cactus ferruginous pygmy - owl has a very long name . it is small enough to hold in your hand . it averages 6 . 5 inches ( 17 cm ) in length and weighs only 2 . 5 ounces ( 62 g ) . females usually weigh a few tenths of an ounce more than the males . the feathers on their back are creamy - brown , and the underside is cream - colored with reddish - brown stripes . the top of their heads are slightly streaked and on the back of the head they have two black eye spots outlined in white . their eyes are yellow and round . their tails are longer than most owls , and they have no tufts on their ears .\nsmall birds such as hummingbirds , wrens , warblers , jays , and blackbirds often mob northern pygmy - owls\u2014in fact , you may be able to find these owls by following a noisy commotion of songbirds focused on one spot .\nsometimes snap their mandibles together to make a \u201cbeak clap\u201d sound . the behavior is likely a sign of distress , as this bill snapping usually is reported during situations such as when the owl is handling or during nest inspection ( proudfoot and johnson 2000 ) .\ncactus ferruginous pygmy - owls don ' t migrate . in late in the winter or early spring they begin nesting in the cavities of trees or cacti like the saguaro and organ pipe . these holes have often been made by woodpeckers . they lay 3 to 5 white eggs in late april , which hatch about 28 days later . the young owls are fed by both parents . they fledge , or leave the nest about 27 to 30 days after hatching . they stay close to their parents until they are ready to be on their own .\nthe northern pygmy - owl may be tiny , but it\u2019s a ferocious hunter with a taste for songbirds . these owls are mostly dark brown and white , with long tails , smoothly rounded heads , and piercing yellow eyes . they hunt during the day by sitting quietly and surprising their prey . as a defensive measure , songbirds often gather to mob sitting owls until they fly away . mobbing songbirds can help you find these unobtrusive owls , as can listening for their call , a high - pitched series of toots .\nproudfoot , g . a . , j . l . mays , s . l . beasom and r . bingham . 1998 .\neffectiveness of broadcast surveys in determining habitat use of ferruginous pygmy - owls ( glaucidium brasilianum ) in southern texas .\nin biology and conservation of owls of the northern hemisphere . , edited by j . r . duncan , d . h . johnson and t . h . nicholls , 338 . st . paul , mn : u . s . for . serv . gen . tech . rep . nc - 190 . n . central res . station . close\nit had been so listed between 1997 and 2006 . it was delisted because the u . s . fish & wildlife service determined that there is an abundance of the owl just over the hill south of here in mexico and they are only scarce here because this is the uppermost limit of their range .\njohnson rr , haight lt , simson jm ( 1979 ) owl populations and species status in the southwestern united states . in : schaeffer p , ehlers sm ( eds ) , owls of the west : their ecology and conservation . national audubon society western education center , tiburon , california , pp . 40\u201359\nmost owls have asymmetrically placed ears as well as flattened facial discs around the eyes . both of these features are adaptations that give them better hearing . interestingly , northern pygmy - owls lack these features , and this may be an outcome of their diurnal habits and greater reliance on vision .\nsubspecies : there are four races of northern pygmy - owl in north america . g . c . swarthi is restricted to vancouver island . g . c . grinnelli stretches along the west coast of north america from s . e . alaska all the way to s . california . g . c . californicum is the most widespread race in north america . it ranges from the northern interior of british columbia and east to alberta then south into nevada and s . california . g . c . pinicola is found from idaho and montana south to california and nevada . this race is sometimes combined with g . c . californicum .\nthis small owl ' future is in grave danger from the loss of its habitat . it used to be very common and could be found in arizona from the new river north of phoenix to the mexican border . now they can only be found between tucson and the mexican border , and less than 50 remain in the state . most of the owls live in the ironwood forests northwest of tucson and marana . they live in the fastest growing areas of tucson . people are moving into the desert , changing the environment to suit their needs , and destroying the forest ' s fragile ecosystem . logging , woodcutting and livestock overgrazing are other threats the pygmy owls face .\nsince 1996 , authorities in arizona have found anywhere from 12 - 41 adult pygmy owls a year , and in 2006 , surveyors spotted only 28 owls . the population in northern mexico is also imperiled , with a documented 4 . 4 percent decline per year for the past seven years , or a 26 percent decline overall since 2000 .\nhunting & food : feeds on insects , small birds and other small vertebrates such as mice . birds up to the size of a dove have been recorded as prey . this owl has powerful talons and is able to catch prey larger then itself . hunting is normally from a perch , but birds and insects may be caught among foliage with sudden dashing flights .\na biologist for one of the pests asserts it is difficult to determine the number of owls here because they keep flying around and won\u2019t hold still for an owl census . this despite the fact that owls are easily contained because they are not high - flying birds and unlike many of their human brothers , can be intimidated by the appearance of a border fence .\nsurely there would be no need to relist the owl if it were domesticated . that would save the fish & wildlife people a ton of money since they would not have to deal with the then - plentiful birds . the pests could turn their attentions to wildlife that is actually in short supply and which the world cannot live without , like the gray wolf .\nhabitat : tropical and subtropical , mostly humid , primary or secondary forest with clearings , forest edges , riverine forest , pastureland with groups of trees and bushy areas , parks and large gardens with mature trees and thick bushes . this owl is normally found below below 1500m elevation . prefers evergreen or semi - deciduous forest with undergrowth in the lowlands , and is common in the subtropical and tropical rainforest of eastern brazil , eastern paraguay and northeast argentina where they mostly inhabit secondary forest with dense undergrowth .\nthis got me to thinking . why is there an alarming dearth of the owl around here ? there is no alarming shortage of sheep , goats , cattle , or even chickens . chickens ! yes , that\u2019s the answer . these animals are not endangered for the simple reason that they are domesticated . unlike wild animals , they have to stay where they are put . they are raised so that we have plenty of them . they are owned by people who have an incentive to have them thrive .\nin march 2007 , the center filed a new petition to list the owl \u2014 in southern arizona , throughout the sonoran desert , or throughout its range . we filed a notice of intent to sue in may 2008 , and were rewarded a week later when the agency said protection might be warranted and began a status review . in early 2009 , the ninth circuit court of appeals issued an appeal upholding the bird ' s delisting , but in 2011 , we reached a landmark agreement with the fish and wildlife service compelling the agency to re - propose it for protection that same year , if warranted . when no progress was made according to the agreement ' s timeline , we sued in 2012 .\nlike other pygmy - owls , the ferrug are cavity nesters . they nest in a natural cavity in a tree , stump or snag , in old woodpecker holes , tree forks or depressions , occasionally in a sand bank or termite mound . the breeding season for this species may begin as soon as early april and last as late as mid - june . clutch size is usually 3 or 4 eggs but 2 to 5 are not uncommon . incubation and brooding is done by the female and the eggs hatch at approximately 28 days . the male brings food to the female during incubation and brooding . both adults will bring food to the young at 3 weeks after the young hatch . intense brood competition over prey may result in fatalities of the young . fledging occurs at about 28 days after eggs hatch . adults will care for the young for an additional 3 weeks following fledging .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nglaucidium brasilianum and g . tucumanum ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as g . brasilianum following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nnow considered endangered or threatened in limited range in united states . still widespread in tropics , although undoubtedly has declined in some areas .\nmesquite thickets , desert riverine woods , saguaros . in united states , currently most numerous in low stands of live oak and mesquite in southern texas . was formerly common in mesquite forest along rivers and in desert dominated by saguaro cactus . in tropics , found in wide range of lowland habitats , mostly in semi - open country .\napparently hunts most actively near dawn and dusk . hunts by watching from raised perch , then darting out in very rapid flight to capture prey in talons . notably bold and aggressive for its small size .\n3 - 4 , sometimes 5 . white . apparently incubation is mostly or entirely by female , about 28 days ; male brings food to female during incubation . young : both parents take part in providing food for young ; male may do most of hunting at first . age of young at first flight about 27 - 30 days .\nboth parents take part in providing food for young ; male may do most of hunting at first . age of young at first flight about 27 - 30 days .\nincludes insects , birds , rodents , lizards . diet is not well known , and probably varies by region . among known foods are large insects ( including crickets , caterpillars , and beetles ) , scorpions , small birds , rodents and other small mammals , and lizards .\nbreeding behavior is not well known . male defends nesting territory with song of monotonous repeated whistles , mostly at dusk and dawn , also at night , sometimes by day . nest site is in cavity in tree or in giant cactus , usually old woodpecker hole , but sometimes natural hollow in tree . typically low , 10 - 30 ' above ground .\naudio \u00a9 lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .\nofficials confirm the bird - rich santa ana national wildlife refuge is the ' probable ' starting point for construction .\ntell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .\ntell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .\nis one of the most widespread birds of the lowlands of the neotropics ; the distribution of the species extends from the southern united states south to central argentina . this species occurs in a wide variety of habitats . it does not occur in closed - canopy forest , although it is found at forest edge , but otherwise is found in almost any wooded habitat including arid scrub , dry forest , evergreen forests , coffee plantations , and towns . most\nplumage pattern , with two large black marks (\nfalse eyes\n) on the back of the neck , and white underparts with coarse streaks . it can be difficult to distinguish from other species of\nhas short white streaks on the crown , however , but most of other species have spotted crowns . the song , a long series of short whistles , is a familiar sound ;\noften respond aggressively to imitations of this song , approaching the source in a rapid , direct flight .\n) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nthere are no sound files at this time . please check back with us .\nthird and final cut of the individual as xc389254 . it is part of a longer cut that was edited due to noise at background by wind .\nanother cut of the individual as xc389254 . and it is part of a longer cut that was edited due to noise at background by wind .\nprobably same individual as xc389192 , but the recording was done at 300 meters from this recording . also on forest edge of dry forest . recording distance was 20 meters . cut was amplified ( 4 db ) .\nbetween dry forest and semideciduous forest , with erika cristina valad\u00e3o and m\u00e1rcia p\u00e2mela carvalho .\nfemale calls from about 0 : 01 - 0 : 11 s and male in calling in background throughout recording , both birds about 30 - 40ft away .\nsinging bird responding to whistled imitation , then a second bird starts calling and the two carry on calling / singing together . natural intervals . habitat is tropical deciduous forest in a somewhat disturbed cattle ranching area .\nsong in response to whistled imitation from a bird ( same as in xc368467 ) perched about 2 - 4m up in prosopis - dominated woodland .\nsong from a bird attracted by whistled imitation . about 2 - 4m up in prosopis - dominated woodland .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nvan rossem , 1937 \u2013 s usa ( s arizona ) and w mexico ( s to n nayarit ) .\na . r . phillips , 1966 \u2013 w mexico from s nayarit to s oaxaca .\n\u2013 s usa ( s texas ) through e & s mexico to panama .\nphelps , sr & phelps , jr . , 1951 \u2013 margarita i ( n venezuela ) .\n( daudin , 1800 ) \u2013 n & e venezuela , trinidad and the guianas .\nchapman , 1929 \u2013 amazonian colombia , s venezuela and brazil s to s peru and n bolivia .\n) ; wingspan c . 38 cm . long , narrow tail and distinctive whistled \u201cpopping\u201d call . very . . .\nadvertising call a prolonged series of 10\u201360 whistled notes , c . 3 per second , sounding like . . .\ntropical lowlands and foothills in primary and secondary forest , coastal and thorn scrub , bushes . . .\nmostly insects ; also reptiles , birds , mammals and amphibians ; diet varies among seasons and habitat types . examples of prey items include . . .\nlays generally c . mar\u2013jun , during dry to early wet season ; eggs found in s mexico ( oaxaca ) in apr\u2013may ; breeding late jan and . . ."]}
{"id": 2473, "summary": [{"text": "charon ( 1987 \u2013 april 12 , 2009 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse who defeated both male and female competitors .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she was bred at triple e farm in ocala , florida by owner stanley m. ersoff .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "she was a chestnut filly , a daughter of mo exception out of the mare double wiggle .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "she is best remembered for her seven and a half length romp in the grade ii $ 250,000 black-eyed susan stakes and her win in the coaching club american oaks two months later . ", "topic": 14}], "title": "charon ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["gene navarro waited all of his life for a horse like charon to race into his life .\nkey to the mint , langfuhr ( horse ) , point given , teddy ( horse ) , aurelius ( horse ) , diadem ( horse ) , hawaiian sound , the wonder ( horse ) , bronze ( horse ) , bryan g . , just a way , night of thunder ( horse ) , forest flower ( horse ) , blue spec , erins isle ( horse ) , fort marcy ( horse ) , gainsborough ( horse ) , gilded time , selim ( horse ) , with approval , charon ( horse ) , hycilla , sea bird , polish patriot , papineau ( horse ) , whimsical ( horse ) , beaugay , high echelon , rockavon , discreet cat , touch gold , alexander mare , cremorne ( horse ) , harlem rocker , izvestia ( horse )\nwith the headline : on horse racing ; help wanted for filly triple crown .\ncharon ( 1987 \u2013 april 12 , 2009 ) was an american thoroughbred racehorse who defeated both male and female competitors .\nwith the headline : horse racing ; a filly at gulfstream brings good news for steinbrenner .\nwith the headline : horse racing : notebook ; go for wand captures test stakes with ease .\nreel was a thoroughbred race horse , and one of the greatest american thoroughbred broodmares in history .\nersoff has owned and bred many stakes horses , but charon also has been one of a kind for him as well as navarro .\neugene navarro passed away in hallandale , fla . nov . 27 . the longtime horseman who trained grade i winner charon was 92 .\n. strictly speaking he was not the champion horse of 1866 - but he was indeed a champion .\nbeing the obvious example . but they don ' t dominate . the best horse of the decade was undoubtedly\nmyrtlewood ( foaled 1932 in kentucky ) was a champion thoroughbred race horse as well as an exceptional broodmare .\n' ' go for wand is the champion , ' ' perret said . ' ' my filly ran her heart out , but the other filly is just a super horse . my horse had no alibis today . ' '\ndan , i would really like to see pp ' s for charon , jumron , quintana if possible taco ' s car phone . thanks , pete\ni just saw a horse go down at the finish of the santa margarita race at santa anita - i was watching on cal racing and there was no mention of the horse and rider . does anyone know what happened ? annem\ncharon , an amazing horse for the serious dressage rider and / or competitor . he just placed 3 rd at m - level in germany , equal to approximately 3 rd / 4 th level here in the states . he was also placed at 2 nd level with double bridle as well as in a jumping horse class at a level . he is training all psg movements and more .\nfor only $ 800 while she was carrying charon , ` ` said navarro . ` ` he knew something about the mare and couldn ` t resist . ` `\ngo for wand beat charon by five lengths in the ashland stakes at keeneland on april 21 and by 1 1 / 4 lengths in the mother goose at belmont on june 10 , but charon had then won the coaching club american oaks so easily in go for wand ' s absence that many felt the alabama distance might favor her .\nthe thoroughbred breeders ' association of new jersey named char - mari stables ' park avenue ball horse of the year for 2005 .\nthe race , a grade ii stakes for fillies contending for the season ' s honors , was won in the last three years by open mind , charon and withallprobability .\nwhen rice sent charon to navarro at calder he told the trainer , ` ` you ` re going to have a lot of fun with this filly , gene . ` `\n` ` right away i realized he was right , ` ` remembered navarro . ` ` i never had a horse like her .\nat the time of the alabama , no filly other than go for wand had beaten charon , but the gap between the two was enormous . future hall of fame jockey randy romero , go for wand\u2019s rider her entire career , crouched still as a statue for more than a mile before the champion began to distance herself from charon at the three - sixteenths pole .\nin this 1958 photo the winning horse in the alouette pace is l\u200ba\u200bdys lad driven by bill harvey . the winners are obscured by second place finisher jay creed ( 7 ) handled by the track ' s most famous reinsman keith waples . mighty lee was third . ( harness horse )\ncharon , who has won six times and finished second to go for wand three times in nine career starts , continued on as best she could under craig perret to hold second place as the 3 - 2 second choice . pampered star , the monmouth oaks winner and the 9 - 2 outsider today , was 28 lengths behind charon with a furlong to go and eased thereafter .\nthe distance between the winner and the runner - up would be a neck throughout the final furlong . as good as the ride was by jo sung gon , his horse gave everything to win in what was a proper horse race . bold kings was not letting anything best him today .\nin this country , a horse who should pay $ 3 . 99 for $ 2 pays off at the rate of only $ 3 . 80 for $ 2 . a person who bets $ 200 on such a horse collects $ 380 instead of $ 399 . at least in canada , the horse pays $ 3 . 90 instead of $ 3 . 80 , and the $ 200 bettor gets $ 390 instead of $ 380 .\n` ` charon is my special horse . i ` ve been in this country since 1941 , and before that i had cheap horses in cuba where i was born and grew up . my ambition was to be a self - made man . you can say i raced from maine to spain , and almost always with my own horses .\n` ` go for wand was a special horse , ` ` remembered navarro , ` ` one of the best fillies i ever saw . ` `\nbarbara l ( 1947\u20131977 ) was an american quarter horse that raced during the early 1950s and often defeated some of the best racehorses of the time .\nin addition , charon won a pair of grade ii races , the bonnie miss at gulfstream and the black eyed susan at pimlico ( by 7 1 / 4 lengths ) . and three of charon ` s 1990 losses were second - place performances in grade i encounters with the late go for wand , who subsequently lost her life when she broke down in the stretch in the breeders ` cup distaff .\ndan i would like 2 scratch ambessa pp ' s & add ongoing mister & avenging force the horse who beat king glorious if u can thanks . marc\nin 1959 blue bonnets underwent a huge renovation and rebuilding program . upon its completion a special ribbon cutting ceremony was held . from left lucien lachappele ; hugh proudfoot , c . t . a . pres . ; hon . earl rowe ; roland desjardins ; j . louis levesque , president ; eugene lajoie ; paul danserau ; gerard favreau and andre charon ( harness horse )\n( panic gb - myth ) won the victoria derby in his absence . they had to wait until the ajc st leger for a showdown , and in a two horse match\ngo for wand seized an early advantage from charon , held a narrow lead for a mile and then pulled away in the stretch to post a brilliant seven - length victory today in the $ 217 , 600 alabama stakes at saratoga race track .\n- to win the sixty sails , charon will have to outrun eight other fillies and mares in the 1 1 / 8 mile race . charon ` s main adversaries appear to be defending champion leave it be and wait for the lady . leave it be scored her third straight victory last time out in sportsman ` s lady hallie handicap . wait for the lady has won four races in a row in maryland and is coming off a five - length score in pimlico ` s grade iii snow goose handicap .\ncharon is going into the chicago circuit ` s most lucrative dirt race for damsels with a 13 - race career record of seven wins and four places . she has earnings of $ 866 , 360 , and if she wins this race it will make her a\nher dam dara has been awarded elite sport jumping horse . espridara z produced two licensed selle francais sons , vanhouten de vains ( by cacao courcelle ) and ubu du reverdy ( by allegreto ) .\nazeri ( foaled may 6 , 1998 in versailles , kentucky ) is an american hall of fame champion thoroughbred racehorse who was 2002 us horse of the year and champion older female from 2002 to 2004 .\npleasantly perfect ' s past performances are available at the bottom of this blog post . i was a fan of his as he was a true 1 1 / 4 - mile horse in an era where that sort of stamina is rare . my favorite horse from that time period was medaglia d ' oro . i felt he was the best nine - furlong horse in the country at the time while pleasantly perfect was best at 10 panels . of course , pleasantly perfect got the better of medaglia d ' oro in both the dubai world cup and breeders ' cup classic , both at 1 1 / 4 miles .\nin 1753 he won a \u00a350 maiden plate at stockton , beating the duke of cleveland ' s charon ( b c 1749 philipson ' s turk ) , and a \u00a350 purse at morpeth , beating mr shafto ' s jessamy ( ch c 1749 hutton ' s spot ) .\nwhile i am at it , the second operation of the horse for all seasons is to declare the champion horse of each racing season . . . . which is rather fun . the following table lists the champions of each season with their breeding and contains a little blurb noting their performances and any significant historical changes that took place on the turf for that year . and i get to do some coloring - in too .\nnew farm ' s homebred wild gams , a two - time stakes winner last year , has been named 2008 new jersey - bred horse of the year . wild gams also garnered honors as champion handicap female .\n\u201cyou could see the other horses really working to do what they had to do , but go for wand did everything in hand all the time , \u201d badgett said in a 1990 interview in the blood - horse .\ncharon ( usa ) ch . m , 1987 { 2 - n } dp = 2 - 1 - 5 - 0 - 2 ( 10 ) di = 1 . 22 cd = 0 . 10 - 16 starts , 7 wins , 5 places , 0 shows career earnings : $ 925 , 200\nby knight of medina * out of hard haven , charon was bred by vikram greenlands and reena singh . the bay was owned by the goyals and was trained by imtiaz sait . the trainer was back in the winners ' enclosure twice when the invitation cup was held in 1989 and 1994 at mumbai .\nclean up joy confirmed his status as seoul\u2019s top horse with victory in the capital\u2019s sunday feature but at busan , grand prix stakes winner bold kings suffered a second successive defeat as dynamic dash claimed the win in the big handicap .\nin 1754 he won the king ' s plate at newcastle , again beating charon , the great subscription at york , beating sir charles sedley ' s cadena ( ch f 1749 cade ) , walked - over for the the king ' s plate at edinburgh , and walked - over for \u00a350 at morpeth .\ndan , could you please post past performances for pleasantly perfect . for a horse that won some $ 7m in his career , i ' ve always thought he was pretty underrated . honestly , what are your thoughts on him ? paseana\nmike smith rode the winner , who carried 115 pounds . pocket streaker , also at 115 and ridden by herb mccauley , was runner - up in the five - horse field . it was another neck back to dr . carrington .\ncharon , whose sire is a stallion non - entity named mo exception , was foaled on ersoff ` s farm in florida . when rice began teaching her the abcs of racing , he quickly came to the realization that he had found a potential million dollar baby at a five - and - 10 - cent thoroughbred auction .\nhe is easy at the show grounds , loads , trailers and behaves like a pro . charon is a stunning horse for the young rider or any amateur or professional who wants to draw the attention of the onlookers at clinics and shows . with his stunning appearance and outstanding uphill gaits with tons and tons of airtime , he will for sure be remembered by the judges . barley ever will you find such an amazing horse for sale and here is your chance to buy a real special boy . he is a total gentleman all around and loves attention and his one on one time with his handler and rider . his price is subject to change with more shows as he is capable of bringing home the ribbons and he is learning really fast . take him out to shows and collect your own ribbons and have fun competing with such a wonderful horse . his age is perfect for his training and he is improving every day and goes on to be a super star under the right rider . e - mail or call right away before he is gone , he will not last !\nkincsem ( hungarian pronunciation : [ \u02c8kint\u0361\u0283\u025bm ] ; hungarian for\nmy precious\nor\nmy treasure\n; march 17 , 1874\u2013 march 17 , 1887 ) was the most successful thoroughbred race horse ever , having won 54 races for 54 starts .\nmultiple graded stakes winner wild gams has been named new jersey - bred horse of the year and champion 3 - year - old filly for 2006 . bred and owned by new farm , the daughter of forest wildcat is trained by ben perkins , jr .\nthe other aussie dean , dean holland will ride that horse but two other foreign jockeys are set to have their first rides at seoul this sunday . india\u2019s imran chisty and australian patrick keane will be in limited action with both expected to have larger books next week .\nbut you get the drift . by this method i can speculate about who is the 2yo of the year for each season in the 1880s , and by the same method who is the 3yo of the year , and the all aged horse of the year , etc .\nnine days later in the alabama , go for wand was again in top form . as she did in the ashland and mother goose , go for wand proved her superiority over the excellent filly charon , who won the coaching club american oaks by nine lengths in go for wand\u2019s absence . the only other alabama entry was monmouth oaks winner pampered star , who never factored .\nsent off as the 1 - 2 favorite under randy romero in a field of three , go for wand figured to enjoy a tactical advantage as the lone front - runner but had no cakewalk today . go for wand jumped out to a one - length early lead , but charon kept her honest and under pressure until the top of the stretch , when the better filly asserted her superiority .\ncarpaccio\u2019s first lady was bought at the top - event horse auction in germany in 2014 and imported to sa in 2016 in foal to calvaro . she was a participant in the bundeschampionate for 5 year old eventers . * * * there is a you - tube link available competing at the bundeschampinate urltoken\nthe winner of the indian 2000 guineas and indian derby had shown sait from the beginning that he had a killer instinct and an inability to tolerate another horse galloping in the front . the trainer felt that pesi shroff had ridden impeccably in the invitation cup without letting rival pacemakers ruin the race for him .\nit is sadly all too rare for us in korea to witness a truly gripping race but this year\u2019s grand prix delivered . the battle between bold kings and gumpo sky in the home straight while clean up joy and triple nine desperately tried to close , was pure thoroughbred racing drama at its best . with jockeys jo sung gon and ikuyasu kurakane both producing arguably the rides of their careers , in the end bold kings simply refused to be beaten . flat - out , the will to win he demonstrated that day makes bold kings the horse racing in korea horse of the year for 2016 . what a prospect he is for 2016 .\npower blade will on sunday seek to become the first horse to sweep the korean triple crown in its current form . the kra cup mile and korean derby winner heads a field of eight \u2013 all from busan \u2013 who will line up for the final jewel of the 2016 crown , the minister\u2019s cup at seoul racecourse .\nprogeny : silver seas by silver beacon ( f . 2014 ) 14 0 - 3 - 0 $ 15 , 575 ghost ship by romeo ( c . 2015 ) 10 2 - 3 - 1 $ 51 , 975 charon by lucifer ( c . 2016 ) 1 0 - 1 - 0 $ 4 , 375 harmlessly by bacardi ' s sword ( f . 2017 ) night sailor by night circus ( c . 2018 )\ncharon claimed the indian 2000 guineas and the ramniwas ramnarain ruia gold cup but finished an inexplicable fourth in the indian derby en route to the 1984 invitation cup . entrusted to sandy barclay in the invitation cup , he improved his position from behind to grab an opportunity along the rails in the last 100 metres and storm home . enterprising , that year ' s indian derby winner , tried hard to hold him off but succumbed by a length .\ngeorge stubbs painted the life - size portrait ( bottom ) of whistlejacket at wentworth . he was described as a\nyellow - sorrel horse with white mane and tail\nand was said to have had a nearly ungovernable temper . whilst stubbs was inspecting his progress after a session the lad who had been holding the horse led him around allowing whistlejacket to see his likeness which was apparently life - like enough to induce him to rear and strike at it . lord rockingham was said to have been so pleased with the story that he had the portrait framed and hung without further touch . george stubbs also painted the portrait ( top ) of whistlejacket with his groom simon cobb .\nit was difficult to visualise any one beating royal tern in the 1979 invitation cup . he was a local horse who had won the indian derby by eight lengths . he was bred and owned by the goculdasses , a family with a long , sporting reputation . and his regular partner was karl umrigar whose dedication and skills were already well - known .\nit ' s an excellent question . in a perfect world , you would have healthy percentages all around . i wouldn ' t invest heavily in either situation that you mentioned . if a horse has a strong win - early pedigree , but is trained by a conditioner that rarely scores first - out , i ' d stay away as the horse may be out for an experience run . i ' d also avoid a firster that boasts low - percentage bloodlines , but debuts for a high - percentage trainer . these horses are often overbet due to the connections . i wouldn ' t say i rely on one stat higher than the other . a healthy mix is just what the doctor orders in this situation .\nas well as runners from south africa , france , dubai and hong kong . he was restrained towards the rear of the field by fukunaga before moving forward in the straight . he took the lead a furlong and a half from the finish and accelerated clear to win by six and a quarter lengths from the south african horse vercingetorix with dank in third place .\n1 . chang se ( kor ) [ forest camp \u2013 daecheonpung ( fiercely ) ] \u2013 lee chan ho \u2013 1 . 8 , 1 . 1 2 . smart time ( kor ) [ ft . stokton \u2013 charon ( jade robbery ) ] \u2013 ham wan sik \u2013 2 . 3 3 . meni money ( kor ) [ menifee \u2013 pocketful of money ( running stag ) ] \u2013 moon se young \u2013 1 . 4 distances : 1 . 75 lengths / 1 length \u2013 10 ran\n1 . meni money ( kor ) [ menifee \u2013 pocketful of money ( running stag ) ] \u2013 seo seung un \u2013 3 . 1 , 1 . 4 2 . smart time ( kor ) [ ft . stockton \u2013 charon ( jade robbery ) ] \u2013 park eul woon \u2013 1 . 5 3 . lucky music ( kor ) [ creek cat \u2013 dangdae jeil ( lucky ruler ) ] \u2013 choi bum hyun \u2013 3 . 1 distances : 0 . 5 lengths / 2 lengths \u2013 11 ran\nchoegang schiller provided the standout moment of summer , claiming victory for korea in the asia challenge cup , beating last year\u2019s winner , singapore\u2019s el padrino into 2nd . that alone is enough to make him our older horse of the year . on the same day , chief red can won the kra cup classic while honourable mention goes to gumpo sky , 2nd in the grand prix .\nthe race was the third meeting between the nation ' s two best 3 - year - old fillies , and go for wand won decisively for the third time . her victory today in stakes - record time stamped her as one of the best 3 - year - old fillies in recent racing history and advanced her cause as a long - shot candidate for horse of the year honors .\nsteinlen , last year ' s champion grass horse , will carry top weight of 126 pounds against wanderkin ( 116 ) , river of sin ( 115 ) , foreign survivor ( 115 ) , green book ( 112 ) and who ' s to pay ( 110 ) . steinlen , who won last year ' s baruch , is tuning up for the arlington million on sept . 2 .\nshroff kept exhilaration in the middle of the field for a good bit of the way before positioning the horse neatly along the rails at the 200 metre marker for holding off a determined bid by mick kinane on northern star . while veteran shammu chavan felt that this kind of positioning was ideal for the track another ace jockey of old , the late pandu khade , held a different view .\n\u200bduane hanover appears in the blue bonnets winner ' s circle with a host of guests . from left : lucien bombardier ; haughton ; co - owners mr . and mrs . karl ; eugene lajoie of blue bonnets ; rene chartrand and co - owner francois seremba . take note of the gigantic sunday afternoon crowd on hand to witness this record - setting event . ( harness horse ) \u200b\n\u200b many young drivers started their careers at bb as grooms and later graduated to the driving ranks . the above photo shows a happy memory for a then very young denis larochelle as he is joined by friends in the winner ' s circle . the winning horse was jeff protector , owned by his driver who hailed from sorel , quebec . take note of the hand written information on the photo .\nbarry irwin was introduced to racing here by team valor member joe dallao and while he hadn\u2019t had the best of luck with either chastity or his other korean horse , a hawk wing gelding named swoop , he maintained his interest and now those famous crimson and forest green silks have come in front in yet another country . a very welcome presence in korean racing , hopefully it will be the first of many .\n5 . clean up joy ( usa ) 5 g [ purge \u2013 greta\u2019s joy ( joyeax danseur ) ] ( 17 / 9 / 5 / 1 ) st shim \u2013 ham wan sik seoul\u2019s best horse , he is three for three since finishing 3rd in the grand prix nehind bold kings and gumpo sky last december . he usually settles towards the rear of the field and has a strong finish . he can win this .\nowner : stanley m . ersoff breeder : stanley m . ersoff state bred : fl winnings : 16 starts : 7 - 5 - 0 , $ 925 , 200 won coaching club american oaks ( g1 ) , black - eyed susan stakes ( g2 ) , rampart handicap ( g2 ) , bonnie miss stakes ( g2 ) , forward gal stakes ( g3 ) ; 2nd mother goose s ( g1 ) , alabama s ( g1 ) , ashland s ( g1 ) . dam double wiggle purchased for $ 800 in foal with charon . sent to japan . ( close )\n1 . pinot noir ( kor ) [ capital spending \u2013 neungnyeokchungman ] \u2013 park eul woon \u2013 1 . 3 , 1 . 1 2 . x file ( kor ) [ exploit \u2013 dorothy dee ] - kim dong soo \u2013 1 . 7 3 . smart time ( kor ) [ ft . stockton \u2013 charon ] \u2013 djordje perovic \u2013 1 . 6 distances : 2 . 5 lengths / neck also ran : 4 . lucky music 5 . meni money 6 . pureun geotap 7 . argo asset 8 . space shuttle 9 . punggwae 10 . shine clover 11 . queen\u2019s win\ncharon ' s nine - length romp in the c . c . a . oaks at belmont on sunday was neither the richest nor lengthiest triumph of the day in a triple crown race . half an hour later at woodbine near tonronto , a 3 - year - old son of icecapade named izvestia scored a 13 - length victory in the queen ' s plate , the first leg of the canadian triple crown for candian - bred horses . the winner earned $ 235 , 200 , according to the race chart , ' ' plus 50 guineas , the gift of her majesty , the queen . ' '\nfinally , south african breeding gained a win courtesy of variety club \u2013 horse of the year , champion three - year - old and champion middle distance horse in south africa for 2011 - 2012 \u2013 who took the godolphin mile ( gr . ii ) . variety club is by forest wildcat\u2019s prix de l\u2019abbaye de longchamp ( gr . i ) victor , var , who is now a standout sire in south africa . the dam is by woodman\u2019s brother , secret prospector , out of a mare by el gran senor\u2019s brother , northern guest , and is a three - quarters sister to secret prospector\u2019s grade one winner secret rites . the third dam is south african oaks ( gr . i ) heroine novenna , who is a daughter of hobnob ( by gyr , by sea - bird ii , a branch of native dancer ) , and is one of the very few horses who we have seen inbred to federico tesio\u2019s good son of dante , toulouse lautrec . oddly enough , this ties into variety club\u2019s family which arrived in south africa from italy during wwii in the shape of jinnipet , who was by tesio\u2019s star , cavaliere d\u2019arpino ( who in his lifetime tesio claimed to be the best horse he had bred ) , out of a mare by tesio\u2019s italy derby winner , michelangelo ( who has a son in the pedigree of toulouse lautrec , who we said was doubled here ) .\ngo for wand , owned by jane dupont lunger ' s christiana stable and trained by billy badgett , paid $ 4 . 40 for $ 2 to win as the favorite . go for wand , last year ' s champion 2 - year - old filly , was making her first start since winning the mother goose at belmont on june 10 . she missed the july 8 coaching club american oaks with a slight cough , but is over that . the only question now is whether the test took too much out of her for her to stretch out to a mile and a quarter against charon in the alabama nine days hence .\nfrom 1920 on i think i have enough info to put the contenders up . some years are straightforward , others have maybe 2 or 3 genuine contenders or occasionally more , while in other years the most likely horse is one nobody would remember or know much about . i have to put it into words worth reading for a different generation being part of the challenge . the hotys from those days need to be recognised officially , but that ' s possible too i think .\nit seemed old warrior ( new warrior gb - anne laurie ) , the 1869 melbourne cup winner had inherited the laurels winning wfa races at randwick and flemington in the spring with nothing much coming through the ranks . john tait ' s the pearl ( new warrior gb - ida ) won the melbourne cup at 100 / 1 , and for a time it seemed the most promising horse on the turf was the grey 3 / 4 arab pony saladin ( pegasus arab gb - nutleaf .\nthis coming sunday , a little bit of korean racing history is up for grabs as kra cup mile and korean derby winner power blade returns to seoul looking to win the minister\u2019s cup and become the first winner of the korean triple crown in its current form . not a single seoul horse is set to compete so power blade will be up against seven other visitors from busan including stablemate and korean oaks winner ottug ottugi in the 2000m race . full previews of the race to follow .\nthis is the first of a few year - end posts over the next week . we\u2019ll look at breeding , betting , and the foreign jockeys and trainers , as well as racing in general . we\u2019ll start with the honours though and while there are many ways to to do horse of the year , the bottom line is , it\u2019s my blog , so it\u2019s my choice ! keeping it simple this year so just nine categories and in all honesty , there are standouts in each one .\nhe was by riyahi ( ire ) out of baroque pearl ( fr ) and was bred , for record ' s sake , by talegaon stud at the poonawalla farms . the bay khaitan - owned horse ' s potential was apparent early but he really shot to prominence in the indian 2000 guineas . the way he won by eight lengths had maj . nargolkar writing ,\nit was a performance fit to rank with the vintage indian 2000 guineas victories of alijah , enrico and exhilaration .\ntangiers ( c by vibrant ( gb ) ) . 15 wins 1000 to 1400 m . and $ 117 , 700 won watc roma cup g3 , watc roma cup g3 , watc belmont sprint l , watc charon welter h . , watc city of perth welter , watc morphettville graduation s . , watc shamrock graduation s . 2nd watc taimac quality s . , watc seltrust cup , watc lions international welter h . , watc welter h . , watc extol graduation s . , watc cyril flower sprint h . 3rd watc belmont sprint g3 , watc welter h . , watc wellington h . , watc debonair graduation s . , watc hennessy graduation s .\n\u200b one of the most accomplished and well - liked participants of this era was a gentleman named benoit cote . he was loved by the fans and held in high esteem by his fellow horsemen . in the above photo from may 18 , 1958 he is shown in the winner ' s circle following a victory by meadow bower in the mount royal pace . in the photo from left to right are owners mr . and mrs . roland marquis and bb race secretary lucien bombardier ( harness horse )\nthe two premier sprint events were annexed by hong kong - trained australian - breds . winner of golden shaheen ( gr . i ) was sterling city ( truenicks a + + ) . he is by darley\u2019s redoute\u2019s choice son , nadeem , who was co - highweight at two in australia after winning the vrc blue diamond stakes ( gr . i ) . nadeem\u2019s oldest crop are now five - year - olds , and his first two crops produced nine stakes winners , seven graded . there were only 22 foals in his third crop , but 57 in his fourth , and he\u2019s a horse who could bear watching . sterling city\u2019s dam , so gorgeous ( by the irish river horse , brief truce ) was a four - time graded winner and is also dam of grade two scorer tipungwuti ( by fusaichi pegasus ) . the fifth dam is the australian foundation mare , denise\u2019s joy , and this is the same branch as new zealand sire standout thorn park , grade one winning sprinter bentley biscuit , and young sire stryker to name but a few .\nin a rare show of appreciation for people not often credited for their role in racing two veteran trackmen were honoured for their work in having the racecourse in such remarkable shape . a donation was made by the united horsemen of canada assoc . to these two gentlemen . from left : laurent bourgon , u . h . c . president presents a cheque to ernest tobin while treasurer sebastien brisson on the right makes an identical donation to alf bergeron . francois lebeouf , a leading driver appears in the centre . ( harness horse )\nthe two mile dubai gold cup ( gr . ii ) saw a pair of sons of halling ( by diesis , and himself a 10 furlong performer ) fight out the decision , certerach getting the verdict by a neck over cavalryman . ceterach is one of two stakes winners by halling out of from the danehill line , his dam being chartres , an irish stakes winner by that horse ( of course , typically for a sharpen up line horse , halling has done well with danzig in general , getting 13 stakes winners , seven group / graded ) . the second dam , gothic dream ( by nashwan ) was second in the 12 furlong ribblesdale stakes ( gr . ii ) , and has significant descendents at either end of the distance scale as she is also dam of the stakes winner and irish st . leger ( gr . i ) runner - up pugin , and granddam of the very speedy two - year - old and now young sire , lilbourne lad . the third dam is the irish st . leger ( gr . i ) victress dark lomond .\nbind , an impressive debut winner at fair grounds on february 19 , is listed as the 2 - 5 morning line favorite in saturday ' s third race at fair grounds , an entry - level optional claimer at 1 mile and 70 yards . bind is not yet nominated to the triple crown series , but another big performance may have al stall thinking about bigger pots . i ' m guessing , as of now , that he ' ll remain very patient with this promising horse . he ' s one to watch in races like the travers .\nchoinma has raced once as a three - year - old already , surprisingly beaten into 2 nd in his first try around two turns at 1700m in january but he is still very much in the hunt . neither he nor gaon champ are front - runners so the early pace will most likely be set by mask and sinui myeongryeong , both good prospects themselves , while sharp kaylan too looks a better horse than he was when beaten by gaon champ in december \u2013 since then he\u2019s won two in a row by six and four - lengths respectively .\ntalib died a few days before loyal prince clashed with thunder storm in the indian derby . rahimtoola reported that loyal prince went off his feed and started losing condition . the horse ran third behind thunder storm and look out . rahimtoola wrote ,\nthat he had been missing his master ' s presence in the stable and the visit to his stall every evening to speak a few soothing words and enquire about his health , was soon proved .\nloyal prince returned to form in the invitation cup , winning the event from thunder storm and lucky pair .\nas the late k . sundar rajan of the hindu wrote in the newspaper ' s sister publication sportstar , lahori ,\ndid not believe that ted mcgaffin had ridden him ( mount everest ) properly . he wouldn ' t say openly that ted ' pulled ' his horse . but that he didn ' t ride to win was evident from lahori ' s talk . naturally this exasperated ted the game ' s greatest gentleman . he preferred not to ride him any more . but he was later persuaded to ride mount everest ( in the invitation cup ) .\nkhade felt that a jockey must always be within one or two lengths of the fancied horse while racing in the long straights that mark the mahalaxmi course . he asserted that if the yet - to - become - world - famous kinane had kept northern star close to exhilaration at the beginning of the 550 metre - long home stretch instead of being a little away , he might have pulled it off . what khade - and for that matter , everyone - did not anticipate then was the discovery of a banned substance in northern star ' s post - race sample and his subsequent disqualification .\nhg224 winning bet ( steve t ) # 8 dubai you xyz is going to be one tough cookie for a while to come and he is improving with every race . he is impervious to jostling , bumping and being in tight , comes with a killer rush at the end and this guy can run all day on turf . i will use # 7 bogie to fill the exacta ; he has always been a very good turfer and i think he is a different horse off the layoff and this will be his 2nd off of that layoff . handingambling bet : $ 100 exacta # 8 dubai you xyz / # 7 bogie\nthe table also demonstrates how the foundation races of the australian calendar came to be introduced during the decade of the 1860 ' s . the mimicking of the english classics is evident and the all aged wfa races were based on the model of the queens plate . queen ' s plates were run all over the empire according to rules laid down by the imperial master of the horse that describe a race of no less than 2 miles ( preferably three ) run at set weights as stand alone contests . heats were not permitted . racing in heats was standard practice in australia for much of the first half of the 19th century .\n\u200b in 1958 as a three - year - old , a young trotting colt named homestead dan put on quite a show for the fans at bb and also richelieu park . the son of tim hanover - fannie was bred and owned by osler burrison of rice lake . here he is being shown off by his trainer and driver jack gordon ( right ) to an admiring bill habkirk , both long - time participants at bb . in 1958 , homestead dan won 14 of 28 starts and also had three seconds and seven thirds . his season ' s mark of 2 : 06h was amazing for the times ( harness horse )\nthe al quoz sprint ( gr . i ) was won by amber sky , who is by exceed and excel , a danehill son who has come through as an absolutely outstanding speed sire . out of grade two winning and grade one placed truly wicked ( by rubiton , from the my babu / tourbillon line via better boy and century ) , amber sky is truenicks rated a + + , the cross of exceed and excel with century line mares have produced two stakes winners and a stakes placed horse from only 12 runners . the second dam , by roberto\u2019s good son , at talaq is a sister to graded scorer dizzy lass .\nafter fisherman ' s death and the dispersal of maribyrnong hurtle fisher continued to race horses and came up with another crack in charon . he was by ferryman ( fisherman gb - rose de florence gb ) from the great brood mare juliet gb and in the spring of 1869 he won the ajc derby , the vrc derby , the vrc all aged stakes and defeated the melbourne cup winner warrior in the queens plate . in the autumn , however , just two days before the st leger he collapsed during trackwork at flemington and died . . the barb had retired to stud but his younger sister barbelle and brother barbarian carried on in his place . barbelle lead all the way to win the doncaster handicap and repeated her effort to lead all the way to win the sydney cup . she would also distinguish herself in latter seasons by winning three successive editions of the vrc flying stakes\n1957 : \u200bthree leading drivers at blue bonnets raceway . the curtain was drawn on the harness racing season in montreal monday night , november 11th , with the closing of a very successful fall meeting at blue bonnets raceway and substantial cheques were received by the three leading drivers . the presentation was made by racing secretary lucien bombardier ( left ) and controller rolland desjardins . the happy winners were ( from left to right ) marc gingras with 27 victories , percy robillard with 22 and harold mckinley with 18 . for marc gingras , twenty - seven year old french - canadian born in st . jerome . quebec , this championship was the first of a promising career . \u200b ( harness horse ) \u200b\n7 . power blade ( kor ) [ menifee \u2013 cheonmacheong ( lost mountain ) ] ( 8 / 6 / 2 / 0 ) young kwan kim \u2013 kim yong geun he is the favourite and even visually , looks superior . unbeaten since losing to ottug ottugi in busan\u2019s champion juvenile race last autumn , he was a facile winner of both the cup mile and derby . at the derby , jockey kim young geun defied instructions in the rain and took him to the front right from the gate . it paid off . it\u2019s most likely he will let ottug ottugi lead here but if power blade is at anything like his best , he completes the triple crown . there is little downside to this horse .\nthe new york series overtook an older , less formal filly triple that roughly corresponded to the colts ' three big spring races : the kentucky oaks at churchill downs , the black - eyed susan at pimlico and the c . c . a . oaks at belmont . the problem this year was that the first two legs of the old series attracted fillies away from the first leg of the new one . go for wand , the queen of the division , ran in the kentucky oaks at a mile and eighth on may 4 . rather than drop her back to a one - turn one - mile in the acorn on may 26 , her camp passed the race and went into the mother goose on june 10 . charon , who can beat any filly except go for wand , ducked her nemesis in the kentucky oaks and went into the black - eyed susan . rather than run back in the acorn just eight days later , she too waited until the mother goose .\nthe dubai duty free ( gr . i ) and dubai sheema classic ( gr . i ) , both went to japanese - bred runners . the former fell to just a way ( truenicks a + ) , who is the only grade one winner for his sire heart\u2019s cry , a two - time champion by sunday silenc e . the dam , sibyl , was imported into japan in utero , and is by wild again out of the off - bred mare charon ( by the little - known mo exception , from a branch of the tudor minstrel branch of hyperion ) , heroine of five graded stakes including the cca oaks ( gr . i ) and black - eyed susan stakes ( gr . ii ) . this is a pedigree that has an unusual amount of hyperion / nearco combinations in the center , and we\u2019ll note the wild again\u2019s son , wild rush , sired grade one winner transcend and grade three scorer courir passion out of mares by heart\u2019s cry\u2019s broodmare sire , tony bin , so the formula seems to work .\ndan some questions . is there a place on the drf website where i can find the full conditions for the race for the entries ? today , wednesday , under the drf entries tab , the 7th at gp is listed as a $ 25 , 000 open race , when it is really open only to non winners of three lifetime and a claiming price of $ 30 , 000 to $ 25 , 000 . i guess i just get too excited when there is a truly open , no conditions , allowance or high class claimer . quite often in your analyses you will mention that a horse was a vet scratch on such and such a date . where do you get that information ? if it isn ' t your own records can i get it also ? ron zuercher\n* * * sorry if this has been asked and answered recently , but i have trouble visiting this blog as much as i ' d like : what are al stall ' s plans for bind ? did i miss a non - winners of 1 other than allowance score or has it not happened yet ? my guess ( and it ' s just a guess ) would be the derby trial might be in his future . any thoughts on the chance of that ? i watched his maiden score ( and cashed a nice pick 4 by singling him ) and was truly amazed . horses just don ' t go 1 : 08 and 4 at the fairgrounds very often , especially not maidens . i think the sky is the limit for this horse and we all know that stall will take his time with him raitchjay\ni always wondered where thebarton was . i just did the profile of richmond ( hoy1876 ) and didn ' t realize that he wona couple of features in adelaide as a 7yo . . . but at ' the old course ' , which i think is victoria park , not thebarton . . . otherwise he would have had a street named after him . they have done the same thing on the site of the old epsom track . i used to go there and watch manikato work . only horse i ever got out of bed that early for . now the main drag of the housing estate is named after him . when epsom closed as a training track in the 1990 ' s it really brought home to me that closing a race track is really breaking up a community . it was really rather sad .\nit is a great article about alysheba . look at how many grade 1 ' s at a mile and a quarter this horse took down . but most of all , he was a stud and legend in his own mind . . . . one of the proudest horses on whom i ' ve ever laid eyes . i was privileged to spend some time with him at monmouth and he was unbelievable in the post parade for the iselin . to this day i have a picture of him on the wall . he was truly spectacular . most interesting of all , van berg raced him without lasix at the iselin , just to prove he could win without it . could you imagine a trainer taking that kind of stand now ? dan , would you please be so kind as to post his pp ' s ? tbta\ntontonan wrote : i always wondered where thebarton was . i just did the profile of richmond ( hoy1876 ) and didn ' t realize that he wona couple of features in adelaide as a 7yo . . . but at ' the old course ' , which i think is victoria park , not thebarton . . . otherwise he would have had a street named after him . they have done the same thing on the site of the old epsom track . i used to go there and watch manikato work . only horse i ever got out of bed that early for . now the main drag of the housing estate is named after him . when epsom closed as a training track in the 1990 ' s it really brought home to me that closing a race track is really breaking up a community . it was really rather sad .\nthe barb ' s 5yo season was awesome . he was undefeated in 7 starts , winning an epic battle with tim whiffler in the great metropolitan with both horses under 61 . 5kg , then accounting for him easily in the craven plate . strategically scratched from the melbourne cup to leave the race for glencoe , the barb walked over for the royal park stakes when no horse would oppose him . on new years day he won the 3 miler for the third year in succession ( defeating glencoe ) and was supreme in the sydney cup carrying 10 . 8 ( 66kg ) - a record that stands to this day - and ending his career with victory in the queens plate . the last crop of fisherman contested the classics this season with the filly my dream ( fisherman - nightlight ) repeating sea gull ' s double , winning the derby and the oaks ."]}
{"id": 2478, "summary": [{"text": "assassin ( 1779 \u2013 c. 1794 ) was a thoroughbred racehorse that won the 1782 epsom derby .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "his breeder , lord egremont , won the derby for the first time with assassin .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "assassin raced until he was a five-year-old and was retired to egremont 's stud in petworth .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "he was not a successful sire . ", "topic": 7}], "title": "assassin ( horse )", "paragraphs": ["for everything you need to know about horse racing . free horse racing tips from professional punters and betting secrets to increase your horse racing profits .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for effective assassin . effective assassin is a mare born in 2012 august 1 by masked assassin out of effectively\nthe ig - 88 assassin droid was a model of assassin droid . ig - 88 was an independently programmed ig - 88 assassin droid who became a feared bounty hunter .\nlegal assassin was sired by king ivor out of the dam shaolin legal assassin was foaled on 28 of october in 2004 .\nskilled assassin was sired by skilled out of the dam look jonathan skilled assassin was foaled on 08 of september in 2013 .\nchief assassin was sired by chief bearhart out of the dam vuma chief assassin was foaled on 23 of august in 2002 .\nlegal assassin has a 0 % win percentage and 0 % place percentage . legal assassin ' s last race event was at emerald .\nskilled assassin has a 5 % win percentage and 53 % place percentage . skilled assassin ' s last race event was at mildura .\ngrey assassin was sired by bradbury ' s luck out of the dam annunciation grey assassin was foaled on 21 of september in 2010 .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for skilled assassin . skilled assassin is a gelding born in 2013 september 8 by skilled out of look jonathan\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for masked assassin . masked assassin is a stallion born in 2004 october 10 by danzero out of duk duk\ngrey assassin has a 10 % win percentage and 40 % place percentage . grey assassin ' s last race event was at sunshine coast .\nchief assassin has a 0 % win percentage and 10 % place percentage . chief assassin ' s last race event was at st arnaud .\nlegal assassin is a 12 year old bay gelding . legal assassin is trained by dallas hodge , at rockhampton and owned by b j benton .\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for friars assassin . friars assassin is a gelding born in 2013 september 12 by blackfriars out of satan ' s park\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for reckless assassin . reckless assassin is a mare born in 2009 september 1 by redoute ' s choice out of brackloon\nall the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for rhode assassin . rhode assassin is a gelding born in 2012 september 7 by lookin at lucky out of rhode island red\nowner of her sire snap . assassin wa . . . . . . 1781 : two - year - old season assassin ' s derby win was\n: four - year - old season . . . . . . 1782 assassin\nmorton was to say that \u201call the . . . . . . 1782 assassin\nassassin ' s creed iv : black flag and assassin ' s creed : rogue are the only main games thus far where horses do not appear in any form .\nthe horse and carriage were equally common modes of transportation , and indispensable for the assassin order from the third crusade until the renaissance . [ 5 ] [ 6 ]\nin the first memory of alta\u00efr within assassin ' s creed : revelations , a horse is seen on the ground , dead , with arrows sticking out of it .\n. this filly died before two - years . . . . . . 1782 assassin\nthe stables at the tiber island headquarters always feature a white horse and a destrier .\ngrand parade was the first black horse for 106 years to win the epsom derby .\nin assassin ' s creed ii , if ezio ' s horse falls over after galloping through several groups of people , it is possible for him to lose health or even die .\nrogue assassin has concluded his racing career , last running on the 9th aug 2009 at cranbourne .\nwinged assassin has concluded his racing career , last running on the 9th dec 2013 at terang .\ndark assassin has concluded his racing career , last running on the 16th apr 2014 at balaklava .\nin the summer of 1948 my love became the third french - trained horse to win the epsom derby and the fifth horse to win both the derby and the grand prix de paris .\nhowever , while an assassin ' s horse could outrun any pursuer and leap over most obstacles , a single sword strike could trip it and send its rider into the ground . [ 5 ]\ndark assassin has managed to win 4 races in his career so far . on 25th sep 2013 at murray bridge , dark assassin scored his most significant win to date , getting the money in the\napprentices called by ezio sometimes finds a nearby horse and ride off after having assassinated their targets .\ndick hern called nashwan\nthe best horse i ' ve ever trained\n. [ 3 ]\nbunbury ' s orlando . [ 5 ] as the tw . . . . . . 1782 assassin\na mysterious horse wreathed in flames , spewing smoke and ashes , its eyes ablaze with reddish light .\npearl diver became the first french - trained horse to win the epsom derby since durbar in 1914 .\nnow moody is determined to add as much black type to masked assassin ' s pedigree as he can .\nsteady , fast , and responsive to the lightest touch , this horse is an arrow in animal form .\nlegal assassin ' s exposed form for its last starts is 4 - 5 - 9 - 0 - 0 .\nskilled assassin ' s exposed form for its last starts is 4 - 4 - 4 - 3 - 2 .\ngrey assassin is a 6 year old grey or brown gelding . grey assassin is trained by l f birchley , at eagle farm and owned by e d giacobone , m g hole , b hole & r j bax .\ngrey assassin ' s exposed form for its last starts is 7 - 7 - 8 - 4 - 7 .\nchief assassin ' s exposed form for its last starts is 6 - 7 - 0 - 0 - 4 .\n. . . by ( 1782 ) assassin ( 1779 \u2013 c . 1794 ) was a thoroughbred racehorse that won\nskilled assassin is a 4 year old brown gelding . skilled assassin is trained by c v kelly , at swan hill and owned by c v & n d kelly , g w curthoys , g d & e m williams .\nduke of grafton ' s colt puzzle in a . . . . . . ssin . assassin did not win again as a two - year - old . [ 4 ] assassin was second to plutus in a subscription race at\noutfitted with snakeskin saddle and tack , this tusk - toting horse stirs fear into the hearts of your enemies .\nhorse of kings and king among horses , this beast is considered one of the finest in all of egypt .\nterimon , second to nashwan at 500 / 1 , is the longest - priced horse placed in any classic .\nlegal assassin career form is wins , seconds , thirds from 6 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ .\nfor some reason , the amount of enemy guards riding destriers noticeably decrease if ezio is riding that kind of horse .\njumping from a horse onto a beam 20 times is a requirement for the completion of the roman thieves guild challenges .\nthe original winner running rein was disqualified as he was actually an ineligible four - year - old horse named maccabeus .\nthe current race record for skilled assassin is 1 wins from 19 starts with prizemoney of $ 40 , 469 . 00 .\nthe current race record for effective assassin is 1 wins from 26 starts with prizemoney of $ 32 , 715 . 00 .\nlegal assassin\u2019s last race event was at 22 / 12 / 2007 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nskilled assassin\u2019s last race event was at 09 / 07 / 2018 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\ngrey assassin\u2019s last race event was at 19 / 07 / 2015 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nchief assassin\u2019s last race event was at 28 / 10 / 2006 and it has not been nominated for any upcoming race .\nchief assassin career form is wins , seconds , 1 thirds from 10 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ .\nthe current race record for rhode assassin is 1 wins from 27 starts with prizemoney of $ 574 , 580 . 00 .\nrogue assassin is yet to break his maiden status , having not won a race yet from 1 attempt . during his most recent race at cranbourne on 9th aug 2009 , rogue assassin was ridden by chris symons and finished 3rd , behind the winner sophrosyne .\nwinged assassin is yet to break his maiden status , having not won a race yet from 3 attempts . during his most recent race at terang on 9th dec 2013 , winged assassin was ridden by linda meech and finished unplaced , behind the winner devotive .\nsinndar is the first horse to capture the derby , irish derby and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe in the same season .\nchief assassin is a 14 year old chestnut gelding . chief assassin is trained by w p cerchi , at colac and owned by a d & r d spring , j j & l p kaine , g w dickinson & c r & j r de grandi .\napril the fifth was a very popular winner and the first epsom - trained horse to win the derby since amato in 1838 .\nmasked assassin ' s last win was in the group 2 qtc sires produce nearly two years ago when he was a two year old .\nwith masked assassin ' s stud career in mind , moody is planning for him to head north or west in search of new challenges .\nthe standard horse , or jennet , [ 2 ] was mostly found in the centro and vaticano districts , and they were usually ridden by civilians . coincidentally , this horse was the fastest of the three breeds , despite being the weakest for combat . [ 1 ]\nlone wolf and cub volume 4 : bell warden : bell warden v . 4 ( lone wolf and cub ( dark horse ) )\nlone wolf and cub volume 5 : black wind : black wind v . 5 ( lone wolf and cub ( dark horse ) )\nreference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]\nin assassin ' s creed , horses taken from within the kingdom have a tendency to abruptly change color when passing from one region to another .\ngrey assassin career form is 1 wins , 3 seconds , thirds from 10 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ 13 , 975 .\nnamed for her great strength , this horse is a veteran of many battles . her unblemished coat is a testament to her martial skill .\nlone wolf and cub volume 2 : the gateless barrier : gateless barrier v . 2 ( lone wolf and cub ( dark horse ) )\nnijinsky became the 15th horse to gain the triple crown after winning the derby and 2000 guineas with success in the st leger at doncaster .\neuropean colonizers , unknowingly , reintroduced the horse in north america . during the 18th century , horses were used to drive wagons or carriages for transporting shipments and people . in revolutionary america , peddlers also equipped horse - driven wagons to sell goods in the frontier . [ 7 ] by the mid - 18th century , horse - driven carriages were used as a mobile transport system for people , especially for nobles . [ 8 ]\nskilled assassin career form is 1 wins , 3 seconds , 6 thirds from 19 starts with a lifetime career prize money of $ 39 , 749 .\nrider dwayne dunn took the initiative by leading on masked assassin , which proved impossible to run down although chasm had a very good try at it .\nthe seventh stallion foaled by a mare of magnificent pedigree . rumor has it that julius caesar declined this gift horse after looking it in the mouth\nlone wolf and cub volume 11 : talisman of hades : talisman of hades v . 11 ( lone wolf and cub ( dark horse ) )\nwhat happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows\ndr devious is the first horse to win the derby after contesting the kentucky derby , in which he had finished seventh to lil e tee .\nsame meeting , [ 4 ] and was second to . . . . . . sister one to true blue assassin was distantly inbred 4 x 4 to\nmasked assassin had too big a break and showed courage to hold off chasm by a neck , with falaise rattling home for third , 1\u00bd lengths away .\nat the end of the season , champion was described by the sporting magazine as\na horse of uncommon speed and powers .\n[ 4 ]\nlone wolf and cub volume 6 : lanterns for the dead : lanterns for the dead v . 6 ( lone wolf and cub ( dark horse ) )\nphil drake ran five times and won three races , becoming the fifth and last horse to win both the epsom derby and the grand prix de paris .\nin assassin ' s creed , the only horses shown inside a city are during the cutscene of richard i exiting on horseback with his caravan from the acre citadel .\nhorses are only used by guards in assassin ' s creed ii during one mission ,\nromagna holiday\n, wherein they attack leonardo da vinci ' s carriage .\nnews anchor cecilie beck presented a segment about the conflict in the middle eastern country while sitting in front of a picture taken from adventure game assassin ' s creed .\nthough horses could easily plow through crowds , pulling the horse into a rear would normally startle nearby civilians , clearing a path in the process . [ 5 ]\nlone wolf and cub volume 1 : the assassin ' s road ( lone wol . . . and over 2 million other books are available for amazon kindle . learn more\nsanta claus won the irish 2 , 000 guineas , the epsom derby and the irish derby . his performances earned him the title of british horse of the year .\npont l\u2019eveque was a very late foal , born at the end of the breeding season on 25 may , making him probably the youngest horse to win the derby .\ndark horse comics is proud to present one of the authentic landmarks in graphic fiction , lone wolf and cub , to be published in its entirety for the first time . lone wolf and cub is an epic samurai adventure of staggering proportions - - a 17th century story of a disgraced shogun ' s executioner wandering the country as an assassin .\nlone wolf and cub volume 3 : the flute of the fallen tiger : flute of the fallen tiger v . 3 ( lone wolf and cub ( dark horse ) )\na young horse , changeover started his siring career in new zealand before being sold for big money to australian interests , buoyed by the results ' across the ditch . '\nassassin ( gb ) b . h , 1779 { 3 - a } dp = 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 ( 0 ) di = inf cd = inf\nin assassin ' s creed iii , full synchronization of the memory\nbattle of bunker hill\nrequires connor to air assassinate john pitcairn , who is on horseback at the time .\n: four - year - old season . . . . . . . on 9 may at epsom , assassin won the derby , beating lord grosvenor ' s colt sweet robin and\nmahmoud was a light - coloured grey horse of distinctly arab appearance , standing just under 15 . 3 hands high , and bred in france by his owner the aga khan .\nassassin ' s creed : syndicate is the first game in which rideable horses can be killed , dying to three to six shots to the body , or one shot to the head .\nit is thought the image is from the first game in the assassin ' s creed series when the action is set in historic damascus , as well as other parts of the middle east .\nthe peter moody trained masked assassin ran right up to his best form with a strong all the way win in the group iii mary martin victoria handicap ( 1400m ) at caulfield on saturday .\nsince being nursed back to health by staff at the owners canning downs stud , masked assassin has shown he is approaching peak form with placings behind cocinero and el mandon at recent caulfield meetings .\nany worthwhile mercenary will know the value of a reliable , trained horse . riding an animal that startles on the battlefield or loses speed quickly is a risk we will not take .\nduring the ptolemaic dynasty of egypt , the greeks brought horse racing to the country which were commonly held in hippodromes , such as the one near lageion in the kanopos nome . [ 4 ]\nking richard ' s horse resembles the destrier , albeit with less or no armor plates in it . while robert ' s was a destrier , being equipped with some armor plates and chainmail .\nreference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]\nin assassin ' s creed : unity , horses can be seen hitched to carriages in versailles in the beginning of the game and later in front of the caf\u00e9 th\u00e9\u00e2tre . just like revelations , they cannot be ridden .\non both monday and tuesday , busch , the 2004 nascar cup champion known as ' ' the outlaw ' , ' said he still believes driscoll is a trained assassin , despite some of his doubts and questioning by friends .\ni actually have the complete kazuo koike & goseki kojima collection , including all of path of the assassin ( 1 - 10 ) and samurai executioner ( 1 - 10 ) , but the twist in lone wolf & . . .\n1782 epsom derby . his breeder , lord . . . . . . od at oxcrofts farm near balsham . [ 1 ] assassin ' s dam , angelica , was foaled in 1761 and was breed by mr . shafto ,\nshahrastani holds off the strong late challenge of dancing brave in a memorable finish . bold arrangement becomes the first horse to contest both the kentucky derby and derby , finishing second at churchill downs to ferdinand and 14th at epsom .\nchampion was sold as a prospective stallion to colonel lumm [ 18 ] who took the horse to ireland . [ 19 ] he had limited success as a sire of racehorses but did sire two good broodmares . [ 20 ]\nkim jong nam\u2019s purported assassin , identified as 28 - year - old doan thin hoang , was taken into police custody at kuala lumpur international airport after she was caught on a surveillance camera affixed to a taxi stand outside the departure terminal .\nin assassin ' s creed : revelations , the only times horses are encountered are during the carriage missions , the memories of alta\u00efr , and a cutscene in the memory\nend of the road\n. these horses are not rideable , however .\ndriscoll ' s alleged background as a trained assassin who had experience killing drug lords via long - range sniper rifles and close combat tactics \u2013 including the use of knives and poison \u2013 became a major talking point during the latter stages of the hearing .\nin their book\na century of champions\n, john randall and tony morris rated windsor lad the nineteenth best horse of the 20th century and the sixth best derby winner , behind sea bird , hyperion , mill reef , nijinsky and shergar .\nkurt busch testifies ex - girlfriend is trained assassin nascar driver kurt busch finished his testimonytuesday morning during the fourth day of a protection order hearing between busch and his ex - girlfriend patricia driscoll . busch elaborated on statements that he check out this story on urltoken urltoken\nduring the third crusade , stables were located directly outside the assassin - controlled village of masyaf , and horses residing there were often used by the assassins to traverse the expanse of the kingdom , allowing them to reach other cities for missions or assassinations . [ 5 ]\nthe common horse , or rouncey , [ 2 ] which was heavily laden with saddle bags , could usually be found in the antico and campagna districts , with the guards riding them ( possibly messengers ) always pushing them into a quick gallop . [ 1 ]\nby the renaissance , though ridden horses still held their importance , horse - drawn carriages had grown significantly in popularity . travel stations could also be found just outside of major cities , and offered citizens safe and easy carriage rides for a fee . [ 6 ]\nmonteriggioni , like masyaf before it , had stables conveniently located just outside the main gate . on one occasion , mario ' s nephew ezio had to chase down his uncle ' s favorite horse after it escaped from these stables and returned it to its keeper . [ 1 ]\na variety of horses could be found throughout the kingdom as well , either in corrals or stables , or standing alone on the path with their rider nearby . during the height of the crusades , horse - drawn carriages and warhorses were also common sights on the battlefield . [ 5 ]\nthe horses has evolved to be a grass - eating inhabitants of semi - arid regions worldwide , including the steppes of eur asia and the great plains of north america . by about 15 , 000 years ago , horse bones from this time period are found in europe , asia , and north america . yet between 10 , 000 and 7 , 600 years ago , the horse became extinct in north america . the reasons for this extinction are not fully known . humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 bc , and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 bc .\nsnow knight won the the epsom derby , then the following year earned an eclipse award as the american champion male turf horse . at stud he sired awaasif , the dam of snow bride , winner of the 1989 epsom oaks and the dam of lammtarra , winner of the 1995 epsom derby .\nupon dismounting a horse , depending on whether or not the steed had been stolen , it would either follow its rider or flee immediately . additionally , if their rider was in battle next to them , horses would often kick out at attacking guards , causing them to fall . [ 1 ] [ 5 ]\na champion horse can earn millions in prize money . but that ' s nothing compared with what it can make at stud . as sea the stars - one of the greatest thoroughbreds of all time - retires at the peak of his career to an irish stud farm , what does the future hold for him ?\nbrotherhood is the first game where citizens are shown on horseback , though this leads to a minor anachronism : female citizens are depicted as straddling their horse rather than sitting side - saddle . this is historically inaccurate , as seeing a woman ' s legs spread apart would have been considered a most vulgar sight at the time .\nby danzero from the claudius mare duk duk , masked assassin was purchased by moody for $ 70 , 000 at the 2006 magic millions premier yearling sale on the gold coast . today ' s $ 75 , 000 winner ' s cheque brings his stake earnings to $ 530 , 000 with 4 wins and 7 placings from only 16 starts .\nbusch and his attorney , rusty hardin , have staunchly denied the accusations and cast driscoll , who runs the armed forces foundation and her own defense company , as a jilted lover who wants to destroy busch ' s reputation . they have argued that driscoll , who busch claimed is a trained assassin deployed on many missions , was never physically abused .\nthe rarest type , the armored warhorse or destrier , [ 2 ] could be found in any of rome ' s districts still occupied by the borgia , or at stables after all of them had been renovated . despite being the slowest type of horse , this armored breed was able to withstand more damage from enemy attacks without falling . [ 1 ]\nlammtarra becomes the first horse to win the derby on his seasonal return since grand parade in 1919 and sets a record time of 2m 32 . 31s , beating mahmoud\u2019s 2m 33 . 8s which was hand - timed in 1936 . the race is switched permanently from wednesday to saturday . vodafone takes over the sponsorship and remains the backer up to 2008 .\nezio auditore da firenze was also equally skilled at riding and combat , though he could use a horse directly before or after free - running . he was able to stand on the saddle at any time , and jump from horseback onto a wall or beam . inversely , he could also jump directly onto horseback from a nearby building , or from a parachute . [ 1 ]\nkris kin is the first supplementary entry to win the derby . the sir michael stoute - trained colt had initially been entered in the classic as a yearling but was scratched at the start of his three - year - old campaign . connections paid \u00a390 , 000 to add the horse to the line - up at the five - day stage following his victory in chester\u2019s dee stakes .\nhorses also remained essential for warfare . mario auditore , as ruler and protector of monteriggioni , always held horses in high regard , noting that\nsome of them will die alongside us ; others will actually be key to keeping us alive .\n[ 3 ] as such , each of the monteriggioni mercenaries was made to get to know his horse before riding out into battle . [ 3 ]\nso far throughout the assassin ' s creed series , only three rideable horses have ever died . the first dies during the fall of monteriggioni , when it is hit by a collapsing tower damaged by cannon fire , and the second during the siege of viana , when it is struck by a cannonball . the third , used by haytham kenway , is shot in the rear by george washington during the braddock expedition .\nin the spring of 1801 , champion raced for the first time at newmarket , where he had four engagements . on 9 april he ran in a sweepstakes and won the 200 guinea prize by beating his only opponent triumvir , to whom he conceded seven pounds . [ 12 ] on 20 april , lord darlington was able to claim forfeit when mr heathcote withdrew his horse schedoni from a match against champion . [ 13 ] two days later champion carried top weight in a handicap sweepstakes over ten furlongs\nacross the flat\n. he won the 300 guinea prize by beating mr cox ' s cocoa - tree , who was receiving twenty - seven pounds from the winner . [ 14 ] on 4 may he received ten pounds from mr heatcote ' s horse warter and won a 200 guinea match across the flat at odds of 1 / 4 . [ 15 ]\nhat an odd town newmarket is . a town that runs on expensive horseflesh and cheap alcohol . a town of nightclubs and early - morning gallops , with the same very thin men sometimes managing to attend both .\na one - horse town with 3 , 000 horses ,\nas residents like to say . and certainly the only place where i have ever seen , in a bookshop in the high street , a calendar devoted to ferrets .\nthough ezio could not remain on horseback while wielding his hidden blade , he could perform assassinations from horseback . to do this , he would leap from the saddle to assassinate either an enemy on the ground or a mounted horseman , wherein he would subsequently steal their mount in the case of the latter . conversely , he could also drag the rider of a horse to the ground , before using his hidden blade to assassinate them where they lay . [ 1 ]\non 23 september at doncaster champion attempted to become the first winner of the derby to capture the st leger and thereby win the two most important races of the season for three - year - olds . ridden on this occasion by frank buckle , he started the 2 / 1 favourite in a field of ten runners and won from rolla . [ 9 ] no other horse would complete the same double until surplice , forty - eight years later . [ 10 ]\nchangeover won 29 races from a 2yo through to an aged racehorse . as a three - year - old he won the new zealand derby ( group one ) , and joined other champions of that age when crowned nz 3yo pacer of the year . at four , he won the noel taylor mile ( group one ) , and as an aged horse he won the new zealand cup ( group one ) and new south wales len smith mile ( group one ) .\ncamelot becomes the 37th horse to follow up victory in the first british classic , the 2000 guineas over a mile at newmarket , with success in the investec derby as he records a convincing five - length win at epsom downs . jockey and trainer , joseph and aidan o\u2019brien , become the first father / son combination to win the premier classic . camelot narrowly fails in his bid to win the triple crown , finishing second behind encke in the st leger at doncaster three and a half months later .\na multi - horse finish rivals that of 1913 as the closest ever . in a four - way photo , sir percy beats dragon dancer , dylan thomas and hala bek a shorthead , a head and a short - head . seven winners have had the prefix sir : sir peter teazle ( 1787 ) , sir thomas ( 1788 ) , sir harry ( 1798 ) , sir bevys ( 1879 ) , sir visto ( 1895 ) , sir ivor ( 1968 ) , and most recently sir percy .\nchampion remained in training at five , but ran only once , in a match arranged the previous year . on 28 may he ran against mr fletcher ' s five - year - old horse lethe over two miles at york . the fact that lethe , who was receiving six pounds from champion , started\nhigh odds on\nsuggests that the derby winner was not expected to win . in the event , the match was anticlimactic as champion broke down with injury and failed to complete the course . he never raced again . [ 17 ]\nin breeding , science can only take you so far . freakishly good racehorses \u2013 brigadier gerard , a superstar of the early 1970s , was one example \u2013 can come from unpromising pairings . equally , a superbly bred horse can be useless when it gets to the track . the green monkey is the most notorious : he was bought for $ 16m at the keeneland sales in kentucky in 2006 , ran three times , never managed a win and had career earnings of $ 10 , 440 , though injury is said to have been a factor .\nin any case , he is now keen for the horse to be on his way .\nit ' ll be nice to hand him over to somebody else ,\nhe says ,\nbecause you do get a bit anxious . we weren ' t anxious all year when he was racing , but now that he ' s finished and is about to leave us you ' ll be happy to see him go .\noxx isn ' t even working him on the gallops now in case he throws his rider and makes off in the direction of kildare town ; \u00a350m - plus of horseflesh dodging the buses . does he know what he ' s achieved ?\ni don ' t think he does ,\nsays oxx ,\nbut he knows he ' s a bit of a star all right . he ' s a clever horse , and i wouldn ' t say that about most horses .\noxx dismisses the critics who say he should be running again next year .\nhe has proved his greatness and doesn ' t have to go and prove it all over again .\ngalileo\u2019s half - brother sea the stars shows he is one of the greats as he powers to glory under veteran jockey mick kinane . the john oxx - trained colt becomes the first horse for 20 years to follow up victory in the 2000 guineas with success in the epsom classic and goes on to complete an unbeaten campaign with four further group one wins , annexing the coral - eclipse , juddmonte international , irish champion stakes and prix de l\u2019arc de triomphe . investec takes over sponsorship of the derby and backs all the races at the two - day meeting at epsom .\nreference point was a dark - coated bay horse bred by his owner , louis freedman , at his cliveden stud in berkshire , england . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] he was sired by mill reef the 1971 epsom derby winner who went on to be leading sire in great britain and ireland in 1978 and 1987 . reference point ' s dam , home on the range , was a high class racemare who won the sun chariot stakes in 1981 . apart from reference point , the best of her progeny was known ranger , who won nineteen races in europe and north america . [ 4 ]\nthere has been a steady stream of pilgrims to oxx ' s yard , paying homage to the champion , and a party of french racing fans are there on the day i visit . oxx ' s dining table is covered in letters and cards from racing fans .\nsome just offer congratulations ,\nsays his wife caitriona ,\nbut others are telling john what to do with the horse .\nnosily , i peer at one on top of the pile which is pleading for sea the stars not to be retired , a decision for the tsui family , not the modest , unassuming oxx .\nchampion was a bay horse bred at oxton hall near tadcaster in north yorkshire by his owner christopher wilson , a highly respected figure in the racing world who , in his later years , was known as\nthe father of the turf\n. [ 1 ] he was the second of three derby winners sired by the unusually named potoooooooo , a highly successful racehorse who became an important and influential sire . [ 2 ] champion ' s dam , huncamunca was the direct female ancestor of the derby winner mameluke as well as charlotte ( 1000 guineas ) and maid of orleans ( oaks stakes ) . [ 3 ]\nthe correlation between racetrack performance and success as a sire is at best inexact . the greatest sire of modern times is sadler ' s wells , who retired from stud last year because of declining fertility .\nsadler ' s wells was a very good racehorse but he was not a superstar ,\nsays tony morris .\nhis great gift was that he could get horses better than himself . i give you a guarantee now that sea the stars will not get a horse as good as himself . there is not the slightest chance of that , though if he gets lots of horses that are nearly as good as him , he ' ll be all right .\nso how good will history judge him to have been ? oxx explains that the experts who judge the quality of racehorses put him slightly below a handful of great horses from previous eras , but that their formulae are fallible .\nmathematics can be unimaginative and often doesn ' t allow for a horse ' s true superiority . ratings may not really do him justice \u2013 that ' s the general feeling . i wouldn ' t claim he was the greatest of all time \u2013 it ' s silly to have these bar - stool arguments about who was the greatest . all you can say is that he is one of the greats , and that ' s plenty good enough .\nperhaps i can sell my coat , flecked with the saliva of greatness , on ebay .\nthis is the story of a wonderhorse , sea the stars ; of a sport , horse racing ; and an industry , equine breeding . but it is a closed , obsessive and secretive world , and we need to begin slowly . some of the peculiarities of racing have first to be explained . there are two branches : the flat and jumping ( also , to confuse non - aficionados further , called national hunt ) . flat racing is traditionally the sport of kings ( now sheikhs and wealthy irish and american consortia ) ; jump racing of farmers and countrymen . casual followers of racing used to dote on the flat , but now seem to prefer jumping : less corporate , more accessible . the flat , to the concern of many in the sport , is ceasing to fascinate .\nas silver patriarch ' s iffy career as a sire shows , there is no guarantee that great racehorses will produce other great racehorses . breeding a sea the stars relies on a bit of science and a lot of luck . wealthy breeders will play the numbers game , owning as many good mares and producing as many foals with top - class pedigrees as possible in the hope that one or two are capable of winning group one races \u2013 the mark of achievement which turns your horse into a commodity because others will want to breed from it . tony morris , the uk ' s leading writer on bloodstock , tells me that a sire will be deemed a success if 6 % of its progeny do well at the track . these fortunes may as well be placed on roulette numbers .\na few days later , i am in a taxi being driven across the curragh , the great plain in county kildare 30 miles south - west of dublin that is the home of irish racing . the taxi driver , like almost every irishman , is horse - mad , pointing out the graves of various famous horses and the stud farm from which derby winner shergar was stolen . the tips that matter to him come from trainers and jockeys , but he says they almost always lose , which is why he is driving a cab . we discuss sea the stars , the local celebrity who is spending his last few days at trainer john oxx ' s stable before going to stud .\nthat ' s the trouble with flat horses ,\nsays the cabbie ,\nyou don ' t see enough of them .\nnashwan was a large , powerfully built chestnut horse with a white star and a white sock on his right foreleg bred by his owner hamdan al maktoum at his shadwell farm in lexington , kentucky . he was sired by the 1977 poule d ' essai des poulains winner blushing groom . blushing groom became an exceptionally successful breeding stallion , siring rainbow quest , blushing john , arazi , and many other leading horses . nashwan ' s successes made him the leading sire in great britain & ireland in 1989 . [ 1 ] nashwan ' s dam was height of fashion , a daughter of bustino previously owned by queen elizabeth ii . he was thus a half - brother to the group race winners alwasmi , unfuwain , and nayef , and a close relative of the japanese champion deep impact and the 1000 guineas winner ghanaati . [ 2 ]\na month later , nashwan was moved up in distance for the ever ready derby over one and a half miles at epsom downs racecourse . despite the unseasonably cold , damp weather , the race attracted an estimated 500 , 000 spectators including queen elizabeth ii . [ 7 ] nashwan started 5 / 4 favourite against eleven opponents , with the biggest danger expected to come from cacoethes , winner of the lingfield derby trial . carson positioned the favourite just behind the leaders before moving up to take the lead from cacoethes in the straight . he pulled\neffortlessly\n[ 8 ] clear in the closing stages to win by five lengths from the 500 / 1 outsider terimon , who finished well to deprive cacoethes of second . [ 9 ] he was the first horse to complete the guineas - derby double since nijinsky ii in 1970 , [ 8 ] though he was emulated by sea the stars in 2009 and camelot in 2012 .\nnashwan ' s next task was to prove himself against older opposition , starting with the eclipse stakes over one and a quarter miles at sandown park on 8 july . despite having recently recovered from a foot infection and facing both the outstanding racemare indian skimmer and the champion miler warning , he was sent off the 2 / 5 favourite . [ 10 ] nashwan took the lead approaching the final furlong and won by five lengths from the outsider opening verse , who later won the breeders ' cup mile . [ 11 ] two weeks later , nashwan contested britain ' s most prestigious all - aged race , the king george vi and queen elizabeth stakes over one and a half miles at ascot . with the late withdrawal of prix du jockey club winner old vic , nashwan was expected to win easily and started as 2 / 9 favourite . this time he had to fight for his victory , with old rival cacoethes challenging him throughout the final two furlongs . nashwan was driven out by carson to win by a neck , with the subsequent prix de l ' arc de triomphe winner carroll house a further eleven lengths back in fifth . [ 12 ] his narrow margin of victory lead some critics to question his status as a\nsuper - horse\n. [ 13 ]\nbreeder : 3rd earl of egremont at 3 : won derby s . ( close )\naerial virtual replay is provided by an external vendor trakus , for personal infotainment only . due to the frequent usage of mobile phones at the racecourses , the signals receiving by trakus system may be affected and thus the accuracy of aerial virtual replay cannot be guaranteed . every effort is made to ensure the information is up to the closest approximation , but the club assumes no responsibility for it . for the actual race results , the customers should refer to real replay videos .\ncopyright \u00a9 2000 - 2017 the hong kong jockey club . all rights reserved .\n{ { race . shorttrack } } r { { race . number } }\n\u00a9 2018 racing victoria limited ( rv ) and other parties working with it . vic and sa racing materials , including fields , form and results , is subject to copyright which is owned respectively by rv and trsa and other parties working with them .\n* new customers only . turnover and bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\n* new customers only . turnover & bet requirements apply . t & c ' s apply . excl nsw , wa , sa & vic . gamble responsibly .\nis gambling a problem for you ? call gambling help on 180 0858 858 or visit www . gamblinghelponline . org . au\nyour screen name will be seen by the racenet community when you participate in discussions or comment on our content .\nyou ' ll receive an email shortly with instructions on how to reset your password .\nthis article is in desperate need of a revamp . please improve it in any ways necessary in order to achieve a higher standard and follow our manual of style .\nhorses are a species of hoofed quadruped mammals , which have been used as a means of transport throughout most of recorded human history .\ntheir presence and use was widespread throughout the middle ages , the renaissance era , and the american revolution for several purposes , resulting in a variety of breeds to match their use .\nthe stable keeper gives me a short tour . he presents the different breeds - some bred stocky for labor , some wiry for travel , and of course , the unflinching steeds we will ride into combat .\nother slightly uncommon breeds used at the time were the percheron , which lucrezia borgia used for her carriages , and two sub - varieties of warhorse . [ 3 ]\nas such , guards stationed along the paths of the kingdom were always wary of horsemen , particularly if they were riding hard , or acted as if they were being pursued . with this in mind , most assassins made it a point to ride slowly when in the presence of alert guards . [ 5 ]\nin the large city of rome , horses were often used to travel between districts , and were ridden by citizens , guards , and assassins alike , with the latter able to hijack horses from the former two . [ 1 ]\n\u201cah yes , the greek mare . good condition . well bred . you have the air of a fine horseman . you would like her , yes ? \u201d\na fiery steed , her temper is well known throughout egypt . no rider can remain astride her for long , but you seem capable . care to try her paces ?\nmany legendary warriors have ridden this mare in battle . she is unmatched by other horses in experience and in age .\ncarrier of souls . your hooves trample the wheat , pound the sands , thunder through the halls of the dead . jackal - born , none can tame you but he .\nmount unsed in the afterlife realms in the curse of the pharaohs dlc . available for purchase for use in egypt from the stable in set - ma ' at after completing the curse of the pharaohs main story .\noriginating from the ancient kingdom of nubia , this stallion has a calm temperament , making him a solid ally in the face of danger .\nfound covered in soot among the ruins of a burnt village . washing him caused no change in the color of his coat .\nhis name translates to \u201cbeloved of amun . \u201d some believe this stallion was gifted with exceptional endurance and stamina by the god himself .\nthe ineffable beauty of an animal such as this offers the feeling of a waking dream .\nthis stallion comes from the mountains . they say that on the morning he was born , a white mist descended from nowhere to enshroud his stable . i don\u2019t believe a word of it .\nmany claim this mare is blessed by the goddess mut . her riders have never fallen in battle .\npopular and always entertaining , partner can teach other horses a thing or two . sometimes gets moddy # pjsalt\nfound abandoned in a rickety cage on the bank of the nile . he might have been imprisoned there for too long , as his legs are prone to cramping .\nmostly used for desert travel , she\u2019s a solid mount , albeit lacking in combat experience .\nhe wandered into town a few weeks back . no one knows where he came from .\nwhen thunder gallops , people scatter . her hoofbeats evoke the din of an entire herd .\nafter his owner sickened and fell limp from the saddle , this stallion stood by for two days until a passing farmer stopped to help .\nunicorns are said to originate from faraway lands , though we\u2019ve never been able to determine which . what we do know is that they are fabulous ."]}
{"id": 2500, "summary": [{"text": "the sula hanging parrot ( loriculus sclateri ) is a small species of parrot in the family psittaculidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is endemic to forest and nearby habitats on the banggai and sula islands in indonesia . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "sula hanging parrot", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . sula hanging parrot 2 . sula hanging parrot 3 . sula hanging parrot\nthe sula hanging parrot averages 6 inches or 15 cm in length ( including tail ) .\nhanging parrots general info and species listing . . . photos of the various hanging parrot species for identification\nwhen the sula hanging parrot flies one can hear a ' whirring ' to its wings , much like a hummingbird .\nsaturday ' s # parrototd is the sula hanging parrot ( loriculus sclateri ) of eastern indonesia . pic by @ azharfachmi urltoken\nparrot of the day on twitter :\nsaturday ' s # parrototd is the sula hanging parrot ( loriculus sclateri ) of eastern indonesia . pic by @ azharfachmi urltoken\nthe sri lanka hanging parrot ( loriculus beryllinus ) is a small parrot which is a resident endemic breeder in sri lanka .\nthe blue - naped parrot ( tanygnathus lucionensis ) , also known as the blue - crowned green parrot , luzon parrot , the philippine green parrot , and locally known as pikoy , is a parrot found throughout the philippines .\nthe camiguin hanging parrot , loriculus camiguinensis , is a hanging parrot endemic only on the philippine island of camiguin , where its habitat is diminishing . the taxonomy of this population of parrots on camiguin is uncertain .\na different wild parrot species every day , parrot ecology , science and more . visit our shop : 10 % of sales to parrot conservation\nspecies : scientific : loriculus amabilis amabilis . . . english : moluccan hanging parrot . . . dutch : molukse hangparkiet . . . german : zierfledermauspapageichen . . . french : loricule de halmahera moluccan hanging parrot loriculus amabilis\nt his family consists of 13 species of hanging - parrots including the vernal , ceylon , philippine , blue - crowned ( also called blue - topped ) , maroon - rumped , sula , moluccan , sangihe , orange - fronted , green - fronted , green , yellow - throated , and the flores hanging - parrot . but this article will feature only the bluecrowned hanging - parrot .\nobservers note that when the sula hanging parrots fly they could hear a distinctive ' whirring ' to their wings , as is the case with hummingbirds .\nwallace , 1863 \u2013 sula is ( taliabu , seho , mangole , sanana ) .\nplease refer to this webpage for additional information on housing and breeding your hanging parrots .\nthe slater ' s hanging - parrots can be found on the sula islands - a group of islands in the malukus in indonesia . its three main islands are mangole , sanae and taliabu .\nthe blue - crowned hanging - parrot is found in southern thailand , western malaysia , singapore , sumatra , and associated islands , and borneo and associated islands .\ncites avianweb lexicon of parrots birdlife international a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 xeno - canto sula hanging parrot , lambert , frank xc95127 parrots of the world , forshaw and cooper , 1977 . parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 .\nthe camiguin hanging parrot is mostly green with blue throat , face and thighs , and a red tail and red crown . males and female birds look identical , which is unusual for a hanging parrot native to the philippines . only the males of all the other populations living on other islands have a red area on their fronts .\nof long - tailed parrots . common names include superb parrot and , in avicultural circles , barraband ' s parrot or parakeet , named after the artist\nsri lanka hanging parrot is a bird of open forest . it is strictly arboreal , never descending to the ground . it nests in holes in trees , laying 2\u20133 eggs .\nthe superb parrot ( polytelis swainsonii ) , also known as barraband ' s parrot , barraband ' s parakeet , or green leek parrot , [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] is a parrot native to south - eastern australia . it is a dimorphic species and one of three species in the genus polytelis .\nthis hanging parrot averages 4 . 5 inches ( 11 cm ) in length , with a wing length of 2 . 75 - 3 . 3 inches ( 70 - 84 mm ) .\nthe moluccan hanging - parrot ( loriculus amabilis ) is endemic to the moluccan islands of halmahera and batjan , in the northern moluccas / maluku islands , indonesia ( please refer to below distribution map ) .\nthe red - winged parrot ( aprosmictus erythropterus ) , is a parrot native to australia and papua new guinea . it is found in grasslands , savannah , farmland , and woodland .\n, and other western countries , it is often referred to as the indian ringneck parrot .\nspecies : scientific : loriculus amabilis ruber . . . english : peling hanging parrot . . . dutch : peling hangparkiet . . . german : peling zierfledermauspapageichen . . . french : loricule d ' ile peling\nspecies : scientific : loriculus amabilis sclateri . . . english : sclater ' s hanging parrot . . . dutch : sclaters hangparkiet . . . german : sclaters zierfledermauspapageichen . . . french : loricule de sclater\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\njuniper , tony ; parr , mike ( 1998 ) .\nchapter 121 : superb parrot\n.\nl . s . sclateri : taliabu , mangole , and sanana , sula islands . l . s . ruber : peleng , banggai and labobo islands .\ntello , j . , degner , j . , bates , j . and willard , d . ( 2006 ) description of new species of hanging parrot from camiguin id . , philippines . fieldiana zool . 106 : 49 - 57 .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\nmost of taliabu , the largest island in the sula islands , is still forested , but there has been large - scale logging in the lowlands . the other main sula islands , sanana and mangole , have been heavily degraded . extensive lowland forest still remains on the banggai islands ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) .\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . sula hanging - parrot ( loriculus sclateri ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nvan tets , g . f . , meredith , c . w . , fullager , p . j . and davidson , p . m . ( 1988 ) osteological differences between sula and morus , and a description of an extinct new species of sula from lord howe and norfolk islands , tasman sea . notornis 35 : 35 - 37 .\nholyoak , d . t . ( 1973 ) an undescribed parrot from mauritius . ibis 115 : 417 - 419 .\nminchin , liz ( 2005 - 08 - 06 ) .\nblunder gives loggers wrong area , rare parrot loses nesting trees\n.\nthis is a pleasant , yet shy parrot . it is quiet with a melodic voice that can mostly be heard in the evenings .\nthe isolated sula islands , just off sulawesi ' s east coast , receive rain from both the northwest and the southeast and have volcanic soils that create excellent growth conditions ( monk et al . 1997 ) .\npeling hanging - parrots are endemic to the islands of peling and banggai in the sulawesi ( formerly known as celebes ) - part of the maluku island group in indonesia group , indonesia .\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\nis usually under a dozen . the blue - naped parrot feeds on mangoes , berries , seeds , nuts and grains . it nests in tree holes .\nthe genus name psittacula is a diminutive of latin psittacus ,\nparrot\n, and the specific krameri commemorates the austrian naturalist wilhelm heinrich kramer . [ 3 ]\nsri lanka hanging parrot is less gregarious than some of its relatives , and is usually alone or in small groups outside the breeding season . its flight is swift and direct , and the call is a sharp whistled twiwittwit . . twitwitwit . it undergoes local movements , driven mainly by the availability of the fruit , seeds , buds and blossoms that make up its diet .\nthey look like the nominate form described and featured above - - except the slater ' s hanging parrot is a little larger , averaging 5 inches ( 13 cm ) in length . the forehead , crown and the back of the head are green . the forehead has a reddish - brown base to the feathers . the upper back is orange , often with scattered red feathers .\nmasello , j . f . & quillfeldt , p . ( 2002 ) chick growth and breeding success of the burrowing parrot . condor , 104 , 574 - 586 .\nlike in the turquoise parrot , there seems to be a discrepance in what the icon at the top says ( green ) and what the description says - vulnerable . please make the changes .\n23\u201324 cm ; 124 g . quite small and stocky parrot , with rather short , slightly tapered tail . narrow red frontal band , while forecrown and area around eyes is olive - yellow . . .\nblue - crowned hanging - parrots frequent the forests , forest edges , secondary growth , swamp and riverine forest , bamboo patches , mangroves , wooded gardens , coconut groves , and plantations . they are probably more abundant in carefully logged forests than in the primary forests .\nthe rose - ringed parakeet ( psittacula krameri ) , also known as the ring - necked parakeet , is a medium - sized parrot in the genus psittacula of the family psittacidae and has a very wide range .\nan australian endemic , the superb parrot is restricted to the dry ( sclerophyll ) woodlands of new south wales and victoria . there is estimated to be at least 10 , 000 individuals in the wild . [ 8 ]\ndescription location and general description this ecoregion represents the lowland forests ( less than 1 , 000 m ) on sulawesi and the surrounding islands of banggai and sula to the east and talaud and sangihe to the north . sulawesi is almost completely mountainous . there are no extensive lowlands on sulawesi , with large areas above 1 , 000 m and the highest elevation at 3 , 455 m on mt . rantemario . sangihe is mountainous , reaching an elevation of 1 , 784 m , whereas talaud is low - lying . the physiography of the sula islands is hilly , with mountains over 800 m only on the island of taliabu ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) .\nboon , w . m . , daugherty , c . h . and chambers , g . k . ( 2001 ) the norfolk island green parrot and new caledonian red - crowned parakeet are distinct species . emu 101 : 113 - 121 .\nmelo , m . ; o ' ryan , c . 2007 . genetic differentiation between pr\u00edncipe island and mainland populations of the grey parrot ( psittacus erithacus ) , and implications for conservation . molecular ecology 16 ( 8 ) : 1673 - 1685 .\nthe superb parrot is mostly bright green with darker flight feathers and is about 40 cm ( 16 in ) long with a long pointed tail . adult males have continuous yellow foreheads and throats , with a red horizontal band across the border of the throat .\nthis parrot is susceptible to fungal infections , therefore strict hygiene is necessary . it enjoys bathing . adding a few drops of hydrogen peroxide or gse in its bathing water will help in preventing infections . as an additional benefit , gse also has good anti - parasitic properties .\nmey , e . , masello , j . f . & quillfeldt , p . ( 2002 ) chewing lice ( insecta , phthiraptera ) of the burrowing parrot cyanoliseus p . patagonus ( vieillot ) from argentina . rudolst\u00e4dter nat . hist . schr . , 4 , 99 - 112 .\nwirminghaus , j . o . , downs , c . t . , symes , c . t . and perrin , m . r ( 2002 ) taxonomic relationships of the subspecies of the cape parrot poicephalus robustus ( gmelin ) . j . nat . hist . 36 : 361 - 378 .\ndue to ongoing habitat loss in australia , small population size and limited range , the superb parrot was evaluated as vulnerable on the iucn red list of threatened species , [ 1 ] until it was downlisted to least concern in 2012 . [ 12 ] it is listed on appendix ii of cites .\nmasello , j . f . , montano , v . , quillfeldt , p . , nuhl\u00ed\u010dkov\u00e1 , s . , wikelski , m . & moodley , y . ( 2015 ) the interplay of spatial and climatic landscapes in the genetic distribution of a south american parrot . journal of biogeography , 42 , 1077 - 1090 .\nduring february\u2013june 2005 , timber logging in the barmah state forest destroyed 60 percent of the nesting colonies of the superb parrot ( 6 , 000 tonnes or 6 , 600 short tons of river red gums ) : with fewer than 150 breeding in victoria , this has severely compromised their chances of survival . [ 15 ] [ 16 ]\nhanging - parrots are basically fruit eaters in the wild and also appreciate fresh flowers like hibiscus for the pollen and twigs to use sap to clean their feathers . because of their diet they are somewhat like softbills in cage care . they do squirt fecal matter and i use acrylic sides on the cages . strict hygienic care is necessary as they are prone to fungal ailments due to diet and the matter that is discarded .\nsuperb parrots are listed as vulnerable on the australian environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . their conservation status also varies from state to state within australia ; for example , the superb parrot is listed as threatened on the victorian flora and fauna guarantee act ( 1988 ) . [ 13 ] under this act , an action statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared . [ 14 ]\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . burrowing parrot ( cyanoliseus patagonus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncollar , n . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . scarlet - chested parrot ( neophema splendida ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nmasello , j . f . , quillfeldt , p . , munimanda , g . k . , klauke , n . , segelbacher , g . , schaefer , h . m . , failla , m . , cort\u00e9s , m . & moodley , y . ( 2011 ) the high andes , gene flow and a stable hybrid zone shape the genetic structure of a wide - ranging south american parrot . frontiers in zoology , 8 , 16 . 1 - 16 . 16 .\ncollar , n . , boesman , p . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . indigo - winged parrot ( hapalopsittaca fuertesi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\none of the few parrot species that have successfully adapted to living in disturbed habitats , it has withstood the onslaught of urbanisation and deforestation . as a popular pet species , escaped birds have colonised a number of cities around the world , including northern and western europe . [ 2 ] the species is listed as least concern by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) because its population appears to be increasing , but its popularity as a pet and unpopularity with farmers have reduced its numbers in some parts of its native range . [ 1 ]\nthe superb parrot is medium - sized , bright green , approximately 40 cm ( 16 in ) long , and has long tail feathers , a yellow - green neck , and yellow - orange irises . the adult male has a scarlet band on its upper chest and a bright yellow face and throat . the adult female has a pale blue - green face , greyish - green throat , a variable tinged russet - pink fore - throat , and orange thighs . juveniles have brown irises and otherwise resemble females . [ 7 ] the male has adult coloured plumage at the age of about one year . [ 2 ]\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : loriculus sclateri . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthey are seen alone , or in pairs or small groups . the possible threat to their existence constitute trapping for the bird trade and loss of habitat .\nboth adults look alike ; except the female has brown eyes while the male has pale yellow eyes .\nthe plumage is mostly green . the chin and throat are red . there are orange - yellow markings on the mantle and back . the rump and upper tail coverts are crimson extending to the tip of the tail . there is a red carpal edge ( = leading edge of the wing at the\nshoulder\n) . the tail is green tipped with yellow - green . the bill is black .\ntheir calls are described as weak and high - pitched . at times a varying buzzy and di or trisyllabic notes repeated rapidly .\ntheir natural diet consists mainly of soft fruits - particularly wild figs , guava and berries - as well as flower buds and blossoms . they also feed onnectar and seeds .\ncaptive specimens should be provided lory nectar , as well as plenty of fruit ( fig , pear , apple , banana ) and vegetables ( carrot , spinach , green salad ) . they should also be fed a good quality seed mix consisting of various millets , canary grass seed , some niger and oats , and millet sprays ( both sprouted and unsprouted ) .\nduring the rearing season , it ' s important to provide them with plenty of soft food items , includingsoftened rusk , eggfood and mealworm larvae .\nthe first breeding season commences in january and lasts until april ; and - providing conditions are right - - breeding activities can again be observed from july to september .\nduring the course of the courtship display , the male approaches female with short strutting steps and little hops and makes warbling sounds , extending his neck to show off his blue throat patch , raising his red rump and spreading his tail feathers . courtship feeding has been recorded .\nthey nest in dead tree stumps or trees , favoring long , narrow hollows with small entrance holes . the female is seen carrying nesting material that may include pieces of bark and leaves in her rump feathers into the nest for nest lining . a clutch may consist of 2 to 4 white eggs . only the female incubates the eggs for 20 days while the male feeds her . each eggs measures 0 . 06 to 0 . 07 inches ( ~ 15 mm to 18 . 7 mm ) . the young fledge when they are about32 days old , and they are independent 10 days after fledging .\nthese active little parrots need plenty of room for exercising . ideally , they should be kept in a spacious and well - planted aviary with minimum dimensions of 6 x 3 x 6 ft ( 2 x 1 x 2m ) . a spacious cage with daily opportunities for flight is acceptable , although not ideal .\nthey need to be protected from temperatures below 59\u00b0f ( 15 \u00b0c ) and newly imported birds should be kept at temperatures of 70\u00b0f ( 22\u00b0c ) or warmer .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nl . s . sclateri : both adults mainly green ; red chin and throat ; orange / yellow mantle and back ; rump and upper tail coverts crimson , extending to tip of tail ; red carpal edge ; tail green tipped with yellow / green . bill black . eye pale yellow in male , brown in female . l . s . ruber : both adults as in sclateri , but with red mantle and back .\ncalls are weak and high - pitched ; also variously buzzy and di or trisyllabic notes that are repeated rapidly .\nplanted aviary 2 . 5 x 1 . 0 x 2m ( 8 . 2 x 3 . 3 x 6 . 5 ft ) outside ; inside very spacious enclosure with room to fly .\nmainly fruit such as : apple , pear , banana , figs ; vegetables ; store - bought or handmade lory formula ; small seed mix : canary , millets , grass seed ; if possible provide fruit tree branches will flowers ( unsprayed ) ; when rearing young provide softened rusk , eggfood and mealworm larvae .\nprovide plenty of bird - safe wood chewables ( fir , pine , elder and willow ) branches . also heat sterilized pine cones , wooden block toys and vegetable tanned leather toys .\nnest log 12cm x 30cm ( 4 . 7\nx 11 . 7\n) .\nfound up to 450m ( 1476 ft ) . generally occurs in primary and secondary forests , mainly at forest edge ; remnant tall trees in cultivated areas , plantations .\nfound single , in pairs or small groups . nesting material is tucked into wing feathers to be taken to the nest during breeding . courtship feeding has been recorded .\npossibly 3 rounded eggs , 17 . 0 x 14 . 5mm ( 0 . 7 x 0 . 5 in ) .\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >\nmember of the l . stigmatus group ( which see ) . sometimes treated as conspecific with l . amabilis and l . catamene . race ruber was considered in hbw to be based on character present in at least some l . amabilis and probably age - related , but closer study has demonstrated its validity # r . two subspecies recognized .\nwith no red on head and a large orange patch , often with large red centre , on lower mantle and upper back . female similar . . .\nflight call a high - pitched thin triple - noted \u201ctsee - see - seet\u201d . when perched , utters similar calls . . .\nnot globally threatened . cites ii . a birdlife \u201crestricted - range\u201d species . reported to be common throughout both island groups .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 295 , 814 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nenglish spanish online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\n) . it is found in secondary forest , at forest edges and in plantations at elevations of up to 1000 m .\nt . l . hybridus : polillo islands . blue on crown less extensive , tinged with violet . more green on wing coverts .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nbirdlife international uses the taxonomy published in the two volumes of the hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world and subsequent updates .\nbirdlife uses this list as the basis for much of its global , regional and national priority - setting work , including , for example , the assessment of all birds for the iucn red list , and the identification of important bird and biodiversity areas ( ibas ) . however , some national birdlife partners may use other checklists and taxonomic sources that are particularly relevant in their context .\nthe excel version of the checklist includes the scientific and common names used , the authority ( for the original description of the taxon ) , the latest global iucn red list category ( e . g . extinct , vulnerable , least concern , etc . ) , taxonomic notes where relevant , and a record id number unique to the taxonomic entity . previously recognised taxa are also included and distinguished as \u2018not recognised\u2019 .\nthe hbw / birdlife international taxonomic working group makes decisions on modifications to the checklist , making extensive use of systematic criteria by which species rank can be consistently assessed where this is necessary ( e . g . for newly described species or proposed splits ) . these criteria ( tobias et al . 2010 ) involve weighting morphological and acoustic differences as compared with the nearest believed relative , and are particularly intended to help make decisions involving allopatric taxa ( as opposed to those in sympatric , parapatric or hybrid zone situations , where the situation is generally clearer ) .\nprior to the publication of the first volume of the hbw / birdlife checklist ( for non - passerines ) in 2014 and the second volume ( for passerines ) in 2016 , birdlife published an annually updated taxonomic checklist based on the taxonomies followed in a number of regional lists .\nwe envisage two main types of comment : proposals to consider splitting or lumping of taxa which were not scored against the tobias criteria in the published volumes of the checklist ( 2014 , 2016 ) ; and , for those species that were scored in the checklist ( whether this resulted in a split , a lump , or no change ) , proposals involving new information which may lead to revisions of these scores . video and audio recordings , records of presence in key areas , and descriptions of key features , behaviour and ecology , are among the variety of ways in which fieldworkers , ornithologists and birdwatchers can supply new evidence to help resolve ongoing taxonomic challenges and uncertainties .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk . passerines\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\naerc tac ( 2003 ) aerc tac checklist of bird taxa occurring in western palearctic region , 15th draft . association of european rarities committees . available from : urltoken _ the _ wp15 . xls . checked : 11 / 5 / 2007 .\naou ( 1998 + supplements ) check - list of north american birds . seventh edition . washington , d . c . : american ornithologists ' union .\nbrooke , m . de l . ( 2004 ) albatrosses and petrels across the world . oxford : oxford university press .\nbrooks , t . ( 2000 ) extinct species . pp . 701 - 708 in birdlife international ( 2000 ) threatened birds of the world . barcelona and cambridge , u . k . : lynx edicions and birdlife international\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . ( 1994 ) the taxonomy and species of birds of australia and its territories . melbourne : royal australasian ornithologists ' union ( raou monogr 2 ) .\nchristidis , l . and boles , w . e . ( 2008 ) systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . collingwood , australia : csiro publishing .\ncramp , s . and perrins , c . m . ( 1977 - 1994 ) handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford : oxford university press .\ndowsett , r . j . and forbes - watson , a . d . ( 1993 ) checklist of birds of the afrotropical and malagasy regions . li\u00e8ge , belgium : tauraco press .\nrobertson , c . j . r . and nunn , g . b . ( 1998 ) towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses . pp . 13 - 19 in robertson , g . and gales , r . , eds . albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton , australia : surrey beatty & sons .\nsacc ( 2006 + updates ) a classification of the bird species of south america . american ornithologists ' union . available from : urltoken\nsibley , c . g . and monroe , b . l . ( 1990 ) distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . new haven , usa : yale university press .\nsibley , c . g . and monroe , b . l . ( 1993 ) a supplement to ' distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world ' . new haven , usa : yale university press .\nstotz , d . f . , fitzpatrick , j . w . , parker , t . a . and moskovits , d . k . ( 1996 ) neotropical birds : ecology and conservation . chicago : university of chicago press .\nturbott , e . g . ( 1990 ) checklist of the birds of new zealand . third edition . wellington : ornithological society of new zealand .\nagne , c . e . and pacheco , l . f . ( 2007 ) a homonymy in thamnophilidae : a new name for dichropogon chubb . rev . bras . ornitol . 15 : 484 - 485 .\nagreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( 2006 ) report of the second meeting of the advisory committee , brasilia , brazil , 5 - 8 june 2006 . . available online at urltoken\nallen , d . , oliveros , c . , espa\u00f1ola , c . , broad , g . and gonzalez , j . c . t . ( 2004 ) a new species of gallirallus from calayan island , philippines . forktail 20 : 1 - 7 .\nalonso , j . a . and whitney , b . m . ( 2001 ) a new zimmerius tyrannulet ( aves : tyrranidae ) from white sand forests of northern amazonian peru . wilson bull . 113 : 1 - 9 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . ( 1998 ) taxonomy of the mirafra assamica complex . forktail 13 : 97 - 107 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . and olsson , u . ( 1995 ) a new species of phylloscopus warbler from sichuan province , china . ibis 137 : 459 - 468 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . and olsson , u . ( 1999 ) the golden - spectacled warbler : a complex of sibling species , including a previously undescribed species . ibis 141 : 545 - 568 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . , olsson , u . and colston , p . r . ( 1992 ) a new species of phylloscopus warbler from central china . ibis 134 : 329 - 334 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . , olsson , u . and colston , p . r . ( 1997 ) re - evaluation of the taxonomic status of phylloscopus proregulus kansuensis meise . bull . brit . ornithol . club 117 : 177 - 193 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . , olsson , u . and round , p . d . ( 1991 ) the taxonomic status of acrocephalus agricola tangorum . forktail 6 : 3 - 13 .\nalstr\u00f6m , p . , olsson , u . , rasmussen , p . c . , cheng - te yao , ericson , p . g . p . and sundberg , p . ( 2007 ) morphological , vocal and genetic divergence in the cettia acanthizoides complex . zool . j . linn . soc . 149 : 437 - 452 .\nalviola iii , p . l . ( 1997 ) a new species of frogmouth ( podargidae , caprimulgiformes ) from busuanga island , palawan , philippines . asia life sci . 1 - 2 : 51 - 55 .\namadon , d . ( 1953 ) avian systematics and evolution in the gulf of guinea . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 100 : 393 - 452 .\nandrew , p . ( 1992 ) the birds of indonesia : a checklist ( peters ' sequence ) . jakarta : indonesian ornithological society .\naou ( 1983 ) check - list of north american birds . sixth edition . washington , d c : american ornithologists ' union .\naou ( 2000 ) forty - second supplement to the american ornithologists ' s union check - list of north american birds . auk 117 : 847 - 858 .\naou ( 2002 ) forty - third supplement to the american ornithologists ' union check - list of north american birds . auk 119 : 897 - 906 .\naou ( 2003 ) forty - fourth supplement to the american ornithologists ' union check - list of north american birds . auk 120 : 923 - 931 .\naou ( 2004 ) forty - fifth supplement to the american ornithologists ' union check - list of north american birds . auk 121 : 985 - 995 .\naou ( 2005 ) forty - sixth supplement to the american ornithologists ' union check - list of north american birds . auk 122 : 1026 - 1031 .\naou ( 2006 ) forty - seventh supplement to the american ornithologists ' union check - list of north american birds . auk 123 : 926 - 936 .\narcher , a . l . and turner , d . a . ( 1993 ) notes on the endemic species and some additional new birds occurring on pemba island , tanzania . scopus 16 : 94 - 98 .\nathreya , r . ( 2006 ) a new species of liocichla ( aves : timaliidae ) from eaglenest wildlife sanctuary , arunchal pradesh , india . indian birds 2 : 82 - 94 .\naustin , j . , bretagnolle , v . and pasquet , e . ( 2004 ) a global molecular phylogeny of the small puffinus shearwaters and implications for systematics of the little - audubon ' s shearwater complex . auk 121 : 847 - 864 .\nbaillie , j . and groombridge , b . ( 1996 ) 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . cambridge , u . k . : international union for the conservation of nature and natural resources .\nbaker , a . j . , daugherty , c . h . , colbourne , r . and mclennan , j . l . ( 1995 ) flightless brown kiwis of new zealand possess extremely subdivided population structure and cryptic species like small mammals . proc . natl . acad . sci . usa 92 : 8254 - 8258 .\nbalouet , j . - c . and alibert , e . ( 1990 ) extinct species of the world . new york : barron ' s educational series .\nbalouet , j . - c . and olson , s . l . ( 1989 ) fossil birds from late quaternary deposits in new caledonia . washington , d . c . : smithsonian institute ( smithsonian contributions to zoology 469 ) .\nbanks , j . , van buren , a . , cherel , y . and whitfield , j . b . ( 2006 ) genetic evidence for three species of rockhopper penguins eudyptes chrysocome . polar biol . 30 : 61 - 67 .\nbarrera , l . f . , bartels , a . and fundaci\u00f3n proaves de colombia ( 2010 ) a new species of antpitta ( family grallariidae ) from the colibr\u00ed del sol bird reserve , colombia . conserv . colomb . 13 : 8 - 24 .\nbeehler , b . m . , pratt , t . k . and zimmerman , d . a . ( 1986 ) birds of new guinea . princeton : princeton university press .\nbeehler , b . m . , prawiradilaga , d . m . , de fretes , y . and kemp , n . ( 2007 ) a new species of smoky honeyeater ( meliphagidae : melipotes ) from western new guinea . auk 124 : 1000 - 1009 .\nbenkman , c . w . ( 1994 ) comments on the ecology and status of the hispaniola crossbill ( loxia leucoptera megaplaga ) , with recommendations for its conservation . caribb . j . sci . 30 : 250 - 254 .\nbensch , s . and pearson , d . ( 2002 ) the large - billed reed warbler acrocephalus orinus revisited . ibis 144 : 259 - 267 .\nbenson , c . w . and irwin , m . p . s . ( 1965 ) a new species of tinker - barbet from northern rhodesia . bull . brit . ornithol . club 85 : 5 - 9 .\nberesford , p . and cracraft , j . ( 1999 ) speciation in african forest robins stiphrornis : species limits , phylogenetic relationships , and molecular biogeography . am . mus . novit . 3270 : 1 - 22 .\nberesford , p . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . and kiure , j . ( 2004 ) a new species of akalat ( sheppardia ) narrowly endemic in the eastern arc of tanzania . auk 121 : 23 - 34 .\nbergmann , h . - h . and schottler , b . h . ( 2001 ) tenerife robin - a species of its own ? . dutch birding 23 : 140 - 146 .\nbirdlife international ( 2000 ) threatened birds of the world . barcelona and cambridge : lynx edicions and birdlife international .\nbirdlife international ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . cambridge , u . k . : birdlife international .\nbirdlife international ( 2004 ) threatened birds of the world 2004 . cd - rom . cambridge , u . k . : birdlife international .\nboon , w . m . , kearvell , j . c . , daugherty , c . h . and chambers , g . k . ( 2000 ) molecular systematics of new zealand cyanoramphus parakeets : conservation of orange - fronted and forbes ' parakeets . bird conserv . int . 10 : 211 - 239 .\nbornschein , m . r . , maur\u00edcio , g . n . , belmonte - lopes , r . , mata , h . and bonatto , s . l . ( 2007 ) diamantina tapaculo , a new scytalopus endemic to the chapada diamantina , northeastern brazil ( passeriformes : rhinocryptidae ) . rev . bras . ornitol . 15 : 151 - 174 .\nbornschein , m . r . , reinert , b . l . and pichorim , m . ( 1998 ) descri\u00e7a1o , ecologia e conserva\u00e7a1o de um novo scytalopus ( rhinocryptidae ) so sul do brasil , com coment\u00e1rios sobre a morfologia da fam\u00edlia . ararajuba 6 : 3 - 36 .\nbornschein , m . r . , reinert , b . l . and teixeira , d . m . ( 1995 ) um novo formicariidae do sul do brasil ( aves , passeriformes ) . rio de janeiro : instituto igua\u00e7u de pesquisa e preserva\u00e7ao ambiental .\nborras , a . , cabrera , j and senar , j . c . ( 2008 ) local divergence between mediterranean crossbills occurring in two different species of pine . ardeola 55 : 169 - 177 .\nbourne , w . r . p . , ashmole , n . p . and simmons , k . e . l . ( 2003 ) a new subfossil night heron and a new genus for the extinct rail for ascension island , central tropical ocean . ardea 91 : 45 - 51 .\nbowie , r . c . k . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . , hackett , s . j . and crowe , t . m . ( 2004 ) systematics and biogeography of double - collared sunbirds from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . auk 121 : 660 - 681 .\nbowie , r . c . k . and fjelds\u00e5 , j . ( 2005 ) genetic and morphological evidence for two species in the udzungwa forest partridge xenoperdix udzungwensis . j . east afr . nat . hist . 94 : 191 - 201 .\nbowie , r . c . k . , voelker , g . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . , lens , l . , hackett , s . j . and crowe , t . m . ( 2005 ) systematics of the olive thrush turdus olivaceous species complex with reference to the taxonomic status of the endangered taita thrush t . helleri . j . avian biol . 36 : 391 - 404 .\nbrambilla , m . , janni , o . , guidali , f . and sorace , a ( 2008 ) song perception among incipient species as a mechanism for reproductive isolation . j . evol . biol . 21 : 651 - 657 .\nbrazil , m . a . ( 1991 ) the birds of japan . london : chistopher helm .\nbrooks , t . m . , evans , t . d . , dutson , g . c . l . , anderson , g . q . a . , asane , d . c . , timmins , r . j . and toledo , a . g . ( 1992 ) the conservation status of the birds of negros , philippines . bird conserv . int . 2 : 273 - 302 .\nbrown , l . h . , urban , e . k . and newman , k . ( 1982 ) the birds of africa vol i . london : academic press .\nbrowning , m . r . ( 1993 ) species limits of the cave swiftlets ( collocalia ) in micronesia . avocetta 17 : 101 - 106 .\nbunce , m . , szulkin , m . , lerner , h . r . l . , barnes , i . , shapiro , b . , cooper , a . and holdaway , r . n . ( 2005 ) ancient dna provides new insights into the evolutionary history of new zealand ' s extinct giant eagle . plos biol . 3 : 44 - 46 .\nburbidge , l . , colbourne , r . m . , roberston , h . a . and baker , a . j . ( 2003 ) molecular and other biological evidence supports the recognition of at least three species of brown kiwi . conserv . genet . 4 : 167 - 177 .\nbutchart , d . ; mundy , p . 1981 . cape vultures in botswana . babbler : 6 - 7 .\ncain , a . j . and galbraith , i . c . j . ( 1956 ) field notes on the birds of the eastern solomon islands . ibis 98 : 100 - 134 , 262 - 295 .\ncarant\u00f3n - ayala , d . and certuche - cubillos , k . ( 2010 ) a new species of antpitta ( grallariidae : grallaria ) from the northern sector of the western andes of colombia . ornitol . colomb . 9 : 56 - 70 .\ncarswell , m . , pomeroy , d . , reynolds , j . and tushabe , h . ( 2005 ) the bird atlas of uganda . oxford , u . k . : british ornithologists ' club & british ornithologists ' union .\nchapin , j . p . ( 1923 ) the olive ibis of dubus and its representative on sao thome . am . mus . novit . 84 : 1 - 9 .\nchappuis , c . and erard , c . ( 1993 ) species limits in the genus bleda bonaparte , 1857 ( aves : pycnonotidae ) . z . zool . syst . evolut . 31 : 280 - 299 .\ncheeseman , t . f . ( 1890 ) on the birds of the kermadec islands . trans . proc . n . z . inst . 23 : 216 - 226 .\ncheke , a . s . ( 1987 ) an ecological history of the mascarene islands , with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates . pp . 5 - 89 in diamond , a . w . , ed . studies of mascarene island birds . cambridge , u . k . : cambridge university press .\ncheke , a . s . ( 2005 ) naming segregates from the columba - streptopelia pigeons following dna studies on phylogeny . bull . brit . ornithol . club 125 : 293 - 295 .\ncheke , r . a . , mann , c . f . and allen , r . ( 2001 ) sunbirds : a guide to the sunbirds , flowerpeckers , spiderhunters and sugarbirds of the world . london : christopher helm .\ncheng tso - hsin ( 1987 ) a synopsis of the avifauna of china . hamburg and berlin : paul parey scientific publishers .\ncheng tso - hsin ( 1994 ) a complete checklist of species and subspecies of chinese birds . beijing : science press .\nchristidis , l . ( 1999 ) evolution and biogeography of the australian grasswrens , amytornis ( aves : maluridae ) : biochemical perspectives . aust . j . zool . 47 : 113 - 124 .\ncibois , a . , kalyakin , m . v . , han lian - xian and pasquet , e . ( 2002 ) molecular phylogenetics of babblers ( timaliidae ) : revaluation of the genera yuhina and stachyris . j . avian biol . 33 : 380 - 390 .\ncibois , a . , thibault , j . - c . and pasquet , e . ( 2004 ) biogeography of eastern polynesian monarchs ( pomarea ) : an endemic genus close to extinction . condor 106 : 837 - 851 .\ncibois , a . , thibault , j . - c . and pasquet , e . ( 2008 ) systematics of the extinct reed warblers acrocephalus of the society islands of eastern polynesia . ibis 150 : 365 - 376 .\nclancey , p . a . ( 1992 ) taxonomic comment on southeastern representatives of two wide - ranging african cisticolas . bull . brit . ornithol . club 112 : 218 - 225 .\nclancey , p . a . ( 1995 ) taxonomic relationships in namiban black tits parus spp . . bull . brit . ornithol . club 115 : 181 - 185 .\nclancey , p . a . ( 1995 ) the taxonomy of the stactolaema anchietae biogeographical unit of southern savanna woodland barbets . honeyguide 41 : 131 - 135 .\nclark , a . h . ( 1905 ) the west indian parrots . auk 22 : 337 - 344 .\nclark , w . s . ( 1996 ) the validity of archer ' s buzzard as a species . j . afr . raptor biol . 11 : 11 - 13 .\nclark , w . s . ( 1999 ) plumage differences and taxonomic status of three similar circaetus snake - eagles . bull . brit . ornithol . club 119 : 56 - 59 .\nclark , w . s . ( 2007 ) taxonomic status of the forest buzzard buteo oreophilus trizonatus . ostrich 78 : 101 - 104 .\ncleere , n . , kratter , a . w . , steadman , d . w . , braun , m . j . , huddleston , c . j . , filardi , c . e . and dutson , g . ( 2007 ) a new genus of frogmouth ( podargidae ) from the solomon islands - results from a taxonomic review of podargus ocellatus inexpectatus hartert 1901 . ibis 149 : 271 - 286 .\nclement , p . ( 1999 ) the african zoothera thrushes - identification , distribution and some problems with classification . bull . afr . bird club 6 : 17 - 24 .\nclement , p . , gregory , p . a . and moelicker , c . w . ( 2006 ) family monarchidae ( monarch - flycatchers ) : species accounts . pp . 280 - 329 in del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and christie , d . a . , eds . handbook of birds of the world 11 . barcelona , spain : lynx edicions .\nclouet , m . and wink , m . ( 2000 ) the buzzards of cape verde buteo ( buteo ) bannermani and socotra buteo ( buteo ) spp . : first results of a genetic analysis based on nucreotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene . alauda 68 : 55 - 58 .\ncoates , b . j . ( 1990 ) the birds of papua new guinea , 2 : passerines . alderley , australia : dove .\ncoelho , g . and silva , w . ( 1998 ) a new species of antilophia ( passeriformes : pipridae ) from chapada do araripe , cear\u00e1 , brazil . ararajuba 6 : 81 - 84 .\ncole , d . ( 1984 ) the specific epithet of turdus litsitsirupa ( smith ) . bokmakerie 36 : 11 - 12 .\ncollar , n . j . ( 1997 ) psittacidae ( parrots ) . pp . 280 - 477 in del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . , eds . handbook of the birds of the world . barcelona , spain : lynx edicions .\ncollar , n . j . ( 2004 ) species limits in some indonesian thrushes . forktail 20 : 71 - 87 .\ncollar , n . j . ( 2006 ) a partial revision of the asian babblers ( timaliidae ) . forktail 22 : 85 - 112 .\ncollar , n . j . ( 2006 ) a taxonomic reappraisal of the black - browed barbet megalaima oorti . forktail 22 : 170 - 173 .\ncollar , n . j . and andrew , p . ( 1988 ) birds to watch : the icbp world check - list of threatened birds . cambridge , u . k . : international council for bird preservation ( icbp technical publication 08 ) .\ncollar , n . j . and long , a . j . ( 1995 ) taxonomy and names of carpococcyx cuckoos from the greater sundas . forktail 11 : 135 - 150 .\ncollar , n . j . and stuart , s . n . ( 1985 ) threatened birds of africa and related islands : the icbp / iucn red data book . cambridge , u . k . : international council for bird preservation , and international union for conservation of nature and natural resources .\ncollar , n . j . and van balen , s . ( 2002 ) the blue - tailed trogon harpactes ( apalharpactes reinwardtii ) : species limits and conservation status . forktail 18 : 121 - 125 .\ncollar , n . j . , crosby , m . j . and stattersfield , a . j . ( 1994 ) birds to watch 2 : the world list of threatened birds . cambridge , u . k . : birdlife international ( birdlife conservation series 04 ) .\ncollar , n . j . , dingle , c . , gabremichael , m . n . and spottiswoode , c . n . ( 2009 ) taxonomic status of the degodi lark mirafra degodiensis , with notes on the voice of gillett ' s lark m . gilletti . . bull . brit . ornithol . club 129 : 49 - 56 .\ncollar , n . j . , gonzaga , l . p . , krabbe , n . , madro\u00f1o nieto , a . , naranjo , l . g . , parker , t . a . and wege , d . c . ( 1992 ) threatened birds of the americas : the icbp / iucn red data book . cambridge , u . k . : international council for bird preservation .\ncollar , n . j . , mallari , n . a . d . and tabaranza , b . r . j . ( 1999 ) threatened birds of the philippines : the haribon foundation / birdlife international red data book . makati city : bookmark .\ncoopmans , p . and krabbe , n . ( 2000 ) a new species of flycatcher ( tyrannidae : myiopagis ) from eastern ecuador and eastern peru . wilson bull . 112 : 305 - 443 .\ncowles , g . s . ( 1987 ) the fossil record . pp . 90 - 100 in diamond , a . w . , ed . studies of mascarene island birds . cambridge , u . k . : cambridge university press .\ncowles , g . s . ( 1994 ) a new genus , three new species and two new records of extinct holocene birds from r\u00e9union island , indian ocean . geobios 27 : 87 - 93 .\ncox , j . b . ( 1990 ) the enigmatic cooper ' s and cox ' s sandpiper . dutch birding 12 : 53 - 64 .\ncox , j . b . ( 1990 ) the measurements of cooper ' s sandpiper and the occurrence of a similar bird in australia . s . aust . ornithol . 30 : 169 - 181 ."]}
{"id": 2537, "summary": [{"text": "tyler 's tree frog or the southern laughing tree frog ( litoria tyleri ) is an arboreal tree frog .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is native to eastern australia .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it occurs from southeast queensland to the south coast of new south wales .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is generally a coastal species and is not found inland . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "tyler ' s tree frog", "paragraphs": ["tyler ' s tree frog ( litoria tyleri ) has large toe pads and webbed feet .\ntyler ' s tree frog ( litoria tyleri ) is similar - looking but has a golden iris .\nthe revealed tree frog or whirring tree frog , ( litoria revelata ) is a species of tree frog native to coastal eastern australia .\nthe peron ' s tree frog is found in northern victoria , new south wales and southern queensland .\nthe peron ' s tree frog breeds in temporary pools , dams and ditches and sometimes tries to breed in suburban fish ponds .\ngenus . the male peron ' s tree frog is about 44 - 53 mm , while females are 46 - 65 mm .\nthe peron ' s tree frog lives in most forest habitats but will also forage for food in open grassland and other open areas .\nthe peron ' s tree frog has a drill - like call , which has also been described as a ' maniacal cackle ' .\nsouthern laughing tree frog ( litoria tyleri ) by stephen zozaya d ' aguilar range , queensland .\naustralia has many species of tree frogs , here i film peron ' s tree frog in a breeding pond making a racket - the stuttered laugh call . also present but not seen were tyler ' s tree frog with the fast ' ark ark ark . . . . . ' call . there are a couple more frogs species in this small pond but i ' m not sure of them . filmed on the south coast of nsw on a warm october evening .\nsome frogs in the tropical rainforest are specially adapted for gliding from tree to tree or parachuting to the forest floor . typical of them is\nclose - up of frog ' s head showing eye , nostril , mouth and tympanum .\nbarker , j . , grigg , g . c . , and tyler , m . j . ( 1995 ) .\n. some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage , eating insects , smaller tadpoles , and fish . the cuban tree frog (\nmales make a high - pitched whirring noise , similar to the verreaux ' s tree frog ; calling occurs from spring to autumn , either from the ground or from vegetation bordering the breeding area .\ntree frogs are frogs of the family hylidae . they are of small size and more elegant in form than the true frogs ( family ranidae ) . many tree frogs have bright coloration .\n, a less toxic product , by most terrestrial adults . a few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic\nanother tactic used by some frogs is to\nscream\n, the sudden loud noise tending to startle the predator . the gray tree frog (\na barred frog provides surrogate eggs for cloning the southern gastric brooding frog . photo by bob beale\ni always wondered what these pale grey frogs were called - now i know - a\nperon ' s tree frog\n. thank you ! i have seen these around but have not heard any ' maniacal cackle ' : )\nplease don\u2019t let your boyfriend attempt to house a new baby bearded dragon with chameleons and tree frogs . it\u2019s a bad combination because they all require different habitat temperature and humidity parameters .\n. indonesia is the world ' s largest exporter of frog meat , exporting more than 5 , 000 tonnes of frog meat each year , mostly to france , belgium and luxembourg .\nthe southern gastric brooding frog ( rheobatrachus silus ) was discovered in 1972 in the mountains of queensland , australia . but the world only took notice of it in 1974 when mike tyler discovered how it reproduced .\narcher has several reasons for trying . there\u2019s the medical potential . there\u2019s the unusual nature of the frog\u2019s life cycle , which no other animal shares . but really , it\u2019s a more \u201ctranscendent reason\u201d that drives him . \u201cif we were responsible for the extinction of the species , deliberately or inadvertently , we have a moral responsibility or imperative to undo that if we can , \u201d he says .\narcher , however , is in the business of de - extinction . he\u2019s going to clone the southern gastric brooding frog back into life .\nunfortunately , this is not the case for a tree frog , box turtle , chameleon and bearded dragon . bearded dragons are from arid desert areas in australia . they require high heat and low humidity , and their daytime temperature range is 75 to 85 degrees fahrenheit with a focal hot spot of 110 degrees f . being amphibians , tree frogs require higher humidity and a cooler environment . if you tried to keep the temperature range high enough for the beardie , you would end up dehydrating your tree frog , resulting in its untimely demise . i don\u2019t know what kind of tree frog you have , so i cannot offer more specific recommendations . it would be safest to house your chameleons and tree frogs in separate habitats .\nthe frog prince\nis a fairy tale about a frog that turns into a handsome prince after he has rescued a princess ' s golden ball and she has taken him into her palace .\nstill , archer is hopeful . whenever he has gone through the same technical motions with a living frog , and inserted the species\u2019 nucleus into its own egg , the resulting embryo also paused at the same point . this suggests that there\u2019s something wrong with the team\u2019s techniques , rather than with tyler\u2019s frozen gastric brooding frog tissues . busted tissues would be a deal breaker but technological problems can be fixed , and archer has brought in stem cell expert robert lanza to help him do so . \u201cwe retain our vibrant optimism , \u201d he says .\nfrog populations have declined dramatically since the 1950s . more than one - third of frog species are considered to be threatened with\n. some frogs use their sticky tongues to catch fast - moving prey , while others push food into their mouths with their hands . a few species also eat plant matter ; the tree frog\nthe colour of a frog ' s skin is used for thermoregulation . in cool damp conditions , the colour will be darker than on a hot dry day . the\nwhen news broke about this weird strategy , other scientists were incredulous . tyler provided vivid accounts of a young frog poking its head out of mum\u2019s mouth like an amphibian russian doll , but even these were insufficient . \u201cit just seemed to many zoologists absolutely impossible , \u201d he later wrote in a book . \u201cthere were frequently insinuations that somehow we were wrong . \u201d\ntree frogs and some non - aquatic species have a rain call that they make on the basis of humidity cues prior to a shower .\nfrost , s . w . ( 1932 ) .\nnotes on feeding and molting in frogs\n.\ntree frogs are very acrobatic and can catch insects while hanging by one toe from a twig or clutching onto the blade of a windswept reed .\nthe peron ' s tree frog has the ability to quickly change colour . by day it is usually a pale green - grey colour that changes to a reddish brown with emerald green flecks at night . it also has bright black and yellow markings on its thighs . it has a cross - shaped pupil and a silver iris .\nis a common defensive mechanism in frogs . most camouflaged frogs are nocturnal ; during the day , they seek out a position where they can blend into the background and remain undetected . some frogs have the ability to change colour , but this is usually restricted to a small range of colours . for example , white ' s tree frog (\nstuart , s . n . ; chanson , j . s . ; cox , n . a . ; young , b . e . ; rodrigues , a . s . l . ; fischman , d . l . ; waller , r . w . ( 2004 ) .\nstatus and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide\n.\nvancompernolle , s . e . ; taylor , r . j . ; oswald - richter , k . ; jiang , j . ; youree , b . e . ; bowie , j . h . ; tyler , m . j . ; conlon , m . ; wade , d . ; et al . ( 2005 ) .\nhudson , n . j . ; lehnert , s . a . ; ingham , a . b . ; symonds , b . ; franklin , c . e . ; harper , g . s . ( 2005 ) .\nlessons from an estivating frog : sparing muscle protein despite starvation and disuse\n.\nestrada , alberto r . ; hedges , s . blair ( 1996 ) .\nat the lower size limit in tetrapods : a new diminutive frog from cuba ( leptodactylidae : eleutherodactylus )\n.\nperon ' s tree frog is one of the most variably coloured frogs in australia , with the ability to change colour in less than one hour . it varies in shades of grey and brown , where its lightest is almost white . the frog has mottled yellow and black thighs , armpits , and groin . occasionally , emerald spots are found on the back , which increase in number with age . a characteristic uncommon in the genus\nand a frog deprived of its lungs can maintain its body functions without them .\nford , l . s . ; cannatella , d . c . ( 1993 ) .\nthe major clades of frogs\n.\nanderson , jason s . ; reisz , robert r . ; scott , diane ; fr\u00f6bisch , nadia b . ; sumida , stuart s . ( 2008 ) .\na stem batrachian from the early permian of texas and the origin of frogs and salamanders\n.\n, where they scramble around on the branches , twigs , and leaves , sometimes never coming down to earth . the\ntrue\ntree frogs belong to the family hylidae , but members of other frog families have independently adopted an arboreal habit , a case of\nsurface rendering of the head of the frog atelopus franciscus , with ear parts highlighted .\nto clone the gastric brooding frog , the team first needed its dna . archer called up mike tyler , who rummaged through his freezers and found some old tissue samples . they were in shoddy condition\u2014just bits of frog dropped in a container , without any antifreeze to protect them . the cells should have been useless , ruptured sacks but they had somehow stayed intact . \u201cwe thought it was worth a try , \u201d archer says .\nfederle , w . ; barnes , w . j . p . ; baumgartner , w . ; drechsler , p . ; smith , j . m . ( 2006 ) .\nwet but not slippery : boundary friction in tree frog adhesive toe pads\n.\nmarjanovi\u0107 , d . ; laurin , m . ( 2009 ) .\nthe origin ( s ) of modern amphibians : a commentary\n.\nemerson , s . b . ; diehl , d . ( 1980 ) .\ntoe pad morphology and mechanisms of sticking in frogs\n.\nsome species of frog have adaptations that allow them to survive in oxygen deficient water . the\nthen , good news ! a second species\u2014the northern gastric brooding frog ( rheobatrachus vitellinus ) \u2014was discovered in 1984 in queensland\u2019s eungella national park . but a year later , almost before anyone could uncork the celebratory champagne , it too went extinct .\nit took many years , field surveys and photographs to persuade the naysayers . tyler eventually published a full description of the frog and its behaviour in 1981 . ( nature rejected the paper because they\u2014wrongly\u2014deemed it uninteresting . ) the medical community took notice . if this creature could deliberately stop making acid in its stomach , it might provide new ways of treating stomach ulcers or helping people who go through stomach surgeries to heal more quickly . several teams started studying the frog .\nduring the evolutionary history of the frog , several different groups have independently taken to the air .\nis so powerful , one frog contains enough poison to kill an estimated 22 , 000 mice .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nthe frog has a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain , spinal cord and nerves . many parts of the frog ' s brain correspond with those of humans . it consists of two olfactory lobes , two cerebral hemispheres , a pineal body , two optic lobes , a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata . muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the\nthis might seem like an over - reaction . after all , millions of frog eggs divide into embryos every day , as they have done since before dinosaurs walked the earth . but this egg was special . archer\u2019s team of scientists had loaded it with the dna of the southern gastric brooding frog \u2014a bizarre creature that has been extinct for almost 30 years .\nthis article is about the group of amphibians . for other uses , see frog ( disambiguation ) .\nyoutube video of a frog eating a caterpillar gets close to 1 . 5 million views in three days\nnauwelaerts , s . ; schollier , j . ; aerts , p . ( 2004 ) .\na functional analysis of how frogs jump out of water\n.\nevery time the team has done this , the ball of cells starts to turn inwards on itself\u2014a crucial moment called gastrulation\u2014and stops . that\u2019s where they are for now . they have the beginnings of a gastric brooding frog , but are a long way from even a simple tadpole .\n, united states . in asia , frog legs are consumed in china , vietnam , thailand and indonesia .\nare farmed and consumed on a large scale in some areas of china . frog legs are part of chinese\nnational recovery plan for the southern corroboree frog ( pseudophryne corroboree ) : 5 . previous recovery actions\ntree frog with a small head and large eyes . mottled grey to brown with fine granular skin , sometimes with a few green spots on back . eye has golden coloured iris with cross shaped pupil . the underside is cream or yellowish . the hind surface of thighs is yellow and dark brown / black . large toe discs .\nlet\u2019s assume archer succeeds . where would the new generation gastric brooding frogs live ? their habitat in the queensland mountains is being threatened by feral pigs , invasive weeds and polluted or diverted waters . and then there\u2019s the chytrid fungus , which has spread to almost every part of the world . it would be like releasing lazarus into an ecological dystopia .\nwhether a frog sees in colour is debatable but it has been shown that it responds positively to blue light , perhaps because that colour is associated with bodies of water that can provide refuge when the frog feels threatened .\nthe team then needed something to put the dna into\u2014the egg of another frog . he chose a barred frog \u2014a reasonably close relative that produces large eggs of the right size . the downside\u2014and it\u2019s a big one\u2014is that barred frogs only lay eggs once a year . \u201cwe had a few times when we went in and the frogs weren\u2019t laying , and that was that for the year , \u201d says archer .\n, as well as to water . there are blood vessels near the surface of the skin and when a frog is underwater , oxygen diffuses directly into the blood . when not submerged , a frog breathes by a process known as\nthe call or croak of a frog is unique to its species . frogs create this sound by passing air through the\nafter metamorphosis , young adults may disperse into terrestrial habitats or continue to live in water . almost all frog species are\nso i just found this little guy in my backyard . i have no idea about frogs only snakes haha anyone know what it is ? or is it just a garden frog ? it ' s eyes where crazy looking . i ' ve never seen one like this in my yard before haha . thanks !\nsandberger , l . ; hillers , a . ; doumbia , j . ; loua , n - s . ; brede c . ; r\u00f6del , m - o . ( 2010 ) .\nwarkentin , i . g . ; bickford , d . ; sodhi , n . s . ; corey , j . a . ( 2009 ) .\neating frogs to extinction\n.\ncan you put chameleons and tree frogs in the same cage together ? i ' ve also heard that you\u2019re not supposed to hold chameleons all that much . is that true ? also my dumb boyfriend is wanting to buy a bearded dragon , and he wants to keep it at my house . the only problem is he is trying to put it in the same cage as the chameleons and tree frogs . even though the cage is big enough , i want to know if it is ok to do .\nthe grip of the male frog during amplexus stimulates the female to release eggs , usually wrapped in jelly , as spawn .\nnamed 2008 as the\nyear of the frog\nin order to draw attention to the conservation issues faced by them .\nbecause frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse , they have raised the interest of biochemists as a\nnatural pharmacy\n. the alkaloid\n) has short , slim hind limbs unsuited to jumping . it can move fast by using a running gait in which the two hind legs are used alternately . slow - motion photography shows , unlike a horse that can trot or gallop , the frog ' s gait remained similar at slow , medium , and fast speeds .\na canadian study conducted in 2006 suggested heavy traffic in their environment was a larger threat to frog populations than was habitat loss .\nsome of the arguments against de - extinction don\u2019t apply to the gastric brooding frog . unlike the woolly mammoth or passenger pigeon , the frog isn\u2019t a social creature that would need companions to learn from or travel among . unlike the mammoth , which would need to be born inside an elephant , the frog doesn\u2019t need a complicated surrogate parent . and unlike many of the candidates for de - extinction , like the moa or saber - toothed cat , the frog is small and can be reared in a laboratory . archer has so much frozen tissue that once he successfully clones one frog , he could make a practically infinite supply of them .\narcher\u2019s goal is simple : to bring the extinct gastric brooding frog back from oblivion and , in doing so , provide hope for the hundreds of other frogs that are heading that way . getting the embryo was a milestone and archer is buoyantly optimistic that he\u2019ll cross the finish line soon . lazarus , he says , will rise again .\n. this allows the frog to climb on smooth surfaces , but the system does not function efficiently when the pads are excessively wet .\nalthough few species are toxic enough to be used for this purpose . at least two non - poisonous frog species in tropical america (\nshubin , n . h . ; jenkins , f . a . jr ( 1995 ) .\nan early jurassic jumping frog\n.\n, shows how each frog family is related to other families , with each node representing a point of common ancestry . it is based on frost\n) digs into the rear of a tadpole , causing a rearrangement of the limb bud cells and the frog develops an extra leg or two .\nthey may be the only part of an otherwise submerged frog to protrude from the water . each eye has closable upper and lower lids and a\ndifferent species of frog use a number of methods of moving around including jumping , running , walking , swimming , burrowing , climbing and gliding .\nmany frogs are able to absorb water and oxygen directly through the skin , especially around the pelvic area , but the permeability of a frog ' s skin can also result in water loss . glands located all over the body exude mucus which helps keep the skin moist and reduces evaporation . some glands on the hands and chest of males are specialized to produce sticky secretions to aid in\n. similar glands in tree frogs produce a glue - like substance on the adhesive discs of the feet . some arboreal frogs reduce water loss by having a waterproof layer of skin , and several south american species coat their skin with a waxy secretion . others frogs have adopted behaviours to conserve water , including becoming\nhave become elongated to add to the leg length and allow the frog to push against the ground for a longer period on take - off . the\na distress call , emitted by some frogs when they are in danger , is produced with the mouth open resulting in a higher - pitched call . it is typically used when the frog has been grabbed by a predator and may serve to distract or disorientate the attacker so that it releases the frog .\nis frog - like , being broad with large eye sockets , but the fossil has features diverging from modern frogs . these include a longer body with more\na frog may be startled by an unexpected noise but it will not usually take any action until it has located the source of the sound by sight .\nfeatures michigan j . frog , that will only dance and sing for the demolition worker who opens his time capsule , but will not perform in public .\na frog ' s skin is protective , has a respiratory function , can absorb water and helps control body temperature . it has many glands , particularly on the head and back , which often exude distasteful and toxic substances . the secretion is often sticky and helps keep the skin moist , protects against the entry of moulds and bacteria , and make the animal slippery and more able to escape from predators .\na frog of the family hylidae , of small size and more elegant in form than the true frogs ( family ranidae ) , often with a bright coloration .\nmany species also have a territorial call that is used to drive away other males . all of these calls are emitted with the mouth of the frog closed .\nin small pools , predators are mostly absent and competition between tadpoles becomes the variable that constrains their survival . certain frog species avoid this competition by making use of smaller\n) was placed on a treadmill which was turned at varying speeds . by measuring the toad ' s uptake of oxygen it was found that hopping was an inefficient use of resources during sustained locomotion but was a useful strategy during short bursts of high - intensity activity .\n) on being approached by a snake is to crouch down and remain immobile . this is usually successful , with the snake passing by and the toad remaining undetected . if it is encountered by the snake ' s head , however , the toad hops away before crouching defensively .\nlips has another concern : resurrection projects take up a lot of money . archer concedes that cloning research is initially expensive , but he says that costs will eventually fall . \u201ci can\u2019t think of what cloning dolly must have cost and now it\u2019s a routine technique , \u201d he says .\na different call is emitted by a male frog or unreceptive female when mounted by another male . this is a distinct chirruping sound and is accompanied by a vibration of the body .\nslow - motion photography shows that the muscles have passive flexibility . they are first stretched while the frog is still in the crouched position , then they are contracted before being stretched again to launch the frog into the air . the fore legs are folded against the chest and the hind legs remain in the extended , streamlined position for the duration of the jump .\n) was first widely used in laboratories in pregnancy tests in the first half of the 20th century . a sample of urine from a pregnant woman injected into a female frog induces it to lay\n) are traditionally used by native colombians to poison the darts they use for hunting . the tip of the projectile is rubbed over the back of the frog and the dart is launched from a\n, environmental factors contributing to rates of disease , and vulnerability to attack by parasites . malformations impair mobility and the individuals may not survive to adulthood . an increase in the number of frogs eaten by birds may actually increase the likelihood of parasitism of other frogs , because the trematode ' s complex lifecycle includes the\n. in some cases , the full leg still grows , but in others it does not , although the frog may still live out its normal lifespan with only three limbs . occasionally , a parasitic\nfrost , d . r . ; grant , t . ; faivovich , j . n . ; bain , r . h . ; haas , a . ; haddad , c . l . f . b . ; de s\u00e1 , r . o . ; channing , a . ; wilkinson , m . ; donnellan , s . c . ; raxworthy , c . j . ; campbell , j . a . ; blotto , b . l . ; moler , p . ; drewes , r . c . ; nussbaum , r . a . ; lynch , j . d . ; green , d . m . ; wheeler , w . c . ( 2006 ) .\nthe amphibian tree of life\n.\nlike other amphibians , the life cycle of a frog normally starts in water with an egg that hatches into a limbless larva with gills , commonly known as a tadpole . after further growth , during which it develops limbs and lungs , the tadpole undergoes metamorphosis in which its appearance and internal organs are rearranged . after this it is able to leave the water as a miniature , air - breathing frog .\nfrogs are valued as food by humans and also have many cultural roles in literature , symbolism and religion . frog populations have declined significantly since the 1950s . more than one third of species are considered to be\nat the end of the tadpole stage , a frog undergoes metamorphosis in which its body makes a sudden transition into the adult form . this metamorphosis typically lasts only 24 hours , and is initiated by production of the\nwhen a frog shoots out its tongue to catch an insect it is reacting to a small moving object that it cannot see well and must line it up precisely beforehand because it shuts its eyes as the tongue is extended .\nthe distant vision of a frog is better than its near vision . calling frogs will quickly become silent when they see an intruder or even a moving shadow but the closer an object is , the less well it is seen .\nthat amplifies the sound . species of frog that lack vocal sacs and that do not have a loud call tend to inhabit areas close to constantly noisy , flowing water . they need to use an alternative means to communicate . the\n) lays her eggs on the forest floor . the male frog guards them from predation and carries water in his cloaca to keep them moist . when they hatch , the female moves the tadpoles on her back to a water - holding\nand its population crashed in 1987 , along with about 20 other frog species in the area . this could not be linked directly to human activities , such as deforestation , and was outside the range of normal fluctuations in population size .\nfrom early in its development , a gill pouch covers the tadpole ' s gills and front legs . the lungs soon start to develop and are used as an accessory breathing organ . some species go through metamorphosis while still inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs . tadpoles lack true teeth , but the jaws in most species have two elongated , parallel rows of small ,\n) are directly exposed or may be covered by a layer of skin and are visible as a circular area just behind the eye . the size and distance apart of the eardrums is related to the frequency and wavelength at which the frog calls . in some species such as the bullfrog , the size of the tympanum indicates the sex of the frog ; males have tympani that are larger than their eyes while in females , the eyes and tympani are much the same size .\nthe main reason for calling is to allow male frogs to attract a mate . males may call individually or there may be a chorus of sound where numerous males have converged on breeding sites . females of many frog species , such as the\nand resting in a water - conserving position . some frogs may also rest in large groups with each frog pressed against its neighbours . this reduces the amount of skin exposed to the air or a dry surface , and thus reduces water loss .\nbecause predation of eggs and larvae is high in large water bodies , some frog species started to lay their eggs on land . once this happened , the desiccating terrestrial environment demands that one or both parents keep them moist to ensure their survival .\nthe skin is shed every few weeks . it usually splits down the middle of the back and across the belly , and the frog pulls its arms and legs free . the sloughed skin is then worked towards the head where it is quickly eaten .\niskandar , d . t . ; evans , b . j . ; mcguire , j . a . ( 2014 ) .\na novel reproductive mode in frogs : a new species of fanged frog with internal fertilization and birth of tadpoles\n.\n) are also used for this purpose . these are less toxic and less abundant than the golden poison frog . they are impaled on pointed sticks and may be heated over a fire to maximise the quantity of poison that can be transferred to the dart .\nwhile these smaller rearing sites are free from competition , they also lack sufficient nutrients to support a tadpole without parental assistance . frog species that changed from the use of larger to smaller phytotelmata have evolved a strategy of providing their offspring with nutritive but unfertilized eggs .\narcher sees it slightly differently\u2014the plight of living species gives him even more recourse to bring back extinct ones . \u201cno matter how many resources we put into looking after the environment , wildlife is no longer safe in the wild , \u201d he says . \u201cif we accept that maintaining biodiversity is important , we can\u2019t assume that if you whack a fence up , everything\u2019s going to be okay . you need to explore lots of parallel strategies . \u201d\ntwo years ago , mike archer from the university of new south wales looked down a microscope and saw that a single fertilised frog egg had divided in two . then , it did it again . and again . eventually , the egg produced an embryo containing hundreds of cells .\nfrogs that live in or visit water have adaptations that improve their swimming abilities . the hind limbs are heavily muscled and strong . the webbing between the toes of the hind feet increases the area of the foot and helps propel the frog powerfully through the water . members of the family\nare considered\ntrue toads\n. the use of the term\nfrog\nin common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi - aquatic and have smooth , moist skins ; the term\ntoad\ngenerally refers to species that are terrestrial with dry , warty skins .\nin the throat . in most calling frogs , the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs , membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth , that distend during the amplification of the call . some frog calls are so loud that they can be heard up to a mile away .\nlays up to 40 eggs on the ground , where they are guarded by the male . when the tadpoles are about to hatch , they are engulfed by the male , which carries them around inside his much - enlarged vocal sac . here they are immersed in a frothy , viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs . they remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis , after which they move into the male ' s mouth and emerge .\nhave pads located on the ends of their toes to help grip vertical surfaces . these are not suction pads , the surface consisting instead of columnar cells with flat tops with small gaps between them lubricated by mucous glands . when the frog applies pressure , the cells adhere to irregularities on the surface and the grip is maintained through\narcher is unfazed . \u201cwe can ultimately fix the wild , \u201d he says . \u201ceven if we had to maintain most of the world\u2019s wildlife in artificial environments , that would be a thousand times better than to let them slide off the brink . \u201d the frogs can wait until their homes are ready for them . in the meantime , scientists could perhaps engineer or breed them to be resistant to the chytrid fungus , or carry out experimental releases to see whether they would actually find a niche in this brave , new world .\nis increased . this means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner . this survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold - blooded and have no need to generate heat .\namong prolonged breeders , males usually arrive at the breeding site first and remain there for some time whereas females tend to arrive later and depart soon after they have spawned . this means that males outnumber females at the water ' s edge and defend territories from which they expel other males . they advertise their presence by calling , often alternating their croaks with neighbouring frogs . larger , stronger males tend to have deeper calls and maintain higher quality territories . females select their mates at least partly on the basis of the depth of their voice .\n. it then travels on through the ureters , which are consequently known as urinogenital ducts . there is no penis , and sperm is ejected from the cloaca directly onto the eggs as the female lays them . the ovaries of the female frog are beside the kidneys and the eggs pass down a pair of oviducts and through the cloaca to the exterior .\nfaivovich , j . ; haddad , c . f . b . ; garcia , p . c . a . ; frost , d . r . ; campbell , j . a . ; wheeler , w . c . ( 2005 ) .\nsystematic review of the frog family hylidae , with special reference to hylinae : phylogenetic analysis and revision\n.\nonce the team had their surrogate egg , they had to destroy the native nucleus so they could insert one from the frozen gastric brooding frog tissues . they either did the job manually with a very fine instrument , or bombarded the egg with ultraviolet ( uv ) radiation . they tried both techniques on hundreds of eggs and one of these eventually divided into an early embryo with hundreds of cells .\n, located on the sides of their heads behind the eyes and other glands elsewhere on their bodies . these glands secrete mucus and a range of toxins that make frogs slippery to hold and distasteful or poisonous . if the noxious effect is immediate , the predator may cease its action and the frog may escape . if the effect develops more slowly , the predator may learn to avoid that species in future .\nthe structure of the feet and legs varies greatly among frog species , depending in part on whether they live primarily on the ground , in water , in trees or in burrows . frogs must be able to move quickly through their environment to catch prey and escape predators , and numerous adaptations help them to do so . most frogs are either proficient at jumping or are descended from ancestors that were , with much of the\nbeing cold - blooded , frogs have to adopt suitable behaviour patterns to regulate their temperature . to warm up , they can move into the sun or onto a warm surface ; if they overheat , they can move into the shade or adopt a stance that exposes the minimum area of skin to the air . this posture is also used to prevent water loss and involves the frog squatting close to the substrate with its hands and feet tucked under its chin and body .\n, the larvae of which damage and kill the canes . initial results in many of these countries were positive , but it later became apparent that the toads upset the ecological balance in their new environments . they bred freely , competed with native frog species , ate bees and other harmless native invertebrates , had few predators in their adopted habitats , and poisoned pets , carnivorous birds , and mammals . in many of these countries , they are now regarded both as pests and\nat first sight , frogs seem rather defenceless because of their small size , slow movement , thin skin , and lack of defensive structures , such as spines , claws or teeth . many use camouflage to avoid detection , the skin often being spotted or streaked in neutral colours that allow a stationary frog to merge into its surroundings . some can make prodigious leaps , often into water , that help them to evade potential attackers , while many have other defensive adaptations and strategies .\nfrogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed . these teeth are very weak , and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey . instead , the frog uses its sticky , cleft tongue to catch flies and other small moving prey . the tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth , free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front . it can be shot out and retracted at great speed .\nthis frog reaches 40 mm in length . it is cream to red - brown on the back , with a darker band running down the middle . males turn bright yellow in colour during the breeding season . a dark strip runs from the nostril to the shoulder , across the tympanum . the back the legs are red and the thigh is yellow - orange . some large black dots occur on the thigh and the backs of legs . the belly is cream and the iris is golden .\nstill , funding is a zero - sum game . there\u2019s only so much cash to go around and conservationists need it to monitor animals that are still alive , work out why they are disappearing , and develop ways of saving them . there are plenty of cases where we know how to save a species , but can\u2019t afford to do so . \u201ci can\u2019t help but think that we can\u2019t even take care of what we\u2019ve got , and now we\u2019re going to invest in very expensive techniques to recover a handful of special - interest species that may or may not be able to survive in the wild on their own , \u201d says lips . as a best - case scenario , she hopes that these high - profile projects will help to drum up interest in saving a broader swathe of imperilled wildlife .\n) normally sink to the bottom of the pond where they lie , semi - immersed in mud but still able to access the oxygen dissolved in the water . their metabolism slows down and they live on their energy reserves . some frogs can even survive being frozen . ice crystals form under the skin and in the body cavity but the essential organs are protected from freezing by a high concentration of glucose . an apparently lifeless , frozen frog can resume respiration and the heart beat can restart when conditions warm up .\nsimply put , the mother frog converts her stomachs into a womb . she swallows her own eggs and stops making hydrochloric acid in her stomach to avoid digesting her own young . around 20 to 25 tadpoles hatch inside her and the mucus from their gills continues to keep the acid at bay . while the tadpoles grow over the next six weeks , mum never eats . her stomach bloats so much that her lungs collapse , forcing her to breathe through her skin . eventually , she gives birth to her brood through \u201cpropulsive vomiting\u201d , spewing them into the world as fully - formed froglets .\nthe muscular system has been similarly modified . the hind limbs of ancestral frogs presumably contained pairs of muscles which would act in opposition ( one muscle to flex the knee , a different muscle to extend it ) , as is seen in most other limbed animals . however , in modern frogs , almost all muscles have been modified to contribute to the action of jumping , with only a few small muscles remaining to bring the limb back to the starting position and maintain posture . the muscles have also been greatly enlarged , with the main leg muscles accounting for over 17 % of the total mass of the frog .\neastern coast of australia from south - eastern queensland to southern new south wales . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 73000 km2\nvariety of habitats , but usually wet and dry forests . often found in trees and other vegetation overhanging permanent ponds . spring breeder . male call from vegetation surrounding a pond where spawn is deposited and tadpoles develop .\nj - m hero et al . ( m . hero at mailbox . gu . edu . au ) , griffith university\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthis australian endemic occurs along the eastern coast of australia from southeastern queensland to southern new south wales . the extent of occurrence of the species is approximately 73 , 000 km 2 .\nthe species occurs in a wide range of habitats : melaleuca woodland , upland , and lowland wet sclerophyll forest . it is often found in trees and other vegetation overhanging permanent ponds . it is a spring breeder . males call from vegetation surrounding still water where spawn is deposited and tadpoles develop . it breeds in permanent and semi - permanent water . it also occurs in pasture lands .\nthis species was accidentally transferred to the genus nyctimystes due to confusion between litora michaeltyleri and l . tyleri . this error is corrected here .\n( errata version published in 2015 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t41113a85820328 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 29ccf6db - 4cad - 4878 - b70c - 7b7e59d0dfde\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 69f078cf - b0ff - 4842 - b5dc - 1a2fcd48c1e2\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a591355f - 030a - 401d - 89ce - 96258d822782\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c35b38e7 - d304 - 4b80 - 8a62 - 2b8ca054e27d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f5f7c98d - 045f - 42b7 - b88b - d3f65aecd905\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 74d6d114 - 993d - 4e74 - 9786 - 245b68e4943d\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 291914\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nan eye - catching video preview image , or thumbnail , is vital for getting folks interested in your video . pick the perfect one with our thumbnail chooser .\nthese frogs are also in south australia we go to the river murray quite often ( morgan ) & they are everywhere there . . .\nthis is another species calling heavily around our dam . during the breeding season the males adopt this brilliant yellow colour , in contrast to the grey / brown they are for the rest of the year .\nthis page was last edited on 27 may 2018 , at 07 : 47 .\ntext is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .\nthe sooner you make your first five thousand mistakes the sooner you will be able to correct them .\nthis page was last modified on 1 august 2008 , at 18 : 56 .\nand over one hundred and twenty are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s .\nhas no taxonomic justification . from a classification perspective , all members of the order anura are frogs , but only members of the family\nspecies that fit within the anuran definition . the characteristics of anuran adults include : 9 or fewer presacral vertebrae , the presence of a urostyle formed of fused vertebrae , no tail , a long and forward - sloping ilium , shorter fore limbs than hind limbs ,\n, by far the largest group , which contains the remaining 24 families of modern frogs , including most common species throughout the world . the neobatrachia suborder is further divided into the two superfamilies\n, and the morphology of tadpoles . while this classification is largely accepted , relationships among families of frogs are still debated .\nare similar in forming hybrids . these are less fertile than their parents , giving rise to a\nthe origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians are hotly debated . a\n. this would help account for the relative scarcity of amphibian fossils from the period before the groups split .\nseemed to have originated in africa / india , the salamanders in east asia and the caecilians in tropical pangaea .\nother researchers , while agreeing with the main thrust of this study , questioned the choice of calibration points used to synchronise the data . they proposed that the date of lissamphibian diversification should be placed in the\n, rather less than 300 million years ago , a date in better agreement with the palaeontological data .\nwas estimated as taking place 292 million years ago , rather later than most molecular studies suggest , with the caecilians splitting off 239 million years ago .\n) ,\nto jump\n) is the name of the total group that includes modern frogs in the order anura as well as their close fossil relatives , the\nproto - frogs\nor\nstem - frogs\n. the common features possessed by these proto - frogs include 14\n. the tail has separate vertebrae unlike the fused urostyle or coccyx in modern frogs . the tibia and fibula bones are also separate , making it probable that\nfrom the middle jurassic is slightly younger , about 155\u2013170 million years old . the main evolutionary changes in this species involved the shortening of the body and the loss of the tail . the evolution of modern anura likely was complete by the jurassic period . since then , evolutionary changes in\nevidence suggests they also inhabited antarctica in an earlier era when the climate was warmer ."]}
{"id": 2544, "summary": [{"text": "isomma is a genus of dragonflies in the family gomphidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is endemic to madagascar and contains only two species : isomma elouardi legrand , 2003 isomma hieroglyphicum selys , 1892", "topic": 26}], "title": "isomma", "paragraphs": ["isomma elouardi occurs on madagascar , but the range of the species is unknown .\nscattered collection localities are known for isomma hieroglyphicum , in eastern madagascar from the north to the south of the island .\nisomma is a genus of dragonfly in the family gomphidae . it is endemic to madagascar and contains only two species :\njustification : only the type specimens with type locality\nmadagascar\nare known for isomma elouardi . therefore the species cannot be assessed in any category other than data deficient .\njustification : in the 2006 red list assessment for isomma hieroglyphicum , the species was assessed as data deficient . new records were available for the previous assessment ( 2008 ) from scattered localities in eastern madagascar from the north to the south of the island . therefore the species is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a threatened or the near threatened category . no new records can be added for this assessment . therefore the species is assessed as least concern .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nschorr , m . and paulson , d . 2017 . world odonata list . revision 18 march 2017 . tacoma , washington , usa available at : urltoken .\nbased on the biology of the family , this species is likely to use small streams and rivers .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsmall streams and rivers . specimens in southeastern madagascar were observed along running waters in forested areas .\nthe species may be affected by deforestation in the region , but more data are required to confirm this .\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? 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{"id": 2547, "summary": [{"text": "the southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) is a species of large-tooth flounders native to the eastern and gulf coasts of the united states .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "it is a popular sports fish and is the largest and most commercially valuable flounder in the western north atlantic ocean and gulf of mexico .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "its range is north carolina to the yucatan peninsula .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is a \" left-eyed flounder \" , meaning the left side is pigmented and is the \" up side \" .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the body color is brown with diffuse , unocellated spots and blotches . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "paralichthys lethostigma", "paragraphs": ["southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma . image courtesy of south carolina department of natural resources .\nthe southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , occurs from north carolina south through florida and the gulf of mexico to texas .\nphysiological performance of juvenile southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma ( jordan and gilbert , 1884 ) , in chronic and episodic hypoxia .\nphysiological performance of juvenile southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma ( jordan and gilbert , 1884 ) , in chronic and episodic hypoxia . - pubmed - ncbi\nparalichthys : parallel fish ( jordan and evermann 1898 ) ; lethostigma : forgetting spots , in reference to the absence of conspicuous spots on the body .\nnall , l . e . 1979 . age and growth of the southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) in the northern gulf of mexico with nores on paralichthys albigutta . master ' s thesis , florida state univ . , tallahassee .\njenkins we , smith ti . 1999 . pond nursery production of southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) and weaning to commercial diets . aquaculture 176 : 173 - 180 .\nthe southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , occurs from north carolina south through florida and the gulf of mexico to texas . the southern flounder occurs throughout the indian river lagoon .\nfox ls , white cj . 1969 . feeding habits of the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma . barataria bay , louisiana . proc la acad sci 32 : 31 - 38 .\ndenson mr , smith ti . 1997 . diet and light intensity effects on survival , growth and pigmentation of southern flounder paralichthys lethostigma . j world aquacult soc 28 : 366 - 373 .\ntable 4 . summary data for the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , recreational fishery in eastern florida waters from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .\nsmith ti , denson mr , heyward ld , jenkins we , carter lm . 1999 . salinity effects on early life stages of southern flounder paralichthys lethostigma . j world aquacult soc 30 : 236 - 244 .\nburke js , miller jm , hoss de . 1991 . immigration and settlement pattern of paralichthys dentatus and p . lethostigma in an estuarine nursery ground , north carolina , usa . netherlands j sea res 27 : 393 - 405 .\npowell ab , henley t . 1995 . egg and larval development of laboratory - reared gulf flounder , paralichthys albigutta , and southern flounder , p . lethostigma ( pisces , paralichthyidae ) . fish bull 93 : 504 - 515 .\nstokes gm . 1977 . life history studies of southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) and gulf flounder ( p . albigutta ) in the aransas bay area of texas . texas parks and wildlife dept technical series 25 . 37 p .\npowell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1979 . food of paralichthys dentatus and p . lethostigma ( pisces : bothidae ) in north carolina estuaries . estuaries 2 ( 4 ) : 276 - 279 .\npowell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1979 . food of paralichthys dentatus and p . lethostigma ( pisces : bothidae ) in north carolina estuaries . estuaries 2 ( 4 ) : 276 - 279 .\nfox , l . s . , and c . j . white . 1969 . feeding habits of the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , in barataria bay , la . proc . la . acad . sci . 32 : 31 - 38 .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of paralichthys lethostigma are found here .\np . lethostigma is one of the largest and most commercially valuable flounders in the western north atlantic ( burke et al . 1991 ) .\nreagan jr re , wingo wm . 1985 . species profiles : life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( gulf of mexico ) - southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) ( no . np - 5901733 ) . mississippi state univ . , mississippi state ( usa ) . dept of wildlife and fisheries .\npam fuller , and matt neilson , 2018 , paralichthys lethostigma jordan and gilbert , 1884 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 7 / 5 / 2011 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nparalichthys lethostigma is sometimes confused with p . albigutta , the gulf flounder . the two are easily distinguished based on the much smaller size of the gulf flounder , which grows only to 15 inches ( 38 cm ) . additionally , the gulf flounder has 3 ocellated spots : 2 vertically placed posterior to the pectoral fins , and 1 placed inside the base of the tail .\nparalichthys lethostigma is sometimes confused with p . albigutta , the gulf flounder . the two are easily distinguished based on the much smaller size of the gulf flounder , which grows only to 15 inches ( 38 cm ) . additionally , the gulf flounder has 3 ocellated spots : 2 vertically placed posterior to the pectoral fins , and 1 placed inside the base of the tail .\ndeubler , e . e . , jr . 1958 . a comparative study of the postlarvae of three flounders ( paralichthys ) in north carolina . copeia 1958 ( 2 ) : 112 - 116 .\nginsburg , i . 1952 . flounders of the genus paralichthys and related genera in american waters . fish . bull . ( u . s . ) 52 ( 71 ) : 267 - 351 .\npowell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1977 . distribution of paralichthid flounders ( bothidae : paralichthys ) in north carolina estuaries . chesapeake science 18 ( 4 ) 334 - 339 .\n( of paralichthys letostigma jordan & gilbert , 1884 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\npowell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1977 . distribution of paralichthid flounders ( bothidae : paralichthys ) in north carolina estuaries . chesapeake sci . 18 ( 4 ) : 334 - 339 .\nbody color is light to dark brown with diffuse non - ocellated dark spots and blotches . the blindside is white or dusky . p . lethostigma are characterized by the following meristic ( number of structures per body part ) counts :\nparalichthys lethostigma is distributed in the western north atlantic ocean , from the chesapeake bay south along the u . s . to the loxahatchee river , florida ; absent along the southern florida peninsula ; and in the gulf of mexico , from the west coast of florida at the caloosahatchee river estuary , and west from tampa bay along the entire u . s . gulf coast , and south to tuxpan , mexico ( gilbert 1986 , munroe 2002 , r . robertson pers . comm . 2014 ) .\npigmentation is first observed in middle - stage eggs , following blastopore closure . in larvae , pigmentation is more pronounced in the caudal area , being less developed overall in p . lethostigma than in its close relative p . albigutta , the gulf flounder ( powell and henley 1995 ) .\ndissolved oxygen p . lethostigma tolerates low dissolved oxygen concentrations ( less than 5 mg / l ) . however , in a laboratory study , postlarval southern flounder attempted avoidance when dissolved oxygen concentrations in culture vessels fell below 3 . 7 mg / l ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nadult p . lethostigma make extensive migrations from estuarine habitats in order to spawn in offshore waters . eggs of p . lethostigma are buoyant at 32 \u2030 , and sink at 29\u2030 , though data indicate that eggs that sink may still hatch . experiments conducted by smith et al . ( 1999 ) showed that eggs incubated in water with a salinity between 0 - 5 \u2030 all died within a day . eggs incubated at 10 \u2030 had greater hatching success ( 82 % ) , but all larvae moved sluggishly and died shortly after hatching . eggs incubated in water of salinities between 15 - 35 \u2030 were normal in appearance and were active . however , larvae reared through metamorphosis to the juvenile stage showed greater mortality at 15\u2030 salinity than at either 25\u2030 or 35\u2030 . further , recently metamorphosed juveniles showed less tolerance to freshwater conditions than did older fish ( smith et al . 1999 ) .\nthe adult diet of p . lethostigma consists primarily of fish , but is augmented by crustaceans depending upon regional location . in louisiana , adult southern flounders eat shrimp and fish ; though , fox and white ( 1969 ) reported that the primary prey species for southern flounder was striped mullet ( mugil cephalus ) . also included in the diet are fat sleepers ( dormitator maculatus ) and anchovies ( anchoa spp . ) . larger flounders ( 150 mm long ) ate primarily anchovies , menhaden ( brevoortia spp . ) , sciaenids , and mullet ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\na genus of pleuronectoid fishes , related to the halibut . it has the lateral line strongly arched in front , the dorsal beginning in front of the eye , scales weakly ciliated , and some of the teeth enlarged . it contains a number of species in the american and asiatic seas , among which are some highly esteemed food - fishes , such as the bastard or monterey halibut ( p . californicus ) , the plaice or summer flounder of new york ( p . dentatus ) , and the southern flounder ( p . lethostigma ) . see halibut , and cut under flounder .\npowell and henley ( 1995 ) examined egg and larval development in both p . lethostigma and p . albigutta . results from their study show that fins begin to develop when larvae reach approximately 5 . 4 mm notochord length ( nl ) . the dorsal fin is generally the first to begin development , followed by the caudal , anal , pelvic , and pectoral fins ( powell and henley 1995 ) . development of the caudal fin in p . lethostigma can begin when larvae are approximately 5 . 5 mm nl , but fin rays are not observed until larvae attain 8 . 2 mm sl . dorsal fins begin to develop when larvae are in the preflexion stage , at approximately 6 . 5 mm nl . the dorsal fin is first observed in the head region , with development proceeding posteriorly . by the time larvae reach 8 . 4 mm standard length ( sl ) the dorsal fin is fully developed . following postflexion , when larvae reach approximately 7 . 3 mm standard length ( sl ) , anal fin rays begin to develop , with the full adult complement of fin rays reached at a body size of 8 . 4 mm sl . pelvic fins are first observed on larvae at approximately 8 . 2 mm sl , and are fully developed by the time larvae attain 9 . 7 mm sl . pectoral fins first begin formation when larvae are approximately 8 . 4 mm sl , and are fully formed when larvae exceed 11 . 0 mm sl .\nsouthern flounder eggs and larvae from wild populations develop in offshore waters , with late stage , premetamorphic larvae ( stage 4b - 5 ) , likely returned to estuarine habitats via passive transport on nearshore and tidal currents . once returned to estuaries , larvae settle on the substratum and metamorphose into juveniles . in one north carolina study , comparative data from burke et al . ( 1991 ) suggests that settlement in p . lethostigma is influenced by salinity . these authors reported that though larvae of both summer and southern flounder begin to recruit into estuaries during february , southern flounder larvae concentrated on tidal flats near the heads of estuaries where salinity ranged from 9 - 25\u2030 , and the substratum had a low sand content ( 4 - 50 % ) . conversely , summer flounder larvae settled more downstream , in the middle reaches of estuaries where salinity ranged from 24 - 35\u2030 and the substratum had a much higher sand content ( 53 - 95 % ) .\neggs of p . lethostigma range from 0 . 85 - 0 . 95 mm in diameter ( powell and henley 1995 ) , with a single oil globule . laboratory rearing of southern flounder shows that eggs hatch after 3 days at 18\u00b0c and 30\u2030 salinity ( denson and smith 1997 ) . larvae begin to feed when 4 - 6 days old , and show signs of becoming premetamorphic by day 14 . by day 16 , larvae begin to settle out of the water column and congregate on the bottom . by day 21 , larvae show signs of adult pigmentation , and begin to rest on their left sides , though their eyes remain in position . by day 23 , metamorphosis is initiated and the left eye begins to migrate to the right side . most animals had completed metamorphosis by day 36 ( denson and smith 1997 ) . in culture experiments , yolk - sac larvae began metamorphosing to postlarvae at 40 - 46 days , when they were approximately 8 - 11 mm in length . metamorphosis to the juvenile stage was complete by 50 - 51 days ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) . data from powell and henley ( 1995 ) show that larvae complete metamorphosis when they reach approximately 8 . 7 - 9 . 0 mm sl . by this time , the migrating eye has reached the dorsal midline , and the larval stage is complete .\nall flatfishes , including the southern flounder , are compressed laterally and spend most of their life lying and swimming along the bottom on their side . in the case of southern flounder , the left side is always the\nup\nside ; in other species , the opposite is true . small flounder grow rapidly and may reach 12 inches in length by the end of their first year . males seldom exceed 12 inches , but females grow larger than males and often reach a length of 25 inches .\nthe flounder is wonderfully adapted for its way of life . both eyes in adults are on the\nup\nside of the head and the pigmentation of the upper side of the body can be varied to match the surrounding environment . a small body cavity and the absence of air bladder aid the flounder in maintaining its position on the bottom .\nadult southern flounder leave the bays during the fall for spawning in the gulf of mexico . they spawn for the first time when two years old at depths of 50 to 100 feet . the eggs are buoyant . after hatching , the larval fish swim in an upright position and the eyes are located on opposite sides of the head . as the young fish grows , the right eye begins to\nmigrate\nto the left side of the head . when body length of about one - half inch has been attained , the eye migration is complete and the fish assumes its left - side - up position for life .\nthe young fish enter the bays during late winter and early spring . at this time they are about one - half inch in length and seek shallow grassy areas near the gulf passes . as growth continues , some will move farther into bays . some will enter coastal rivers and bayous . juvenile flounder feed mainly on crustaceans , but as they grow fish become more important in their diet . adult flounder enter shallow water at night where they lie , often partially buried , and wait for prey . empty depressions where flounder have lain are called\nbeds .\nalthough most of the adults leave the bays and enter the gulf for spawning during the winter , some remain behind and spend winter in the bays . those in the gulf will reenter the bays in the spring . the spring influx is gradual and does not occur with large concentrations that characterize the fall emigration .\nflounder are taken by rod and reel or by gig . when fishing with rod and reel , light tackle offers both the greatest sport and best chance for catching flounder . both artificial lures and natural bait can be used . over barren bottoms , leaded plastic worms ( worm jigs ) are often very effective . in heavily vegetated areas , shallow - running spoons are best .\nflounder prefer live to dead bait . live shrimp retrieved slowly along the bottom often produce excellent results . killifish ( referred to locally as mud minnows ) fished in a similar fashion , is good bait . these fish can often be taken in large numbers with the cast or minnow seine .\nalthough many are taken by rod and reel ,\nfloundering\nor gigging offers the best challenge for this species . the flounder is vulnerable to this technique because it often enters the shallows at night to feed . both the skills of the angler and the hunter are called for here .\nlanterns are used in searching for flounder and gigs ranging from single - pronged to modified hay forks are used to spear the fish . the anglers wade quietly along the shallows looking for flounder . once the flounder is within the light from the lantern , normally it will not move , affording the fisher a chance to\ngig\nthe fish . although this sounds like a sure - fire method , many fish are missed because they go undetected until they swim away or because of inaccurate gigging by an overanxious angler .\nthe more sophisticated flounder fisher may mount his lanterns ( or battery - powered lamps ) on the front of a flat - bottomed skiff . the skiff is then poled through the water in search of fish or is pushed by a small air motor . floundering from a boat is much easier than wading . it allows the angler to cover more area and search bottoms that are too soft for wading .\nalthough flounder can be taken by rod and reel in almost any portion of the bay , it is more often productive to fish around jetties or oyster reefs that extend from shore into the bay . flounder do not swim continuously so they tend to accumulate in such places in their search for food . during the fall , when flounder are moving to the gulf for spawning , the best catches are made in the channels and passes leading to the gulf . during the spring , wading anglers work the edges of channels , such as the intracoastal waterway , as the fish are moving back into the bays .\nfloundering is best during the migration from october to december . hundreds of lanterns can often be seen in and around the pass areas during this period , as the fishers wade through the shallows in search of fish .\nduring the spring and summer the best catches with gigs are made in the back bays . areas with cord grass (\n) along the shoreline are good producers , and a bottom that is slightly silty or muddy generally is better than a hard sand bottom . the mouths of small bayous and sloughs often yield flounder .\nsince water clarity is very important to the success of any floundering trip , floundering should be done on calm nights . when fishing on windy nights , anglers should try to work small protected bays and shorelines .\nthe best catches are made during an incoming tide and on dark nights as opposed to moonlit nights . however , do not hesitate to flounder on an outgoing tide . during a falling tide trying farther offshore in water one to two feet deep or around offshore sandbars is often more productive . avoid nights when the tides are abnormally high .\nstingrays also frequent the shallows at night . they are flat and can sometimes be mistaken for a flounder or stepped on by the unwary . the inexperienced flounder fisher should make certain of what he has gigged before retrieving it . if in doubt , simply hold the creature on the bottom with the gig and wait for the water to settle before attempting to retrieve your catch . a multi - pronged gig is helpful in such cases , because the catch can be lifted unassisted from the bottom .\nthe flounder ' s reputation as table fare is unsurpassed in texas . remember that the quality of any seafood is largely dependent on how it is handled between capture and preparation . remove the viscera and gills from the flounder and place the fish on ice as soon as possible . cleaning beyond this point depends on how the fish will be cooked .\nflounder can be prepared in many ways . broiling the fish with butter , lemon juice and favorite seasoning is popular . they also may be baked or fried . the gourmet may like his flounder stuffed with crabmeat . many other recipes are available at various internet sites .\n, is the largest of more than 25 species of flatfishes found in texas coastal waters . it is highly prized as both food and a recreationally harvested fish and accounts for more than 95 percent of the flounder harvest in the state . southern flounder occur from north carolina to the mouth of the rio grande and southward into mexico . they are usually found west of the mississippi river .\nyour contact information is used to deliver requested updates or to access your subscriber preferences . children under 13 years of age must have a parent / guardian & apos ; s consent before providing any personal information to the agency .\nsouthern flounder attain a size of up to 3 feet ( 91 cm ) in length , and can weigh as much as 9 kg ( 24 . 1 lbs . ) ( smith et al . 1999 ) . the von bertalanffy growth model predicts a maximum age for summer flounder of approximately of 20 years ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nadults migrate to offshore spawning grounds during late fall and winter , though some remain in estuaries year - round . spawning migrations are usually preceded by a drop in water temperature of 4 - 5 \u00b0c . males move seaward earlier than females , with few remaining in estuaries after november ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) . in north carolina , southern flounders begin migration in the fall ; in texas , they migrate from october through december ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nlaboratory experiments from texas indicate that approximately 3 weeks before spawning takes place , male southern flounder begin following gravid females . in tank experiments , the first spawning was in december and occurred at midday . females swam to the surface and released eggs that were immediately fertilized by attending males . fertilization was 30 % to 50 % successful , and 6 % to 35 % of the eggs hatched within 61 - 76 hr ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nfemales become sexually mature at 2 years of age in texas , while the youngest mature female southern flounder in northern florida was 4 years old ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nthirteen southern flounders examined in the laboratory , produced a total of 120 , 000 eggs ( approximately 9 , 230 eggs per female ) ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nlarvae spawned offshore in the atlantic ocean make their return to estuarine habitats by passive transport on nearshore and tidal currents from november through april , with a peak in recruitment occurring in february ( burke et al . 1991 ) . in the gulf of mexico , southern flounder postlarvae are caught along the gulf of mexico coast during winter and early spring . at galveston island , texas , southern flounder postlarvae 18 - 34 mm in total length ( tl ) were captured during february , march , and may . fish 25 - 51 mm tl were caught in the mississippi river during the spring . in aransas bay , texas , the peak movement of postlarvae flounders into estuaries is in february , when water temperature is 16 . 0 - 16 . 2 \u00b0c ( stokes 1977 ) .\ntemperature influences the migration of postlarval and adult southern flounders ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) . in louisiana coastal waters , adult southern flounders have been collected at temperatures ranging from 5 - 35 \u00b0c .\nsouthern flounder are highly euryhaline , and withstand fluctuations in salinities ranging from 0 - 35\u2030 or more . data from smith et al . ( 1999 ) indicates that salinity tolerance in this species increases with age .\nburke et al . ( 1991 ) also reported that juvenile southern flounder moved further upstream to more riverine environments later in the spring , while juvenile summer flounder tended to remain in higher salinity tidal areas near spartina saltmarshes . catch comparisons showed that approximately equal numbers of southern flounder were caught in sandy versus muddy substrate types in low salinity waters ; while summer flounder were most abundant in sandy substrata in higher salinity waters . burke et al . ( 1991 ) concluded that southern flounder settlement is more highly correlated with salinity , while summer flounder settlement is more highly correlated with substratum type .\nsouthern flounder are carnivorous fishes that are generally considered to be top or near - top predators . larvae reared under laboratory conditions begin feeding on rotifers 4 - 6 days posthatch . by 8 - 13 days posthatch , larvae begin to feed on newly hatched artemia nauplii ( denson and smith 1997 ) .\na tank study showed that southern flounder tend to be more active at night than during the day ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .\nthe southern flounder is a valuable sport and commercial fish along the gulf coast of the united states . most of the commercial catch in the gulf of mexico is incidental to the catch by shrimp trawlers . there has been significant interest in utilizing southern flounder as an aquaculture species . studies in the southeastern u . s . and in the gulf of mexico are currently underway to improve spawning techniques and develop larval rearing methods for southern flounder in order to improve its attractiveness as an aquaculture product ( jenkins and smith 1999 ; smith et al . 1999 ) .\nflounders of all species are harvested annually from waters in and around the indian river lagoon , and are especially prized by recreational anglers . however , the commercial fishery is not of particularly high value . for the years 1987 - 2001 , 1 . 7 million pounds of flounders were harvested , with a dollar value of over $ 3 . 1 million reported in the 5 county area encompassing the irl ( volusia , brevard , indian river , st . lucie and martin counties ) . this ranks flounders nineteenth in commercial value within the irl , and twenty - ninth in pounds harvested .\nfigure 1 below shows the dollar value of the flounder fishery to irl counties by year . note that all species of flounders were combined in the data presented . as shown , commercial catch ranged from a low of $ 77 , 149 in 1987 to a high of over $ 350 , 927 in 1999 . volusia county annually accounts for the largest percentage of the flounder catch with 83 % in total ( figure 2 ) , followed distantly by brevard county , which accounts for 8 % of the total . indian river , st . lucie and martin counties account for 3 % , 4 % and 2 % of the total respectively . note that the fishery ' s value brings in $ 125 , 000 - $ 300 , 000 annually to volusia county businesses , while in all other irl counties , the dollar value is typically less than $ 25 , 000 .\nfigure 1 . annual dollar value of the commercial catch of flounders to the 5 - county area of the indian river lagoon .\nfigure 2 . breakdown of total flounder dollar value by county for the years 1987 - 2001 .\ntable 1 . total dollar value of flounders to irl counties between 1987 - 2001 .\ntable 2 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the flounder harvest for the years 1987 - 2001 .\ntable 3 . by county cumulative dollar value and percentage of total for the irl flounders harvested from 1987 - 2001 .\nrecreational fishery the recreational flounder fishery in florida accounts for 65 - 70 % of the annual state - wide harvest ( florida fish and wildlife conservation commission 2004 ) . landings on the gulf coast of florida are somewhat lower than those on the east coast , averaging approximately 198 , 015 pounds per year . on the atlantic coast , landings have averaged less than 300 , 000 pounds per year since 2001 . however , catch rates on both coasts are apparently stable , and have remained so since the early 1990s .\nsouthern flounder are recreationally important in the indian river lagoon on a seasonal basis , specifically during the late fall and winter when large specimens may be landed as they migrate out of the lagoon for spawning . this species was first regulated by the state of florida in 1996 , when a 10 - fish bag limit and 12 - inch minimum size limit was implemented .\nsince 1997 , the recreational harvest in the 5 - county area encompassing the indian river lagoon has remained fairly consistent , with 1 . 3 million fishes harvested , an average of 166 , 500 per year taken by recreational anglers between 1997 - 2001 . the lowest harvest was recorded in 2004 , when 133 , 643 southern flounder were captured . the highest harvest occurred in 1999 when 201 , 195 southern flounder were taken . approximately 45 . 8 % of the catch was taken in inland waters other than the indian river lagoon . within the irl , anglers caught 379 , 472 southern flounder , 28 . 5 % of the total . coastal waters from the shoreline to 3 miles offshore accounted for 23 . 2 % , while offshore waters to 200 miles accounted for only 2 . 4 % .\nfigure 3 . survey data for the southern flounder recreational fishery showing the number of fishes harvested in east florida waters from 1997 - 2004 .\nfigure 4 . summary of the southern flounder recreational harvest and percentage of total by area from 1997 - 2004 .\ntable 5 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the southern flounder harvest for the years 1997 - 2001 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .\ntable 6 . summary of the southern flounder recreational harvest and percentage of total fish captured in each area from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .\nburke js . 1995 . role of feeding and prey distribution of summer and southern flounder in selection of estuarine nursery habitats . j fish biol 47 : 355 - 366 .\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission . recreational fisheries landings . available online : urltoken accessed : 4 july 2016 .\nminello tj , zimmerman rj , klima ef . 1987 . creation of fishery habitat in estuaries . in : beneficial uses of dredged material : proceedings of the first interagency workshop , 7 - 9 october 1986 , pensacola , florida . final report . 106 - 120 .\nrogers sg , van den avyle mj . 1983 . species profiles : life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( south atlantic ) . atlantic menhaden ( no . fws / obs - 82 / 11 . 11 ) . georgia univ . , athens ( usa ) . school of forest resources .\nreport by : k . hill , smithsonian marine station submit additional information , photos or comments to irl _ webmaster @ urltoken page last updated : july 9 , 2005\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\neschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .\nthis species supports valuable commercial and recreational fisheries in u . s . waters ; mainly the northern gulf of mexico ( warren et al . 1994 , robinson et al . 1995 ) and the southeast atlantic ( monaghan 1996 ) . it is the single most valuable finfish exploited by north carolina fisheries ( takade - heumacher and batsavage 2009 ) . juveniles and adults are also susceptible to capture by shrimp trawl fisheries .\nfishing pressure , including incidental catch , is a factor in population reductions of this species , but simultaneous declines across its entire range suggests that broad - scale oceanographic mechanisms may also be contributing ( anderson et al . 2012 ) . this species is estuarine - dependent , and may be susceptible to anthropogenic activities occurring in these areas . it is taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the same areas it is also directly targeted by fishermen . it also occurs as bycatch in crab pots and crab trawls in north carolina ( brown 2009 , smith and scharf 2010 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nresearch curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa\neschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\nmurdy , edward o . , ray s . birdsong , and john a . musick\nnelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .\nfull author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h\u00e9ctor espinosa - p\u00e9rez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams\npage , l . m . , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , et al . , eds .\nrobins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nmanooch ( 1984 ) ; robins et al . ( 1986 ) ; hoese and moore ( 1998 ) .\nmarine . atlantic coastal and estuarine waters of the united states from albemarle sound , north carolina , to jupiter inlet , florida , and from caloosahatchee estuary , florida , to northern mexico . south florida is not included in the range ( lee et al . 1980 et seq . ; boschung 1992 ) . murdy et al . ( 1997 ) reported it as an occasional visitor to lower chesapeake bay , virginia .\nprimarily found over mud or silt bottoms in coastal and estuarine areas , and lower reaches of rivers ( powell and schwartz 1977 ) . although adults can enter and survive in freshwater for long periods of time , spawining and juvenile development occurs in brackish to marine water ( enge and mullholland 1985 ) . primarily consumes fishes and crustaceans ( powell and schwartz 1979 ) .\nextirpated from all reservoirs , with the possible exception of casa blanca ( luebke 1978 ) .\nno reproduction has been documented in texas freshwaters . limited benefits to anglers resulted in termination of the experimental stocking ( howells and garrett 1992 ) . stomach contents of southern flounder taken from long lake , texas , were mostly small sunfishes ( lasswell et al . 1977 ) .\nboschung , h . t . 1992 . catalogue of freshwater and marine fishes of alabama . alabama museum of natural history bulletin 14 : 1 - 266 .\nenge , k . m . , and r . mulholland . 1985 . habitat suitability index models : southern and gulf founders . u . s . fish and wildlife service , national coastal ecosystems team , biological report 82 ( 10 . 92 ) .\nhoese , h . d . , and r . h . moore . 1998 . fishes of the gulf of mexico . texas , louisiana , and adjacent waters . 2nd edition . texas a & m university press . college station , tx .\nhowells , r . g . , and g . p . garrett . 1992 . status of some exotic sport fishes in texas waters . texas journal of science 44 ( 3 ) : 317 - 324 .\nlasswell , j . l . , g . garza , and w . h . bailey . 1977 . status of marine fish introductions into the freshwaters of texas . proceedings of the 31st annual conference of the southeastern association of fish and wildlife agencies 31 ( 1977 ) : 399 - 403 .\nlee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 et seq . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc . ( cited as a work rather than as individual accounts in the interest of space ) .\nluebke , r . w . 1978 . evaluation of a multi - predator introduction . federal aid project f - 31 - r - 4 .\nmanooch , c . s . 1984 . fisherman ' s guide , fishes of the southwestern united states . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc .\nmurdy , e . o . , r . s . birdsong , and j . a . musick . 1997 . fishes of chesapeake bay . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .\nrobins , c . r . , g . c . ray , and j . douglass . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . the peterson guide series , volume 32 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ndistribution western atlantic : north carolina to texas in usa , but absent from southern florida .\ndistribution western atlantic : north carolina to texas in usa , but absent from southern florida . [ details ]\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\nrobins , c . r . , g . c . ray , j . douglass and r . freund . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin co . boston . 354 p . [ details ]\nmceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223\u20131316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico\u2013origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]\nlutaenko , k . a . ; furota , t . ; nakayama ; s . ; shin , k . ; xu , j . ( 2013 ) . atlas of marine invasive species in the nowpap region . beijing : nowpap dinrac ( northwest pacific action plan , data and information network regional center ) . 189 pp . [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nlin , y . ; gao , z . ; zhan , a . ( 2015 ) . introduction and use of non - native species for aquaculture in china : status , risks and management solutions . reviews in aquaculture . 7 ( 1 ) : 28 - 58 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nj exp mar bio ecol . 2001 apr 15 ; 258 ( 2 ) : 195 - 214 .\na cryptic species that tolerates low salinities ; occurs frequently in brackish bays and estuaries , even on occasion in fresh water ( ref . 9988 ) . adults are found mostly over mud bottoms in estuaries and coastal waters to about 40 m depth . taken by anglers inshore from bridges , jetties and small boats . they move to deeper water in winter , but are still easily accessible ( ref . 9988 ) . adults feed chiefly on fishes , also on crabs and shrimps . juveniles take mainly small bottom - living invertebrates . marketed fresh and frozen ; eaten steamed , fried , boiled , microwaved and baked ( ref . 9988 ) .\nwestern atlantic : north carolina to texas in usa , but absent from southern florida .\nglobal range : north carolina to jupiter inlet , florida , and from caloosahatchee estuary , florida , to texas or northern mexico ; absent from southern florida . apparently most abundant in western gulf of mexico . stocked in freshwater lakes near austin , texas .\n83 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ) ; max . published weight : 9 , 330 g ( ref . 4699 ) ; max . reported age : 8 years ( ref . 46275 )\ndepth range based on 456 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 100 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 223 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 16 . 407 - 25 . 874 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 286 - 10 . 594 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 723 - 36 . 472 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 530 - 5 . 755 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 093 - 0 . 783 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 756 - 5 . 295 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 223 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 16 . 407 - 25 . 874 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 286 - 10 . 594 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 723 - 36 . 472 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 530 - 5 . 755 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 093 - 0 . 783 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 756 - 5 . 295 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ncomments : coastal and estuarine waters ; seems to prefer muddy substrates . often enters fresh waters . spawns offshore ; adults move out of estuaries and bays ; postlarvae and juveniles move into estuaries from january to early summer ( manooch 1984 ) .\nnon - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .\nlocally migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\nfound mostly over mud bottoms in estuaries and coastal waters to about 40 m depth . a cryptic species ; tolerates low salinities ; occurs frequently in brackish bays and estuaries , even on occasion in fresh water . feeds chiefly on fishes , also on crabs and shrimps . juveniles take mainly small bottom - living invertebrates .\ncomments : small individuals eat mysid and penaeid shrimps and other small crustaceans ; large individuals eat blue crabs , penaeid shrimps , and fishes ; feeds by partly burying in sand and ambushing prey ( manooch 1984 ) .\nspawns in fall and winter ; eggs hatch in about 3 days at 63 f ; sexually mature in 2 years ( manooch 1984 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 5 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nfishing pressure , including incidental catch , is a factor in population reductions of this species , but simultaneous declines across its entire range suggests thatbroad - scale oceanographic mechanisms may also be contributing ( anderson et al . 2012 ) . this species is estuarine - dependent , and may be susceptible to anthropogenic activities occurring in these areas . itis taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the same areas it is also directly targeted by fishermen . it also occurs as bycatch in crab pots and crab trawls in north carolina ( brown 2009 , smith and scharf 2010 ) .\ncomments : localized threats may exist , but on a range - wide scale no major threats are known .\nit is a\nleft - eyed flounder\n, meaning the left side is pigmented and is the\nup side\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\ncab direct is the most thorough and extensive source of reference in the applied life sciences , incorporating the leading bibliographic databases cab abstracts and global health . cab direct provides a convenient , single point of access to all of your cabi database subscriptions .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthe louisiana department of environmental quality ( ldeq ) presented its 2 nd annual green business expo wednesday , august 24 , 2011 . the expo showcased presenters and exhibitors from innovative businesses offering real cost saving opportunities for private and public enterprises while providing an environmental return for the citizens of louisiana . participants assisted in building a report card , which scored presenters on implementation possibilities of their technology .\nexecutive director curt eysink of the louisiana workforce commission will speak about the state\u2019s green jobs initiative . the presentation will focus on opportunities for louisiana\u2019s business community to benefit from global demand for green products and services while increasing the environmental quality of life for louisiana citizens . eysink will present research findings from an 18 - month study of louisiana\u2019s green economy and discuss ways in which the workforce investment community will ensure louisiana workers are prepared to meet changing employer needs .\ncerion energy , inc . is based in rochester , ny , and was founded in february , 2007 by a unique team comprised of veteran entrepreneurs , experienced former eastman kodak co . scientists with over 200 years of research experience and hundreds of patents , & internationally renowned rochester institute of technology ( rit ) staff .\ngo 2 diesel fuel optimizer ( go 2 ) is a product of cerion energy inc . and is a 3 rd generation nanoparticle combustion catalyst . the effect of adding go 2 is increased fuel economy , mpg , and a significant reduction of unwanted and harmful exhaust emissions . tests have demonstrated that adding go 2 improves fuel efficiency by 8 - 13 % .\nenergy solutions , llc , is a louisiana company that manufactures high quality , renewable energy products . energy solutions has developed the apollo mmx , a solar tracking device which uses sunlight to produce electricity . solar tracking maximizes power production by positioning the panels directly in front of the sun throughout the day . the apollo mmx is unique because it tracks the sun by tilting the panels in two planes instead of rotating them . as a result , the apollo mmx creates 60 % - 80 % more energy than traditional stationary solar systems ."]}
{"id": 2554, "summary": [{"text": "the big-scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) is a species of fish in the atherinidae family .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it is a euryhaline amphidromous fish , up to 20 cm in length . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "big - scale sand smelt", "paragraphs": ["video : a flock of big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) . ~ # 63053144\nbig - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) : in the water column , extreme close - up .\nseveral fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) swim on background of sandy bottom , medium shot .\nseveral fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) float on a background of the sandy bottom , medium shot .\nbig - scale sand smelt , atherina boyeri , looking for small benthic crustacean and molluscs . picture from malta , mediterranean sea\nseveral fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) swim against the background of a sandy bottom , close - up .\nnew record of the big - scale sand smelt atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ( atherinidae ) in the seyhan dam r . . .\na flock of marine fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) moves slowly on the background of a rocky bottom , wide shot .\ncommercial fishing : a flock of marine fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) slowly moves over a rocky bottom , wide shot .\nflock of big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) against the backdrop of the sea surface , then quickly leaves the frame , medium shot .\na flock of game - fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) slowly moves against a background of rocks overgrown with mussels , wide shot .\nsearch big scale sand smelt and thousands of other words in english definition and synonym dictionary from reverso . you can complete the list of synonyms of big scale sand smelt given by the english thesaurus dictionary with other english dictionaries : wikipedia , lexilogos , oxford , cambridge , chambers harrap , wordreference , collins lexibase dictionaries , merriam webster . . .\ndescription : ' big - scale sand smelt ' ( atherina boyeri ) , known by the common name of kingfish - the - mediterranean . . . typical and . . . delicious !\na flock of game - fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) slowly moves against a background of rocks overgrown with mussels , wide shot .\nstock footage and royalty - free videos on urltoken - vid 162718914\nfifteen specimens of the big - scale sand smelt , atherina boyeri were caught by a single trawl haul with a net mesh size of 3 mm on february 2017 from the seyhan dam reservoir ( south anatolia , adana / turkey ) . in this study the big - scale sand smelt , a . boyeri , was recorded for the first time in the seyhan dam reservoir . in addition , some morphometric and meristic measurements of a . boyeri were . . . [ show full abstract ]\nblack sea silverside , boyer\u2019s sand smelt , atherina mochon ( cuvier , 1829 ) ; atherina hepsetus ( delaroche , 1809 ) .\nthe video clip\na flock of game - fish big - scale sand smelt ( atherina boyeri ) slowly moves against a background of rocks overgrown with mussels , wide shot .\nfrom portunus is available on fotolia under a royalty - free license from 30 credits ( credit from $ 0 . 74 ) .\naltun , \u00f6 . 1999 . morphological variations observed on the sand smelt ( atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ) populations . turk j zool 23 ( 3 ) : 911\u2013918 .\nalso known as sand smelts , black sea sand smelt and boyer ' s sand smelt . found in schools in brackish coastal waters and slow flowing freshwater , lakes , estuaries and rivers . they feed on crustaceans fish larvae , mollusks and worms . length - 20cm depth - 1 - ? m widespread eastern atlantic , mediterranean and black sea these fish are common on shorelines , important food for larger fish species although no commercial value .\nk\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck , f . , g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc , s . s . , g\u00fclle , i . , g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc , z . , \u00e7i\u00e7ek , n . l . , diken , g . 2012 . reproductive features of big scale - sand smelt , atherina boyeri ( risso , 1810 ) , and exotic fish in lake egirdir ( isparta , turkey ) . turkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 12 : 729 - 733 .\nthe big - scale sand smelt , atherina boyeri , is recorded from the devegecidi dam lake in 2016 , the first record of this invasive species in the tigris river basin , with potential to extend to all countries in the middle east . the smelts were caught with a trawl net mesh size of 6 mm . the captured specimens are described and compared . records of a . boyeri from turkish inland waters are summarised from the literature .\nthe big - scale sand smelt , atherina boyeri risso , 1810 was recorded for the first time from b\u00fcy\u00fck\u00e7ekmece reservoir ( i\u0307stanbul , turkey ) in 1982 . however , recent studies on the fish fauna of b\u00fcy\u00fck\u00e7ekmece reservoir indicated that a . boyeri did not exist in the reservoir . in the pre - sent study , which was originally planned for determining biological features of perch , perca fluviatilis linnaeus , . . . [ show full abstract ]\nblue triggerfish ( pseudobalistes fuscus ) , digging in the sand for molluscs or worms . egypt , red sea .\nthe traditional forms of artisanal fisheries compete against big fisheries , whose environmentally harmful techniques permit to harvest resources at a more profitable scale . the composition of berths by type of fleet shows a very unequal carrying capacity in favor of big - scale vessels ( i1a ) . the excessive charge of the resource affects directly the regeneration rates ( ru2 / ru5 ) . overfishing and the consequent reduction in fishery is the principal outcome of trawling ( o2b ) .\nbig - scale fisheries also have lower costs in the appropriation and production . then , they can offer lower prices ( in accordance with international markets ) in internal markets ( s5a ) , reducing the competitiveness of small fisheries .\nthe masterpieces of fish gastronomy are universally recognised . regnoli uses only freshly caught raw materials . the centuries - old eel manufacturing process is typical of the polesine area , where regnoli has its production plants . it is a rather seasonal product , since its fishing starts around october , when the eel stops eating , its flesh starts toning up and its sking changes colour , from yellow to silver . the big - scale sand smelt is rigorously processed when fresh .\nhenderson , p . a . and bamber , r . n . 1987 . on the reproductive biology of the sand smelt atherina boyeri risso ( pisces : atherinidae ) and its evolutionary potential . biological journal of the linnean society 32 : 395 - 415 .\ndevelop a set of ses variables potentially relevant to study small - scale fisheries system and illustrate the frame throughout two cases concerning mexican and chilean benthic fisheries . they look for evidence about \u201c\nmedium consumption of local resources all localities are close to important urban centers . then , actors use to acquire their consumer goods ( food , clothing and others ) in local markets and big markets alternately\nelongated body , in the back it is lateral compressed . mouth is big and turned upwards . the back is gray with black spots , a silver strip runs through the flank , the abdomen is whitish .\nbasurto , x ( 2005 ) . how locally designed access and use controls can prevent the tragedy of the commons in a mexican small - scale fishing community . society and natural resources 18 : 643\u2013659 . urltoken .\nbartulovi\u00e7 , v . , lucic , d . , conides , a . , glamuzina , b . , ducic , j . , hafner , d . , batistic , m . 2004 . food of sand smelt , atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ( pisces : atherinidae ) in the estuary of the mala neretva river ( middle - eastern , adriatic , croatia ) . sci . mar . 64 ( 4 ) : 597 - 603 .\nthe mh - pc fishermen have given shape to a strong group that is able to maintain interaction with governmental institutions and is successful in breaking the status quo of the top - down process in the elaboration of norms . for instance , the demand for longer closure periods was recognized for the government few years ago . recently , artisanal fisheries from mh - pc stop a governmental authorization for big - scale vessels to enter to the estuarine zone .\nbasurto , x , gelcich , s and ostrom , e ( 2013 ) . the social\u2013ecological system framework as a knowledge classificatory system for benthic small - scale fisheries . global environmental change 23 ( 6 ) : 1366\u20131380 . urltoken .\n, the delimitation of the space under study was made by the resource system ( rs ) : the small - scale fishery sector . the application of the frame looks for the potential drivers which could lead to a sustainable and common management of the artisanal fishery .\nconsidering direct users , a common historical and cultural root , the presence of leaderships , the relevance of the local knowledge , the dependence on the resource to sustainable livelihoods and the threat of big - scale fisheries invading exclusive fishing area generated reciprocity and moderate levels of trust among fishermen . but , some external and internal processes eroded the social capital when collective actions seemed to be growing faster , leading to a divergent path . bbe fishermen have ignored internal norms and processes of community decision - making , confronting the mh - pc fishermen .\nmedium to low level of human constructed facilities the estuary area has 5 piers , although most of that infrastructure is prepared for big ships and industrial activity . monte hermoso and pehu\u00e9n co do not have any pier or mole . vessels are trailed by pickup trucks or vehicles through the beach until the coast\n. ( 2004 ) , 1 , 200 specimens , with length varied from 3 . 1 and 11 . 6 cm , were collected from february 2001 to february 2002 close to the dam at the mouth of the mala neretva river ( south - east adriatic coast of croatia ) , using a small lift net ( 5 mm mesh size ) locally used for the send smelt fishery .\nheterogeneous patterns of spacial and temporal distribution in adult life resources are present among all the year , with variations of species . micro - localization ( i . e . position of species within the area ) varies according to natural and anthropic conditions . shrimp , prawn and weakfish are in less deeper areas . there are presence of shrimp and prawn during december to mid - june and mid - july to september , weakfish during mid - august to late september ( sometimes also during march and april ) , narrownose smooth - hound during mid - september to late november ; slick bonefish during mid - august to late september , sand smelt during june and july at low tide and september on the marshes and white croaker during november to march . soles and rays are present all year\nstable migration trends historically , the big - push of the population growth was the consequence of external interwar migration flows . population in white and cerri increased during the expansion of petrochemical pole and the harbor area in the 1980s and 1990s . in monte hermoso and pehu\u00e9n co , the population growth has occurred due to migration from bigger cities such bah\u00eda blanca and buenos aires . nowadays , the tendency is unclear\nthe objective of this paper is to apply the ses framework to an artisanal fishery community in argentina in order to : 1 ) describe the principal features , key variables and relations of the small - scale fishery system ; 2 ) detect the principal drivers of a potential common - management and the leading detractors from the current communal performance ; and 3 ) analyze the possibility that a self - governing for sustainable fishery may appear .\nestimated that 84 % of sales of artisanal fishery in buenos aires province are made to intermediaries , 6 % to fish shops and 10 % are retail . the results of our workshops and interviews show the same pattern of commercialization . artisanal fishermen sell to intermediaries competing against other big fisheries with participation in external markets , who fix their prices taking into account international prices . then , international markets have an indirect influence on the fixing local prices\nbig size of the resource system the zone affected by artisanal fishery is extended along the atlantic coast over a stretch of more than 100 km from cerri to monte hermoso . bah\u00eda blanca estuary has an area of 3 , 000 km 2 ; 30 , 000 ha of inland and 180 , 000 ha of watershed corresponds to the reserva provincial natural bah\u00eda blanca , bah\u00eda falsa y bah\u00eda verde . the geological , paleontological and archeological provincial reserve pehu\u00e9n co - monte hermoso covers land areas belonging to the municipalities of coronel rosales and monte hermoso along over 40 km of beaches from the mouth of the estuary and monte hermoso . the reserva costera municipal de objetivos definidos covers only 3 km 2\nthe big - push of population growth was the consequence of external interwar migration flows and the subsequent internal migration ( s2f ) , although in the last 20\u201330 years argentina has received major immigration from bordering countries like bolivia and paraguay , as well as from other latin american countries ( i . e . peru , colombia ) . the outcome of such historical process has been a relevant level of heterogeneity among internal and external actors ( a1b / a1c ) and the absence of a unique cultural root which has reduced the capacity to create shared codes and common rules between all the users ( a2f ) . given the differences in sectors and interests , the notion about the common has remained unclear and weak .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\nstructure and functional aspects of the fish assemblage in a coastal lagoon were studied .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nalong coast of mediterranean , black , azov and caspian sea basins . atlantic coast northward to loire estuary ( france ) . isolated populations along costs of southern england and the netherlands ( some might actually be the marine a . mochon ) . permanent freshwater resident populations in guadalquivir and tagus ( now extirpated ) drainages , santo andr\u00e9 lagoon ( portugal ) and lake trichonis ( greece ) . introduced in aral sea , lake trasimeno ( italy ) and perhaps other lakes in italy .\nhabitat : lower parts of rivers , estuaries , coastal lakes and sea . freshwater populations prefer still or slow - flowing waters . pelagic in lakes . biology : gregarious . usually lives 1 - 2 years , rarely up to four . spawns for the first time at 1 - 2 years . freshwater populations spawn in april - june in guadalquivir , in march - october in lake trichonis . short spawning migrations into estuaries in some populations . fractional spawner , larger individuals spawn for a longer period . eggs with long hairy appendages attaching them to filamentous algae , deposited at 2 - 6 m depth . larvae are pelagic but often form schools close to the shores . in lakes and estuaries , feeds mainly on small planktonic invertebrates , often on benthos in rivers .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\ngreek , atherina , the greek name for the eperlane ; 1770 ( ref . 45335 )\nmarine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; amphidromous ( ref . 59043 ) ; depth range 1 - ? m . subtropical ; 53\u00b0n - 20\u00b0n , 18\u00b0w - 42\u00b0e\neastern atlantic : portugal and spain to nouadhibou in mauritania and madeira , and throughout the mediterranean and black sea . isolated populations on coasts of england and the netherlands ( ref . 5980 ) . previously , two subspecies were recognized in russian waters : atherina boyeri pontica ( eichwald , 1838 ) from the black sea and the sea of azov and atherina boyeri caspia ( eichwald , 1838 ) from the caspian sea ( ref . 26334 ) .\nmaturity : l m 5 . 8 , range 5 - ? cm max length : 20 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 30578 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 59043 )\ndorsal spines ( total ) : 7 - 10 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 8 - 16 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 10 - 18 . eye diameter wider than snout length ( ref . 35388 ) .\nmaug\u00e9 , l . a . , 1990 . atherinidae . p . 604 - 605 . in j . c . quero , j . c . hureau , c . karrer , a . post and l . saldanha ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the eastern tropical atlantic ( clofeta ) . jnict , lisbon ; sei , paris ; and unesco , paris . vol . 2 . ( ref . 4499 )\n) : 13 . 9 - 21 , mean 18 . 3 ( based on 136 cells ) .\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00550 ( 0 . 00453 - 0 . 00666 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 3 . 01 - 3 . 13 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 \u00b10 . 36 se ; based on food items .\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 8 ; tm = 1 ; tmax = 4 ; ) .\nprior r = 0 . 76 , 2 sd range = 0 . 33 - 1 . 74 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 27 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 42 , based on : 6 k , 2 tgen , 1 tmax , 2 fec records\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 44 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\natherina boyeri is a small fish that is brown and silver in color . its head length is about 4 times less than its total length . this species possesses 21 - 39 gillrakers . its back is brown to brownish gray . it has 40 - 47 vertebrae , 7 - 10 dorsal spines , and 8 - 10 dorsal soft rays ( muus and nielsen 1999 ) . the scales are in a longitudinal series ( 44 - 48 ) and silvery in color . the eye diameter is greater than the snout length . it exhibits a wide range in morphometric and meristic characteristics .\nspain ( elivra 1995 ) . ponto - caspian basin . eastern mediterranean sea ( kalogirou et al . 2012 ) .\nnonindigenous occurrences : atherina boyeri occurs in isolated populations on the coasts of england ( fishbase ) . this species is found in lake trasimeno , italy ( freyhof and kottelat 2008 ) , the coasts of the netherlands ( den hartog and van der velde 1987 ) , portugal ( fishbase ) , and spain . its occurrence has been recorded in sapanca lake ( geldiay and balik 1996 ) , g\u00fczelhisar stream , k\u00f6ycegiz lake ( balik 1979 ) , k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck\u00e7ekmece lake ( altun 1999 ) , lake iznik ( \u00f6zeren 2004 ) , homa lagoon ( sezen 2005 ) , hirfanli dam lake , beysehir lake , and mogan lake ( innal and erk\u2019akan 2006 ) , turkey . it has been reported to occur in the aral sea ( freyhof and kottelat 2008 ) .\natherina boyeri has a moderate probability of introduction to the great lakes ( confidence level : high ) .\npotential pathway ( s ) of introduction : transoceanic shipping ( ballast water ) ; unauthorized intentional release .\natherina boyeri does not currently occur near waters connected to the great lakes . there is no indication that this species is sold or stocked in north america . however , it occurs in ports that have direct connections with the great lakes ( nbic ) .\natherina boyeri has commercial value as a prey of highly - priced carnivorous fish such as sea bass , dicentrarchus labrax . this species is introduced into freshwater lakes and reservoirs in europe to enhance stock ( economidis et al . 2000 ) . in turkey , it has been introduced to several lakes by local fishermen ( inaal and erk\u2019akan 2006 ) . it can survive in hypersaline conditions up to 110 % salinity and temperatures between 6 - 25\u00b0c ( henderson and bamber 1987 ) . it is likely that atherina boyeri has the potential to survive ballast tank environments .\natherina boyeri has the potential for moderate environmental impact if introduced to the great lakes . atherina boyeri is a carrier of the metacercariae of labratrema minimus , a parasitic trematode that also infects gobies ( combes 2001 ) . in some cases , atherina boyeri dominates the fish community where introduced . in the mala neretva esuary , atherina boyeri reached high densities to the point where it made up 50 % of the fish composition ( sr\u0161en 2005 ) . it is considered as a potential threat to lentic ecoystems ( k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck et al . 2007 ) .\nthere is little or no evidence to support that atherina boyeri has the potential for significant socio - economic impact if introduced to the great lakes . it has not been reported that atherina boyeri poses a threat to human health or water quality . there is no evidence that this species negatively impacts infrastructure , economic sectors , recreational activities and associated tourism , or the aesthetic appeal of the areas it inhabits .\natherina boyeri has the potential for high beneficial effects if introduced to the great lakes . increased population size of atherina boyeri in the neretva river estuary enhanced the production of the local fishery and the stock of sea bass dicentrarchu labrax ( k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck et al . 2007 ) . in greece , it is sold for about us $ 3 per kg and is edible ( el - sahn et al . 1990 ; leonardos and sinis 2000 ) . introduction of atherina boyeri may positively impact the populations of great lakes predatory fish and enhance recreational fishing . if atherina boyeri were introduced , the parasitic trematode that it carries may infect invasive gobies of the great lakes and help decrease their populations .\nregulations ( pertaining to the great lakes region ) there are no known regulations for this species . * * ballast water regulations applicable to this species are currently in place to prevent the introduction of nonindigenous species to the great lakes via shipping . see title 33 : code of federal regulations , part 151 , subparts c and d ( 33 cfr 151 c ) for the most recent federal ballast water regulations applying to the great lakes and hudson river .\nnote : check federal , state / provincial , and local regulations for the most up - to - date information .\nchemical there are no chemical control methods for this species . general piscicides ( such as rotenone ) may be used for control , but expect significant kill of non - target species .\nnote : check state / provincial and local regulations for the most up - to - date information regarding permits for control methods . follow all label instructions .\nbalik , s . 1979 . bati anadolu tatlisu baliklari \u00fczerine arastirmalar . ege . \u00fcniv . fen . fak . ilmi raporlar , no : 236 - 1979 , ege \u00fcniv . matbaasi , izmir , 61 pp .\ncombes , c . 2001 . parasitism : the ecology and evolution of intimate interactions . university of chicago press .\nden hartog , c . , and van der velde , g . 1987 . invasions by plants and animals into coastal , brackish , and fresh water of the netherlands . proc k acad wet c 90 ( 1 ) : 31 - 37 .\ndoulka , e . , kehayias , g . , chalkia , e . , and leonardos , i . d . 2013 . feeding strategies of atherina boyeri ( risso 1810 ) in a freshwater ecosystem . j . appl . ichthyology 29 : 200 - 207 .\neconomidis , p . s . , dimitriou , e . , pagoni , r . , michaloudi , e . , and natsis , l . 2000 . fish . man . ecol . 7 : 239 - 250 .\nel - sahn , m . a . , youssef , a . m . , and moharram , y . g . 1990 . edible products from pelagic bissaria ( atherina mochon ) fish . food / nahrung 34 ( 1 ) : 47 - 52 .\nelvira , b . 1995 . native and exotic freshwater fishes in spanish river basins . freshwater biology 33 : 103 - 108 .\nenvironmental protection agency ( epa ) . 2008 . predicting future introductions of nonindigenous species to the great lakes . national center for environmental assessment , washington , dc . available urltoken\nfern\u00e1ndez - delgado , c . , hernando , j . a . , herrera , m . , and bellido , m . 1988 . life - history patterns of the sandsmelt atherina boyeri risso , 1810 in the estuary of the guadalquivir river , spain . estuarine , coastal , and shelf science 27 : 697 - 706 .\ngeldiay , r . and balik , s . 1996 . t\u00fcrkiye tatlisu baliklari . ege \u00fcnv . fen fak . kitaplar serisi no : 97 , ege \u00fcnv . basimevi , izmir , 519 pp .\ninnal , d . and erk\u2019akan , f . effects of exotic and translocaated fish species in the inland waters of turkey . rev . fish . biol . fisheries 16 : 39 - 50 .\nfreyhof , j . and kottelat , m . 2008 . atherina boyeri . in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . 03 june 2014 . urltoken\nkalogirou , s . , mittermayer , f . , pihl , l . , and wennhage , h . 2012 . feeding ecology of indigenous and non - indigenous fish species within the family sphyaenidae . journal of fish biology 80 : 2528 - 2548 .\nkiener , a . and spillman , c . j . 1969 . contributions a l\u2019etude systematique et ecologique d\u2019 atherina boyeri risso ( poissons , cyprinidae ) dan sa zone de dispersion actuelle . bulletin du museum national d\u2019histoire naturelle , 3rd series , no . 55 . zoology 41 : 563 - 580 .\nkolar , c . s . , and d . m . lodge . 2002 . ecological predictions and risk assessment for alien fishes in north america . science 298 : 1233 - 1236 .\nk\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck , f . , g\u00fclle , i . , g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc , s . s . , g\u00fcm\u00fcs , e . and demir , o . 2007 . egirdir g\u00f6l\u00fc\u2019ne sonradan giren g\u00fcm\u00fcsbaligi ( atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ) \u2019nin g\u00f6l ekosistemine ve balik\u00e7iliga etkisi . i . ulusal baliklandirma ve rezervuar y\u00f6netimi sempozyumu bildirileri , 7 - 9 subat 2006 antalya : 119 - 128 .\nleonardos , i . and sinis , a . 2000 . age , growth , mortality of atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ( pisces : atherinidae ) in the mesolongi and etolikon lagoons ( w . greece ) . fisheries research 45 : 81 - 91 .\nmuus , b . j . and nielsen , j . g . 1999 . sea fish . scandinavian fishing year book . hedehusene , denmark . 340 p .\nnational ballast information clearinghouse 2009 . nbic online database . electronic publication , smithsonian environmental research center & united states coast guard . available from urltoken ; searched 04 june 2014 .\n\u00f6zeren , c . s . 2004 . iznik g\u00f6l\u00fc baliklarinin taksonomisi ve cyprinus carpio l . , 1758 ( sazan ) , rutilus frisii nordmann , 1840 ( akbalik ) ve atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ( g\u00fcm\u00fcs baligi ) \u2019nin biyo - ekolojik y\u00f6nden incelenmesi . phd thesis , ankara : hacettepe university , 224 pp .\npombo , l . elliot , m . , and rebelo , j . e . 2005 . ecology , age and growth of atherina boyeri and atherina presbyter in the ria de aveiro , portugal . cybium 29 ( 1 ) : 47 - 55 .\nsr\u0161en , v . 1995 . ichthyofauna of the neretva river estuary . bsc thesis . faculty of science . university of zagreb . 50 pp .\nquignard , j . p . and pras , a . 1986 . atherinidae . in fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . eds . p . j . whitehead , m . l . bauchot , j . c . hureau , j . nielsen , and e . tortonese ( p . 1207 - 1210 ) . paris : unesco .\nbaker , e . , m . asgari , and j . li , 2018 , atherina boyeri risso , 1810 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , and noaa great lakes aquatic nonindigenous species information system , ann arbor , mi , urltoken ; = y & type ; = 2 & hucnumber ; = , revision date : 1 / 23 / 2015 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nglerl 4840 s . state rd . , ann arbor , mi 48108 - 9719 ( 734 ) 741 - 2235 lake michigan field station , 1431 beach st . , muskegon , mi 49441 - 1098 ( 231 ) 759 - 7824 noaa | doc\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nit is a very euryhaline species , which is frequently found in brackish waters and more sporadically in freshwater .\ncarnivorous , it feeds on small crustaceans , worms , mollusks and fish larvae .\ncopyright \u00a9 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved\nenter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\ncreated to help individuals around the world identify tropical fish found during their scuba dive and snorkelling excursions .\nthe webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license\n( of atherina mochon cuvier , 1829 ) cuvier , g . ; latreille , p . a . ( 1829 ) . le r\u00e8gne animal distribu\u00e9 d ' apr\u00e8s son organisation , pour servir de base \u00e0 l ' histoire naturelle des animaux et d ' introduction \u00e0 l ' anatomie compar\u00e9e , par m . le cher , cuvier . . . avec figures , dessin\u00e9es d ' apr\u00e8s nature . edition 2 . v . 2 : i - xv + 1 - 406 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina lagunae trabelsi , faure , quignard , boussaid , focant & maamouri , 2002 ) trabelsi m . , faure e . , quignard j . p . , boussaid m . , focant b . & maamouri f . 2002 : atherina punctata and atherina lagunae ( pisces , atherinidae ) , new species in the mediterranean sea . 1 . biometric investigations of three atherinis species . c . r . biologies 325 : 967\u2013975 . [ details ]\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina anterina nardo , 1847 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina bonapartii boulenger , 1907 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina caspia eichwald , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina hyalosoma cocco , 1885 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina lacustris bonaparte , 1836 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina pontica eichwald , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina riqueti roule , 1902 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina risso valenciennes , 1835 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina rissoi g\u00fcnther , 1861 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina sarda valenciennes , 1835 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina sardinella fowler , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hepsetia boyeri ( risso , 1810 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of hepsetia mochon ( cuvier , 1829 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina mochon aegyptia boulenger , 1907 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina mochon pontica eichwald , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina mochon riqueti roule , 1902 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina boyeri caspia eichwald , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina presbyter caspia eichwald , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina presbyter pontica eichwald , 1831 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina lagunae trabelsi , faure , quignard , boussaid , focant & maamouri , 2002 ) bouchet , p . ; fontaine , b . ( 2009 ) . list of new marine species described between 2002 - 2006 . census of marine life . [ details ]\n( of atherina bo\u00eferi risso , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina mochon cuvier , 1829 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina ( hepsetia ) boyeri risso , 1810 ) eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\n( of atherina ( hepsetia ) boyeri risso , 1810 ) risso , a . ( 1810 ) . ichthyologie de nice ou histoire naturelle des poissons du d\u00e9partement des alpes - maritimes . schoell , paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 338 [ details ]\n( of atherina ( hepsetia ) boyeri risso , 1810 ) van der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\n( of atherina mochon cuvier , 1829 ) eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]\nmaris , t . ; beauchard , o . ; van damme , s . ; van den bergh , e . ; wijnhoven , s . ; meire , p . ( 2013 ) . referentiematrices en ecotoopoppervlaktes annex bij de evaluatiemethodiek schelde - estuarium studie naar \u201cecotoopoppervlaktes en intactness index\u201d . monitor taskforce publication series , 2013 - 01 . nioz : yerseke . 35 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]\nuse on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .\noslob , philippines - circa - 2012 - whale shark feeding below a rowboat in philippines .\na flock of fry black sea horse mackerel ( trachurus mediterraneus ponticus ) near rhizostome jellyfish ( rhizostoma pulmo ) , medium shot . black sea . ukraine .\naurelia aurita ( also called the moon jelly , moon jellyfish , common jellyfish , or saucer jelly ) is a widely studied species of the genus aurelia . black sea\nsoccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .\nstage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series\nover 10 , 965 , 896 royalty - free video clips with 80 , 528 new stock clips added weekly .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\natlan\ue99ec popula\ue99eons ( palmer et al . , 1979 ) and the iznik lake popula\nfrom turkish inland waters based on data from the literature . coordinates and al\ue99etude taken from google\ncapoeta mandica was originally described as c . barroisi mandica from mond river , persian gulf basin , based on morphological characters and later was considered as a distinct species based on a few \u2026\n[ more ]\nwater is crucial for all living organisims that covers almost 80 % of our planet . although productivity of water resources unproportionally distributed , all of them host vast biodiversity but only v\u2026\n[ more ]\nmorphological and meristic differences among freshwater fish , cyprinion kais ( cyprinidae ) population . . .\nin this study , morphometric and meristic characteristics of cyprinion kais samples which is obtained from different locality in tigris river were carried out . in order to determine the morphological and meristic variation among populations , discriminant function can be detected , intergroup discrimination with the help of this function are the most distinctive variables affecting the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmorphological differences among the garra rufa populations ( cypr\u0131n\u0131dae ) in tigris river system of so . . .\nobjective : to determine morphometric and meristic variations between garra rufa ( g . rufa ) samples obtained from different locality in tigris river . methods : transformed morphometric characters were subjected to discriminant analysis and according to grouping model , number of discriminant function and morphologic variation between populations with respect to their importance of explaining total . . . [ show full abstract ]\nmorphological differences among the garra variabilis populations ( cyprinidae ) in tigris river system . . .\nreoccurrence of a commercial euryhaline fish species , atherina boyeri risso , 1810 ( atherinidae ) in b . . .\nthis is a short preview of the document . your library or institution may give you access to the complete full text for this document in proquest .\ncomputational ecology and software ; hong kong vol . 7 , iss . 2 , ( jun 2017 ) : 82 - 90 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n[ uk ] [ slang ] you should get out quick sticks if you don ' t want him to see you .\nhis book subject is quite good , but he tends to miss the forest for the trees . ( tending to get in too much detail and miss the essence ) .\nyou want to reject this entry : please give us your comments ( bad translation / definition , duplicate entries . . . )\nto add entries to your own vocabulary , become a member of reverso community or login if you are already a member .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\njustification : populations in the mediterranean and black seas apparently declined steeply during the 1980s , but have stabilized ( albeit at much lower levels ) since the early 1990s , according to catch statistics . this species remains a common and widespread species with a stable population . therefore , this species is listed as least concern .\nthis is a mediterranean sea near - endemic species ( including the black sea and sea of azov ) , but is also present in the eastern atlantic in southern portugal and northern morocco , including madeira and mauritania .\nin the mediterranean sea , this species is widespread . its distribution includes : spain , recorded in la vega river ( clavero\n2004a , b ; dulcic and glamuzina 2006 ) ; aegean sea ( papakonstantinou 1988 , leonardos and sinis 2000 , leonardos 2001 , koutrakis and tsikliras 2003 , koutrakis et al . 2004 , koutrakis et al . 2005 , mogias and kevrekidis 2005 , tarakan et al . 2006 , chrisafi et al . 2007 , gokce and metin 2007 ) ; lebanese waters ( harmelin - vivien\n2005 ) ; egyptian lagoons in the sinai peninsula ( gon and ben - tuvia 1983 ) . it is also in the black sea . two subspecies are recognized in russian waters :\nthis is a very common species in the mediterranean sea . catch statistics from the mediterranean sea and black sea show a very large population reduction during the 1980s , from annual catches of 6 - 10 , 000 mt , stabilizing since then at around 600 mt per annum ( food and agriculture organization fishstat ) .\n( 1999 ) , 222 specimens with length varied from 1 . 3 and 9 . 5 cm tl were captured during spring ( breeding time ) and fall in the camargue lagoons .\nleonardos and sinis ( 2000 ) mentioned that 4 , 269 specimens with length from 1 . 4 - 10 . 3 cm tl were collected in the mesolongi and etolikon lagoons ( aegean sea ) during the period from april 1989 to june 1990 , using a beach seine having mesh size 2 . 5 mm , length of 15 m , height of 1 . 5 m at the edges and 2 m in the centre , which terminated in a sac with a diameter of 1 . 5 m and length of 3 m .\naccording to leonardos ( 2001 ) , 503 specimens were collected from the catches of commercial fishing boats from april 1992 to january 1993 in the lake trichonis ( greece ) .\n( 2000 ) reported that 1 , 479 specimens were caught with a beach seine net ( 50 m length , 1 - 5 m depth ) during july and august 1998 and february and march 1999 in the estuary of the neretva river ( east and central adriatic coast ) .\n( 2004 ) , 41 specimens with length varied from 4 . 0 and 10 . 0 cm tl , were collected in the camargue lagoons . they were sampled with fixed fishing nets .\n( 2006 ) mentioned that 4 , 831 specimens were collected in the la vega river in the south spain using traps .\n( 2003 ) 1 , 936 specimens with maximum length of 9 . 4 cm ( female ) and 8 . 7 cm ( male ) , were collected in the mar menor ( spain ) from commercial catches taken between november 1997 and september 1998 , using a fyke net ( 11mm mesh size , 100m length , called chirretera ) .\n( 2004 ) reported that 1 , 056 specimens , with length varied from 1 . 3cm and 10 . 5cm , were collected in the vistonis estuary system ( aegean sea ) , from february 1989 to august 1990 with a bag seine net ( mesh size 3mm knot to knot , 10 m length , 1 . 2 m height ) . each haul covered an area of approximately 250 m\n( 2007 ) mentioned that 240 specimens , with length varied from 3 . 5 and 11 . 2 cm were collected monthly by purse seine ( mesh size 22 mm ) from january to december 1997 from various lake trichonis locations ( west greece ) .\naccording to dulcic and glamuzina ( 2006 ) , 1 , 280 specimens with length varied from 2 . 5 and 15 . 7 cm tl , were collected from three east adriatic estuarine systems ( tar cove , sampled between september 1999 and september 2000 , duce - glava , sampled between october 1998 and october 1999 , river neretva estuary sampled between december 2002 and december 2003 ) , using various fishing gears ( beach seine , fyke - net , gill nets , fish traps ) .\nkoutrakis and tsikliras ( 2003 ) reported that 950 specimens , with length varied from 1 . 1 and 11 . 5cm tl , were sampled using various fishing gear ( beach - seine , fyke - net , gill nets ) in three north aegean estuarine systems . porto - lagos ( north - east aegean sea ) , a shallow coastal lagoon was sampled between december 1988 and september 1990 .\n( 2004 ) , 536 fish larvae were collected in the mar menor ( south spain ) .\n( 2006 ) mentioned that 457 specimens , with length varied from 3 . 9 and 12 . 9 cm were collected from six locations in the marmara region , turkey using various type of fishing gear ( beach - seine , fyke - net , gill nets and electrofishing ) . iznik and sapanca lakes were sampled from october 2003 to august 2004 and from january 2002 to may 2003 , respectively . buyukcekmece , omerli and terkos dam lakes were sampled from may 1995 to october 1995 and in april 2004 , and from january 2002 to august 2004 and from september 2000 to june 2002 respectively . finally , kucukcekmece , a shallow lagoon was sampled from november 1971 to october 1974 and from may 1981 to june 1981 .\naccording to gokce and metin ( 2007 ) , six specimens were collected using three artisanal fishing boats ( 6 . 7 and 10 m long ) comprising 39 fishing operations . the trials took place between may and october 2003 in izmir bay , turkey . the fishing gear was combined trammel net to trammel net with one lower and one upper part . each part is formed of three layers : the inner layer with a small mesh size ( 40 mm stretched mesh ) , the outer layers with a larger mesh size ( 220 mm stretched mesh ) . these nets , each 100 m long and 1 . 30 m deep , are hung to a common float line and lead line .\nthis is a commercial species . tutman et al . ( 2000 ) report a remarkable percentage of specimens with spinal deformity ( 3 . 58 % , whole number of catches 1 , 479 ) . as a coastal species it may be vulnerable to various human impacts . freshwater and brackish water populations may be negatively impacted by a number of anthropogenic threats ( development , water abstraction , drainage , pollution , etc . ) .\nthis species occurs in a number of protected areas . appropriate management and habitat protection is required for this species , especially for freshwater and brackish water populations .\nto organize and save selections in a folder you must first register or log in . registration is free !\nlogin or register ! to organize the photos in galleries you must first register or login . registration is free !\nthis video footage may be downloaded for all kinds of professional uses and in different resolutions ( up to 3 , 840 x 2 , 160 pixels ) .\nthe author of this video , portunus also has 1 , 641 images and videos in the same series .\nwith the standard license , images can be used for any illustrative purpose in any type of media . examples : websites , web banners , newsletters , pdf documents , blogs , emails , slide shows , tv and video presentations , cell phones , splash screens , movies , magazine articles , books , advertising , brochures , document illustrations , booklets , billboards , business cards , packaging , etc .\nthe extended license gives you all the rights granted by the standard license , but also the ability to print our creative files more than 500 , 000 times and allows you to use them on your own products . an extended license lets you create derivative products or services intended for resale or distribution . examples : postcards , calendars , posters , t - shirts , print & presentations templates , video clips intended for resale , video applications , and any project where the fotolia file lends primary value to the product intended for resale or distribution .\nyou ' ll get access to all the essential fotolia content and so much more .\nadobe stock offers an incredible range of exceptional images , videos , and templates plus 3d , editorial , and premium assets to make your work stand out .\npreview watermarked images inside your designs to make sure they look just right . then license and manage them directly within photoshop cc , illustrator cc , indesign cc , and other adobe desktop apps for a seamless workflow .\n{\ninterception\n: {\nipc\n: false ,\nii\n:\n1\n} ,\nfotolia _ tooltip\n: {\nlicenses _ label\n:\nlicenses :\n} ,\nfotolia\n: {\nhost _ base\n:\nurltoken\n} ,\nsearch\n: {\nheader - search\n: {\nautocomplete _ container _ id\n:\nsearch - 5b43c3c9dd6a4\n,\nautocomplete _ url\n:\nhttps : \\ / \\ / autocomplete . urltoken \\ / ? language _ id = 2\n} } }\nby using our website , you agree to the pond5 terms of use and privacy policy which includes pond5 ' s practices regarding personal data and cookies .\nthe new off - canvas sidebar is designed for multi - purposes . you can now display menu or modules in off - canvas sidebar .\nregnoli , found in 1861 , is a solid reality based on tradition and modern business vision . since the 80s it has been gradually transforming its production towards a new generation of gastronomy , completing its selection with vegetable products and developing an exclusive technology for preserving and stabilising fish products , thus becoming one of the leading brands of this sector in terms of quantity and quality .\nsince 1861 regnoli has been true to its mission : to offer consumers seafood products of high quality . in particular , since 1882 , the brand medusa stands for the specialties that represent the company ' s historical products - marinated eel and fish - fry , mackerel and seafood salads with or without oil , anchovy and sardine fillets , tuna fish , and so on - as well as for more recent items such as carpaccios and ready to eat fish courses ."]}
{"id": 2559, "summary": [{"text": "bipalium adventitium is a land planarian in the subfamily bipaliinae .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "it has been accidentally introduced in the united states , where it is considered invasive . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "bipalium adventitium", "paragraphs": ["tracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium ( tricladida , platyhelminthes ) .\ntracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium ( tricladida , platyhelminthes ) . - pubmed - ncbi\nmaggie whitson marked\nland planarian ( bipalium sp . )\nas trusted on the\nbipalium\npage .\nbipalium adventitium est un pr\u00e9dateur ver plat dans la famille geoplanidae d ' asie . # animaux # etrange # bizarre | pinterest | animaux and animal\ndindal , d . l . , 1970 . feeding behavior of a terrestrial turbellarian bipalium adventitium . am . midl . nat . 83 : 635\u2013637 .\ndindal , d . l . 1970 . feeding behavior of a terrestrial turbellarian bipalium adventitium . the american midland naturalist 83 ( 2 ) : 635 - 637 .\nzaborski , e . 2002 . observations on feeding behavior by the terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( platyhelminthes : tricladida : terricola ) from illinois . am . midl . nat . 148 : 401 - 408 .\nducey , p . k . , and s . noce . 1998 . successful invasion of new york state by the terrestrial flatworm , bipalium adventitium . northeastern naturalist 5 ( 3 ) : 199 - 206 .\nyasuko shirasawa & naoya makino ( 1991 ) . pharyngeal regeneration in the land planarian bipalium kewense\nmaggie whitson changed the thumbnail image of\nland planarian ( bipalium sp . )\n.\nelution times and ttx profiles of an authentic ttx standard ( top ) , bipalium adventitium ( middle ) , and b . adventitium co - injected with a ttx standard ( 0 . 0005 mg / ml ) . the presence of single peak in the flatworm and co - injected sample confirm that the ttx like toxin present in this species is authentic ttx .\ncitation : stokes an , ducey pk , neuman - lee l , hanifin ct , french ss , pfrender me , et al . ( 2014 ) confirmation and distribution of tetrodotoxin for the first time in terrestrial invertebrates : two terrestrial flatworm species ( bipalium adventitium and bipalium kewense ) . plos one 9 ( 6 ) : e100718 . urltoken\nducey , p . k . ; west , l . j . ; shaw , g . ; de lisle , j . ( 2005 ) .\nreproductive ecology and evolution in the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium across north america\n.\nfiore , c . ; tull , j . l . ; zehner , s . ; ducey , p . k . ( 2004 ) .\ntracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium ( tricladida , platyhelminthes )\n.\nducey , p . k . ; messere , m . ; lapoint , k . ; noce , s . ( 1999 ) .\nlumbricid prey and potential herpetofaunal predators of the invading terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola )\n.\neduard sol\u00e0 marked\nimage of bipaliinae\nas hidden on the\nbipalium kewense moseley , 1878\npage .\nstokes , a . , ducey , p . , neuman - lee , l . , hanifin , c . , french , s . , pfrender , m . , brodie , e . , & brodie jr , e . ( 2014 ) . confirmation and distribution of tetrodotoxin for the first time in terrestrial invertebrates : two terrestrial flatworm species ( bipalium adventitium and bipalium kewense )\none of 3 bipalium adventitium i found in my backyard on staten island on the first day of spring in 2010 . it is an invasive species that eats earthworms ( which are also invasive ) . check out the link for a description of them . urltoken and urltoken\ncurtis , s . k . , r . r . cowden , j . d . moore , and j . l . robertson . 1983 . histochemical and ultrastructural features of the epidermis of land planarian bipalium adventitium . j . of morphology 175 : 171 - 194 .\neduard sol\u00e0 marked\nimage of bipaliinae\nas untrusted on the\nbipalium kewense moseley , 1878\npage . reasons to untrust : misidentified\nstokes , a . n . ; ducey , p . k . ; neuman - lee , l . ; hanifin , c . t . ; french , s . s . ; pfrender , m . e . ; brodie , e . d . ; brodie jr . , e . d . ( 2014 ) .\nconfirmation and distribution of tetrodotoxin for the first time in terrestrial invertebrates : two terrestrial flatworm species ( bipalium adventitium and bipalium kewense )\n.\ndaly jj , farris he jr , & matthews hm ( 1976 ) . pseudoparasitism of dogs and cats by the land planarian , bipalium kewense .\nducey , p . k . ; west , l . j . ; shaw , g . ; de lisle , j . ( 2005 ) .\nreproductive ecology and evolution in the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium across north america\n. pedobiologia 49 ( 4 ) : 367 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . pedobi . 2005 . 04 . 002 .\nbipalium kewense notice the distinctive hammer - like head by ajaykuyiloor ( own work ) [ cc - by - sa - 3 . 0 ] , via wikimedia commons\nmiyoshi , y . , 1955 . observations on the food habit of bipalium . collect . & breed . , tokyo 17 : 377 . ( in japanese ) .\nfiore , c . ; tull , j . l . ; zehner , s . ; ducey , p . k . ( 2004 ) .\ntracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium adventitium ( tricladida , platyhelminthes )\n. behavioural processes 67 ( 3 ) : 327\u2013334 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . beproc . 2004 . 06 . 001 . pmid 15518983 .\nneck , r . w . , 1987 . a predatory terrestrial flatworm , bipalium kewense , in texas : feral populations and laboratory observations . texas j . sci . 39 : 267\u2013271 .\nducey , p . k . ; messere , m . ; lapoint , k . ; noce , s . ( 1999 ) .\nlumbricid prey and potential herpetofaunal predators of the invading terrestrial flatworm bipalium adventitium ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola )\n. the american midland naturalist 141 ( 2 ) : 305 . doi : 10 . 1674 / 0003 - 0031 ( 1999 ) 141 [ 0305 : lpaphp ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\nboth bipalium kewense and b . adventitium exhibited ttx ( fig . 1 , 2 , and 3 ) . total ttx did not differ between the two species ( df = 1 , p = 0 . 4712 ) . the mean amount of total ttx in each sample for b . adventitium and b . kewense was 40 . 10 ng / ml ttx ( sem = 14 . 218 , range = bdl\u201381 . 42 ng / ml ) and 62 . 03 ng / ml ttx ( sem = 5 . 13 , range = 50 . 25\u201382 . 71 ng / ml ) , respectively . likewise , relative to mass the two species did not differ with a mean of 4 . 64 ng / mg ttx ( sem = 3 . 26 , range = bdl\u201319 . 89 ng / mg ) for whole b . adventitium , and a mean of 3 . 72 ng / mg ttx ( sem = 1 . 22 , range = 0 . 73\u20138 . 27 ng / mg ) for whole b . kewense .\nlandsperger , w . j . , e . h . peters & m . d . dresden , 1981 . properties of a collagenolytic enzyme from bipalium kewense . biochim . biophys . acta , 661 : 213\u2013220 .\nfilella - subira , e . ( 1983 ) . \u00abnota sobre la pres\u00e8ncia de la plan\u00e0ria terrestre bipalium kewense moseley , 1878 a catalunya\u00bb . butll . inst . cat . hist . nat . , 49 : 151\nwinsor , l . 1983 . a revision of the cosmopolitan land planarian bipalium kewense moseley , 1878 ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . zool . j . of the linnean soc . 79 : 61 - 100 .\n- winsor , l . 1983 . a revision of the cosmopolitan land planarian bipalium kewense moseley , 1878 ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . zool . j . of the linnean soc . 79 : 61 - 100 .\nchandler , c . m . , 1976 . field observations on a population of the land planarian , bipalium kewense ( turbellaria , tricladida ) in middle tennessee . j . tenn . acad . sci . 51 : 73\u201375 .\nolewine , d . a . , 1972 . further observations in georgia on the land planarians , bipalium kewense and geoplana vaga ( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . assoc . southeast . biol . bull . 19 : 88 .\nchoate , p . m . , and dunn , r . a . , 1988 . land planarians , bipalium kewense moseley and dolichoplana striata moseley ( tricladida : terricola ) , ifas document eeny - 049 . online : available urltoken\nhammerhead slug , crossing a road near hilo , hawaii . by dick culbert from gibsons , b . c . , canada ( bipalium kewense , a hammerhead worm . ) [ cc - by - 2 . 0 ] , via wikimedia commons\n- ducey , p . k . , j . cerqua , l - j west , and m . warner . 2006 . rare egg capsule production in the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium kewense . southwest naturalist 51 ( 2 ) : 252 - 254 .\nducey , p . k . ; cerqua , j . ; west , l . j . ; warner , m . ( 2006 ) . eberle , mark e , ed .\nrare egg capsule production in the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium kewense\n.\nducey , p . k . , m . mccormick , and e . davidson . 2007 . natural history observations on bipalium cf . vagum jones and sterrer , 2005 ( platyhelminthes : tricladida ) , a terrestrial broadhead planarian new to north america . southeastern naturalist .\nogren , r . e . & j . k . sheldon , 1991 . ecological observations on the land planarian bipalium pennsylvanicum ogren , with references to phenology , reproduction , growth rate and food niche . j . pa . acad . sci . 65 : 3\u20139 .\nogren , r . e . 1987 . description of a new three - lined planarian of the genus bipalium ( turbellaria : tricladida ) from pennsylvania , u . s . a . trans . am . microsc . soc . 106 ( 1 ) : 21 - 30 .\nbarnwell , g . m . , l . j . peacock & r . e . taylor , 1965 . feeding behavior of a land planarian , bipalium kewense . unpublished manuscript presented to the southern society for philosophy and psychology , atlanta , ga , april , 15\u201317 , 1965 ( 8 pages photocopy available ) .\nreproduction bipalium kewense is hermaphroditic ( like all bipalium species ) and capable of both asexual and sexual reproduction . however , the latter has rarely been observed and apparently fragmentation is the preffered form of reproduction . this is done by chipping off about 1cm of the tail . the tip first attaches itself to something in the soil , and then the parent worm pulls away . the new worm can move immediately and develops a head within 10 days . as for sexual reproduction , they lay eggs in a bright red cocoon . after one day the cocoon turns black and the eggs hatch about 20 days later , depending on temperature and moisture conditions .\nwe confirmed the presence of ttx in these species using hplc analysis ( fig . 1 ) . we compared the peaks from b . adventitium to that of a 0 . 0005 mg / ml ttx standard , and the flatworm sample co - injected with the same ttx standard . the single peak in the flatworm and in the co - injected sample indicates that this toxin is ttx and that ttx itself is the primary enantiomer present in these species .\nducey , p . k . ; cerqua , j . ; west , l . j . ; warner , m . ( 2006 ) . eberle , mark e , ed .\nrare egg capsule production in the invasive terrestrial planarian bipalium kewense\n. the southwestern naturalist 51 ( 2 ) : 252 . doi : 10 . 1894 / 0038 - 4909 ( 2006 ) 51 [ 252 : recpit ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : plos one publisher : san francisco , ca : public library of science . isbn / issn : 1932 - 6203 oclc : 969745500\npublic library of science . ; national institutes of health ( u . s . ) . pubmed central .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\n# national institutes of health ( u . s . ) . pubmed central .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\ndiscover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership \u2013 a perfect fit for your research every time .\ncopyright : \u00a9 2014 stokes et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .\ndata availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the supporting information files .\nfunding : utah state university , suny cortland , nsf : deb - 0922251 to me pfrender , ed brodie , jr , and ed brodie iii . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nsegments are denoted as h for head , ab for anterior body , and pb for posterior body .\nsegments are denoted as h for head , ab for anterior body , and pb for posterior body . letters above bars indicate significant differences between segments .\nalthough , ttx is best known as a defensive compound in vertebrates , there are many invertebrate groups that have ttx including red calcareous algae , dinoflagellates , bacteria , horseshoe crabs , blue - ringed octopuses , and multiple species of gastropods [ 4 ] . notably , several groups of worms possess ttx including annelids and flatworms ( planocera species ) [ 4 ] , [ 18 ] . though this taxonomic distribution is wide , this study is the first known to document the presence of ttx in any terrestrial invertebrate species .\ncurrently , we have little conclusive knowledge regarding production or acquisition of ttx in the tissues of organisms . in marine systems the common view is that bacterial species produce ttx , which is then sequestered in the tissues of other organisms that ingest the bacteria [ 24 ] . puffer fish often are the example of this hypothesis , as they have little to no ttx when not fed a ttx - bearing diet [ 25 ] . however , even in puffer fish it is unclear where exactly the ttx came from as the production of ttx by bacterial species is still questionable [ 26 ] , and this hypothesis has not held up well in regards to terrestrial species [ 14 ] , [ 22 ] . our findings provide a potential avenue for ttx to move up the food chain in terrestrial organisms .\nwe would like to thank brian rivest , michelle hamerslough , and dan hodgson for help collecting these flatworms in the field . susan durham at utah state university provided helpful insight with statistical analyses .\nconceived and designed the experiments : ans pkd ssf mep edmund d . brodie iii edmund d . brodie jr . performed the experiments : ans lnl cth . analyzed the data : ans . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : pkd cth ssf mep edmund d . brodie iii edmund d . brodie jr . wrote the paper : ans . extensive review and editing of manuscript : ans pkd lnl cth ssf mep edmund d . brodie iii edmund d . brodie jr .\nnarahashi t , moore jw , scott wr ( 1964 ) tetrodotoxin blockage of sodium conductuance increase in lobster giant axons . j gen phys 47 : 965\u2013974 .\nnarahashi t , moore jw , poston rn ( 1967 ) tetrodotoxin derivatives : chemical structure and blockage of nerve membrane conductance . science 156 : 976\u2013979 .\nmiyazawa k , noguchi t ( 2001 ) distribution and origin of tetrodotoxin . j toxicol - toxin rev 20 : 11\u201333 .\n( turbellaria : tricladida : terricola ) . am midl nat 141 : 305\u2013314 .\n( platyhelminthes : tricladida : terricola ) from illinois . am midl nat 148 : 40\u2013408 .\nogren re ( 1995 ) predation behaviour of land planarians . hydrobiologia 305 : 105\u2013111 .\nstokes an , williams bl , french ss ( 2012 ) an improved competitive inhibition enzymatic immunoassay method for tetrodotoxin quantification . biol proced online 14 : 3 available :\nhanifin ct , brodie ed iii , brodie ed jr ( 2002 ) tetrodotoxin levels of the rough - skin newt , taricha granulosa , increase in long - term captivity . toxicon 40 : 1149\u20131153 .\nhanifin ct , brodie ed jr , brodie ed iii ( 2008 ) phenotypic mismatches reveal escape from arms - race coevolution . plos biol 6 : 471\u2013482 .\nby a novel predator and its relationship with tetrodotoxin toxicity . am midl nat 165 : 389\u2013399 .\nritson - williams r , yotsu - yamashita m , paul vj ( 2005 ) ecological functions of tetrodotoxin in a deadly polyclad flatworm . pnas : 3176\u20133179 .\nkao cy ( 1966 ) tetrodotoxin , saxitoxin , and their significance in the study of excitation phenomena . pharmacol rev 18 : 997\u20131049 .\nfuhrman fa , fuhrman gj , dull dl , mosher hs ( 1969 ) toxins from eggs of fishes and amphibia . j agri food chem 17 : 417\u2013424 .\n) produce tetrodotoxin laden eggs after long term captivity . toxicon 60 : 1057\u20131062 .\nwilliams bl ( 2010 ) behavioral and chemical ecology of marine organisms with respect to tetrodotoxin . mar drugs 8 : 381\u2013398 .\nshimizu c , matssui t , sato h , yamamori k ( 1982 ) artificially reared puffers are not poisonous . mar sci mon 16 : 560 .\nmatsumura k ( 1995 ) reexamination of tetrodotoxin production by bacteria . app environ microbiol 61 : 3468\u20133470 .\ndo these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\npasedena , california , usa collection date : 1943 or earlier kind : default type comments : from a garden . campus , university of california berkeley , california , usa collection date : 1943 or earlier kind : default type comments : under boards . ursinus college , collegeville , montgomery county , pennsylvania , usa collection date : 1987 or earlier comments : on the campus and environs of ursinus college . on the campus and adjacent gardens\nfor the second time on the property , yesterday . i was checking amphibian cover boards and observed two individuals in what looked as if they were copulating . i collected the specimens and ran back to the office to confirm my identification . my colleague jeff greenwood , wmcc education director , ran an errand on the property shortly afterwards and found another individual . this brought us up to 3 specimens in one day ( april 26 , 2012 ) and we weren ' t even focusing a search for them !\nblue - spotted x jefferson salamander is a state endangered species in ct that inhabits white memorial and eats earthworms .\nis an introduced earthworm from asia and it is one of the few dirty words among forest ecologists ( please pardon the pun ) .\nto peter ducey . since these species ( earthworms and flatworms ) have been introduced to north america from the horticultural industry , it is best to use native species in your garden raised by local growers using local stock for their plants , soils , and amendments . if you use worms as bait for fishing , throw any remaining worms into the garbage not your garden ! and finally , learn as much as you can about this topic ( soil , earthworms , invasive species , forest ecosystems , etc . ) on your own because soil is one of our vital natural resources that we all need , so take care of it .\nlocation : the white memorial conservation center , inc . , 80 whitehall rd , litchfield , ct 06759 , usa\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndepartment of biological sciences , state university of new york college at cortland , cortland , ny 13045 , usa .\nthis is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed . for attribution , the original author ( s ) , title , publication source ( peerj ) and either doi or url of the article must be cited .\nmost animal invasive species detected in europe are terrestrial invertebrates ( roques et al . , 2009 ) . invading edaphic organisms can have dramatic effects on the environment , due to the direct effects on native soil organisms , and through their interactions with the environment aboveground . however , overall , their impact in human health and economy is greater than their ecological impact ( vil\u00e0 et al . , 2010 ) . among these organisms , land planarians are becoming an important and diversified group of introduced species in europe .\n) ; however , most species are found in the southern hemisphere . bipaliinae (\n) are the subfamilies with the most northerly distribution , including europe . terrestrial planarians are the only free - living platyhelminthes that do not live in an aquatic habitat . however , they have not developed the capacity to prevent water loss and are thus strongly dependent on environmental moisture levels (\n) . they seem to withstand this limitation through behavioral strategies such as hiding in damp refuges during the day and becoming active during the night . due to these characteristics , these animals are considered to have a low capacity to disperse . in fact , in their areas of origin , although a few species are well - adapted to open and human - transformed lands (\n( a ) subfamily bipaliinae . ( b ) subfamily geoplaninae . information from urltoken .\n( a ) subfamily microplaninae . ( b ) subfamily rhynchodeminae . information from urltoken .\nafter receiving multiple reports from non - scientists on the presence of \u201clarge and colored\u201d terrestrial flatworms in several localities in the ip , and given their observed locations , particularly in private gardens , we decided to analyze their presence in garden centers and plant nurseries .\nthe aims of this work were to : ( 1 ) estimate the number of terrestrial flatworm species introduced in the ip , and find their region of origin ; ( 2 ) check whether plant nurseries and garden centers are acting as entrance gates and reservoirs ; ( 3 ) estimate the invasive potential of some introduced species by considering their diet and by using species distribution modeling ( sdm ) ; ( 4 ) propose measures to prevent their becoming invasive and to prevent further introductions and spread .\n) : ( 1 ) gardens , ( 2 ) nurseries and plantations , ( 3 ) semi natural areas , and ( 4 ) from other countries ( either the original area of distribution or other invaded areas ) . specimens from sources 1 and 2 were either sent by people who knew our work through the information in social networks , or sampled by us ( all the localities reported by non - scientist collaborators correspond to gardens ) . specimens from source 3 were sampled by us . specimens from source 4 were sent by colleagues , specialists of the group , to whom we requested material for comparison with the iberian populations .\nto each new sequence a three digit numeric code was assigned . sequences from the genbank database do not have specimen code numbers , only when there are more specimens from the same species in the same locality was a specimen code assigned ( three letters + one number ) . loc codes are as described in\n. collector : db , dani boix ; em , eduardo mateos ; hj , hugh jones ; ka , miquel arnedo ; ll , laia leria ; lw , l winsor ; ma , marta \u00e1lvarez - presas ; sg , s graham ; mv , miquel vila .\njapan / bagu\u00f1\u00e0 et al . , 2001 \u2013 \u00e1lvarez - presas , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 & riutort , 2008\nleignston ( usa ) / bagu\u00f1\u00e0 et al . , 2001 \u2013 \u00e1lvarez - presas , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 & riutort , 2008\nponta delgada , illa s\u00e3o miguel ( a\u00e7ores , portugal ) / db n37 . 745196 w25 . 667408 *\nvall d\u2019en bas ( girona , spain ) / mateos et al . , 2009\naustralia / bagu\u00f1\u00e0 et al . 2001\u2013 \u00e1lvarez - presas , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 & riutort , 2008\nmalborough ( australia ) / bagu\u00f1\u00e0 et al . 2001\u2013 \u00e1lvarez - presas , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 & riutort , 2008\nmenorca ( balearic islands , spain ) / ( breugelmans et al . , 2012 )\ngarden , adelaide ( australia ) / sg s34 . 988611 e138 . 599722 *\ngarden in townsville ( palmetum , australia ) / lw s19 . 260277 e146 . 822222 *\nnursery in liverpool ( uk ) / hj n53 . 3525 w2 . 902777 *\nsaint p\u00e9e sur nivelle ( france ) / ma n43 . 34235 w1 . 52650 *\ntownsville ( australia ) / bagu\u00f1\u00e0 et al . , 2001 - \u00e1lvarez - presas , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 & riutort , 2008\nluarca , asturias ( spain ) / ll 43\u00b032\u203230 . 81\u2033n6 \u00b032\u20327 . 42\u2033o *\ncanyamars ( barcelona , spain ) / em n41 . 598317 e2 . 44302 *\nmontju\u00efc ( barcelona , spain ) / vila - farr\u00e9 et al . , 2008 *\nbenamargosa ( m\u00e1laga , spain ) / vila - farr\u00e9 et al . , 2011 *\nsueiro , asturias ( spain ) / ll n43 . 527130 w6 . 877329 *\nint . park la amistad , pila ( panam\u00e1 ) / ka n8 . 524944 w82 . 618777 *\ns\u00e3o paulo ( brazil ) / \u00e1lvarez - presas et al . , 2011 - carbayo et al . , 2013\n, loc - code p ) . in all three places recent habitat restoration activities have been performed , including the transplantation of autochthonous plant species from commercial nurseries .\namateur collaborators photographed the animals alive and fixed them in absolute ethanol . specimens we collected were also photographed and external morphological characters recorded . subsequently , animals were subjected to two different procedures to proceed to the species identification : ( 1 ) specimens for molecular analyses were fixed in 100 % ethanol and ( 2 ) specimens for histological studies were killed with boiling water , fixed with 10 % formalin for 24 h , and then preserved in 70 % ethanol .\npreserved specimens were examined under a stereo microscope and notes of their dimensions , appearance , color ( though this is affected by preservation ) , eyes , any stripes or pattern , the position of the pharyngeal aperture ( mouth ) and gonopore , if present , were taken . specimens with no visible gonopore were considered to be immature . it was possible to identify some specimens , even immature ones , to species level without further examination . for unrecognized specimens , or where identity was uncertain and required confirmation , a mature specimen ( evidenced by an open gonopore ) was selected and divided into various portions , being embedded in wax . the copulatory apparatus ( gonopore ) and a small anterior region were sagittally and transversely sectioned at 10 or 15 \u00b5m , respectively , stained in harris\u2019 haematoxylin and eosin and mounted in canada balsam .\na small piece of tissue fixed in absolute alcohol was digested with wizard genomic dna purification lysis buffer ( promega , madison , wi , usa ) and proteinase k overnight at 37 \u00b0c , following manufacturer\u2019s instructions . the rest of the tissue is kept as voucher in the genetics department ( universitat de barcelona ) .\npcr products of the 28s gene for some individuals , that yielded double bands in the direct sequences , were cloned using htp topo ta cloning kit for sequencing ( invitrogen ) in order to be sure that only one type of sequence was recovered ( since the existence of a duplication of the ribosomal cluster is known in terrestrial planarians , carranza et al . , 1996 ) . the sequences of the clones showed that these bands corresponded to polymorphisms of one of the types . seqman ( v . 4 . 2 . 2 , gene codes ) was used to revise the chromatograms and obtain the definitive sequences .\nbased on the external appearance of the flatworms we initially grouped the specimens into nine morphotypes . we classified four of them at the species level due to their characteristic shapes or other external features , and the other five at genus or tribe level .\n) has been identified by the characteristic shape of the anterior end and the pattern of stripes along the dorsal and ventral body surfaces . one specimen preserved in 70 % ethanol from bordils locality ( loc code v in\n( a ) dorsal view . ( b ) ventral view of median part . ( c ) dorsal view of posterior end . ( d ) dorsal view of anterior end . scale bar 5 mm .\n) . this specimen is deposited in the tissue collection of the genetics department ( universitat de barcelona ) .\ndorsal view with partial ventral view in the center . the anterior end is not shown ( the specimen was damaged in this region ) . scale bar 5 mm .\nphenotype , we have found two morphotypes basing on their color pattern . morphotype ca1 (\n) presents a light brown dorsal region with a pale yellow middle - dorsal stripe , and a ventral light blue - greenish region . the histological study of one specimen from bordils locality ( loc code v in\n( a ) dorsal view . ( b ) ventral view of median part . ( c ) lateral view of anterior end showing line of eyes . scale bar 5 mm .\n( a ) dorsal view . ( b ) ventral view of median part and dorsal view of anterior end showing line of eyes . ( c ) lateral view of anterior end showing line of eyes . scale bar 5 mm .\n) could also be identified by its characteristic external appearance . one specimen from bordils locality ( loc code v in\n( a ) dorsal view . ( b ) ventral view of median part . ( c ) lateral view of anterior end showing the eye spot . scale bar 5 mm .\n( a ) dorsal view . ( b ) ventral view of posterior end . ( c ) lateral view of anterior end showing line of eyes . scale bar 5 mm .\nmorph rs1 has a dark brown pigmented body with two black longitudinal stripes , and two large eyes situated a little distant from the anterior tip . one specimen from vall d\u2019en bas locality ( loc code p in\n( a ) dorsal view , scale bar 5 mm . ( b ) lateral view of anterior region , scale bar 2 . 5 mm .\na morphotype externally ascribable to the tribe rhynchodemini was found in benamargosa locality ( loc - code g ) , but its morphological features did not allow assigning it to any genus . rhynchodemini morph ri1 presents a dark brown pigmented body with one dorsal black line ( no image available ) .\n) have a characteristic leaf - shaped , broad , flattened body . externally , they are very similar to\nfrom brazil ( f carbayo , pers . comm . , 2013 ) . one specimen from bordils locality ( loc code v in\n) . ( c ) ventral view . ( d ) lateral view of anterior end showing line of eyes . scale bar 5 mm .\nwe inferred ml trees to check the diagnosis of the introduced specimens and to determine their level of relatedness to the ones from the original areas of distribution . for this reason , the datasets included , when possible , sequences belonging to morphologically diagnosed specimens from the original area of distribution of the putative introduced species ( obtained for this study or coming from genbank ;\nwe obtained 28s sequences for 15 individuals . one or two sequences from each morphotype were aligned together with 19 genbank ingroup sequences and 3 outgroup sequences belonging to the\n) . the best - fit model of sequence evolution for the 28s was gtr + g and for cox1 was gtr + i + g . we inferred a ml tree with partitions from a concatenated dataset including 37 individuals for which both 28s and cox1 sequences had been obtained (\nmaximum likelihood ( ml ) tree of the geoplanidae subfamilies and tribes ( bipaliinae , geoplaninae , caenoplanini , and rhynchodemini ) .\ntree inferred from the concatenated dataset ( cox1 and 28s genes ) . three dugesia species as outgroups . values at nodes correspond to bootstrap ( > 75 ) for ml and posterior probability ( pp ) values from the bayesian analysis ( > 0 . 95 ) .\ntree inferred from the cox1 gene . three microplana species as outgroups . values at nodes correspond to bootstrap ( > 75 ) and pp ( > 0 . 95 ) values .\ntree inferred from the cox1 gene . one species of genres arthurdendyus , artioposthia , australoplana and caenopolana as outgroups . values at nodes correspond to bootstrap ( > 75 ) and pp ( > 0 . 95 ) values .\n) . in the cox1 tree , specimens coming from the ip , united kingdom ( both introduced ) and brazil ( original area ) constitute a highly - supported monophyletic group . within this group , the introduced individuals are divided in two quite differentiated clades (\n) , also distinctly separated from the brazilian individuals . all the uk individuals fall within the clade\ntree inferred from the cox1 gene . two cratera species as outgroups . values at nodes correspond to bootstrap ( > 75 ) and pp ( > 0 . 95 ) values .\n) includes a high number of introduced individuals and the broadest diversity of sequences . even\nsequences , either coming from genbank , or from the individuals sent by our collaborator in australia , are found in very distinct genetic clades pointing to the existence of more than one species ( see discussion ) . for this reason , we use the name\ns . l . to refer to all those specimens . in the concatenated tree , the representative of\n. the divergence among these three lineages can be appreciated when compared to the other subfamilies present in the tree . in the cox1 tree (\nagain shows high levels of genetic diversity , evidenced by the long branches separating its subclades . most\ns . l . from its original area ( australia ) and also from uk and menorca ( also introduced ) . this clade is sister to another group including\n) ; however , the differentiation among these two clades is extremely high . the other two\nmorphotype ca1 individuals , coming from townsville ( australia ) , constitute a highly differentiated clade that also includes a genbank sequence identified only to the genus level and one of the introduced individuals . finally , there is a clade including only introduced animals , one of them identified as\nand the rest as morphotype ca2 . the genetic differentiation between the two lineages within this clade is nonetheless extremely high .\ntree inferred from the cox1 gene . one rhynchodemus species , one platydemus species , and two dolichoplana species as outgroups . values at nodes correspond to bootstrap ( > 75 ) and pp ( > 0 . 95 ) values .\nsequences form a monophyletic clade in the cox1 tree , including three introduced animals in the ip and one coming from brazil . the individuals assigned to rhynchodemini morphotype ri1 collected in m\u00e1laga ( spain , loc code g in\nspecimens analyzed constitute a monophyletic group with a low variability , the french representative being the more divergent . the genus\nshow the sampling localities of the animals analyzed in this study . in all the plant nurseries , only one species of terrestrial planarian was found (\n, loc - code v ) . the rest of the localities also contained a single species , with the exception of treto ( a garden , loc - code u ) with two species , and the two \u201csemi natural areas\u201d situated in vall d\u2019en bas ( loc - code p ) and in granollers ( loc - code m ) also with two species each .\ns . l . in the ip presents mean values of auc beyond 0 . 9 ( 0 . 974 ) and significance for all tests of omission , which indicates good performance of the models . furthermore , predictions were significantly different from random because binomial omission test thresholds were significant (\n< 0 . 01 ) in all 1 , 000 runs . a composite map showing the potential distribution models for\nthe color gradient indicates the predicted likelihood that the environmental conditions suitable for the species based on the maxent average output . letters indicate localities where\nthe results of the potential distribution of the species in the ip , based on data from its current distribution in their region of origin ( australia ) , show that the species can find extremely suitable areas for its survival and expansion is the northern region , where the appropriate temperature and humidity conditions occur .\n, monophyletic in the trees , leads us to predict that it includes more than one species . in the cox1 tree (\n) , at least three monophyletic groups seem to be clearly defined and probably represent different species . in fact ,\nis philadelphia , pennsylvania , usa ( 1851 ) . this species has a wide distribution in the ip and two of the locations are plant nurseries , one in barcelona (\n) , while the other localities can be considered natural habitats . in our molecular analysis there was no separation of specimens according to their locality type ( natural or artificial ) . two distinct clades of european\nin the case of rhyncodemini ri1 , this species probably belongs to the genus dolichoplana ; however , we were only able to obtain three specimens and none of them were sexually mature .\n( schultze & m\u00fcller , 1857 ) due to their external appearance ; however , molecular data ( m riutort , unpublished data , 2014 ) showed that the european specimens did not constitute a monophyletic group with that species , indicating that they belonged to an unknown , still undescribed , geoplaninae . sampling performed in brazil since then has found another species (\nsp . 6 ) , which is also externally very similar . molecular data show that it is closely related to the individuals found in europe ( m riutort , unpublished data , 2014 ) . as in the previous case , a morphological and molecular study should be undertaken to clearly delimit and describe the new species . the two clades found in our cox1 tree (\n) , that may represent two different species , suggest that there have been two independent introductions into the ip from different native sites in brazil .\nsee winsor , johns & barker , 2004 for refs olewine , 1972 terrace & baker , 1994 mateos et al . , 2013 barnwell , 1978\ns . l . , we performed a potential distribution study to check whether the area around its present introduced localities in the ip may be suitable for its expansion . the results show that the potential distribution of the species (\n) indeed includes the countryside that was nearby to the localities of the ip where it is already present . the most suitable area is the northern ip . this is not surprising when we consider that in this northern region , the climatic conditions ( temperature and humidity ) are also more optimal for the presence of native land planarians (\n) . thus , we show that by having suitable climatic databases , it is possible to model the potential distribution of introduced species , and thus predict their risk of becoming invasive . if we add to this information the knowledge of some biological features of the terrestrial planarian species , such as their prey preferences , we may be able to make an even more precise image of the sites where it is more likely for the species to become invasive and thus concentrate prevention efforts in those areas .\nno reference has been made to the effect of these species on autochthonous populations of terrestrial planarians , probably because the knowledge of the autochthonous fauna is very scarce . in the ip we have already performed some studies on the autochthonous terrestrial planarian fauna and found that it is very diverse , including at least 15 species , of which some contain a great deal of genetic diversity ( mateos et al . , 2009 ; \u00e1lvarez - presas et al . , 2012 ) . the potential arrival of some of these introduced species in natural habitats , where the autochthonous ones are localized ( as predicted by the potential distribution studies ) , would have very negative consequences . since exotic planarians are , in general , bigger in size , more voracious , have more aggressive behavior , and sometimes appear to have a generalist diet ( pers . obs . ) , they may be more resistant to extreme conditions than the native species .\nthis research was supported by the ministerio de ciencia e innovaci\u00f3n of spain ( cgl2011 - 23466 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .\nmarta \u00e1lvarez - presas , eduardo mateos and marta riutort conceived and designed the experiments , performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\n\u00e0ngels tud\u00f3 performed the experiments , analyzed the data , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables .\nhugh jones performed the experiments , analyzed the data , contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools , wrote the paper , prepared figures and / or tables , reviewed drafts of the paper .\n\u00e1lvarez - presas m , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 j , riutort m . molecular phylogeny of land and freshwater planarians ( tricladida , platyhelminthes ) : from freshwater to land and back .\n\u00e1lvarez - presas m , carbayo f , rozas j , riutort m . land planarians ( platyhelminthes ) as a model organism for fine - scale phylogeographic studies : understanding patterns of biodiversity in the brazilian atlantic forest hotspot .\n\u00e1lvarez - presas m , mateos e , vila - farr\u00e9 m , sluys r , riutort m . evidence for the persistence of the land planarian species\n( m\u00fcller , 1774 ) ( platyhelminthes , tricladida ) in microrefugia during the last glacial maximum in the northern section of the iberian peninsula .\nbagu\u00f1\u00e0 j , carranza s , paps j , ruiz - trillo i , riutort m . molecular taxonomy and phylogeny of tricladida . in : littlewood dtj , bray rd , editors .\nbaptista va , leal - zanchet am . land flatworm community structure in a subtropical deciduous forest in southern brazil .\nboag b , yeates gw , johns pm . limitations to the distribution and spread of terrestrial flatworms with special reference to the new zealand flatworm (\nboag b , neilson r . impact of new zealand flatworm on agricultura and wildlife in scotland . proceedings of crop protection in northern britain conference ; 2006 . pp . 51\u201356 .\nboag b , neilson r , jones hd . quantifying the risk to biodiversity by alien terrestrial planarians .\nbreugelmans k , cardona jq , artois t , jordaens k , backeljau t . first report of the exotic blue land planarian ,\ncampbell je , gibson dj . the effect of seeds of exotic species transported via horse dung on vegetation along trail corridors .\ncannon rjc , baker rha , taylor mc , moore jp . a review of the status of the new zealand flatworm in the uk .\ncarbayo f , leal - zanchet am , vieira em . terrestrial flatworm ( platyhelminthes : tricladida : terricola ) diversity versus man - induced disturbance in an ombrophilous forest in southern brazil .\ncarbayo f , \u00e1lvarez - presas m , olivares ct , marques fpl , froehlich em , riutort m . molecular phylogeny of geoplaninae ( platyhelminthes ) challenges current classification : proposal of taxonomic actions .\ncarranza s , giribet g , ribera c , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 j , riutort m . evidence that two types of 18s rdna coexist in the genome of\ncarranza s , littlewood dtj , clough ka , ruiz - trillo i , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 j , riutort m . a robust molecular phylogeny of the tricladida ( platyhelminthes : seriata ) with a discussion on morphological synapomorphies .\ndarriba d , taboada gl , doallo r , posada d . jmodeltest 2 : more models , new heuristics and parallel computing .\ndefra 2005 . code of practice to prevent the spread of non - indigenous flatworms . available at urltoken ( accessed 28 march 2014 )\ndehnen - schmutz k , holdenrieder o , jeger mj , pautasso m . structural change in the international horticultural industry : some implications for plant health .\ndove 2012 . code of practice to prevent the spread of non - indigenous flatworms . dove associates 17 / 01 / 2012 .\ndrew j , anderson n , andow d . conundrums of a complex vector for invasive species control : a detailed examination of the horticultural industry .\nducey pk , noce s . successful invasion of new york state by the terrestrial flatworm ,\neppo 2000a . import requirements concerning arthurdendyus triangulatus . eppo standard pm 1 / 3 ( 1 )\neppo 2000b . nursery inspection , exclusion and treatment for arthurdendyus triangulatus . eppo standard pm 1 / 4 ( 1 )\nfaubel a . 2004 . fauna europaea : platyhelminthes , tricladida , terricola . fauna europaea version 1 . 1 . available at urltoken ( accessed 28 march 2014 )\nfern\u00e1ndez f , lago d , negrete l , brusa f , damborenea c , nore\u00f1a c . 2013 . presencia de obama marmorata ( schultze & m\u00fcller , 1857 ) sf geoplaninae en la pen\u00ednsula ib\u00e9rica . primer registro de este g\u00e9nero para europa . [ abstract no 6 ] . vi jornadas del departament de biodiversidad y biolog\u00eda evolutiva ( mncn - csic ) - 2013 : 19 . available at urltoken ( accessed 1 may 2014 )\nboletim da faculdade de filosofia , ci\u00eancias e letras da universidade de s\u00e3o paulo , s\u00e9rie zoologia .\ngreat britain non - native species secretariat 2013 . kontikia flatworms ( kontikia ventrolineata and andersoni ) . available at urltoken ( accessed 1 may 2014 )\nhall ta . bioedit : a user - friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for windows 95 / 98 / nt .\nhijmans rj , cameron se , parra jl , jones pg , jarvis a . very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas .\njones hd . the african and european land planarian fauna , with an identification guide for field workers in europe .\njones hd , johns pm , winsor l . the proposed synonymy of parakontikia ventrolineata ( dendy , 1892 ) and kontikia mexicana ( hyman , 1939 ) : what is a penis papilla ?\njones hd , webster bl , littlewood dtj , mcdonald jc . molecular and morphological evidence for two new species of terrestrial planarians of the genus\njustine jl , winsor l , gey d , gros p , th\u00e9venot j . the invasive new guinea flatworm\nin france , the first record for europe : time for action is now .\nkatoh k , standley dm . mafft multiple sequence alignment software version 7 : improvements in performance and usability .\nl\u00e1zaro em , sluys r , pala m , stocchino ga , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 j , riutort m . molecular barcoding and phylogeography of sexual and asexual freshwater planarians of the genus\nlilleskov e , callaham ma , pouyat r , smith je , castellano m , gonzalez g , lodge dj , arango r , green f . invasive soil organisms and their effects on belowground processes . in : dix me , britton k , editors .\nwashington dc : usda forest service , research and development gtr wo - 79 / 83 ; 2010 . pp . 67\u201383 .\nmateos e , cabrera c , carranza s , riutort m . molecular analysis of the diversity of terrestrial planarians ( platyhelminthes , tricladida , continenticola ) in the iberian peninsula .\nmateos e , giribet g , carranza s . terrestrial planarians ( platyhelminthes , tricladida , terricola ) from the iberian peninsula : first records of the family rhynchodemidae , with the description of a new\nmateos e , tud\u00f3 a , \u00e1lvarez - presas m , riutort m . plan\u00e0ries terrestres ex\u00f2tiques a la garrotxa .\nmcdonald jc , jones hd . abundance , reproduction , and feeding of three species of british terrestrial planarians : observations over 4 years .\ncommittee on the scientific basis for predicting the invasive potential of nonindigenous plants and plant pests in the united states , national research council . washington dc : the national academies press ; 2002 .\nogren re . the human factor in the spread of an exotic planarian in pennsylvania .\nogren re , kawakatsu m . american nearctic and neotropical land planarian ( tricladida : terricola ) faunas .\nphillips sj , anderson rp , schapire re . maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions .\nphillips sj , dud\u00edk m . modeling of species distributions with maxent : new extensions and a comprehensive evaluation .\nrichardson dm , py\u0161ek p , rejm\u00e1nek m , barbour mg , panetta fd , west cj . naturalization and invasion of alien plants : concepts and definitions .\nronquist f , teslenko m , van der mark p , ayres dl , darling a , h\u00f6hna s , larget b , liu l , suchard ma , huelsenbeck jp . mrbayes 3 . 2 : efficient bayesian inference and model choice across a large model space .\nroques a , rabitsch w , rasplus jy , lopez - vaamonde c , nentwig w , kenis m .\ndordrecht : springer ; 2009 . alien terrestrial invertebrates of europe ; pp . 63\u201379 .\nseerad 2000 . biological and ecological studies of the new zealand flatworm , arthurdendyus triangulatus : towards a comprehensive risk assessment for the uk . final report for the period 1st march 1997 to 31st march 2000 . central science laboratory ministry of agriculture , fisheries and food , sand hutton , york .\nsluys r , kawakatsu m , riutort m , bagu\u00f1\u00e0 j . a new higher classification of planarian flatworms ( platyhelminthes , tricladida )\nsimberloff d , martin jl , genovesi p , maris v , wardle da , aronson j , courchamp f , galil b , garc\u00eda - berthou e , pascal m , pysek p , sousa r , tabacchi e , vil\u00e0 m . impacts of biological invasions : what\u2019s what and the way forward .\nstamatakis a . raxml - vi - hpc : maximum likelihood - based phylogenetic analyses with thousands of taxa and mixed models .\nsugiura s . hot water tolerance of soil animals : utility of hot water immersions for biological invasions of soil animals .\nsunnucks p , blacket mj , taylor jm , sands cj , ciavaglia sa , garrick rc , tait nn , rowell dm , pavlova a . a tale of two flatties : different responses of two terrestrial flatworms to past environmental climatic fluctuations at tallaganda in montane southeastern australia .\nvil\u00e0 m , basnou c , pysek p , josefsson m , genovesi p , gollasch s , nentwig w , olenin s , roques a , roy d , hulme pe , daisie partners how well do we understand the impacts of alien species on ecosystem services ? a pan - european , cross - taxa assessment ."]}
{"id": 2607, "summary": [{"text": "the mitred horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus mitratus ) is a species of bat in the family rhinolophidae .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is endemic to india ( jharkhand ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "this species is listed as ' data deficient ' on the iucn red list of threatened species .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "it is only known from a single specimen collected and described in 1844 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "mitred horseshoe bat", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about mitred horseshoe bat ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for mitred horseshoe bat ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nthe bushveld horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus simulator ) is a species of bat in the family rhinolophidae .\nrhinolophus ziama ( ziama horseshoe bat ) is a species of bat in the rhinolophidae family . it is found in guinea , liberia , and sierra leone . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthis west african bat is known from two localities in the guinea highlands ( c . 600 m asl ) of southeast guinea ( ziama forest ) and north - west liberia ( wonegizi mountains ) ( fahr et al . 2002 ) . surrounding areas have been surveyed but the species has not been found elsewhere .\nit is not known if the species is present in any protected areas . there is a need to protect suitable areas of forest habitat for this species , and to initiate appropriate bat conservation awareness programmes among local people . in addition , further studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , natural history , and threats to this species .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nearlier included under r . philippinensis waterhouse , 1843 ( dobson 1876 , tate and archbold 1939 ) . sinha ( 1973 ) and csorba et al . 2003 regarded it to be more similar to r . pearsonii hodgson , 1851 . simmons ( 2005 ) treats it as distinct species under the trifoliatus species - group .\nthis species is assessed as data deficient as there is no new information regarding this species since its first description in 1844 based on a single specimen . its taxonomic status is highly doubtful .\nthis species is endemic to india . it is presently known only from the type locality , chaibassa in jharkhand ( molur et al . 2002 ) , at an elevation of 300 m . recent surveys by y . p . sinha did not yield any new records of this species from the type locality ( molur et al . 2002 ) .\nnothing is known about the habitat or ecology of this species ( molur et al . 2002 ) . it might be a cave roosting species , but this needs to be confirmed .\nthe threats to this species remain unknown ( molur et al . 2002 ) .\nvery little is known about this species , hence surveys , ecological studies and habitat evaluation are recommended ( molur et al . 2002 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nas part our commitment to scholarly and academic excellence , all articles receive editorial review .\ncopyright \u00a9 world library foundation . all rights reserved . ebooks from project gutenberg are sponsored by the world library foundation , a 501c ( 4 ) member ' s support non - profit organization , and is not affiliated with any governmental agency or department .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nit is found in botswana , cameroon , ivory coast , ethiopia , guinea , kenya , liberia , malawi , mozambique , nigeria , south africa , south sudan , swaziland , tanzania , zambia , and zimbabwe .\nits natural habitats are moist savanna , caves , and subterranean habitats ( other than caves ) . it is threatened by habitat loss .\njacobs , d . , cotterill , f . w . , taylor , p . & monadjem , a . 2004 . rhinolophus simulator . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 30 july 2007 .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 11 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nthis species is associated with both montane and lowland tropical moist forest . the guinea specimens were captured in a secondary forest close to primary forest , while the liberian specimen was captured in upland\nundisturbed high forest\n( fahr et al . 2002 ) . the day roosts of this species are not known , although it is suspected to roost as small colonies in caves , mine shafts and similar habitats ( fahr et al . 2002 ) .\nhutson , a . m . , racey , p . a . ( chiroptera red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )\nlisted as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km , all individuals appear likely to be in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat .\nthe species is threatened by deforestation of its habitat , largely through logging and mining operations , and conversion of land to agricultural use . it is also considered possible that the species could be threatened by overharvesting for subsistence food in the future .\ndecher , j . , r . w . norris , and j . fahr . 2010 . small mammal survey in the upper seli river valley , sierra leone . mammalia , 74 : 163 - 176 .\nfahr , j . 2004 . rhinolophus ziama . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 30 july 2007 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 2615, "summary": [{"text": "macroglossum saga is a moth of the family sphingidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is known from nepal , north-eastern india , southern china , northern vietnam , taiwan , south korea , japan , and northern and western thailand .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the single record from the russian far east is of a vagrant .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the wingspan is 54 \u2013 66 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the head and thorax upperside have a darker mesial streak .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the abdomen upperside has two yellow lateral patches , with a further vestigial patch on the second segment and a double series of dark dorsal spots .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the thorax underside is greyish wood-brown and the abdomen underside is uniform in colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the forewing upperside has well contrasted pale and dark areas .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "both wing undersides are dark russet , somewhat shaded with grey on the hindwing .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "larvae have been recorded on daphniphyllum macropodum in korea . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "macroglossum saga", "paragraphs": ["minden pictures stock photos - hummingbird hawk moth ( macroglossum saga ) feeding on rosy periwinkle ( catharanthus roseus ) , japan - satoshi kuribayashi . . .\nmacroglossa saga butler , 1878 , entomologist ' s mon . mag . 14 : 206 . type locality : japan : [ honshu , kanagawa , ] < < yokohama > > .\nwingspan : 54 - - 66mm . forewing upperside with pale and dark areas well contrasted ; antemedian lines curved , filled in with brownish black to form a band that is dilated basad at the hind margin ; median area grey ; first and second discal lines angled at vein m1 , concave between m1 and hind margin , the space between dark except posteriorly ; first line not usually prominent posteriorly ; grey costal area extended to apex of wing , the subapical rufous patch between veins rs3 and rs4 shaded with grey ; the grey postdiscal line here conspicuous , and vein m1 grey between the second and third discal lines ; the grey area limited by the apical chevron , by the subapical patch behind vein rs4 , and by the grey line of vein m1 ; the area behind the grey patch blackish . both wings undersides dark russet , somewhat shaded with grey on hindwing . hindwing upperside yellow band of variable width , barely half the width of the black border at vein m2 ; fringe reddish cinnamon . hindwing underside yellow anal area not sharply defined distally .\nhead and thorax upperside with darker mesial streak ; no white line above eye . abdomen upperside with two yellow lateral patches , with a further vestigial patch on second segment ; a double series of dark dorsal spots ; tail blackish - brown dorsally ; side tufts of posterior segments with dark buff tips , those of the proximal segments white tipped . palpi long , white speckled with black scales ventrally . thorax underside greyish wood - brown . abdomen underside uniform in colour .\nin the male genitalia , uncus somewhat prism - shaped , truncate apically . gnathos rounded apically . valve with stridulatory scales . harpe very short , obtusely pointed , conical . aedeagus with process variably dentate only basally , slightly extending onto the aedeagus itself ; internal rods obtuse apically .\na species of woodland meadows and open areas of burnt and logged woodland in the russian far east , where it generally flies in the afternoon ( izerskiy , 1999b ) .\nchina : i - iii ( hong kong ) ; urltoken ( yunnan ) ; vii ( sichuan ) ; x ( hong kong ) . taiwan : 19 . ii ( taoyuan hsien ) ; urltoken ( nantou hsien ) ; japan : v ( ryukyu archipelago ) ; 27 . v - 28 . vii ( hokkaido ) ; vi - vii ( honshu ; kyushu ; ryukyu archipelago ) ; 28 . viii ( hokkaido ) ; ix - x ( kyushu ; honshu ) ; 28 . ix - 7 . x ( hokkaido ) . russia : 23 . viii ( primorskiy kray ) .\npark et al . ( 1999 ) give late june until late october as the flight period in korea .\novum : although mell ( 1922 ) bred this species , no details were recorded .\nlarva : full - fed 43 - - 46mm . although mell ( 1922 ) bred this species , no details were recorded .\npupa : although mell ( 1922 ) bred this species , no details were recorded .\nlarval hostplants . recorded in japan and korea on daphniphyllum macropodum ( daphniphyllaceae ) ( nagano , 1904 ; park et al . , 1999 ) .\nchina : ? nei mongol ( urad qianqi ) ; beijing ( baihua shan ) ; sichuan ( emei shan ) ; yunnan ( nr . yingjiang , 2080m ; gaoligong shan ) ; south xizang / tibet ( mutu , namjagbarwa region , 1600m ( wang , 1988 ) ) ; guangdong ; hong kong ( tai lung ; ho piu ) .\ntaiwan : nantou hsien ( tienchi , 1860m ; tatachia ) ; taipei hsien ( fushan ) ; kaohsiung hsien ( shanping , 640m ) ; taoyuan hsien ( taoyuan city ) .\nsouth korea : seoul ; kyonggi prov . ( asan bay ) ; kangwon prov . ( gubong - san ) ; south cholla prov . ( baekyang temple ; mudeung - san ; hong - do ; gwangyang ) ; south kyongsang ( jinju ; geoje - do ; goseong ; namhae ; sancheong ; jinyang ; hadong ; hamyang ; hapcheon ) ; cheju prov . ( cheju - do ; halla - san ; youngsil ; sungpanak ; sinsan ; topyung ; ara - dong ; ora - dong ; cheonjiyun ; donnaeko ; gyolae - ri ; isidol ; ipseok - dong ; suakbong ) .\njapan : hokkaido ; honshu ( karuizawa ; norikura kogen , 1500m ; sejogahara ; kiyosato , 1300m ; tokyo ; dorokawa ; kyoto ; kobe ; fujiwara , gunma pref . ) ; shikoku ( matsuyama ) ; kyushu ( hikosan ) ; hachijojima ; ryukyu archipelago ( okinawa ; awashima ; yakushima ) .\nnepal , northeastern india , southern china , northern vietnam ( sa pa ) , taiwan , south korea , japan , and northern and western thailand . the single record from the russian far east is of a vagrant .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nlectotype [ \u2642 ] japan : [ honshu , kanagawa , ] \u00abyokohama ( jonas ) \u00bb [ nhmuk ] ; implicitly designated by wang , 1995 , guide book insects of taiwan 9 : 245 . the lectotype has not been found in nhmuk ( 1 . viii . 2017 ) .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nyour browser doesn ' t support javascript or you have disabled javascript . please enable javascript , then refresh this page . javascript is required on this site .\neuropean union funding : for a one - year period ( 2017 - 12 - 16 to 2018 - 12 - 15 ) , eppo has been awarded an eu grant for the further development of the eppo code system ( agreement nb : sante / 2017 / gs / eppo / s12 . 768842 ) . the eu commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information from this project subsequently included in the eppo global database .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\n{ { t ( ' get _ image _ for ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . priceperimage ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . add _ to _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . update _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . add _ notes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . project _ codes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . select _ project _ code ' ) } } { { projectcode } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . download _ will _ be _ saved _ to _ dropbox ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . calculate _ price _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . save _ to _ cart _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' site _ specific . getty . request _ preview ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . usage _ rights _ restrictions ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ restrictions _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ title ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ check _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . download _ button ' ) } }\nmix and match royalty - free images , videos , and editorial with packs that never expire . *\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . fivepackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . tenpackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' compared _ with _ single _ price ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . price ) } ) } }\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a license is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection ."]}
{"id": 2616, "summary": [{"text": "the common slipper shell , crepidula fornicata , has many other common names , including common atlantic slippersnail , boat shell , quarterdeck shell , fornicating slipper snail , atlantic slipper limpet and it is known in britain as the \" common slipper limpet \" .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "this is a species of medium-sized sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family calyptraeidae , the slipper snails and cup and saucer snails . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "common slipper shell", "paragraphs": ["fun fact : another common name for the shark\u2019s eye shell is the moon shell .\nthe slipper shell produces calcium carbonate which is what the actual shell is made up of . the slipper shell is roughly 2 . 5cm to 4cm in diameter . ( dando 1996 )\nlike a snail this mollusk has just one shell . the common name \u00abslipper\u00bb describes nicely the inside of this mollusk . it can reach sizes up to 4 cm .\nif more chefs agree with mr . orieux , the atlantic slipper shell just might creep into french cuisine .\ncommon size : up to 50 mm in the atlantic , mediterranean specimens smaller .\nsometimes the common atlantic slipper shell is found washed ashore attached to another shell , perhaps an olive shell , or even another crepidula fornicata . the slipper shell often lives in stacks or chains since it likes to attach itself to others of its kind . this makes reproduction convenient . the species in the crepidulidae family are hermaphroditic . during the spawning ( or mating ) season , they alternate sexes . eggs are laid ( 70 - 100 at a time ) in thin - walled capsules which are attached to the substrate ( the base on which the creature lives ) . common slipper shell larvae emerge from these capsules .\nventral view of a shell stack , showing the calcareous septum of the lower shell , a characteristic of this family .\nthe common slipper shell is one of the more common shells found along the rhode island coast . this shell is shaped like an egg or oval that has been cut in half with the top of the shell turned sharply to one side . looking at the underside of the shell , it is easy to see how it got its name . underneath the shell is a ledge to support the internal organs ; this ledge extends about half the length of the animal . different slipper shell species are characterized by different shell textures , including rough , smooth , ribbed , corrugated , and flat . although they have a foot for locomotion , by the time they reach maturity they anchor themselves to a hard substrate and remain stationary .\nthe atlantic slipper shell is a curious type of sea snail that has spread from the east coast of the united states .\ncommon slipper shells also form stacked aggregations when there is no hard substrate on which to attach . they attach to objects in large numbers and can sometimes suffocate the animal on which they are attached . common slipper shells use their cilia to create water currents that flow through their mantle cavity . they are filter feeders , and as the water passes through the cavity , mucous - covered gills trap various types of phytoplankton and algae . the common slipper shell then uses its radula to remove the food and bring it to its mouth .\nnotwithstanding this rough treatment , the slipper shell remains the most populous creature in the bay , growing by 10 percent per year .\nadapted from the uncommon guide to common life on narragansett bay . save the bay , 1998 .\nthe snail , a sliver of orange flesh clamped tightly within a shell , tastes somewhat like whelks and scallops , but it has never caught on as common fare .\nslipper tails are sold with shell , or as peeled and deveined meats . slipper lobster tails are graded under 1 oz , 1\u20132 oz , 2\u20134 oz , 4\u20136 oz , and 6 - 8 oz . slipper meat is available graded under 1 oz and 1\u20133 oz .\n, class gastropoda ) , in which the humped or flattened shell has a decklike half partition inside . slipper shells occur worldwide in shallow waters . adults are fixed to rocks or live within the empty shells of other mollusks . the common\nthe common slipper shell looks like a flattened snail that has lost its spiraled shell in favor of a smooth cap . somewhere between 20 and 100 million years ago snails with coiled shells uncoiled their shells and gave rise to slipper shells and limpets . snails with these uncoiled shells do well in the rocky intertidal zone where their ability to cling to rocks with their big foot ( a bigger foot evolved along with that uncoiled shell ) and that smooth low - profile shell that helps waves wash right over them .\na favorite of children , the convex \u201cslipper , \u201d \u201cboat , \u201d or \u201cquarterdeck\u201d shell is easy to identify . it looks like a bedroom slipper because of the white plate which partially covers the cavity .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nlimpet , any of various snails ( class gastropoda , phylum mollusca ) having a flattened shell . most marine species cling to rocks near shore . a common american species is the atlantic plate limpet ( acmaea testudinalis ) of cold waters ; the common species of britain and northern europe is patella\u2026\nthe common atlantic slipper shell ( c . fornicata ) , often called slipper limpet , is about 4 cm ( 1 . 5 inches ) long and yellowish ; it is abundant from nova scotia to texas . in addition , c . fornicata has been introduced to the west coast of the united states , the coastal waters of\u2026\nthe shell of crepidula onyx is up to 70 mm in length . the interior of the shell is glossy and is a strong tan to dark brown color , similar to the common colors of the mineral onyx . the\nshelf\nor\ndeck\nis white .\ncooking slipper lobster tails and meat immediately after proper thawing yields the best quality .\nalso known as cappalunga , is a shell shaped like an old - fashioned razor .\nfun fact : this extremely small shell usually does not grow longer than one inch .\nmarketing the slipper shell at home , however , presents a real challenge : persuading a country \u2014 and a region \u2014 anchored in culinary tradition to adopt a new ingredient .\nthe fossil record of slipper lobsters extends back 120 million years to the cretaceous period .\nalien species the common atlantic slipper snail or slipper limpet crepidula fornicata originates from the east coast of north - america . the species was however brought to europe together with the eastern oyster crassostrea virginica . in belgium , the first slipper limpet was found on 28 september 1911 attached to an oyster in ostend and since the 1930\u2019s , it is seen as a common species along the belgian coast . the slipper limpet has little to no predators here , and can thrive on several types of hard bottoms and shellfish banks . a continued expansion to the north is probably inhibited by temperature : low temperatures during the winter can slow down or inhibit the development of the slipper limpet . [ details ]\nmr . jambon , who has a 5 percent stake in mr . cl\u00e9ment\u2019s slipper shell business , said that while some seafood producers remained skeptical , a growing consensus had emerged .\nthe hard outer shell of a lobster does not grow , thus growth can only be achieved via a process known as molting through which a lobster discards its old shell , expands its size and creates a new shell . during the molting process lobsters are essentially knights without armor , and they are extremely vulnerable to predators until their new shell begins to harden .\nslipper shells are related to limpets but can be recognized by one obvious difference visible only if you find an empty shell . instead of the empty dome of a limpet\u2019s shell , they have a shelf that covers half of the dome . this is the structure that makes them resemble a slipper ( or some say a boat ) . that shelf helps to support and protect their internal organs and is thought to be a remnant of that spiraled shell .\nthe atlantic slipper shell is a filter feeder , and unlike other limpets , which go out and graze on algae , the atlantic slipper shell spends its full life span in the same spot . it has a suction creating foot , which allows it to attach to hard surfaces . it does not require a two - part shell because it uses whatever it is attached to as the other part in a way . the bottom side of the atlantic slipper shell is never regularly exposed . it will attach to rocks , other slipper shells , and even other shelled organisms not of the same species . the atlantic slipper shell is capable of covering an entire seabed in certain areas if the conditions are right ( dexter 1947 ) . it also doesn\u0092t seem to have many predators which contributes to its success . these organisms have posed a problem off the coast of england , which will be discussed later in the paper .\nfrom left , a whelk , busycon spiratus , almost entirely out of its shell \u0097 the yellowish disc is the operculum ; another busycon spiratus individual , entirely withdrawn inside its shell , with the operculum sealing off the aperture ; egg capsules being deposited on the sand by busycon spiratus ; a larval harp shell , morum oniscus , begins building its shell ( protoconch ) .\nthe invasive habit of the slipper limpet , showing an area completely colonised by a community .\nthe clawless species known as slipper lobsters ( family scyllaridae ) differ significantly from spiny lobsters .\ncome to west meadow spit at a good low tide and walk along the beach , especially out on the broad sand flats that are exposed in front of west meadow beach and in front of the brookhaven bathing association . if you look down you will see millions of shells on the shoreline . the shells are oval in shape , usually about 4 cm ( about 1 1 / 2 inches ) long and have an obvious shelf inside . these are slipper shells of the common slipper shell snail crepidula fornicata . another , the eastern white slipper shell , crepidula plana , has a white and very flattened shell and can be found attached to the insides of large whelk shells and occasionally horseshoe crabs .\nthe university of rhode island . jingle shell ( anomia simplex ) . accessed december 19 , 2014 .\nblack top shell - tegula funebralis ( a . adams , 1855 ) - details - encyclopedia of life\nthe shell is typically coiled , usually dextrally , the axis of coiling being around a central columella to which a large retractor muscle is attached . the uppermost part of the shell is formed from the larval shell ( the protoconch ) . the shell is partly or entirely lost in the juveniles or adults of some groups , with total loss occurring in several groups of land slugs and sea slugs ( nudibranchs ) .\nlike mussels , jingle shells attach using byssal threads . these threads are secreted by a gland located near the jingle shell ' s foot . they then protrude through a hole in the bottom shell and attach to the hard substrate . the shell of these organisms takes on the shape of the substrate upon which they attach ( for example , a jingle shell attached to a bay scallop will have ridged shells also ) .\nshell is oval and up to 5 cm in length . the large shell opening has a shelf , extending half its length . shell is smooth and white , cream , yellow or pinkish in colour with streaks or blotches of red or brown . commonly found in curved chains or stacks made up of several individuals .\ncrepidula fornicata growing on the shell of an edible crab illustrating diversity of substrata on which it can grow .\nfun fact : unless discolored by debris or chemicals , this penny - size shell is typically pure white .\npape ole ; gu\u00e9rault d ; d\u00e9saunay y , 2004 . effect of an invasive mollusc , american slipper limpet crepidula fornicata , on habitat suitability for juvenile common sole solea solea in the bay of biscay . marine ecology progress series , 277 : 107 - 115 .\nbut now they are finding their nets weighed down by an invasive species : the cr\u00e9pidule , or atlantic slipper shell , a curious type of sea snail that has spread from the east coast of the united states .\nnow he is distributing packages of frozen slipper shell flesh to stores and restaurants , and also plans to reuse the calcium - rich shells in construction material and to improve the acidic soil of his native breton coast .\nshell is black or purple above and white below , coiled , with a definite raised spire ( but the shell is only about as tall as wide ) , no siphonal notch or canal in aperture , interior of the shell is pearly . animal has an operculum which is thin and horny with spiral lines . columella has two small nodes . the umbilicus is closed by a callus ( picture ) . shell up to 3 cm diameter . the apex is frequently heavily worn , and shell may be encrusted with coralline algae or bryozoans . animal ' s foot is black on the sides . the black on the shell is due to a dark periostracum .\noff of the coast of england , slipper shells pose a large problem for the oyster population . the slipper shells will attach themselves with their suction like foot to the shell of the oysters and reproduce right on top of them . this will cause the slipper shells to start one of these stacks discussed above , right on top of the oysters . this is a threat to the oysters because both the oyster and the slipper shells are filter feeders . if an oyster has a bunch of slipper shells growing all around it , the slipper shells will filter out all of the food before the food can reach the oyster . this will eventually starve the oyster and it will die . if enough slipper shells grow on top of the oysters , they also have the potential to crush the oysters and kill them directly . the situation with the slipper shells and the oysters , is very similar to the situation in lake champlain with the zebra mussels and the native mussels .\ncrepidula onyx , the onyx slippersnail or onyx slipper snail , is a species of sea snail with gills , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family calyptraeidae , the slipper snails and cup - and - saucer snails .\nthe meat of jingle shells is very bitter , so they are not harvested for food . they are considered common and have not been evaluated for conservation action .\nmolting is governed by hormones secreted from glands in the eye stalks . before molting , lobsters feed heavily and store fat . next the animal produces a soft shell underneath its existing shell and it soon seeks an area where it can hide . shortly afterward the old shell begins to fracture and the animal climbs out of its old shell . in some instances the lobster will eat its old shell to regain the calcium . while the animals molt , they are extremely vulnerable to predation , but this is also the only time that females can be mated .\nbecause the atlantic slipper shells are capable of changing sexes when necessary , the bottom shell in these stacks of shells is female and the top shells are male . the top shells directly fertilize this female at the bottom by sending down an extension to the female with sperm to fertilize the eggs . the larvae then sink to a point where they attach to more stacks of slipper shells , or they attach on their own to something else . if they attach to another stack of slipper shells , it remains a male . if it attaches on its own , it switches to a female , and tries to attract male slipper shells by secreting a chemical which does just that ( lilley ) . another interesting fact is that when the bottom female slipper dies , the next slipper shell up which is male , becomes female and this pattern is continued . because the slipper shells are capable of changing sexes , there will always be an efficient ratio of males to females for reproduction .\nvallet , c . , jc . dauvin , d . hamon , and c . dupuy . 2001 . effect of the introduced common slipper shell on the suprabenthic biodiversity of the subtidal communities in the bay of saint - brieuc . conservation biology 15 ( 6 ) : 1686 - 1690 . summary : a research paper that examines the impact species has on oyster growth and biodiversity .\nwe\u2019ll take a look into the natural history and some of the nuances of the secret lives of a group of creatures whose common names include terms such as spiny , hairy , slipper , elegant , regal , rock , emerald , banded , red - banded , maine and american .\nshell is black or purple above and white below ( picture ) , coiled , with a definite raised spire ( but the shell is only about as tall as wide ) , no siphonal notch or canal in aperture , interior of the shell is pearly . animal has an operculum which is thin and horny with spiral lines . columella has two small nodes ( picture ) . the umbilicus is closed by a callus ( picture ) . shell up to 3 cm diameter . the apex is frequently heavily worn , and shell may be encrusted with coralline algae or bryozoans . animal ' s foot is black on the sides ( picture ) . the black on the shell is due to a dark periostracum .\nfun fact : with wide rays of pink and a yellow interior , the colors of this shell inspire its name .\nthe opisthobranchs comprise about 25 families and 2000 species of the bubble shells ( many families ) and the sea slugs ( many families ) as well as the sea hares ( aplysiidae ) . virtually all opisthobranchs are marine with the majority showing shell reduction or shell loss and only some of the\nprimitive\nshell - bearing taxa having an operculum as adults .\nfitzgerald . a . ( 2007 ) slipper limpet utilisation and management . report to port of truro oyster management group .\niqf slipper lobsters can be cooked directly from the frozen state if time is of the essence . link to recipes .\nunlike limpets , slipper shells are sedentary . once the planktonic larvae settle on a suitable spot in the intertidal , the young slipper shell remains there , sculpting its shell to match the surface of the rock so that it can suction cup itself in place ( a good reason to not pry these snails off of rocks \u2014 they won\u2019t be able to reattach ) . because it stays put ( the scientific word for this is sessile ) , slipper shells cannot graze upon algae or hunt for prey like other snails . it is a filter feeder . like a clam or mussel , it pulls water into its mantle cavity ( inside the shell ) and any plankton in the water stick to the gills and are transferred to its mouth .\nslipper lobster fisheries are characterized by a lack of fisheries management oversight , which can lead to overfishing and rapid depletion of the resource . this is exacerbated by a lack of data on nearly every aspect of slipper lobster fisheries ( catch , size , seasonal trends ) . because slipper lobster is primarily landed by bottom trawls , habitat impacts are also a potential issue .\nslipper shell snails begin as males but later transform to females , so each individual is a sequential hermaphrodite . eggs are fertilized internally . females release thousands of microscopic swimming larvae ( veligers ) , which disperse and later metamorphose on the ocean floor .\nshort description shell moderately convex , ovate , rather thin , with apex at posterior margin , slighly curled dextrally . outer surface smooth or with only growth lines . inside with a septum which occupies the posterior half . edge of shell thin and cutting .\nthe slipper limpet is tolerant of a wide range of temperature conditions through all life stages and can survive low water quality .\nthe slipper meat is processed from the pink - shelled tail and is especially suitable for broiled open - faced style sandwiches .\nthe plate or partition often has a reddish - brown edge . the plate , or as it has been called , \u201cthe deck , \u201d is typically concave with a sinuate or wavy edge . the outer surface of the gastropod may be either smooth or wrinkled . the common atlantic slipper shell is yellow , creamy , or brownish , often flecked with reddish brown , and can be found from canada to texas , and on northwest european shores . the living gastropod inhabits shallow water . the shell grows up to a length of 1\u00bd inches . there is no operculum .\narnold dc , 1960 . occurrence of the slipper limpet crepidula fornicata ( l ) in ireland . nature , 185 : 95 .\norton jh , 1924 . english enemies of the american slipper limpet crepidula fornicata . nature , 2861 ( 114 ) : 312 .\nbecause of an editing error , the cancale journal article last wednesday , about efforts by a french businessman to coax fishermen as well as municipalities in the brittany region of france to sell an invasive species of sea snail , the atlantic slipper shell , for consumption misattributed a quotation about the shell . it was frederic basl\u00e9 , the owner of a seafood cart at port de la houle \u2014 not pierrick cl\u00e9ment , a local food entrepreneur who has been promoting the shellfish \u2014 who said , \u201cthe shell is just not that pretty . \u201d\ncrepidula atrasolea ( formerly c . cf . plana ) can be distinguished from other crepidula species by the following suite of characters . the flat white shell ranges from recurved to somewhat convex depending on the habitat of the individual . animals from exposed substrates are often oval and convex with a more robust shell . the shelf is flat in convex shells and convex in recurved shells , with a notch on the right side where it attaches to the shell and also a depression in the center of the shelf margin . muscle scars are absent . apex at the shell margin usually directly posterior , sometimes slightly recurved to the right . the shell is white , inside and out .\nlikely to be preyed upon by certain species of crab , bird predatory starfish and predatory snails . although experiments have shown the common shore crab ( carcinus maenus ) and the starfish ( asterias rubens ) prefer to feed on native mussels . slipper limpets are also preyed on by the invasive american oyster drill ( urosalpinx cinerea ) .\nthis species is common on rocks , shells , and pilings in protected bays , but it also lives in sheltered places on the open coast , occurring from the low intertidal zone to subtidal waters .\nthe slipper lobster fisheries of thailand , taiwan , china , and vietnam are largely characterized by a lack of information and resource management . sources indicate that slipper lobster is landed primarily by trawls targeting multiple species , which may contribute to the difficulty in collecting accurate data on slipper lobster landings . because of the multi - species nature of the trawl fisheries that land slipper lobster , bycatch , particularly of juvenile finfish species , may be an issue . although slipper lobster reside in somewhat more resilient habitats ( e . g . , sand and mud ) , fisheries that land these lobsters may also take place over more structured habitat , where bottom trawling could negatively impact the sea floor . in order to mitigate environmental risk factors from trawl - caught slipper lobster , the use of traps should be encouraged .\nthe native range of the slipper limpet is from point escuminac , canada along the eastern coast of america , down to the caribbean .\nde montaudouin , x . , audemard , c . & labourg , p . j . ( 1999 ) does the slipper limpet (\nturgeon , d . d . , et al . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates of the united states and canada . american fisheries society special publication 26 page ( s ) : 61\nslipper lobster is offered as raw extracted tail meat and as whole shell - on raw lobster tails . our iqf slipper lobster tails and meat should be stored at or below 0\u00b0f ( - 18\u00b0c ) and then thawed properly when ready to cook . the frozen shelf life is 18 months . links to proper seafood handling instructions : noaa - fish watch : handling seafood and a consumer guide to safe seafood handling .\nthe slipper shells , which he affectionately calls \u201cthe problem , \u201d could become a delicacy \u2014 served either raw or cooked , he said .\nmr . cl\u00e9ment claims that eating the slipper shells is the only realistic option for the seafood industry and the ecosystem it is built upon .\nc . fornicata is a marine gastropod with a brown shell . individuals reach about 6 cm long . the septum divides the interior of the shell into two parts : the external one where the foot and head can move and the internal one where the visceral mass is protected . growth is rather rapid and a size of 2 cm is reached in 2 years . the plasticity of this species is important and shell can be deformed .\nhabe t ; maze k , 1970 . crepidula fornicata introduced to japan . hawaian shell news , 18 ( 6 ) : 1 - 7 .\nfun fact : nicknamed the jackknife clam , this shell is known to have very sharp edges and can grow to be nearly 10 inches long .\nshell collecting has been a popular hobby for about 200 years , and the most attractive and valuable shells are those of snails . visitors to the beaches of southwest florida can hardly avoid becoming collectors , the shells are so varied and abundant . malacologists have mixed feelings about shell collecting . no matter how rare or how beautiful , a shell that lacks a label specifying date , place , conditions , and name of collector is scientifically worthless .\njingle shells ( anomia simplex ) are an organism that attaches to something hard , like wood , a shell , a rock or a boat . they are sometimes mistaken for slipper shells , which also attach to a hard substrate . however , slipper shells have only one shell ( also called a valve ) , while jingle shells have two . this makes them bivalves , which means they are related to other two - shelled animals such as mussels , clams , and scallops . the shells of this organism are very thin , almost translucent . however , they are very strong .\nvale fk , rex ma ( 1988 ) repaired shell damage in deep - sea prosobranch gastropods from the western north atlantic . malacologia 28 : 65\u201379 .\nthe exterior of the shell is dull white or cream with wavy longitudinal lines of a light chestnut color . the interior is a shiny light brown .\nthe way in which the atlantic slipper shells reproduce is quite extraordinary and efficient . they do mate directly as opposed to sending sperm and eggs into the water and hoping for a connection . atlantic slipper shells tend to pile up , one on top of another and can make stacks of multiple shells .\ncole w , 1915 . the abundance of the slipper limpet ( crepidula ) in the essex waters . essex naturalist , 18 : 81 - 82 .\n\u201cas a businessman , i see an opportunity here , \u201d he said , after extricating a snail , still alive , from its shell with a knife .\nthe queen conch ( family strombidae ) , has a massive shell with a pink lining , up to 11 . 8 in ( 30 cm ) high .\na very tasty and extremely rare type of crustacean , particularly appreciated in italy , is the cicala grande di mare ( scyllarus latus ) , also known as magnosa . it is so rare that there is not even a common name for it in english , but \u2018mediterranean slipper lobster \u2018 would be the closest denomination . it is very rare because it is very sensitive to pollution .\nin the slipper - shell snails ( crepidula ) , which are rather sessile , all the young are males ; their subsequent sex , however , is determined by their nearest neighbour . they remain males as long as they are near a female but change into females if isolated or placed near another male . \u2026\ncrepidula fornicata may compete with oysters for food and attachment sites in oyster reefs . however , quantities of the shell have been used commercially as an underwater foundation on which oyster embryos can grow . in a splendid work , the shell book , written by julia e . rogers in 1931 , the authoress tells us :\nif you look out on the sand flats you will find thousands of live slipper shells . if you look closely you will notice that they occur in a stack of 2 - 5 individuals , usually , with the bottom one attached to a small rock . the stacks tell you much about their life history . the bottom individual is larger than the ones at the top of the stack and is inevitably a female , but the top individuals are smaller and males . what is not obvious , is that every individual common slipper shell starts life out as an immature snail , then matures into a male , then loses the male function and matures into a female ! if a new slipper shell comes on top of the first and lowest animal in the stack , it will have male function ( copulation occurs by means of a penis ) , until another individual comes on top of him . he will then change sex to female function . sex change , therefore , is not precisely timed but depends on the presence of other individuals in the stack .\nspiny lobsters such as the california spiny lobster and the caribbean spiny lobster lack large pinching claws , and as a result they are sometimes called crayfish . however , these common names can lead to some confusion , as freshwater crayfish do possess claws .\nsince adult slipper shells cannot move around , they need to live close together in order to mate . when the planktonic larvae settle to the bottom , they like to settle on top of other slipper shells and form vertical stacks with the largest and oldest on the bottom . here\u2019s where their sex life gets interesting . slipper shells are protandrous hermaphrodites , meaning they always start out male , and given the right conditions become female as they mature ( they\u2019d be protogynous if they were female first ) . so , when the planktonic larva settles down on a substrate , it is male and stays male until some signal tells it to become female . if it is the only slipper shell around , it will develop into a female and send out chemical signals to attract other slipper shells to come settle on her , forming a stack of slipper shells with the oldest female on the bottom and younger males on top of it . think about this . the males are able to directly fertilize the female beneath , even if separated by four or five other males ! when i first learned this , it was in conjunction with the provocative scientific name , crepidula fornicata .\nmr . cl\u00e9ment aims to sell the slipper shells primarily to the american , japanese and chinese markets , where they might have a less pesky reputation than in france .\ncole ha , 1952 . the american slipper limpet ( crepidula fornicata ) on cornish beds . fishery investigations series 2 , 17 ( 7 ) : 1 - 13 .\nslipper limpet processing ( slp ) , a company set up in cancale in 2008 , has recently obtained 700 , 000 euros from investment funds altaya and logoden participations .\nthe shell is oval , up to 5 cm in length , with a much reduced spire . the large aperture has a shelf , or septum , extending half its length . the shell is smooth with irregular growth lines and white , cream , yellow or pinkish in colour with streaks or blotches of red or brown . slipper limpets are commonly found in curved chains of up to 12 animals . large shells are found at the bottom of the chain , with the shells becoming progressively smaller towards the top .\nvale fk , rex ma ( 1989 ) repaired shell damage in a complex of rissoid gastropods from the upper continental slope south of new england . nautilus 103 : 105\u2013108 .\nfun fact : although slipper shells are a vital part of the ecology in specific areas of the coast , they are also known to damage oyster fisheries in other areas .\nmeaning shell . conchs are the largest snails , with enough meat in the foot to make them popular in stews and salads . the species names of conchs indicate their size .\nnew industrial uses of this product , either the meat or the shell , should be investigated . up to now , the different uses found in the literature are not satisfactory : the shell is used generally as calcareous improvement and the meat is often used for poultry . the chemical or the pharmacological industries have to look into this product to find new openings .\nin their efforts to rid their stretch of coast of the slipper shells , the local authorities have scooped them out of the bay and dumped them farther out in the sea .\nfitzgerald a , 2007 . slipper limpet utilisation and management , final report . port of truro oyster management group . sea fisheries publications , sea fisheries authority , council of wales .\nsnails have occupied practically every type of habitat that supports animal life . dehydration appears to be the greatest danger for terrestrial snails , while predation is the greatest danger for marine snails . bieler has estimated that 53 % of all snail species are prosobranchs , largely marine , 4 % opisthobranchs , entirely marine , and the remaining 43 % pulmonates , terrestrial and freshwater . in intertidal zones , numbers of prosobranchs such as the common periwinkle littorina littorea seem as uncountable as stars in the sky . according to abbott , littorina probably reached north america from europe on driftwood\nbefore the time of the vikings\n( about a . d . 1000 ) and gradually extended its range from newfoundland to ocean city , maryland . in exchange , about 100 years ago we gave northern europe the common slipper shell crepidula fornicata , which has proliferated to the point of being a pest of english oyster beds .\nat least some members of this species have ripe gonads throughout the year in oregon and california . in california they appear to spawn multiple times a year but only once in oregon ( late summer or fall ) . the most exposed sites are dominated by mature individuals while juveniles are more common in protected sites . lifespan is 5 - 8 years in the southern part of the range but up to 30 years farther north . egg production also seems to be greater in populations farther north , and larger individuals are more common there .\nthe bodies of the reclusive slipper lobsters are more heavily armored than spiny lobsters and they are sometimes described as looking like a flattened armadillo . slipper lobsters do not have the long antennae found in spiny and american lobsters . instead their antennae have been modified into large flattened plates at the front of the body . not highly sought - after as food sources by fishermen or divers but a delight for the eyes of divers , especially underwater photographers , a variety of species of slipper lobsters occur in tropical and semitropical seas around the world .\nwalne pr , 1956 . the biology and distribution of the slipper limpet crepidula fornicata in essex rivers . fishery investigations , ser ii , 20 ( 6 ) : 1 - 50 .\n( 1998 ) and cole & hancock ( 1956 ) reported dredging operations to clear slipper limpets from oyster beds , but concluded that further spread of the species could not be prevented .\nsea port has initiated tracing requirements from their slipper lobster suppliers that will start to pinpoint the vessel name ( when available ) that caught the slipper lobster , the catch method and the catch area . collection of such data may help spur the eventual establishment of management schemes for this multi - species trawl fishery and also to encourage the greater use of traps . sea port believes that , in aggregate , choosing from a diverse variety of seafood is better for sustaining the world\u2019s seafood resources and that slipper lobster should be a part of this variety .\n. the foot is usually rather large and is typically used for crawling . it can be modified for burrowing , leaping ( as in conchs , strombidae ) , swimming , or clamping ( as in limpets ) . the foot typically bears an operculum that seals the shell opening ( aperture ) when the head - foot is retracted into the shell ( see photos below ) . while this structure is present in all gastropod veliger larvae , it is absent in the embryos of some direct developing taxa and in the juveniles and adults of many heterobranchs . the nervous and circulatory systems are well developed with the concentration of nerve ganglia being a common evolutionary theme .\nthe slipper shell , which can be considered a vital part of the ecology in certain areas , is also considered a problem in others . they are very efficient when it comes to feeding and reproducing , which makes them so abundant around the world in the oceans . there is not much potential for the population of these organisms to atrophy considering they have no significant predators .\nanyone with questions about the acceptable market names for langostino should contact the office of seafood or visit the seafood list urltoken and type \u201clangostino\u201d in the search field . the fda encourages the use of a species\u2019 market or common name , but discourages the use of the vernacular name .\njohnson , j . k . , 1972 . effect of turbidity on the rate of filtration and growth of the slipper limpet , crepidula fornicata . veliger , 14 , 315 - 320 .\nthey are extremely diverse in size , body and shell morphology , and habits and occupy the widest range of ecological niches of all molluscs , being the only group to have invaded the land .\nscientific nomenclature is subject to change , due to ongoing research . the above classification coincides with that published for the gladys archerd shell collection at the washington state university tri - cities natural history museum .\nwhile the body color of spiny lobsters ranges from reddish to blue to bluish - black , american lobsters are typically olive green to greenish brown , but specimens that are orange and even bright blue do occur . diet , genetic makeup and exposure to sunlight combine to determine their color . however , when you see a cooked america lobster the shell is usually bright red . this is because the major pigment in the shell , astaxanthin , usually appears to be greenish or bluish when bound to proteins in the shell . heat frees those bonds , and the natural color of unbonded astaxanthin is red .\nmr . cl\u00e9ment grew up dive - fishing for oysters , abalones and sea urchins , and , like most bretons , he had never thought of eating the ubiquitous atlantic slipper shell . then he found out about a mechanism that could crack open the shells of the invasive sea snails on an industrial scale without damaging the flesh , and he quickly invested a million euros in research and development .\nblanchard m , 1997b . spread of the slipper - limpet ( crepidula fornicata ) in europe . current state and consequences . scientia marina 61 ( 2 sup . ) : 109 - 118 .\nblanchard m , 1997 . spread of the slipper limpet ( crepidula fornicata ) in europe , current state and consequences . scientia marina , 61 ( 2 supp . ) : 109 - 118 .\nthe slipper limpet has been introduced into numerous locations around europe and on the western coast of america . it is thought to have been introduced into the solent in the 1930s and by the 1970s , was thought to be the most dominant seabed creature in the area . by the 1960s , the population had spread to start point devon and the species is currently common along the entire southern coast of england . this rapid domination and spread has been mirrored in suitable habitats elsewhere around europe .\nseveral crepidula atrasolea on a clam shell . from this dorsal view , it is impossible to distinguish between c . atrasolea and c . depressa . photo courtesy r . collin , smithsonian tropical research institute .\nthieltges , d . w . impact of an invader : epizootic american slipper limpet crepidula fornicata reduces survival and growth in european mussels . marine ecology progress series 286 : 13 - 19 , 2005 .\njohnson jk , 1972 . effect of turbidity on the rate of filtration and growth of the slipper limpet crepidula fornicata lamarck , 1799 . the veliger , 14 ( 3 ) : 315 - 320 .\na loss of amenity value caused by slipper limpet infestation may occur . in addition , traditional fishing practices may be affected and in areas heavily dependant on fishing , these social impacts may be serious .\neven worse for a fruit de mer \u2014 a french term that designates all edible seafaring creatures besides fish \u2014 \u201cthe shell is just not that pretty , \u201d said mr . basl\u00e9 , the seafood cart owner .\njean - fran\u00e7ois dore raked up the atlantic slipper shells that cover the seabed in the waters off cancale in france in an attempt to protect the area\u2019s oyster and mussel farms from the invasive sea snails .\neventually he hopes to process as much as 100 , 000 tons of slipper shells per year \u2014 enough to offset their growth in the bays of mont saint - michel , saint - brieuc and morlaix .\nblanchard , m . , 1997 . spread of the slipper limpet crepidula fornicata ( l . 1758 ) in europe . current state and consequences . scientia marina , 61 , supplement 9 , 109 - 118 .\ntelline ( donax trunculus ) used to be so common that you could see bathers in the early morning , when the sea was calm , walking in the shallow waters in front of sandy beaches picking them with their bare hands or with special scoop nets . while the latter is still a common practice among fishermen and people of the older generation , telline have become a little harder to find , especially close to the shore . human intervention along the coast line have pushed the natural habitat of this mollusc further away from the shore , but in fish shops they are still widely available , even if on an irregular basis .\nif you find a thin , shiny shell while walking on the beach , it might be a jingle shell . jingle shells are shiny mollusks that got their name because they produce a bell - like sound when several shells are shaken together . these shells are also called mermaid ' s toenails , neptune ' s toenails , toenail shells , gold shells and saddle oysters . they may wash up in large numbers on beaches after storms .\ncrepidula atrasolea prefers epibenthic habitats in shallow oyster reefs , often near mangroves . it is most common intertidally to subtidally , but prefers slow moving waters with with low wave exposure . typical maximum water depth is to at least 20m , in the florida keys , it is commonly found subtidally in shells inhabited by hermit crabs .\nblanchard , m . , 1997 . spread of the slipper limpet crepidula fornicata ( l . 1758 ) in europe . current state and consequences . scientia marina . 61 ( suppl . 2 ) . 109 - 118 .\ncalifornia divers periodically encounter two species of crustaceans that are commonly known as squat lobsters . while these animals bear some resemblance to lobsters , scientists point out that they are actually more closely related to their crustacean cousins , the hermit crabs . one species of squat lobster is also known by the common names tuna crab and red crab .\nnotice that in english tellina refers to a genus of shells , whereas in italian it is a specific type of shell , the donax trunculus , which , as the name indicates , belongs to a different genus , the donax .\nbecause qu\u00e1n \u1ed1c are such informal and open spaces , there\u2019s a constant buzz of vendors ( often older women ) who walk from table to table offering diners the perfect snacks to go with their \u2018shell tapas\u2019 . popular ones include :\nrichard j ; huet m ; thouzeau g ; paulet ym , 2006 . reproduction of the invasive slipper limpet crepidula fornicata in the bay of brest , france . marine biology , 149 ( 4 ) : 789 - 801 .\nslipper lobsters , also called flat , locust , spanish , shovel - nosed and bulldozer ; australians call some of them \u201cbugs ; \u201d are scattered throughout many of the world\u2019s warmer coastal waters , but nowhere in large quantities .\nthe company has developed a patented cold shelling process for slipper limpets , an invasive shellfish found on the coasts of normandy and brittany , to add value to the flesh and shell . the increased capital will enable the company to move on from the pilot stage to industrialisation . work is currently underway in the processing plant to create a capacity of 20 tonnes / day by september . five new jobs are scheduled before the end of the year as a result of this upscaling . the company works on a cooperative basis with the regional shellfish committee of northern brittany ( comit\u00e9 r\u00e9gional conchylicole bretagne nord ) , which purchased the first vessel to specialise in the harvesting of slipper limpets in 2013 .\njoseph jambon , head of the local shellfish producers union , has agreed to share his oyster fishing boat le papy with mr . cl\u00e9ment , who declared it the first boat in the world to willingly fish for atlantic slipper shells .\n\u201ceveryone wants to get the most out of their space , \u201d said mr . jambon . but \u201cwhat\u2019s important , \u201d he added , is that the slipper shells \u201cscram and that we promote it and that our production improves . \u201d\nhas been introduced to the west coast of the united states , the coastal waters of asia , and the coastal waters of england , france , and other european countries . in these locations , slipper shells have become a nuisance in\nslipper lobster tails and meat should be thawed in a sealed plastic container or bag and placed under refrigeration ( 33 - 39\u00b0f ) for 12 - 24 hours or until completely thawed . this thawing method produces a high quality product . to quick thaw , place the product in a colander and run under cold water for 4 - 8 minutes or until completely thawed . thawed slipper lobster should be held at 33 - 39\u00b0f and totally consumed within 2 - 3 days .\nthe slipper shells have been prevalent in brittany since the 1970s and were brought here by ships carrying oysters , though local lore has it they were first brought to nearby normandy in 1944 , stuck to the hulls of british allied ships .\nbottom ml ; ropes jw , 1988 . an indirect method for estimating longevity of the horseshoe crab ( limulus polyphemus ) based on epifaunal slipper limpet crepidula fornicata . journal of shellfish research , 7 ( 3 ) : 407 - 712 .\nleblanc , a . r . ; landry , t . ; miron , g . 2003 . identification of fouling organisms covering mussel lines and impact of a common defouling method on the abundance of foulers in tracadie bay , prince edward island . canadian technical report of fisheries & aquatic sciences . ( 2477 ) . i - vii , 1 - 18 .\ndyrynda , p . 2003 . slipper limpet beds . school of biological sciences , university of wales swansea server . summary : information on description , economic importance , distribution , habitat , history , growth , and impacts and management of species ."]}
{"id": 2631, "summary": [{"text": "the palawan treeshrew ( tupaia palawanensis ) is a treeshrew species endemic to the palawan island , philippines , where it occurs from sea level to an elevation of 1,400 m ( 4,600 ft ) .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the population is considered steady .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "formerly , it was considered a subspecies of the common treeshrew . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "palawan treeshrew", "paragraphs": ["palawan treeshrew by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\nwe placed palawan , calamian islands , and cuyo islands into a single ecoregion , the palawan rain forests [ im0143 ] . palawan has closer zoogeographic affinities to borneo .\nhigh quality content by wikipedia articles ! the palawan treeshrew ( tupaia palawanensis ) is a species of treeshrew in the tupaiidae family . it is endemic to the philippines . it is threatened by habitat loss . this book was created using print - on - demand technology .\nyan wong changed the thumbnail image of\nfile : nicobar treeshrew ( tupaia nicobarica nicobarica ) . jpg\n.\nthere are many endemic mammals in palawan , but nearly all the genera ( 96 percent ) are also found in borneo . of twenty - five indigenous nonvolant mammal species , eleven ( 44 percent ) are endemic to palawan , and the remainder are shared with borneo . therefore , the greater palawan region is rightly considered part of the sunda shelf bioregion rather than that of the philippines . the large number of endemic species but few endemic genera of palawan are consistent with a separation of borneo and palawan of approximately 160 , 000 ( since the middle pleistocene ) ( heaney 1986 ) . there are fifteen endemic or near - endemic mammals in greater palawan ( table 1 ) .\nseveral of palawan ' s endemic mammals are considered threatened . three endemic mammal species are considered endangered , including the calamian deer , a sunda tree squirrel ( sundasciurus juvencus ) ( recommended for delisting ; heaney et al . 1998 ) , and the palawan rat ( palawanomys furvus ) , which was collected only four times in 1962 . a subspecies of mouse deer , the balabac chevrotain ( tragulus napu nigricans ) , which is confined to balabac island , is also considered endangered . five endemic mammal species are considered vulnerable , including acerodon leucotis , the palawan treeshrew ( tupaia palawanensis ) , the palawan stink badger ( mydaus marchei ) , the palawan binturong ( arctictis binturong whitei ) , and a sunda tree squirrel ( sundasciurus rabori ) ( iucn 2000 ) .\nresults of a behavioral study of a group of 12 wild - caught captive mountain treeshrews indicate that they are more social than groups of other treeshrew species . two males tended to dominate the group . females had an\nthe channel between palawan and borneo is about 145 m deep . during the middle pleistocene , sea levels were 160 m lower than today , and the islands were connected . during the last ice age ( late pleistocene ) , sea level was approximately 120 m below current levels , and palawan was separated from ice age borneo by a narrow channel . palawan has always remained separated from the rest of the philippines . palawan is long and narrow , consisting of a steep mountain range whose highest point is 2 , 085 m ( mt . mantalingajan ) . more than 45 percent of palawan consists of mountains with slopes greater than 30 percent ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nhigh quality content by wikipedia articles ! the palawan treeshrew ( tupaia palawanensis ) is a species of treeshrew in the tupaiidae family . it is endemic to the philippines . it is threatened by habitat loss . the treeshrews ( or tree shrews ) are small mammals native to the tropical forests of southeast asia . they make up the families tupaiidae , the treeshrews , and ptilocercidae , the pen - tailed treeshrews , and the entire order scandentia . there are 20 species in 5 genera . treeshrews have a higher brain to body mass ratio than humans , though this is not uncommon for animals weighing less than a kilogram .\ncollins , p . m . and tsang , w . n . ( 1987 ) . growth and reproductive development in the male treeshrew ( tupaia belangeri ) from birth to sexual maturity . biology of reproduction 37 ( 2 ) : 261\u2013267 .\nthomas , o . ( 1894 ) . on the palawan representative of tupaia ferruginea . the annals and magazine of natural history 6 ( 13 ) : 367 .\nthe mountain treeshrew is dark grizzled rufous above with an indistinct black line along the back . its tail is rather short and grizzled rufous above , but below more olivaceous yellow with a black tip . the lateral tail hairs are ringed . the head and body length measures 15\u201333\npalawan ' s forests are of low commercial value because of the small number of dipterocarps , and until the last twenty years palawan ' s forests were ignored in favor of the more valuable forests of luzon and mindanao . government logging regulations setting guidelines for minimum diameter , minimum rotation length , and replanting have been largely ignored ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nthis ecoregion corresponds exactly with the palawan eba ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . the eba contains twenty restricted - range birds , seventeen of which are found nowhere else on earth and five of which ( palawan peacock - pheasant [ polyplectron emphanum ] , grey imperial - pigeon [ ducula pickeringii ] , blue - headed racquet - tail [ prioniturus platenae ] , falcated wren - babbler [ ptilocichla falcata ] , and palawan flycatcher [ ficedula platenae ] ) are considered vulnerable ( collar 1999 ) . all these vulnerable birds are dependent on lowland and hill forest ( collar et al . 1999 ; stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . there are twenty endemic or near - endemic bird species in the palawan ecoregion ( kennedy et al . 2000 ; table 2 ) .\ndescription location and general description this ecoregion includes the island palawan plus balabac , ursula island , and the calamian group . palawan itself is the sixth largest of the philippine islands . the climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet ( national geographic society 1999 ) . in northwest palawan , a dry season lasts from november to may while the wet season lasts from june to october ; the rest of the island experiences a short , one - to three - month dry season . the east coast becomes progressively drier than the west coast from north to south ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nbiodiversity features relative to the size of palawan , the ecoregion contains a rich fauna , including several groups that are not found in the rest of the philippines ( carnivores , pangolins , porcupines , and some insectivores ) ( heaney 1986 ) .\n( tupaia palawanensis ) iucn : least concern nom fran\u00e7ais : toupaie de palawan status in captivity : this species has probably never been displayed anywhere in captivity outside philippines . even there , it remains extremely rare and probably never or very seldom bred .\ncurrently , palawan ' s mineral wealth ( chromite , copper , iron , manganese , mercury , and nickel ) has not been extensively exploited , but the possible future extraction of these minerals represents a potential threat ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nhunting and the wild pet trade are also significant threats in palawan . leopard cats have been hunted for their pelts and are sold when kittens as pets ( heaney and regalado 1998 ) . the palawan binturong is hunted for meat and as pets , and the pangolin is hunted for its hide ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) . the palawan peacock - pheasant ( dickinson et al . 1991 ; collar et al . 1999 ) , blue - headed racquet - tail ( collar et al . 1999 ) , philippine cockatoos ( cacatua haematuropygia ) , and blue - naped parrots ( tanygnathus lucionensis ) ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) apparently are suffering greatly from the pet trade . the final destination for these birds often is the united states ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\npalawan represents a bridge between the sunda shelf and philippine bioregions and contains faunal elements from both , as well as it own unique elements . this ecoregion , though more intact than any other region in the philippines , is under great pressure from logging interests .\nbecause of a generally high population density in other parts of the philippines , large numbers of shifting cultivators ( kaingineros ) are attracted to palawan to eke out a living on the hillsides of the island , and their cumulative impact is enormous ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nlimestone forests are found on the islets surrounding palawan and over large areas in the southern portions of the island . represented are euphorbia trigona , aglaia argentea , and antidesma , drypetes , gomphandra , sterculia , pleomele , and begonia spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nall of palawan was declared a fauna and flora watershed reserve , and this includes a variety of protected areas , including national parks , wilderness areas , experimental forests , forest research reserves , game refuges , wildlife sanctuaries , museum reservations and research sites , tourist zones , and marine reserves .\na total of 1 , 522 ( davis et al . 1995 ) to 1 , 672 ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) vascular plants have been identified on palawan , and it is estimated that more than 2 , 000 species are present on the island . as detailed earlier , palawan has an extremely diverse range of vegetation types for the philippines . a small number of dipterocarps , an important timber tree group , are present on the island , as well as a variety of medicinal plants used by ethnic tribes and plants used in ceremony and as ornamentals ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\ncurrent status almost all of the philippines was once completely forested ( dickinson et al . 1991 ) . as of 1988 , palawan contained 7 , 410 km2 ( 54 percent ) of total forest remaining ( ssc 1988 ) . at the time this was the highest percentage of any of the philippines ' large islands .\nrecent reports in the international press indicate ( and have been confirmed , l . heaney , pers . comm . , 2000 ) that the situation in palawan has stabilized , that large - scale logging has been halted , and that a balance is being achieved between economic development and conservation ; future monitoring will determine whether this is remains true .\nvictoria peak , in south - central palawan , contains the largest region of ultramafic forest on the island . although many of the ultramafic tree species are shared with semi - deciduous forest , several species , including scaevola micrantha , brackenridgea palustris var . foxworthi , exocarpus latifolius , and phyllanthus lamprophyllus are believed to be heavy metal indicators ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nvegetation types on palawan are diverse and include beach forest , tropical lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest , lowland semi - deciduous forest , montane forest , and ultramafic and limestone forest . beach forest merges with other forest types away from the coast and includes calophyllum inophyllum , canarium asperum var . asperum , pometia pinnata , palaquium dubardii , and ficus spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nthe lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest , which naturally occupies 31 percent of the island , is dominated by agalai spp . , dipterocarpus gracilis , d . grandiflorus , ficus spp . , tristania spp . , exocarpus latifolius , and swintonia foxworthyi . sygium spp . , dracontomelon dao , and pongamia pinnata are emergent . lianas and cycads are common . in southern palawan , a casuarina sp . dominates in the lowland forests ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\njustification of ecoregion delineation mackinnon ( 1997 ) identified seven subunits in the philippines , and the philippine biodiversity action plan ( philippine bap 1997 ) demarcated fifteen biogeographic units . udvardy ( 1975 ) identified the philippines as a single biogeographic province . we delineated nine ecoregions in the philippine islands , including palawan . we deviated from udvardy ( 1975 ) , mackinnon ( 1997 ) , stattersfield et al . ( 1998 ) , and the philippine bap ( 1997 ) to varying degrees and based our delineation of the philippine ecoregions on heaney ( 1993 ) .\ntypes and severity of threats habitat destruction is the main threat to biodiversity in the philippines , and palawan , though currently in better condition , is no different . logging and shifting cultivation ( kaingin ) are cited as the primary forces of habitat conversion . logging takes many forms , from industrial scale to smaller - scale operations that use water buffalo to haul logs out of the forest . mangroves are used locally for firewood , dyes , and tannins ( davis et al . 1995 ) , and they are sometimes removed to make way for fishponds ( quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nmammalogists for helping to forge the nomenclatural mesh that holds our science together . * journal of mammalogy * to refer to this work as a checklist undervalues it and does not give sufficient credit to the authors and editors for their meticulous efforts in its production . a valuable reference work and a vital tool , particularly for researchers . * journal of natural history * by far the most convenient source for finding the correct scientific name of any mammal and should be on the reference shelf of libraries striving to have useful science sections . * science books and films * the editors and authors are to be congratulated for undertaking such an outstanding and authoritative work , and it should serve as a standard reference for mammalian species taxonomy for many years to come . * journal of mammalian evolution * the third edition adds to its reputation as an outstanding and authorative work . * national museum of natural history weekly update & forecast * impressive and elegant work . - - g . r . seamons * reference reviews * a must - have text for any professional mammalogist , and a useful and authoritative reference for scientists and students in other disciplines . * southeastern naturalist * a magnificent work important to anyone seriously interested in mammals . this work is essential for academic or special libraries supporting zoology or conservation and for large public libraries . * american reference books annual * as were many of our colleagues , we were waiting for this revised edition since 2003 . . . we can say that the wait was worth it . - - sergio solari and robert j . baker * journal of mammalogy *\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\nenglish german online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nwe don ' t know when or if this item will be back in stock .\ninstantly receive a \u00a310 urltoken gift card if you\u2019re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .\ncredit offered by newday ltd , over 18s only , subject to status . terms apply .\nenter your mobile number or email address below and we ' ll send you a link to download the free kindle app . then you can start reading kindle books on your smartphone , tablet , or computer - no kindle device required .\nprime members enjoy fast & free shipping , unlimited streaming of movies and tv shows with prime video and many more exclusive benefits .\nafter viewing product detail pages , look here to find an easy way to navigate back to pages you are interested in .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\nwith contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer\ncomments : included in t . glis by corbet ( in corbet and hill , 1992 ) and many earlier authors , but specific separation is supported by pelage coloration differences , craniodental features ( k . h . han et al . , 2000 ) , karyotypic data ( arrighi et al . , 1969 ) , and immunological distances ( dene et al . , 1978 ) . t . moellendorffi is provisionally separated from palawanensis here ( see account above )\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nthe eastern half of the island is in a rain shadow and contains moist semi - deciduous forests . soils are thin on the steeper slopes and support medium - sized trees ( up to 15 m tall ) , which shed their leaves during the march - may dry season . the rainy season is june - july . common tree species include pterocymbium tinctorium , pterospermum diversifolium , hymenodictyon spp . , and garuga floribunda ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nmontane forests , found between 800 and 1 , 500 m , are dominated by tristania spp . , casuarina spp . , swietenia foxworthyi , and litsea spp . in the lower elevations . upper montane forest trees include agathis philippinensis , dacrydium pectinatum , podocarpus polystachyus , gnetum latifolium , cycas wadei , cinnamomum rupestre , nepenthes philippinensis , and angiopteris spp . ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\nfamily species pteropodidae acerodon leucotis * cervidae axis calamianensis * sciuridae sundasciurus steerii * sciuridae sundasciurus moellendorfi * sciuridae sundasciurus rabori * sciuridae hylopetes nigripes * muridae chiropodomys calamianensis * muridae maxomys panglima * muridae palawanomys furvus * hystricidae hystrix pumila * sorcidae crocidura palawanensis * muridae haeromys sp . a * sciuridae sundasciurus hoogstraali * sciuridae sundasciurus juvencus * tupaiidae tupaia palawanensis *\nthe calamian deer ( axis calamianensis ) is found only in the calamian islands , where it survives in low densities on busuanga , calauit , and culion islands . the only protected area for this species was established to protect free - ranging african ungulates on calauit island ( wemmer 1998 ) .\nlater aerial surveys ( development alternatives 1992 ) indicated that significant reductions in closed - canopy forest cover had occurred since 1988 as a result of recent logging . as seen from the air , the lowlands and hillsides consist of slash - and - burn agriculture up to the edges of natural forest in the highlands . closed - canopy forest caps only the highest areas on the island .\nornamental plant collecting , especially for the orchids ( phalaenopsis amabilis and paphiopedilum argus ) , pitcher plants ( nepenthes spp . ) , palms ( veitchia merrillii ) , and aroids ( amorphophallus spp . and alocasia spp . ) threatens some plant populations ( davis et al . 1995 ) .\na valuable resin , known as manila copal , is collected from agathis dammara trees . this collection weakens the trees , and slackening production and disease combined with overexploitation are threatening the species ( davis et al . 1995 ; quinnell and balmford 1988 ) .\nreferences references for this ecoregion are currently consolidated in one document for the entire indo - pacific realm . indo - pacific reference list\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nthe major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to logging , agricultural expansion and conversion of land to plantations .\nit occurs in several protected areas throughout its range , including lanjak - entimau wildlife sanctuary ( han and engkamat 2000 ) . the preservation of old and regenerating forested areas , and natural forest remnants within tree plantations , will benefit this species . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nhelgen , k . m . ( 2005 ) .\ntupaia gracilis\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 106 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nhan , k . h . & stuebing , r . ( 2008 ) . tupaia gracilis . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 30 december 2008 .\nthis species is found on borneo below 1 , 200 m , in sabah and sarawak ( malaysia ) and kalimantan ( indonesia ) except in the south - east ; west to the islands of karimata , belitung , and bangka , and north to banggi island ( helgen 2005 ) . it is sympatric with tupaia minor , t . longipes , and t . tana on borneo ( .\nthis species is found in lowland old growth forests , secondary forest and in older ( > 5years ) tree plantations ( r . stuebing pers . comm . ) .\nlisted as least concern as although the species is not common and its habitat continues to decline in the face of ongoing forest loss in the lowlands of borneo , the species shows some adaptability to disturbed environments , and it is unlikely that past or future declines over 10 years would not be at a rate that would warrant listing in a threatened category .\nthis species is somewhat rare ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) . it seems patchily distributed , being present at low densities in some sites , but apparently absent from other forested areas ( r . stuebing pers . comm . ) .\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nthis species is endemic to borneo , where it is found in sabah and sarawak ( malaysia ) , kalimantan ( indonesia ) , and brunei ( helgen 2005 ) . it is more commonly found below 1 , 000 m ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is reliant on pristine forest ; however , they do survive in natural forest remnants in tree plantations and regenerating shifting agriculture plots ( r . stuebing pers . comm . ) .\nlisted as least concern as although the species has probably undergone declines due to ongoing forest loss , particularly at low elevations , these declines over 10 years are unlikely to be sufficient to warrant listing in a threatened category .\nformerly common in borneo , but there have probably since been declines throughout the range .\nthe main threat to this species is deforestation and habitat degradation due to agriculture and conversion to non - timber plantations .\nthis species is found in several protected areas . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nhelgen , k . m . ( 2005 ) .\ntupaia longipes\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 107 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nhan , k . h . & stuebing , r . ( 2008 ) . tupaia longipes . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 30 december 2008 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nendemic to the mindanao faunal region , philippines . it has been recorded from dinagat , mindanao ( bukidnon , davao del sur , misamis occidental , misamis oriental , south cotabato , surigao del norte , and zamboanga del sur provinces ) , and siargao ( heaney et al . 1998 ) . it ranges from 750 - 2 , 250 m on mindanao , whereas it is found at lower elevations on the other islands .\nthe philippine tree shrew is widely distributed on the mindanao , dinagat , and siargao islands of the philippines ( lyon 1913 ; nowak 1991 ) .\ncan easily be distinguished from other members of the tupaiidae by its even - haired round tail and elongated snout . furthermore , it has small zygomatic fenestra and large canine - like second incisors . compared to the rest of its family , the skull of\nis large and angular , with a heavy rostrum . the claws on the fore feet are long and sharp . the dental and skull characteristics indicate that\nis approximately 170 to 220 mm , while the tail is 115 to 175 mm . the feet are usually 50 mm long and the braincase is about 20 mm wide .\nthe upper parts of the animal are brownish in color , due to a mixture of tawny and blackish hair . most specimens also have an orange shoulder stripe . the underparts of the animal vary in color from orange to orangish - red . the chest is usually the brightest part . specimens from different areas also vary in color from each other . the specimens from dingagat are generally light in color with a golden sheen dorsally , while those from siargao are usually much darker .\ntype for urogale everetti catalog number : usnm 125287 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : male ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : e . mearns year collected : 1904 locality : mount apo , todaya , mindanao , davao del sur province , philippines , asia elevation ( m ) : 1219\ntype : mearns , e . a . 1905 may 13 . proceedings of the united states national museum . 28 : 435 .\nthe species inhabits mid - elevation ranges and prefers montane and lower mossy forest , though it can be found in disturbed habitats near forested areas ( l . heaney pers . comm . ) . although it exhibits some tolerance for light habitat disturbance ( for example , selective logging ) , it does not do well in heavily disturbed forest ( l . heaney pers . comm . ) .\nphilippine tree shrews are usually found inhabiting brush zones and dense vegetation along river beds . they have also been observed running and climbing in trees . natives of the philippines say that\nspecimens have been collected from the mountains of mindanao at elevations ranging from 3 , 000 to 4 , 000 feet above sea level . ( lyon 1913 ; nowak 1999 )\neats a variety of foods ranging from small animals and insects to fruits and vegetables .\nhas also been observed opening and eating eggs with enough skill to suggest that it does so in the wild . their appetite is large ; an individual can eat several bananas or two - ounce pieces of meat a day . eating is usually done in the morning , but water is consumed whenever possible .\nurogale everetti preys on : non - insect arthropods this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed february 16 , 2011 at urltoken . urltoken\n; however , one captive specimen lived to be 11 . 5 years old .\nweigh approximately 20 grams and are about 103 mm long . after 13 to 25 days , the young open their eyes .\nhas been bred successfully in several zoos . the gestation period lasts 54 to 56 days and litters of only one or two have been reported . adult females have 2 mammae and suckle their young about once every two days . females are usually receptive to males soon after they give birth . ( hayssen et al . 1964 ; nowak 1999 ) .\ntabaranza , b . , gonzalez , j . c . , rosell - ambal , g . & heaney , l .\nlisted as least concern as it is widespread within its limited range in the philippines and locally common . population declines may have occurred at lower elevation ranges due to deforestation , but the population is likely to be stable above 1 , 000 m and the species occurs in a number of protected areas .\nthe current plans for the conservation of tree shrews in southeast asia are outlined in\neurasian insectivores and tree shrew : status survey and conservation action plan\n, a 1995 publication released by the iucn . the url for this site is urltoken .\npopulations is the destruction of their natural habitats by humans . because they aren ' t well known and don ' t have an economic value , this species and its habitat are being overlooked by conservationists .\nthis species is widespread and locally common in forests on dinagat and moderately common throughout mindanao .\nthe major threat is deforestation that has occurred at lower elevations , and much of this species ' habitat below 1000 m has been lost .\nthis species occurs in several protected areas . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nit is found , as its name suggests , in mindanao , in the philippines . it lives in rain forests and montane forests .\nthe body is 17 - 20 cm , and the tail is 11 - 17 cm . it has a particularly elongated snout and a rounded , even - haired tail . the fur is brownish , but with orange or yellow underparts .\nit is diurnal in its habits , and it climbs well and runs fast on the ground .\nits diet is varied . it includes insects , lizards , young birds , bird ' s eggs , and fruit .\nit is thought that in the wild , it nests on the ground , or on cliffs . their breeding habits have been observed in captivity , where females have produced 1 or 2 young after a gestation period of 54 - 56 days .\nhelgen , k . m . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m , eds . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 108\u2013109 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\ntabaranza , b . , gonzalez , j . c . , ambal , g . & heaney , l . ( 2008 ) . urogale everetti . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 30 december 2008 .\nnapier jr , napier ph . ( 1968 ) a handbook of living primates . morphology , ecology and behaviour of nonhuman primates . academic , london\nthis species is endemic to montane borneo where it is restricted to altitudes above 900 m ( payne et al . 1998 ) in malaysian northern borneo , including the mountains of north - eastern sarawak and mts . kinabalu and trus madi in sabah ( helgen 2005 ) . recorded from 1 , 200 m to elevations of 3 , 350 m ( corbet and hill 1992 ) .\nthis species is found in submontane and montane pristine forest . this species needs undergrowth as it comes down to forage for insects ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) .\nthis species does not appear to have been recorded since the early 1970s . a primarily montane species , it has probably undergone some declines due to loss of habitat , particularly at lower elevations , but the absence of any recent records hinders any reliable assessment of their status . this species is a priority for further survey work , pending which it may warrant listing in near threatened or higher .\nthis species has not been recorded since the early 1970s . between 1989 to 1991 , three sessions of trappings at the area ( sinsuran ridge , sabah ) where the animal was last caught in the early 1970s , failed to capture the animal ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) .\nthe major threat to this species is loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion and conversion of land to non - tree plantations at lower elevations .\nit occurs in crocker range national park ( sabah , malaysia ) . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nhead and body length is 5 in ( 13 cm ) , with tail length 4 . 5 in ( 11 cm ) . the body mass is about 1 . 5 oz ( 43 g ) . upper parts of the small body are dark brown , while the under parts are orange - buff with gray bases , and shiny black with reddish streaking along the sides . it has a short snout , with large ear flaps . prominent orange - brown rings exist around the eyes , with weakly marked facial streaks present on both side of the face , extending from the snout to ears . no shoulder streaks are present . the claws are notably sharp . the thin tail is covered with fine , smooth hair , with darkening towards the tip .\n, which active in mossy trees and on rocky boulders in submontane and montane pristine forest . this species seems to feed predominantly on\nis recorded from gunung dulit , gunung mulu , and the kelabit uplands in northern sarawak , and from the sabah - sarawak border . meanwhile ,\nthis species is listed as data deficient because it has not recorded since the early 1970s . the major threats for this species are loss of habitat due to the agricultural expansion and conversion of land to nontree plantations at lower elevations . this species may warrant listing in near threatened or higher . the conservation actions only occur at crocker range national park , sabah , malaysia .\ngardner , a . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m , eds . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 104\u2013105 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nhan , k . h . & stuebing , r . ( 2008 ) . dendrogale melanura . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 30 december 2008 .\nfrancis , c . m . & payne , j . ( 2005 ) . a field guide to the mammals of borneo . malaysia : sabah society\nin their natural habitat , mountain treeshrews were observed being active during the day . they forage on the ground among fallen logs and branches where they feed mostly on\n. they also consume large quantities of wild fruits and berries , eating them in short bursts . it is assumed that they extract sugar laden juices and this way supplement dietary deficiencies of an arthropod diet .\nlasted 49 to 51 days . they did not display a distinct reproductive season . litters comprised one to two young .\n. they defecate into the plants ' pitchers while visiting them to feed on sweet , fruity secretions from glands on the pitcher lids .\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m .\nthomas , o . ( 1892 ) . on some new mammalia from the east - indian archipelago . the annals and magazine of natural history 6 ( 9 ) : 250\u2013254 .\nemmons , l . ( 2000 ) . tupai : a field study of bornean treeshrews . berkeley and los angeles : university of california press .\nsorenson , m . w . , conaway , c . h . ( 1968 ) . the social and reproductive behavior of tupaia montana in captivity . journal of mammalogy : 502\u2013512 .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 8 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nthis species is found in malaysia and indonesia , including southern borneo ( subspecies splendidula ) and karimata island ( carimatae ) , bunguran ( natunae ) and laut ( lucida ) in the northern natuna islands , and riabu ( riabus ) in the anambas islands ( helgen 2005 ) .\nthis species occurs in primary lowland forest ; it presumably occurs in secondary forests , and lightly degraded forests .\nlisted as least concern as the species is relatively widely distributed on borneo , and although rare appears to show some adaptability to disturbed habitats . it is undoubtedly undergoing declines , but these are not believed to be at a rate that would warrant listing in threatened category .\nthis species is rare and usually only a few are taken for every few hundred trap nights of survey effort ( k . h . han pers . comm . ) . however , it is said to be locally common at puruk cahu in central kalimantan ( i . maryanto pers . comm . ) .\nthe major threat to this species is habitat degradation , due to logging and conversion to agriculture .\nthis species is not recorded from any protected areas . it is listed on cites appendix ii .\nhelgen , k . m . ( 2005 ) .\ntupaia splendidula\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 108 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nhan , k . h . & maryanto , i . ( 2008 ) .\ntupaia splendidula\n. iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 . international union for conservation of nature .\nraffles described the genus as having an elongated snout , 8 to 10 incisors , well developed limbs , five - toed naked feet , and the sole furnished with projecting pads and sharp claws , with a habit and tail of a squirrel .\nspecies , which only lack the long black whiskers and have smaller ears . they don\u2019t have any markings on the face , the naked area of the nose is finely reticulated , an oblique stripe on the shoulder is more or less distinct , and the tail is haired but not tufted . the\nis longer than the second , while the second pair of lower incisors is slightly larger than the first and third pairs . the lower\n, they are primarily terrestrial and forage on the forest floor , usually below 1 . 5 m ( 4 . 9 ft ) . since they are rarely seen crossing wide roads , it is likely that populations are negatively affected by fragmentation of forests caused by\nand small beetles . they hold their food between the forelegs while sitting on their haunches . after feeding they smooth the head and face with both forepaws , and lick the lips and palms . they are also fond of water , both to drink and to bathe in .\nthey fortify their diet with soft fruits that are mostly dispersed by birds . they swallow the pulp but reject fibrous components , which they cannot digest due to their long and small\nof treeshrews enables them to easily detect food among the leaf litter on the forest floor . their sensitivity for odours coupled with\n. social behaviour differs between species and the available food resources in their territories . where food is adequate and sufficient , they tolerate conspecifics without engaging in territorial disputes .\nbirds of prey , snakes , and small carnivores are known to hunt treeshrews . humans have no interest in killing them for food because of their unpleasant taste , and they are rarely seen as pests .\ntreeshrews share more similarity with rodents and squirrels than with primates in regards to their reproduction and development . in contrast to primates , who produce one baby with longer gestation periods , treeshrews generally have litters of 2 - 3 young and are only in utero for about 45 days . female treeshrews give birth in nests made of many dry leaves , and are known to leave the young unattended while returning occasionally to give them milk . parental care of\nthe young remain in the nest for 33 days on average , developing gradually before they exit the nest . there are ten identified embryonic developmental stages in\ntheir morphological similarity to primates makes them an important model organism in human medical research . a study investigating the effects of the\nthan them , there is increasing interest in using them as an alternative model for use as a model in human medical research . successful psychosocial studies were carried out , and it was found that dramatic behavioral , neuroendocrinal , and physiological changes occurred in subordinate male\nhave been used to overcome the limitations of using rodent models in the study of human biology and disease mechanisms , as well as the development of new drugs and diagnostic tools . recent studies have utilized tree shrews to study infectious , metabolic , neurological , and psychiatric diseases as well as cancers .\n. this was advantageous because other possible candidates such as guinea pigs , rats , mice , and other rodents leave gaps in the information especially regarding clinical symptoms and transmission .\n, on the other hand , display moderate systemic and respiratory symptoms as well as pathological changes in the respiratory tract , supporting its use as a beneficial model in h1n1 research .\nas knowledge increases regarding the use of treeshrews as medical research models , so do the ethical implications regarding the care of these animals for research purposes .\nhelgen , k . m . ( 2005 ) .\ntupaia\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . p . 104 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nraffles , t . s . ( 1821 ) .\ndescriptive catalogue of a zoological collection made on account of the honourable east india company , in the island of sumatra and its vicinity , under the direction of sir thomas stamford raffles , lieutenant - governor of fort marlborough ; with additional notices illustrative of the natural history of those countries .\n. the transactions of the linnean society of london ( linnean society of london ) xiii : 239\u2013340 .\nwilkinson , r . j . ( 1901 ) . a malay - english dictionary kelly & walsh limited , hongkong , shanghai and yokohama .\nlyon , m . w . , jr . ( 1913 ) . tree shrews : an account of the mammalian family tupaiidae . proceedings of the united states national museum , 45 : 1\u2013188 .\nshriver , j . g . , noback , c . r . ( 1967 ) . color vision in the tree shrew ( tupaia glis ) . folia primatologia 6 : 161\u2212169 .\ndiard , p . m . , duvaucel , a . ( 1820 ) .\nsur une nouvelle esp\u00e8ce de sorex \u2014 sorex glis\n. asiatick researches , or , transactions of the society instituted in bengal , for inquiring into the history and antiquities , the arts , sciences , and literature of asia , volume 14 : 470\u2013475 .\nhorsfield , t . ( 1824 ) . zoological researches in java , and the neighbouring islands . london : kingsbury , parbury , & allen .\nwagner , j . a . ( 1841 ) . das peguanische spitzh\u00f6rnchen . in : die s\u00e4ugethiere in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen . supplementband 2 . erlangen : expedition des schreber ' schen s\u00e4ugethier - und des esper ' schen schmetterlingswerkes . pp . 42\u201343 .\nschlegel , h . ( 1857 ) . tana dorsalis . in : handleiding tot de beoefening der dierkunde , ie deel . boekdrukkerij van nys , breda . page 59 .\ngray , j . e . ( 1865 ) . notice of a species of tupaia from borneo , in the collection of the british museum . proceedings of the general meetings for scientific business of the zoological society of london : 322 .\nzelebor , j . ( 1868 ) . cladobates nicobaricus . in : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde . zoologischer theil , band 1 s\u00e4ugethiere . wien : kaiserliche akademie der wissenschaften . pp . 17\u201319 .\ng\u00fcnther , a . g . ( 1876 ) . remarks on some indian and , more especially , bornean mammals . proceedings of the general meetings for scientific business of the zoological society of london : 424\u2013428 .\nthomas , o . ( 1893 ) . on some new bornean mammalia . the annals and magazine of natural history , 6 ( 11 ) : 341\u2013347 .\nthomas , o . ( 1893 ) . description of a new bornean tupaia . the annals and magazine of natural history 6 ( 12 ) : 53\u201354 .\nmatschie , p . ( 1898 ) . s\u00e4ugethiere von den philippinen . sitzungsbericht der gesellschaft naturforschender freunde zu berlin : 38\u201343 .\nmiller , g . s . jr . ( 1903 ) . seventy new malayan mammals . smithsonian miscellaneous collections 45 : 1\u201373 .\nmein , p . and ginsburg , l . ( 1997 ) . les mammif\u00e8res du gisement mioc\u00e8ne inf\u00e9rieur de li mae long , tha\u00eflande : syst\u00e9matique , biostratigraphie et pal\u00e9oenvironnement . geodiversitas 19 ( 4 ) : 783\u2013844 .\nbutler , p . m . ( 1972 ) . the problem of insectivore classification . in : k . a . joysey and t . s . kemp ( eds . ) studies in vertebrate evolution . oliver and boyd , edinburgh . pp . 253\u2212265 .\nmartin , r . d . ( 1968 ) . reproduction and ontogeny in tree - shrews ( tupaia belangeri ) , with reference to their general behaviour and taxonomic relationships . zeitschrift f\u00fcr tierpsychologie 25 ( 4 ) : 409\u2013495 .\nmckenna , m . c . , bell , s . k . ( 1997 ) . classification of mammals above the species level . columbia university press , new york .\npeterson , e . a . , wruble , s . d . , ponzoli , v . i . ( 1968 ) . auditory responses in tree shrews and primates . journal of auditory research 8 ( 3 ) : 345\u2013355 .\nemmons , l . h . ( 1991 ) . frugivory in treeshrews ( tupaia ) . the american naturalist . 138 ( 3 ) : 642\u2013649 .\ngould , e . ( 1978 ) . the behavior of the moonrat , echinosorex gymnurus ( erinaceidae ) and the pentail shrew , ptilocercus lowi ( tupaiidae ) with comments on the behavior of other insectivora . zeitschrift f\u00fcr tierpsychologie 48 ( 1 ) : 1\u201327 .\nkawamichi , t . and kawamichi , m . ( 1979 ) . spatial organization and territory of tree shrews ( tupaia glis ) . animal behavior 27 ( 2 ) : 381\u2013393 .\ncisneros , l . ( 2005 ) .\ntupaia glis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web .\nkuhn , h , and schwaier , a . ( 1973 ) . implantation , early placentation , and the chronology of embryogenesis in tupaia belangeri . zeitschrift f\u00fcr anatomie und entwicklungsgeschichte 142 ( 3 ) : 315\u2013340 .\nsprankel , h . , richarz , k . , ludwig , h . and rott , r . ( 1978 ) . behavior alterations in tree shrews induced by borna disease virus . medical microbiology and immunology 165 ( 1 ) : 1\u201318 .\ncao , j . , yang , e . b . , su , j . j . , li , y . , chow , p . ( 2003 ) . the tree shrew : adjuncts and alternatives to primates as models for biomedical research . journal of medical primatology . 32 ( 3 ) : 123\u2013130 .\nxu , l . , zhang , y . , liang , b . , l\u00fc , l . b . , chen , c . s . , chen , y . b . , yao , y . g . ( 2013 ) . tree shrews under the spot light : emerging model of human diseases . dongwuxue yanjiu 34 ( 2 ) : 59\u201369 . ( in chinese )"]}
{"id": 2648, "summary": [{"text": "the cinnamon-rumped trogon ( harpactes orrhophaeus ) is a species of bird in the family trogonidae .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "cinnamon - rumped trogon", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 2 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > female 3 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 4 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > adult male 5 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > adult male 6 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > female 7 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > female 8 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 9 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 10 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male 11 . cinnamon - rumped trogon > > male\ncinnamon rumped trogon . trogon birds are residents of tropical forests worldwide . they feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak le\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\n( note : date listed in the video is incorrect ; clip was recorded on the 9th september 2012 . ) short clip of cinnamon - rumped trogon calling from within the understorey of the disturbed forest in panti bird sanctuary . attention : do turn up the volume to hear the cinnamon - rumped trogon ' s call , as it is quite weak .\nthis article is about bird family trogonidae . for bird genus trogon , see trogon ( genus ) .\ntrogons , trogon collaris ( two left pictures ) and trogon massena , costa rica . photo : \u00a9 vladimir dinets\nnarina trogon , apaloderma narina adult male narina trogon , apaloderma narina , perched in pigeonwood . photo : patty mcgann urltoken\n) has the most atypical call of any trogon , research has not yet established whether the closely related javan trogon has a similar call .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . cinnamon - rumped trogon ( harpactes orrhophaeus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe elegant trogon , reaching the south of the united states specifically southern arizona and the surrounding area . the narina trogon of africa is slightly exceptional in that it utilises a wider range of habitats than any other trogon , ranging from dense forest\nnot globally threatened . common to fairly common in mexico ; found throughout yucat\u00e1n , where the commonest trogon . most numerous trogon also throughout belize ; found to be . . .\n, is a bird in the trogon family . it is found from southern mexico to western\nand short necks . trogons range in size from the 23 cm , 40 gram scarlet - rumped trogon to the 40 cm , 210 gram resplendent quetzal ( not including the male quetzal ' s 0 . 91 m tail streamers ) . their legs and feet are weak and short , and trogons are essentially\n[ order ] trogoniformes | [ family ] trogonidae | [ latin ] apalharpactes reinwardtii | [ uk ] javan trogon | [ fr ] couroucou de reinwardt | [ de ] reinwardttrogon | [ es ] trogon de java . | [ nl ] reinwardts trogon | [ authority ] temminck , 1822\na number of other species . the narina trogon of africa is thought to undertake some localised short distance\nmale has red head , blue bill and eye ring . black throat , grey breast and red belly . pale brown upperparts , undertail mostly white . female with red in male replaced by cinnamon . pale brown bars on wings .\nskull of a trogon showing the presence of a basipterygoid process ( bpg . p . ) and a schizognathous palate\nseems to use deserted trogon nests about 2 meters up in a dead stump or cavity . no further details .\nof the trogon order . the subspecies costaricensis is slightly smaller than the nominate race and has shorter narrower tail plumes .\nthe beak of trogon birds is used in part for securing food and cutting it up thanks to serrated cutting edges .\nin oligocene rocks from switzerland and miocene france . the oldest new world fossil of a trogon is from the comparatively recent\nthe calls of the quetzals and the two caribbean genera are the most complex . among the asian genera the sumatran trogon (\ncomments : composed of two groups : ambiguus of southwestern u . s . and mexico ( coppery - tailed trogon ) and elegans of guatemala , el salvador , honduras , nicaragua , and costa rica ( elegant trogon ) ( aou 1998 ) .\nmale has light green bill with yellow base . head , upper breast and upper parts all green with golden blue shine . yellowish bare skin on face . underparts light - red . on the wings fine pale grey with black bars . female brown face and throat . breast more cinnamon washed brown .\nthe usual call is a croaking\nco - ah co - ah co - ah\n. the trogon will also include some chattering notes .\nthis article is part of project trogoniformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each trogon , including made - up species .\ncontains 39 species in eight genera . the word\ntrogon\nis greek for\nnibbling\nand refers to the fact that these birds gnaw holes\n. they are fairly large ( all over 32 cm or 13 inches long ) , slightly bigger than other trogon species . quetzals have iridescent green or golden - green\neuptilotis neoxenus is related to pharomachrus and is called the eared quetzal by some authorities , such as the american ornithologists ' union , but the eared trogon by others .\nprimary lowland forest , favors dense closed canopy . usually 3 - 8 meters up in the understorey . almost never in open land , which seperates it from lokkalike narina trogon .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . black - headed trogon ( trogon melanocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ncollar , n . & van ballen , s . ( 2002 ) .\nthe blue - tailed trogon harpactes ( apalharpactes ) reinwardtii : species limits and conservation status\n. forktail 18 : 121\u2013125 .\npriotelus is a genus of birds in the trogon family consisting of two species the cuban ( p . temnurus ) and hispaniolan trogon ( t roseigaster ) . the latter is usually placed in genus priotelus , but shows significant differences from p . temnurus in bill pattern , plumage coloration and some morphological features . hence it is by some authorities placed in its own genus temnotrogon . both priotelus species are the only trongons in the caribbean area .\nflight , where a trogon flies from an observation perch to a target on another branch or in foliage . once there the birds hovers or stalls and snatches the item before returning to its perch to consume the item . this type of foraging is commonly used by some types of bird to obtain insect prey ; in trogons and quetzals it is also used to pluck fruit from trees . insect prey may also be taken on the wing , with the trogon pursuing flying insects in a similar manner to\nriehl , christina ( 2008 ) .\ncommunal calling and prospecting by black - headed trogons ( trogon melanocephalus )\n. the wilson journal of ornithology 120 ( 2 ) : 248\u2013255 . doi : 10 . 1676 / 07 - 025 . 1 .\na striking green and yellow trogon . upperparts green , except for a blue tail . underparts largely yellow with a green breast band . the bill is red and the naked skin around the eye is blue . voice a dry , high rattling\nsterrrr\nthe alarm calls are in the background , and typical of a trogon . previously published on avocet as av10537 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not specifically indicated ; recordist normally sees birds recorded and indicates if any question ; matches xc cuts . gps : estimate from google earth . alarm\nthe majority of trogons are birds of tropical and subtropical forests . they have a cosmopolitan distribution in the worlds wet tropics , being found in the americas , africa and asia . a few species are distributed into the temperate zone , with one species , the elegant trogon , reaching the south of the united states specifically southern arizona and the surrounding area . the narina trogon of africa is slightly exceptional in that it utilises a wider range of habitats than any other trogon , ranging from dense forest to fairly open savannah , and from the equator to southern south africa . it is the most widespread and successful of all the trogons . the eared quetzal of mexico is also able to use more xeric habitats , but preferentially inhabits forests . most other species are more restricted in their habitat , with several species being restricted to undisturbed primary forest . within forests they tend to be found in the mid story , occasionally in the canopy .\ndacosta , j & klicka , j . ( 2008 ) .\nthe great american interchange in birds : a phylogenetic perspective with the genus trogon\n. molecular ecology 17 ( 5 ) : 1328\u201343 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2007 . 03647 . x . pmid 18302692 .\nkristoffersen , anette vedding ( 2002 ) .\nan early paleocene trogon ( aves : trogoniformes ) from the fur formation , denmark\n. journal of vertebrate paleontology 22 ( 3 ) : 661\u2013666 . doi : 10 . 1671 / 0272 - 4634 ( 2001 ) 022 [ 0661 : aeptat ] 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .\nthe male elegant trogon has a metallic deep green head , upper breast and back , black face and throat , and red - orange lower breast and belly . he shows grey upperwing coverts . the female has a metallic bronze head , upper breast , back , upper tail and upperwing coverts . she shows a dull white upper belly , and a small white vertical stripe behind the eye .\n* the trogons and quetzals are birds in the order trogoniformes which contains only one family , the trogonidae . the family contains 39 species in eight genera . they might constitute a member of the basal radiation of the order coraciiformes or closely related to mousebirds and owls . the word \u201ctrogon\u201d is greek for \u201cnibbling\u201d and refers to the fact that these birds gnaw holes in trees to make their nests .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . philippine trogon ( harpactes ardens ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\ntrogon is greek for ' to gnaw or eat ' and refers to the structure and function of the beak . the cutting edges of the maxilla and / or mandible are variably serrated among most new world species and probably aid in securing live prey or large fruit . these serrations , along with the decurved tip of the bill ( present in all species ) , are also useful in cutting food items into smaller pieces .\n( fowler 2003 : 246 )\nold world trogons ( apaloderma , harpactes , and apalharpactes ) clearly form a clade ( johansson and ericson 2004 , moyle 2005 ; contra sibley and ahlquist 1990 , espinosa de los monteros 1998 ) , though relationships within that clade are not clear , since neither species of apalharpactes has yet been sampled in a phylogenetic analysis . new world trogons ( trogon , pharomachrus , priotelus , and euoptilotus ) may be paraphyletic to the old world trogons , though these basal relationships have been contradictory among studies ( johansson and ericson 2004 , moyle 2005 ) . all genera are apparently monophyletic , pending data on apalharpactes .\ndespite it being only a ten minute drive from the discovery centre , the orangutan rehabilitation centre appears to be less diverse than its neighbouring reserve . reports show than a total of 35 more species have been recorded at the discovery centre , however this is most likely a result of the dense vegetation at the orangutan rehabilitation centre . nevertheless , it remains the best place to view bornean falconet , grey - and - buff woodpecker , white - bellied woodpecker , olive - backed woodpecker , bornean bristlehead , black - and - yellow broadbill , rhinoceros hornbill , bushy - crested hornbill , violet cuckoo , crimson - winged woodpecker , orange - backed woodpecker , great slaty woodpecker , verditer flycatcher , great argus , large - hawk cuckoo and diard ' s trogon ( as well as many more ) . it was placed lower down on this list only because most of its species can be observed at the discovery centre , however it is still an incredible birdwatching site .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nthe trogons are split into three subfamilies , each reflecting one of these splits , aplodermatinae is the african subfamily and contains a single genus , apaloderma ; harpactinae is the asian subfamily and contains two genera , harpactes and apalharpactes . apalharpactes , consisting of two species in the java and sumatra , has only recently been accepted as a separate genus from harpactes . harpactes is a genus of birds found in forests in south and southeast asia , extending into southernmost china . they are strongly sexually dimorphic , with females generally being duller than males . the two members of the genus apalharpactes are sometimes included in harpactes .\noriental region : malay peninsula , borneo . harpactes orrhophaeus is known from peninsular thailand , sabah , sarawak and peninsular malaysia , singapore , kalimantan and sumatra , indonesia and brunei\nthis species occurs in the lower storey of humid evergreen forest to 1 , 500 m . in peninsular thailand and malaysia , it is largely restricted to closed - canopy lowland forest ( up to 180 m ) , whilst on borneo it occurs mainly in submontane slope forest at 1000 \u2013 1400 m . it is predominantly recorded from tall primary forests , although there are records from logged dipterocarp forest .\nbuilds nest in cavity about 1 . 5 meter above ground . clutch size is 2 eggs .\nprimarily insects , a still - hunter in dense understorey 2 - 3 meter above ground .\nsame bird as on xc68454 . this bird was in a small patch of trees in a large clearing , presumably traveling between forest patches\npreviously published on avocet as av5198 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : seen ; this bird seems to be a full adult but has no blue patch around the eye . age : ( determined by plumage ) . gps : rough estimate from google earth . recorded september 1990\npreviously published on avocet as av5197 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : seen ; this bird seems to be a full adult but has no blue patch around the eye . age : ( determined by plumage ) . gps : rough estimate from google earth . recorded september 1990\nsame bird as on xc68454 , xc96129 . this male is giving the four note call in the foreground that starts half way through . i suspect the other quiet 4 - 5 note series , which starts at the beginning of the cut , may be a female : one was seen with the male .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nthis species and h . duvaucelii have sometimes been placed in separate genus , duvaucelius . species name sometimes misspelt as orrophaeus . two subspecies recognized .\n( cabanis & heine , 1863 ) \u2013 peninsular thailand , peninsular malaysia and sumatra .\n25 cm ; 45\u201361 g . male of nominate race has black hood , blue bill , eyebrow and narrow orbital ring , pale brown upperparts and uppertail ; pinkish - red underparts ; undertail . . .\nmiddle and lower storeys of forest in the lowlands and hills , to 180 m in peninsular malaysia and . . .\nstick - insects and leaf - insects recorded in stomachs . still - hunts in fairly dense understorey , 2\u20133 m up . has been seen in a mixed - . . .\nmar\u2013apr and jun in peninsular malaysia ; in borneo , male and female in breeding condition in mar . nest in cavity 1\u20131\u00b75 m up in . . .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near - threatened . rare and local resident in peninsular thailand , where now threatened by habitat loss and known from only three . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 693 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nthis forest - dependent species is listed as near threatened because it is suspected to be undergoing a moderately rapid decline throughout its range as a result of habitat loss and degradation .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : harpactes orrhophaeus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nwhats wrong with secretary kim \uc601\uc900\uc774 \uc7ac\ub2a5\uad50\uc721 \uc2dc\uc791\ud588\ub2c8 ? ( \uc790\uae30\uc758 \uc77c\uc740 \uc2a4\uc2a4\ub85c . . . \ud558\uc9c0\ub9c8 . . . ) 180704 ep . 9\nthis article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\noriginal description clearly treats species name as adjectival ; hence this becomes masculine to agree with genus name . present species sometimes considered conspecific with t . citreolus ; genetic data indicate that these two form a sister - group to t . viridis and t . bairdii # r . populations of w costa rica described as race illaetabilis on basis of paler belly , but this character apparently not constant . monotypic .\natlantic slope of se mexico ( including islands off quintana roo ) , n guatemala , belize , n honduras and nicaragua ; also pacific slope from el salvador to n costa rica .\n27 cm ; 69\u201391 g . male with bill pale blue - grey , orbital ring pale blue ; head and breast dull blackish ; white breastband , yellow rest of underside ; wings greyish - black , . . .\nsong a series of quickening clear barks , falling in pitch and stopping rather abruptly , \u201c . . .\nspecies of natural open and secondary formations . usually fairly low in open deciduous woodland and . . .\ninsects and fruits . animal food includes orthoptera ( grasshoppers ) , mantises , dragonflies , large caterpillars ( smooth and hairy , including . . .\nmay\u2013jun in belize , mar\u2013jul in costa rica . nest an unlined chamber in an occupied termitarium 1\u00b75\u20138 m up in tree , on fence . . .\nresident in mexico . in costa rica , strays s to head of golfo dulce and e to grecia along river . . .\ntrogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide , with the greatest diversity in the neotropics . the genus\nthey feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast ,\nthey are reluctant to fly any distance . trogons are generally not migratory , although some species undertake partial local movements .\ntrogons have soft , often colourful , feathers with distinctive male and female plumage . they are the only type of animal with a\nthe trogons are insectivorous , usually hunting from a perch . they nest in holes dug into trees or termite nests , laying 2 - 4 white or\nthe majority of trogons are birds of tropical and subtropical forests . they have a cosmopolitan distribution in the worlds wet\ntropics , being found in the americas , africa and asia . a few species are distributed into the temperate zone , with one species ,\nto fairly open savannah , and from the equator to southern south africa . it is the most widespread and successful of all the trogons .\nthe eared quetzal of mexico is also able to use more xeric habitats , but preferentially inhabits forests . most other species are\nmore restricted in their habitat , with several species being restricted to undisturbed primary forest . within forests they tend to be\nsome species , particularly the quetzals , are adapted to cooler montane forest . there are a number of insular species ; these include\ncuba and hispaniola respectively . outside of south asia and the caribbean , however , trogons are generally absent from islands ,\nof its range , for example birds of zimbabwe ' s plateau savannah depart after the breeding season . a complete picture of these\nmovements is however lacking . trogons are difficult to study as their thick tarsi ( feet bones ) make ringing studies difficult .\nunable to walk beyond a very occasional shuffle along a branch . they are even incapable of turning around on a branch without\nusing their wings . the ratio of leg muscle to body weight in trogons is only 3 percent , the lowest known ratio of any bird .\nbeing the outer hind toe , an arrangement that is referred to as heterodactylous . the strong bill is short and the gape wide ,\nparticularly in the fruit eating quetzals , with a slight hook at the end . the african trogons are generally green on the back with red\nbellies . the new world trogons similarly have green or deep blue upperparts but are more varied in their lowerparts . the asian\nthe wings are short but strong , with the wing muscle ratio being around 22 % of the body weight . in spite of the strength of\ntheir flight , trogons do not fly often or for great distances , generally flying no more than a few hundred metres at a time .\nonly the montane species tend to make long distance flights . shorter flights tend to be direct and swift , but longer flights are\nslightly undulating . their flight can be surprisingly silent ( for observers ) , although that of a few species is reportedly quite noisy .\npanama ( unlike the other quetzals of the genus pharomachrus , which are found in south america and eastern panama ) . it is well\nthis quetzal plays an important role in mesoamerican mythologies . the resplendent quetzal is guatemala ' s national bird , and an\nimage of it is on the flag and coat of arms of guatemala . it is also the name of the local currency ( abbreviation gtq ) .\nthis species is 36\u009640 cm long , plus up to 65 cm of tail streamer for the male , and weighs about 210 g . it is the largest representative\nresplendent quetzals have a green body ( showing iridescence from green - gold to blue - violet ) and red breast . their green upper tail\ncoverts hide their tails and in breeding males are particularly splendid , being longer than the rest of the body . the primary wing\ncoverts are also unusually long and give a fringed appearance . the male has a helmet - like crest . the bill , which is partly covered by\ntheir habitat is montane cloud forests of central america ( from southern mexico to panama ) .\nresplendent quetzals are weak fliers . their known predators include the ornate hawk - eagle and owls as adults ,\nemerald toucanets , brown jays , long - tailed weasels , squirrels , and the kinkajou as nestlings or eggs .\nlarvae ) , frogs and lizards . particularly important are wild avocados and other fruit of the laurel family , which the birds swallow\nresplendent quetzals usually live alone when not breeding . they are monogamous territorial breeders , with the territory size being\nmeasured in guatemala as 6 - 10 ha . they are also seasonal breeders , with the breeding season being march to april in mexico ,\nmay to june in el salvador and march to may in guatemala . when breeding , females lay two pale blue eggs in a nest placed in\na hole which they carve in a rotten tree . a tree in the required stage of decomposition is susceptible to weather damage , and the\nwhere they tend to look like a bunch of fern growing out of the hole . the incubation period lasts about 18 days , during which\nthe male generally incubates the eggs during the day while the female incubates them at night . when the eggs hatch , both parents\ntake care of the young , feeding them fruit , berries , insects , lizards , and small frogs . however , the female often neglects and even\nmid - sized bird with yellow belly and bill , pale bluish eye - ring , and black and white barred tail ; male with green head , chest , and back , and black throat ; female with brownish head , chest , and back .\nlow and some middle elevation wet forests , caribbean and southern pacific slopes ; found in forest interior and more open areas such as forest edge , near rivers and streams , and around tree plantations .\nblack - throated trogons feed on insects , often taken in flight , and fruit . seems to be less dependent on fruit than other species of the genus . will follow troops of monkeys , ant swarms mixed - species flocks . their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast , they are reluctant to fly any distance . they typically perch upright and motionless .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern . resident on the caribbean slope of honduras and nicaragua , on both slopes of costa rica and panama . in south america from colombia , venezuela , and the guianas south , west of the andes to western ecuador and east of the andes to central peru , amazonian and southeastern brazil , extreme northeastern argentina , and eastern paraguay .\nit nests 1 - 6 m high in an unlined shallow cavity built in dead wood stubs . also noted nest in old termite hills . clutch size is 2 eggs incubated for 18 - 19 days . young fledge after 14 - 15 days , male can breed after 2 years .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\nfowler , me ; miller , re . 2003 . zoo and wild animal medicine . philadelphia : w . b . saunders co .\n, back , chest and head , with a red belly . they are strongly\nare brown or grey . these largely solitary birds feed on fruits , berries , insects and small\n( such as frogs ) . even with their famous bright plumage , they can be hard to see in their natural wooded habitats .\n=\nstand up\nused to refer to an upstanding plume of feathers .\nthe word\nquetzal\nwas originally used for just the resplendent quetzal , the famous long - tailed quetzal of southern mexico and central america , which is the national bird and the name of the currency of guatemala . it still often refers to that bird specifically but now also names all the species of the genera pharomachrus and euptilotis .\npharomachrus is from ancient greek pharos ,\nmantle\n, and makros ,\nlong\n, referring to the wing and tail coverts of the resplendent quetzal ( the second h is unexplained ) .\nrestall , r . l . , c . rodner , & m . lentino ( 2006 ) . birds of northern south america . christopher helm . isbn 0 - 7136 - 7243 - 9 ( vol . 1 ) . isbn 0 - 7136 - 7242 - 0 ( vol . 2 ) .\nridgely , r . s . , & j . a . gwynne , jr . ( 1989 ) . a guide to the birds of panama with costa rica , nicaragua , and honduras . 2nd edition . princeton university press . isbn 0 - 691 - 08529 - 3\nfor\nnibbling\nand refers to the fact that these birds gnaw holes in trees to make their nests .\nthey feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast , they are reluctant to fly any distance . trogons are generally not migratory , although some species undertake partial local movements . trogons have soft , often colourful , feathers with distinctive male and female plumage . they are the only type of animal with a heterodactyl toe arrangement . they nest in holes dug into trees or termite nests , laying 2\u20134 white or pastel - coloured eggs .\nthe position of the trogons within the class aves has been a long - standing mystery .\na variety of relations have been suggested , including the parrots , cuckoos , toucans , jacamars and puffbirds , rollers , owls and nightjars . more recent morphological and molecular evidence has suggested a relationship with the\nnotwithstanding the current richness of the family , which is more diverse in the neotropical new world . dna evidence seemed to support an african origin for the trogons , with the african genus\nseemingly basal in the family , and the other two lineages , the asian and american , breaking off between 20\u201336 million years ago . more recent studies\nshow that the dna evidence gives contradictory results concerning the basal phylogenetic relationships ; so it is currently unknown if all extant trogons are descended from an african or an american ancestor or neither .\nthe tendons of the foot , showing the arrangement with a reversed second toe . the plantar tendon on the front (\nsome species , particularly the quetzals , are adapted to cooler montane forest . there are a number of insular species ; these include a number of species found in the greater sundas , one species in the philippines as well as two monophyletic genera endemic to cuba and hispaniola respectively . outside of south asia and the caribbean , however , trogons are generally absent from islands , especially oceanic ones .\nin the plumage . the female is on the left , male on the right .\nthe wings are short but strong , with the wing muscle ratio being around 22 % of the body weight . in spite of the strength of their flight , trogons do not fly often or for great distances , generally flying no more than a few hundred metres at a time . only the montane species tend to make long distance flights . shorter flights tend to be direct and swift , but longer flights are slightly undulating . their flight can be surprisingly silent ( for observers ) , although that of a few species is reportedly quite noisy .\nof trogons are generally loud and uncomplex , consisting of monosyllabic hoots and whistles delivered in varying patterns and sequences .\n, are remarkably uniform . in addition to the territorial and breeding calls given by males and females during the breeding seasons , trogons have been recorded as having aggression calls given by competing males and alarm calls .\ntrogons are generally inactive outside of infrequent feeding flights . among birdwatchers and biologists it has been noted that\n[ a ] part from their great beauty [ they ] are notorious . . . for their lack of other immediately engaging qualities\n.\ntheir lack of activity is possibly a defence against predation ; trogons on all continents have been reported to shift about on branches to always keep their less brightly coloured backs turned towards observers , while their heads , which like owls can turn through 180 degrees , keep a watch on the watcher . trogons have reportedly been preyed upon by hawks and predatory mammals ; one report was of a\ntrogons feed principally on insects , other arthropods , and fruit ; to a lesser extent some small vertebrates such as lizards are taken .\namong the insect prey taken one of the more important types are caterpillars ; along with cuckoos , trogons are one of the few birds groups to regularly prey upon them . some caterpillars are known to be poisonous to trogons though , like\nthe extent to which each food type is taken varies depending on geography and species . the three african trogons are exclusively insectivorous , whereas the asian and american genera consume varying amounts of fruit . diet is somewhat correlated with size , with larger species feeding more on fruit and smaller species focusing on insects .\n. frogs , lizards and large insects on the ground may also be pounced on from the air . more rarely some trogons may shuffle along a branch to obtain insects , insect eggs and very occasionally nestling birds .\n. males will respond quickly to playbacks of their calls and will repel other members of the same species and even other hole - nesting species from around their nesting sites . males attract females by singing ,\nsome species have been observed in small flocks of 3\u201312 individuals prior to and sometimes during the breeding season , calling and chasing each other , but the function of these flocks is unclear .\nnest cavities can either be deep upward slanting tubes that lead to fully enclosed chambers , or much shallower open niches ( from which the bird is visible ) . nests are dug with the beak , incidentally giving the family its name . nest digging may be undertaken by the male alone or by both sexes . in the case of nests dug into tree trunks , the wood must be strong enough not to collapse but soft enough to dig out . trogons have been observed landing on dead tree trunks and slapping the wood with their tails , presumably to test the firmness .\nthe nests of trogons are thought to usually be unlined . between two to four eggs are laid in a nesting attempt . these are round and generally glossy white or lightly coloured ( buff , grey , blue or green ) , although they get increasingly dirty during\nwith the male taking one long incubation stint a day and the female incubating the rest of the time . incubation seems to begin after the last egg is laid . the incubation period varies by species , usually lasting between 16\u201319 days . on hatching the chicks are\n, blind and naked . the chicks acquire feathers rapidly in some of the montane species , in the case of the\n, which may take twice as long . the nestling period varies by species and size , with smaller species generally taking 16 to 17 days to\n, whereas larger species may take as long as 30 days , although 23\u201325 days is more typical .\nyet they are also often reclusive and seldom seen . little is known about much of their biology , and much of what is known about them comes from the research of neotropical species by the\njohansson , ulf s . & ericson , per g . p . ( 2003 ) .\nmolecular support for a sister group relationship between pici and galbulae ( piciformes sensu wetmore 1960 )\n. journal of avian biology 34 ( 2 ) : 185\u2013197 . doi : 10 . 1034 / j . 1600 - 048x . 2003 . 03103 . x .\nmccormack , john e . ; harvey , michael g . ; faircloth , brant c . ; crawford , nicholas g . ; glenn , travis c . ; brumfield , robb t . ( 2013 ) .\na phylogeny of birds based on over 1 , 500 loci collected by target enrichment and high - throughput sequencing\n. plos one 8 ( 1 ) : e54848 . arxiv : 1210 . 1604 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0054848 . pmc 3558522 . pmid 23382987 .\nhackett , s . j . ; kimball , r . t . ; reddy , s . ; bowie , r . c . k . ; braun , e . l . ; braun , m . j . ; chojnowski , j . l . ; cox , w . a . ; han , k . - l . ( 2008 ) .\na phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history\n. science 320 ( 5884 ) : 1763\u20131768 . doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1157704 . pmid 18583609 .\ncollar , n . j . ( 2001 ) .\nfamily trogonidae ( trogons )\n, pp . 80\u2013129 in del hoyo , j . ; elliot , a . & sargatal , j . ( eds . ) . ( 2001 ) handbook of the birds of the world , vol . 6 mousebirds to hornbills . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . isbn 84 - 87334 - 30 - x\nmayr , gerald ( 2005 ) .\nnew trogons from the early tertiary of germany\n. ibis 147 ( 3 ) : 512\u2013518 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 2005 . 00421 . x .\nmoyle , robert g . ( 2005 ) .\nphylogeny and biogeographical history of trogoniformes , a pantropical bird order\n. biological journal of the linnean society 84 ( 4 ) : 725\u2013738 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1095 - 8312 . 2005 . 00435 . x .\njohansson , u . s . ; ericson , p . g . p . ( 1 may 2005 ) .\na re - evaluation of basal phylogenetic relationships within trogons ( aves : trogonidae ) based on nuclear dna sequences\n. journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 43 ( 2 ) : 166\u2013173 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1439 - 0469 . 2004 . 00292 . x .\nwheelwright n . t . ( 1983 ) .\nfruits and the ecology of resplendent quetzals\n. auk 100 ( 2 ) : 286\u2013301 .\nremsen j . v . , jr . ; hyde m . a . and chapman a . ( 1993 ) . the diets of neotropical trogons , motmots , barbets and toucans\nthe diets of neotropical trogons , motmots , barbets and toucans\n. condor 95 ( 1 ) : 178\u2013192 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1369399 . jstor 1369399 .\nwindsor , d . m . ( 1976 ) .\nbirds as predators on the brood of polybia wasps ( hymenoptera : vespidae : polistinae ) in a costa rican deciduous forest\n. biotropica 8 ( 2 ) : 111\u2013116 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 2989631 . jstor 2989631 .\nskutch a . f . ( 1944 ) . life history of the quetzal\nlife history of the quetzal\n. condor 46 ( 5 ) : 213\u2013235 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1364045 . jstor 1364045 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n\u00a9 lee , a j mithra , j . j . s . j . , emma , guest authors , the photographers and lee\u2019s birdwatching adventures plus , 2008 - 2017 . excerpts and links may be used , provided that full and clear credit is given to lee , j . j . s . j . , emma , guest authors , the photographers and lee\u2019s birdwatching adventures plus with appropriate and specific direction to the original content . also , please honor the copyrights of articles and photos we have received permission to use .\nlet them praise the name of the lord : for he commanded , and they were created . ( psalms 148 : 5 kjv )\non the photos or slides , a \u201cby\u201d indicates one of the photographers or videographers , who have given their permission , with links on our sidebar . please visit their site to see many more fantastic shots , a \u201c\u00a9\u00a9\u201d copyright symbol indicates a photo from creative commons and \u00a9wikic is a creative commons photo from wikipedia .\nphotographers or videographers used on this page from our sidebar , photography , are : reinier\u2019s wildstock photos gallery donna l . watkins sslayton \u2013 fotobirder at smugmug\ntrogons are residents of tropical forests worldwide . the greatest diversity is in the neotropics , where four genera , containing 24 species occur . the genus apaloderma contains the three african species . the genera harpactes and apalharpactes , containing twelve species , are found in southeast asia .\nthey feed on insects and fruit , and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits . although their flight is fast , they are reluctant to fly any distance . trogons are generally not migratory , although some species undertake partial local movements . ( wikipedia with editing )\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nkento furui added the japanese common name\n\u30ba\u30b0\u30ed\u30ad\u30cc\u30d0\u30cd\u30c9\u30ea\nto\nharpactes orrhophaeus ( cabanis & heine , 1863 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name\nkaneliper\u00e4trogoni\nfrom\nharpactes orrhophaeus ( cabanis & heine , 1863 )\nas trusted .\none molecular study found this species to be sister to h . diardii and h . erythrocephalus # r . five subspecies recognized .\nrand & rabor , 1952 \u2013 luzon ( except ne ) , marinduque and catanduanes .\nrand & rabor , 1959 \u2013 samar , biliran , leyte and bohol , in ec philippines .\n( temminck , 1826 ) \u2013 dinagat , mindanao and basilan , in se philippines .\n29\u201330 cm ; 82\u2013114 g . male nominate race has bill yellow with bright green base , head and throat black with violet - blue facial skin , crown suffused maroon ; neck and . . .\nlower and middle strata of primary forest of all types ( including on ultrabasic rock ) except mossy . . .\ngrasshoppers recorded . on mindanao , a bird in flight seen plucking a 20 - cm stick - insect off a branch , then flying off to eat it nearby .\nmar\u2013may ; nestlings and juveniles in apr\u2013jun . nest in hole in tree ; 1 located 6 m up in dead tree . eggs 3 . no other information .\nnot globally threatened . may have declined substantially since 19th century , when said by explorers to be abundant from luzon to basilan , whereas today it is very common only . . .\nthe reproduction or unauthorised use of any website content is strictly prohibited , and punishable by law . images and data on this website may not be used without the complete written consent of the webmaster , and are otherwise exclusive to\ntracking systems immediately display the illegal use of any content on the website . the copying of images in any form , including but not limited to screenclipping , screenshotting and copying or saving the content directly from the website is prohibited . identical terms and conditions apply regarding the use of the website ' s content which may be displayed on third party websites or through search engines . an exception applies only where , if a user decides to share website media . the user , however , is obligated to site\nas the exclusive source of the shared media . displaying the owner ' s name , oliver rose , is not compulsory , however is recommended .\na world heritage site , located in northern sabah , mount kinabalu is the tallest mountain in borneo , and is home to some of the world ' s most unique species of birds . in 1964 , 754 square kilometres of land of varied vegetation was protected and the flora and fauna in the park is now being comprehensively researched , as scientists attempt to develop their understanding of this incredible oasis . of the 59 endemics in borneo , 31 have been recorded in the park . some of which include two endemic partridges , two endemic laughingthrushes , the illusive whitehead ' s trio , bornean whistler , bornean green magpie , bornean treepie , mountain black - eye , pygmy white - eye , eyebrowed jungle flycatcher and bornean flowerpecker . visiting the park is a must for any birder going to sabah .\nmale yellow - green head and blue - green upperparts . wingpanel yellowish barred . chestnut rump and a blue tail . yellow throat and belly , grey - green breastband . red bill , blue eye ring and orange feet . female has different wing - barring more narrow and more buff .\nforages mostly for insects of all kinds . also fruit and on occasion small reptiles .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern . it is endemic to the indonesian island of sumatra .\nit feeds on a variety of invertebrates taken by aerial sallying or by perch - gleaning . also feeds on fruit and will occasionally join mixed - species flocks .\nthis species is considered to be endangered because it has a very small population which is likely to be declining owing to habitat loss . forest loss , degradation and fragmentation , through widespread agricultural encroachment and localised development ( e . g . holiday resorts and geothermal projects ) , is becoming an increasing threat in the altitudinal range of the species\nlittle known ; breeding reported april through december ; lays one to three eggs .\nrange : oriental region : java . apalharpactes reinwardtii is known from just six forested mountains in west java , indonesia : gunung halimun , gunung salak , gunung gede - pangrango , gunung patuha - tilu , gunung wayang and gunung papandayan . there are only recent records from three of these ( halimun , salak and gede - pangrango ) . the historical range totals 11600 km2 . although it has been stated to occur from 800 - 2600 m , little forest remains below 1000 m away from halimun , and the species appears to be rarer at higher elevations . the only site where the species appears to be common now is gunung halimun , but only at lower elevations . the population size of this species may be as low as a few hundred pairs\nit has been reported from sea level to the highest peaks though it only rarely occurs at lower elevations . it occurs at 500 - 3000 meter , but there is apparently some altitudinal migration with birds observed at lower elevations in winter . it inhabits rain , dry and pine forests , but requires large , old decayed trees for nesting\nknown to mainly eat insects though also takes small vertabrates and fruit , especiallly those of the parrot tree , brunellia comocladifolia .\nbuilds nest in a tree cavity , often an abandoned nest of a woodpecker . clutch size is 2 eggs .\nrange : north america : hispaniola . priotelus roseigaster is endemic to haiti , where habitat loss has been extensive and it is now restricted to the massifs de la hotte and de la selle , and the dominican republic where it is still quite common , especially in the relatively undisturbed sierra de baoruco , although there has been a moderately rapid population reduction , owing to deforestation"]}